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jvGooi^lc 


Diq.izeoBvGoO'^lc 


JyGOOi^lC 


jvGooi^lc 


jvGooi^lc 


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CYCLOPEDIA 

or 

BIBLICAL, 

THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 
LITERATURE. 


nUPABED  BC 


THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 
JAMES  STRONG,  ST.D. 

Vol.  II.— C,  D 


NEW    YORK: 

"HARPER    4    BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 
^  rRAMSLIN    SQDABa 


b.Gooi^lc 


-  I\ 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  m  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty-eight,  by 

HARPER   &    BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  Yftrk. 


ovGoO'^lc 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL  II 


I     tClanii^to  A/rioBiut. Pigs  tOSIOllnitol  OnMr-Rsiminit. . 

H'O^  Traittlaphut. M« | Oriental  TimTeUlog  DiwM, 

,     ID  ADClHit  tgjpUu  Stneen SOS  Ortenul  RlMna,  Okrdod.. , 

.     lI'Aadcnt  IfgrpcluWul^r. S14:0tteiiUI  BodIIb 

.     lI|E|7|ilMn  WarVhariiil (leOrtuUlLodmlnllidmi.Di 

.     lalt^grptiuiCturlM-nukin lISKirdlih  Sni 

,     13  tniitlu  UorHcIc sn'lJottaii-pluil 

,     ]>  riyfOmo  Chufcit  In  Battle. SIO  OileDtel  Oardan  Beditead. 

.    ST  AHTriuiWarrionlnUbulot llOOriwilal Umrt-nnl 

Sl'AiafrUB  Rdt>1  Uhiulg* o..?  /u— .-■  a... 1. 

.    sa'AHrriu  chirioi  tw  um  <;i 


SlHplng-plnce. . . 


10  OrtenUl  Tiuiier . . 


,  SIlBabTlDniu  Chirtot IItINu 

.  «  Greek  Chariot SlllMi, 

IHlRomui  Chariot llTlCneadU*.. 

,  M  CgfpUan  CharlM  tor  Ibrea 31T  Crodan  .. 

,  M)l:>btarcf  Gbartlr SlSlFornH  of  ( 

,  ft]  DmlarofCharianwD*. tMiTablet  of ' 

,  M  Aodanl Enptlan CbaH 3fflCroH-bw 

.  Si  Anelant  Wbisad  Srabdli. t9BIlui(bia' 

,  S3  Finn  orUwrBb.  ""     "■ '■ 

.  OOAmiliintEnpl' 

.  CO<>iieDUa  PCaiH 


Sffl  CroH-bnrar  In  IUIt  and  Bohemlu. 
ias  Danabier  of  tha  Onw,  and  Ciw 

iSr     bHiarin  Franee 

MO  OrientalJackdav 


oil  aranen  oi  inaaa-mM..........^.,. 

.    t3{l)rienUI  Holhan  cairrlnR  CbOdiei 


.  Mt  A 


._      ipofMilna... 

.    t9'TlM"'nuwPuTa  Onei".. 
,     ssChlotag  Wor^ipplag. 


HOIhar 


. .  MT  Andent  Egrpttan  Cniirni. 
. .  949  Hodern  Ortorial  UnivDi . . 


TI8Ur  oromararci 


nan  of  anrieni  BaUllea, , . . . , 
FUnofDortuun  cathedral... 


Kimamonunt  G 


.  SW.CuDeUbrni  Alphabet... 
.  84a,Ciinelf(nm  Mamaa...... 

.  aM|V:grpttan  DrinUDg-Tefi 


Oiln  ofCkaudlna.... 


.  STllOrlsntal  CnM. 


Ccdn  ofcniddi 

KfTpUan  Mnnunr-caaea. . , 


nl    bDeam. 


.  WllAneient  KgTpUan  CymhaK.. 

.  Ml  Cypreat-tnie 

.  lot  Crprwi  Branch  and  Cone, . . 
— I, in  ^  CmI«  CypriJu. 


13!C<dnofaiman  Bar-aochchai itXiSfecSatmil  Coda  CypTiJu. SM 

ISiEarirJewMiColl 40!|Mapt<CTp™, fW 

m  Colna  of  Antlnnu Wt  Proonuulu  (Mn  of  Ujprut. HT 


li  Cotau  of  Antlnnu 
""      'ataavoita 
oCEgTMiaai 
Dl  Onik  Coll 


Jt  ^TPtlan  KlU^wn... 

.  144  Sonl  Ellchen  oT Aatfiiaai. . 
'Ml^olDi  of  Cob 


ofCTTenalca... 
-laa  orCyiWH 

9mb^i«l  Flgnn  oT 
"Tomb  of  Cy  run" — 
AiariiaD  Fbh-god. . . 


Flih^CDd  at  SlmriK 


IS  stem  and  ZmphTta  of 
W(>>rtnihr«tond..... 
13  Corinth  and  lit  Pom. 


'  icncoiu  0 

,  leoOa^lanTen,.' 


.  IdAOnaterCormnnnt..., 


t  UodBm  EgTptla. 
3  "Jgaaph'i  Bnthre 
S  "J.-W1  CapOtM"  li 


,  lStl>'NttlTeiD(Pa1iallne''ln  l^mt'-' 
.  ISa'CortuBHiafMotiluandPHiirima,., 
.  IMOrieotll  CoilnniH  by  PalDten 


..  Ml OrtaUIUDdir-ganMi 


>p  of  the  Tribe  of  Dan... 


Is  gaend  Uaocei  fmm  tgrpllan 


MaleDaon  In  Flguna  among  ancient 

I^Sn  CMd  ui'sanVitarici! '.'.,'.  d 
CunelCinn  and  IltereclTptileal  Forms 


of  DaUhpaln  Fruit . . 

lEgjrpiian  Cake. 

Hap  of  Dead  Sea. 

■■^o  of  Dedu.  TrajaDni. .... 

rtBoTAp 


InPhrrgla... 


■•::x;;;:::iS 


'b^'h'i.'i 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CXJTS  IN  VOL.  U. 


Hub  lo  thsDeDofUdM. F>c<  I43,SUtiw  of  DJto^rw. ...^..Piie  S»|ayTlui  CuHn-dovt Pigt  SI 

Zdllac  orUendenli.'.'i 


..  TM'Aaddit  KerMUn  Ulmisr-dUb BIO  I71  In 

-      ■■         1  Orieoul rn^et S*»;i(od(in 


.  SSBOoMItano 

..  MliAtlunUn  Urubms 

SSi  OrlHital  WM«T.«rrier 

,  n«;Aiicimi  K«TpU»n  Pog. S^S  An  KpTptUn 

ISO  ADcUnlAayrlBii  UuiiUng-dog %S  A  BadMilii 

:R|lKuUniS(niet-d<ie'< S%3  KgnAlu  of  tba  upper  inui . . 


k3  l^plkin  of  ihe  tontr  U 

Uidnla  of  Dl«u !!!..' TSt^AndeDt  I'^gTpUiD  [loan.'. SM  Wonum  of  Upper  l-itrypi.." 

U(tD  '[til  l>luw'>T«m|ilB IB3  AtwlHitKnptluiDaar'AxInniL....  SM.Cunelof  ihelUnmn 

lUk-eorDiiB* TSS  Modani  Oriuul  Strwl^oon SM  SuldllDE  ■  DnmediiT- . . . 

Uil»  of  l-lWi»ii(  imd  SiDTTDs TMlOiienUIDmr  Id  tnteiior  Court SAT  Andeal  AUTriani  puniiln 

Beiniui  IHilraclim TOl.Comnwo  OrleDUlDoor Bel      ons  Diumwluy 

AMient  KflVpttoD  rilDaer-pinj 803  Medtmjawlib  Mtzuiah. Rlt9  Au^riuu  loading  *  Ciinel 

Nadem  OrlenUl  :!Ule  IMnnat SOS  Kuwm  Door  irllh  laecrlptlon ms  Bfv^mrn  al  Cmtrx  Dubtiit 

Uafai  of  maclHinn Snn'AnbWiiiiienOrliidiiiBOmn SID  llodel  iiT  umlent  EeTptiin 


b/Goot^lc 


CYCLOPEDIA 


BmUCAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AMD  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITEBATDRE. 


CabpE.lafr.djioffiwTMHl;  8«pt.  Ea^oc)i  "hbu- 
■n  for  thing*  drr,  mBntinned  in  3  King*  vi,  26.  Tbs 
i^tbip*  nuke  It  the  sixth  pirt  of  »  teak  ^.  V,)  or  ttt- 
(■■,  uid  tbc  eight*«nlh  [Mit  of  aa  apb«h.  This  would 
bt  noil;  tev  qmartt  Eugliih  mssBiiTe.     Sm  Ueabdre. 

C&tMla,  the  title  of  the  celebrated  aj'atein  ot  relig- 
km  philowipliT,  or  more  properly  thawophy,  which 
hu  jJajed  M  linportaDt  a  poit  in  the  theola(pul  and 
eugHia]  litentnre  of  both  JewB  and  Christiana  ever 
nart  the  Middle  Ag«.  See  PHii^aoPMr.  The  fol- 
tinriii|r  iccounC  at  it  is  partly  cwnpiled  rrom  Henng'i 
Bnl-tlmijUupdilie, 

I,  Tfc  A'aiK.— K*BBALA  (from  the  Heb.  M^3p, 
Kob^ak'^  the  meivrd^^  properly  denotes  ncrpHon^ 
Ihtn  a  iKtriin  reerivnl  ftj  arni  tradiiiim.  The  term  is 
thus  in  itself  nearly  equivalent  to  "transmission," 
Uk*  tht  Latin  trnjin'o  —  JUattora,  fnr  which  last,  in- 
iiti,  the  Talmud  makea  It  Interchangeable  In  the 
■UKment,  "  Hoses  received  (^Xp)  the  I^w  on  Uannt 
!<iaaL  and  tmumitted  0&^)  >t  to  Joebaa."  The  dlf- 
ftnBce  betwecD  il,  however,  and  the  word  ITJIOO 
(tm  ^D'^,  ftr  delirer)  is,  that  the  ftmntr  expresses  Ihe 
ad  tfrtftivimg,  while  the  latter  denotes  tht  act  ofgw- 
Hf  ottr,  tvrrtmi'triitg,  tnmtmitHMg.  The  Cabala  is  also 
called  by  »nie  n^FiBJ  f^Sn,  Kcr^  mufoin,  becanae 
it  prrtendi  to  be  a  very  ancient  and  Mcrel  tnditian, 
•ad  ',  n.  jpron,  titrat  the  Initials  of  these  two  words. 

Tba  term  KMnUik  Is  empiofed  In  the  Jewish  writ- 
iip  lo  denote  several  tnditionsJ  doctrines ;  as,  Tut 
* .  that  which  constitated  the  creed  of  the  patrl- 
e  liefore  the  giving  of  the  law ;  thst  nnwrit- 
Eta  ritosl  interpretation  which  the  Jews  believe  wss 
nvesled  by  Cod  to  Hoses  on  the  mount,  and  which 
wss  at  length  committed  to  writing  and  formed  the 
Ukhna.  Besides  being  applied  to  these  and  other 
naiitir  traditinns.  It  has  also  been  uied  in,  compara- 
tirely  speaking  modem  times,  to  denote  a  singulsr 
nyitic  mode  of  interpreting  the  Old  Tetument. 

IVe  are  reminded  by  this  indeflnite  title  thst  among 
the  Jews,  as  thiKugbont  the  fcreoter  part  of  the  East, 
haasD  knowledge,  whether  historicsl  or  scientific, 
•Hted  principally  on  a  sort  of  (tmnrioa,  and  the  l>t>t 
(Uin  for  its  leception  was  an  unbroken  chain  of  tra- 
filiooiry  evidence.  Hence  the  care  with  which  Juda- 
Lnn  eslabliabed  the  reinUar  consecution  nf  the  sacred 
rmtoifisni  of  truth,  fTom  Moaei  through  J[»hua  and 
the  KHOtM  greater  jKvphels,  thence  through  Ein 
ud  "  the  iBreat  Synagogue"  to  the  taschers  of  later 
tinea,  nhdlviding  at  length  Into  the  varinun  schools 
9r  pcriodi  of  particular  rabbii  and  their  hereditary  sd- 
beieata.  While,  therefore,  the  truth  was  gradnallv 
exhibited  hi  the  writings  of  the  Law,  the  Prophets, 
tkeTalnod,  the  Cabala  indicates  the  verbal  expcai 
II.-l 


of  theae,  orally  transmitted  along  with  them,  and  not 
generally  known  to  the  people,  hut  containing  a  deep- 
er or  mere  thoroughly  inltiiited  style  of  instruction. 
It  thus  came  aitimately  to  designate  a  particular  tbeo- 
iogico-philosopliical  system,  that  arose  and  established 
itself  in  the  bosom  of  Judaism,  yet  In  a  measure  inde- 

II.  i>npHw(i>DciiinniIi,~ln>truction  in  Judaism  be- 
ing principally  verbal  and  founded  on  memory,  its 
phases  of  development  could  necessarily  leave  but  lit- 
tle mark  on  bi&torv;  and  as  such  a  philosophy  would 
tho*  naturally,  in  pR>ces«  of  time,  liecome  a  mystery, 
at  least  in  the  view  of  posterity,  the  origin  and  prog- 
ress of  the  Cabala  are  yet  largely  matter*  of  cunjecture, 
and  it  is  even  a  subjactofscientlHc  controversy  wheth- 
er in  its  speculative  form  It  can  l>e  distinctly  tracid 
eirlier  than  the  Middle  Ages,  although  its  leading 
principles  appear  to  have  lieen  derived  from  ancient 
documenta,  the  nature  of  which  la  still  very  imperfect- 
ly understood,  such  as  the  sD-called  revelations  of 
Adam,  Abraham,  Hoses,  Ezra,  sic.  See  Ai-ochypiia. 
The  Talmud,  indeed  (both  in  the  Micbna  and  Gemars 

trine  imparted  only  to  a  few  carefullv  selected  persons, 
and  even  applies  to  it  certain  fanciful  names  (drawn 
ftom  the  phraseology  of  Gen.  i,  1,  and  Eiek.  i,  1),  sig- 
niflcant  retiprcUvely  of  a  ppeculative  oimi^ogy  and  a 
speculative  thtoiogy;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  theae 
designate  definite  treatisef,  nr,  Ifso.  whether  these  have 
in  any  identifiable  form  descended  to  modem  times. 
The  only  works  which  can  with  any  |— fsiaty  claim  to 
embody  these  ejrliest  views  are  the  follDwlng  two,  thM 
became  the  acknowledged  texts  of  the  Cabala  in  the  lat- 
ter pjrt  of  the  Uiddle  Ages;  a  third  cabaliatlc  trMtlsa 
(called  the  ^■'HS  "IDD,  S'phtr  Bachir,  or  CHre  Boi*\ 
which  is  found  in  an  ^tion  of  AmFt.  IGSl,  and  attrib- 
uted to  B  rablii,  Necboniah  Ben-Hakua,  of  the  fltrt 
century,  ha*  long  ago  been  generally  acknowledged  to 
be  fictitious,  although  a  cabaiietic  work  of  the  same 
title  is  mentioned  »s  early  as  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  Boot  of  Crtatum  {tSO 
n^"S%  S  pkr  Ytlarah,  often  reprinted,  as  ed.  Steph. 
Hittangel,  Amst.  164!,  vrith  a  I-atin  translation  and 
commentary ;  and  the  ed.  of  J.  F.  van  Heyer,  with  • 
German  translation  and  cnmmentarj-,  Leipi.  1630,  4toX 
ascribed  to  the  renowned  rabbi  Akiba  (A.D.  J20).  It 
is  a  rather  short  traatisa,  In  oracnlar  sentences,  the 
language  of  which,  more  obscure  in  import  than  in 
fum).  does  not  resemUe  the  Hebrew  of  the  Miehna. 
As  a  bonk  of  the  some  title  appears  to  )te  already  men- 
tioned in  the  Gen-aro,  where  wonderhil  povter  ia  os- 
;  cribed  to  It,  and  as  R.  Soadias  Is  swd  to  hav*  com- 
.  mented  upon  It  as  early  as  the  tenth  century.  It  Is 
certain  that  wa  can  ascend  lo  a  considerable  aatluii^ 
'  in  traciaj  it*  anlhjrity.     See  Jbzibau.  i|^ 


CABALA 

Tbe  otber  «nd  more  Importunt  csbiiUitic  tut  la  tbe 

(taiD  Dbd.  xU,  3),  flivt  printed  ut  Creniuiu  aod  Hia- 
ta*  in  IJCO.  and  ninut,  often  reprintrd,  m  atSulibach 
Id  l^A,  M.,  wiih  variuua  addilii»i«.  Tndition  ta- 
(■llHt  thu  work  to  ■  contempuiiuy  uf  K.  AkiM,  nam«- 
1t,  II.  Simeiin  B«D  Jochi-i,  ■  teiL-her  much  praised  io 
lite  Tuliiruiirar  bin  (;T««twudoni  and  legal  knowledge, 
■khoucb  nt'tbing  U  there  naid  direnly  of  hi*  writing;*. 
■■creduloiu  cridcbiin  conaider*  it  aa  a  imiductlon  of 
tbe  thirteenth  century,  tbe  time  of  tu  firft  appearjiice 
is  thehiBtory  of  literature,  and  aicribci  ittu  a  Spanish 
.1*11,  ilaiet  of  Leon.  It  appear*,  bowever,  to  lie  older 
than  thi«,  having  prolwblj  ori|dna1ly  epiwared  pieee- 
mtal  in  tbo  E^n  at  intrrTali,  the  whole  lieing  com- 
plfted  <n  it*  pre»nt  fonn  about  the  eighth  eeoturr. 
It  includes  certoln  special  tract)  nr  treatiiei,  in  which 
tbe  author  aeeina  especially  to  develop  fall  oun  aenti- 
■Hntn,  and  whieb  form,  ao  to  rpeak,  ^e  kernel  of  tbe 
FcieDce  K>U|;bt  to  be  imparted.     Tbrea 


tbcliiin  made  l>y  tbe  J^wa,  however,  lietween  a  great 
a«d  a  Fmill  Zohur  aomstimes  rafetn  to  tbe  varying  It' 
nj"  of  the  elitiona  merely.    See  Zohar. 

Itl.  Famfamialal  Doetr'n-t. — These  are  tomewhat 
dmrerently  expouuded  in  the  above-named  booh 
tbe  aeparate  article!  on  which  tbe  reader  la  therefcire 
referred  for  full  particnbra),  and  mwl  at  large  in  tfai 
latter.  The  fullowing,  however,  ta  ■  lummaiy  of  tbe 
e«1>aliatic  viewa  a*  exprened  in  the  general  writing* 
of  liit?r  autbora  of  that  acbool ; 

1.  Salart  "/  t*e  DnVp.— (iod  la  aljove  everything, 
•Ten  alnre  beinn  and  thinkinK-  It  cannot,  therefore, 
ba  aaid  of  him  that  he  baa  either  a  will,  Intention,  de- 
rire.  thouKbt.  language,  or  action,  rince  theae  propei 

■  tie',  wbich  adnm  man.  bave  limits,  whereas  God  la  in 
•Tery  wjy  boundless,  because  he  is  perfect.  Owing 
to  this  Loiindlesaness  of  his  nature,  which  neoesaaril 
inplies  aluolute  unity  and  Immutabilily,  and  thi 
there  is  nothing  without  him,  i.e.  that  the 'ru  irnv  is  i 
bhn,  he  is  callnl  EK-SnpH  —  irfrWf  nit,  boandirH,  and 
can  neither  be  comprehended  by  the  intellect  nor  de- 
MTibed  with  vords,  for  there  ia  nothing  wbicb  can 
grvp  and  depict  him  to  us.  In  this  lnroniprehcn»i- 
Ulicy  or  boundlesfnees,  God,  or  the  EnSiph  (;;*S  ^'K), 
ia  in  a  certain  sense  not  existent  ('i7K)i  since,  as  far 
aa  our  mind  Is  concerned,  that  which  la  incamprehenai- 
Ue  does  not  exist.  Hence,  without  making  liimaelf 
camprehensihle,  his  existence  could  never  have  been 
known.  He  had,  therefore,  to  Income  active  am 
ative  in  order  that  his  existence  might  become  percep- 
tible. 

2.  Drwtppmnt  ofiht  A4y.— Bat  since,  on  tbe  oi 
band,  the  will  to  create,  which  implies  limit,  and  tbe 
ek-comscrihod  and  imperfect  nature  of  this  world,  pre- 
clude the  idea  of  taking  it  as  the  direct  creatinn  of  him 
who  can  have  no  will,  nor  produce  anything  but  what 
ta  like  himself,  lioundlesa  and  perfect;  and  since,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  beautiful  design  and  order  dia- 
Pluycd  in  tbe  world,  which  plunly  indicate  an  intelli- 
genl  and  active  will,  forbid  us  to  regard  it  as  tbe  nlT- 
■pring  of  cbince,  the  En-Soph  must  be  viewed  as  the 
Creator  of  the  world  in  m  imdirtrt  m-Hiarr,  thmugh  the 
medium  often  "SepAiroth"  or  iairUiifnTrr,  which  em- 
Basted  from  the  En-Soph.  The  etyniolngy  and  exact 
meaning  of  the  word  are  obscure.  It  is  the  plur. 
lYJI^BC,  tfphiroA',  of  nn-^BO,  which  R,  Asariel,  the 
flr^t  Cabal ist,  derives  from  ~'VZ,  iaphar',io  numUr; 
while  later  Calulista  derive  it  from  ^"Bp.  lappir',  the 
tappiirt,  ftom  the  word  C"7pO"S.  "declare."  In  Psa. 
uLt.  1,  or  even  ttttm  the  Greek  a^ainat.  iphrnt. 

Prom  his  infinite  fulness  of  light  the  An-.^ipt  sent 
Arth  at  Drat  one  ■piritual  substance  or  intelligence : 
tbis  intelligence,  which  cxiiled  Id  the  f.i-S'T  A  from  all 


eternity,  and  which  became  a  reality  by  a  mere  act, 
ountuiiied  tbe  nine  other  intelligences  or  Sr/hlnitL. 
Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  tbe  first  Sipki- 
mA  waa  not  creaicii,  but  waa  aimply  tn  emanation 
(rtS^Xit);  and  the  diflbrence  between  creation  and 
emanation  la  [bua  defined,  (bU  in  the  former  a  dimi- 
nation  of  strength  takes  place,  while  in  tbe  latter  tbia 
is  not  the  case.  From  the  first  ^rpi-'rali  emanated  tbfl 
second,  IVom  tlie  second  tbe  third,  from  the  third  th« 
fourth,  and  so  on,  one  proceeding  from  the  other,  till 
Jfae  nuDibcr  ten.  Th^  ten  Sipkirdk  form  imon^ 
ihemselves,  and  with  the  Eit-ScpA,  a  rtrirt  unity,  and 
fimply  represent  different  a;  pects  of  one  i.nd  the  aame 
Being,  just  as  the  fl.me  and  ppaiks  which  proceed 
from  tbe  lire,  and  wliich  appear  different  things  to  the 
eye,  form  only  different  manitcrl^.tionB  of  Ibe  Hme 
Ore.  Differing  thus  from  each  other  simply  as  dlffrr- 
ent  colors  of  the  same  light,  all  the  ten  emanations 
alike  pirtske  of  the  £n..vn}iA.  They  Lte  bonndlna, 
snd  yet  conatituta  tbe  lirrt  Unite  things ;  >o  thiit  tbev 
are  i«th  iniinile  and  finite.  They  sre  Infinite  and 
perfect,  like  the  En-Ucpi,  when  he  Imparts  bis  fulness 
to  tbem,  and  finite  and  impi  rfei't  when  that  falneae  is 
withdrawn  ftom  tliem.  1  he  finite  side  of  the  rmau- 
tion  of  the  Srj  iiro.'I  ia  alwjlutely  necesf  ary,  f  r  Ibare- 
by  the  ineumprehensjble  E*-Si>fk  uukea  1  la  existeDce 
knoan  Id  tlie  humj<n  intellect,  wbiili  can  only  grvp 
that  which  has  meirur",  limit,  and  rektion.  Frriu 
their  finite  side  the  8  ph!nilh  may  even  be  called  bnli- 
ly,  and  this  renders  it  possil.le  for  the  En-Hojli,  who  ia 

8.  Fomu  of'hii  Ilterbfme<d.—Jht  ten  SipMroli. 
every  one  of  which  bas  its  own  name,  are  divided  into 
three  grotips  of  three  Jiiptirtiti  each,  respectively  op- 
erating upon  tbe  three  worlds,  t1»,  the  world  of  intel. 

lect  (^:3n  C^ir},  the  world  of  souls  (-Sin  s^ir), 
and  the  world  of  matter  (SS'jn  D^^;).  I.  The'lii  at 
group  operates  upon  the  intellectual  world,  and  con- 
sists of  Spkirotk  1,  dBDominated  •irs,  or  nix^  n^-i, 
the  cromi,  or  the  imteralable  Arigkl ;  %  called  rrasn, 
the  creative  tnarJon ;  and  3,  called  tli'Z,  tbe  conceiv- 
ing inlelbri.  The  result  of  the  comliination  of  the  Ut- 
ter two  (as  "father"  and  "mother")  is  likewise  repre- 
sented as  rr^,  or  ht  vlifyi,  L  e.  concrete  thought,  tfa  a 
universe  of  mind,  the  effect  ofXiiyoc.  IT  The  second 
group  exercL<ies  its  power  upon  the  moral  worid,  and 
consists  of  Sjiliiroii  i,  called  lOtl.  infinite  ffraet  (also 
nVni,  gnaliKu);  6,  called  ""'?,  or  ri^SS^  dirine 
jailicf,  or  Judicial  powrr ;  and  6,  which  ia  called 
n^JtlFI,  Ae/iu/y,  and  is  the  connecting  link  between 
the  opposite  Srjikirotk  i  and  6.  III.  Tbe  third  gronp 
exercises  its  power  upon  the  material  trorld,  and  con- 
sisU  of  SrpUnth  7,  called  nSS.jS™.  Bi-at ,-  P,  called  n»n, 
iplrmbiHr;  and  9,  which  is  called  1"07,  the  primary 
/vimitili  n,  and  is  the  connecting  link  lietween  the 
two  opposite  .•irphlrolA,  7  and  8.  SrpUrah  10  Is  called 
riA-t,  iingdom,  and  denotea  Providence  or  the  n>- 
vealed  Deity  (n3-:c.  Sheklnab)  which  dwells  In  the 
midst  of  the  Jewish  people,  goes  with  them  and  pro- 
tects tbem  in  all  their  wanderings  and  captivities. 
The  first  triad  is  placed  al^ve,  and  the  second  and 
third  triads,  with  tbe  unit,  arc  |uit  below,  in  aech  a 
mannT  that  the  fiiur  Srphimrh  called  fron,  bmnlg, 
fivndiili/ti,  and  Hngd4rm,  form  a  central  perpendicolar 
line  denominated  lie  m-dille  pUbrr  ('rxrtt  naST). 
This  division  yields  three  different  forms  'in  »  hirli  the 
ten  Srpiirolh  are  represented  by  the  Cahalistf,  and 
which  we  sulijoin  in  order  to  make  the  description  more 
intelligil'lc.  The  firrl  represents  an  inrertwl  tree, 
called  V^n  yT.  He  trtr  o/'i/V,  while  tbe  second  and 
third  are  bumin  figurer,  called  "" -7i?  =^(<.  '*«  pri- 
merol  nun.     Yet,  not  w)tbp  binding  the  different  ap- 


<:kUUk  Di^s^uu  nf  lb*  '■  StpUnUi." 
pcsniMw  of  th«M  thr»  form*,  tin  Sr^roih 
nagnl  ibal  the  tbrM  triaila  and  tbe  middle  pillar  are 
to  Im  distingniahed  in  each  ons  of  them. 

4,  Prootira  of  Ike  Dlaae  ZtrnJopsiflil.— Thesa  Srplrl 
nffc,  or  God  throagh  tbam,  creiUwl  the  lover  and  v'lt- 
iMe  world,  of  which  everjthing  has  iu  prototype  in 
the  nppar  world.  "  Tha  whole  world  is  like  >  gigan- 
tic tm  fall  of  branches  and  leavers,  the  root  of  which 
h  ihi!  apirituil  world  of  tfaa  Strath:  nr  it  b  like  a 
flrmly  united  chain,  the  lait  link  of  which  is  attachaiJ 
ID  tba  upper  irorld ;  or  like  an  Imminie  aea,  which  is 
beina  cnn^untly  filled  by  a  ipring  Bverl««tingty  gush- 
ing forth  its  stnams."  The  .'itphirMh,  through  the  di- 
Tine  power  immjnent  in  them,  uphrdd  the  world  which 
th«T  have  created,  and  transmit  to  it  the  divine  mer. 
ri™  bT  means  of  twelve  channels  (nTT!K>  This 
tnnaminioii  of  the  divine  mercies  can  b«  iiccelerateil 
by  pnyer,  sacrifices,  and  religious  observances;  and 
t^  Jewish  people,  by  virtue  of  the  revelHtion,  and 
the  613  commandments  given  to  them  (««  Schools), 
faive  npeciftlly  been  ordained  to  obtain  these  blessings 
(;E5)  for  the  whole  world.  Hence  the  great  mysto. 
rtes  oT  the  Jewish  ritual  CM^'^EPn  lie);  hence  the 
pRiloDiid  secrets  contained  in'every  word  and  syllable 
tl  tha  formnlarr  of  prayers ;  and  bence  the  declars. 
tioa  that  "tbe  pious  conatitnte  the  foundation  of  the 
wofM"  (3i-i3  tS07  pinS).  Not  only  doee  tbe  E*. 
Stfi  reveal  himself  through  the  SfjMmli,  but  he  also 
becomes  incarnate  in  them,  which  accounts  for  the  an- 
thnpomorpbisms  of  .Scripture  and  the  Kagula.  Thus, 
■ben  it  is  said  that  "God  spake,  descended  upon 
rath,  aaccoded  into  heaven,  smelled  the  sweet  smell 
of  BKrificei,  repented  in  his  heart,  was  angrj-,"  eU:., 
I*  whea  the  Ha^^ie  works  describe  the  body  and  the 
■uiiloa*  of  God,  etc.,  ail  this  does  not  refer  to  the 
D^~Safii,  but  to  these  intennedlate  beings.  These 
Sipiinti  again  beoune  incarnate  in  the  patriarchs, 
«.  g.  Srpkira  i,  Jon  wss  incarnate  in  Abrahai 


n  Iu: 


■:  6,b, 


7,Jf™,wMinHo 


Ms;  S,  4>£nlor  in  Aaron  J  9. /oinsdafwa  in  Joseph  ;  30, 
timgdam  in  David  i  and  they  constitute  the  chariot 
throoe  (TOa^^). 

4.  The  p^rialcgf  of  the  Cabala  is  one  of  Its  most 
iapottant  features.  All  human  soul*  are  pre-exi»tont 
ia  the  worid  of  the  Swiirolk,  and  are,  without  >n  ex- 
ception, destined  to  InRabit  human  bodies,  and  pursue 
tbeir  oDorse  upon  earth  for  s  certain  period  of  proba- 
lion.  If,  ootwithsWnding  its  union  with  the  body, 
iha  sodI  resists  all  earthly  trammels,  and  remains 
For*,  it  a*«ndi  after  death  into  the  i>pirit<ial  kingdom, 
•ltd  has  a  share  in  the  world  of  Srplihvli.  Bnt  if,  on 
Ike  eoolwy.  it  becomes  contaminated  by  that  which 
is  earthlj.the  soul  must  inhabit  the  tody  again  and 
■«ain  paV-  i'^^"'?)  till  it  is  able  to  ascend  in  a  pu- 
liSed  stale,  throvgh  repeated  trial  (restricted  by  Nach-  ■ 
ninldea  and  the  later  ciballsts  to  Ikree  trsnsmigra- 
liMu).     Tht  apparently  undeserved  luHiuings  which  | 


CABALA 

the  pions  have  Fometimes  to  endore  here  below  are 
simply  deeigned  to  purify  their  fouls.  Hence  God's 
justice  is  not  to  be  impugned  when  the  rlgliteous  are 
sSlicted  and  the  wicked  prosper.  This  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souls  is  supported  liy  an  appeal  to 
the  injunctinn  in  the  Bible,  that  a  man  mu»t  marry 
the  widow  of  his  brother  if  be  died  without  issue,  ins'- 
much  as  by  this  is  designed,  say  the  cubalbts,  that  tha 
soul  of  the  departed  cme  might  be  bom  again,  and  fln- 
loh  its  earthly  course.  Very  few  new  souls  enter  into 
tbe  world,  because  many  of  the  old  iwuls  which  have 
already  Inhsliited  liodies  have  to  re-enter  those  vho 
are  bom,  in  consequence  of  their  having  polluted  them- 
selves in  their  previous  bodily  existence.  '1  his  retards 
tbe  great  redemption  of  Israel,  which  cannot  take  place 
till  all  the  pre-existent  souls  have  been  Ixirn  upon 
earth,  because  the  soul  of  the  Messiah,  xhich,  like  all 
other  souls,  baa  its  pre-ezistence  in  the  world  of  the 
Bpintsorthe«rpAii'DfA,is  tobetbelastbom  one  at  (As 
nd  of  dayt,  which  is  supported  by  an  appeal  to  the 
Talmud  (IVionri*,  63,  a).  Then  the  great  jubilee 
year  will  commence,  when  the  whole  pleroma  of  souls 
(niia^m  -Ix'iK),  cleansed  and  purifled,  and  released 
from  earth,  shall  ascend,  in  glorious  companv,  into 
heaven.     See  MKTEMi^ircuosis. 

IV.  Origin,  Date,  Deiiga,  <md  Sihlicm  of  the  Citlxda. 
—The  rise  of  Cabalbni  is  involved  in  greut  obecuritv. 
The  Jews  ascribe  It  to  Adam,  or  to  Abraham,  or  to 
Moses,  or  to  Illzra,  the  last  being  apparentiv  counte- 
nanced by  2  Esdr.  xiv,  20.-18.    1  he  opinlons'of  Chris- 
tian writers  are  as  variously  divided ;  and  the  Cabala 
ia  such  a  complex  whole,  and  has  been  aggregated  to. 
gsthor  at  such  distant  periods,  that  no  general  jndg- 
can  ajqily  to  it.     In  its  crude  form  It  is  undoubt- 
.  to  he  attributed  to  the  authors  of  the  books  Jezi- 
rah  and  /ohar  above  named,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
ligned  an  earlier  djlo  than  these  writings.     Its  full- 
and  more  mature  doctrines,  however,  as  above  de> 
ested,  are  due  to  the  speculations  of  later  masters 
of  this  school.     The   account  nf  this  theoeophy  has 
lieen  greatly  ohscurcd  by  modem  writers,  who,  in  their 
description  of  the  Cabala,  confound  its  doctrines  with 
i*»  JrEciiA  mysrieism  propounded  in  the  works  called 
ike  AljAafift  ofR.  Aliha  (X3-p5  '~n  sria  XB^St,  or 
(ta-'pS  Si  n^nx),  tht  Drtn-lplim  fflhe  BbiIs  of 
God  (n-aip  lljiB),  mdthe  DtUnralim  ofOit  Awrccis- 
Iff  Ttmpin  (nbs-ni.      Even  tbe  book  Jiirah  does 
contain  the  doctrines  of  the  Cabsla  as  above  ex- 
ided.     AH  these  productions,  and  others  of  a  sim- 
ilar nature  so  fref[uently  quoted  liy  writers  who  give 
an  analysis  of  the  Cabala,  know  little  or  nothing  of 
the  SrpAiroti,  and  of  the  speculations  Bl>out  the  En- 
^qpA,  or  the  being  of  God,  which  constitute  the  essence 
of  the  Cabala.     Nevertheless,  these  works  are  unques- 
lily  to  be  roLTirded  ni.  Atmij  induced  Ihr  mnrt  rr- 
IpfOihtinai  nf  Ihr  Otbala,  by  the  dillirtilty  in 
1  they  placed  the  Jews  In  the  south  of  France. 
1  Catnlonls,  who  believed  In  them  almiHt  as  much 
aa  in  the  Itible,  and  who  were  driven  to  contrive  this 
stem  whereby  they  could  explain  to  themselves,  as 
ill  as  totheirassaiUnts,  the  gross  descriptions  of  the 
Deity,  and  of  tbe  plains  of  heaven,  given  in  these  Ho- 
gadic  productions.     Being  unalile  to  go  to  the  extreme 
of  the  rigid  literalists  of  the  north  of  France  and  Ger- 


-  higher 


implicitly  accepted  the  difficulties  and  anlhrnpumor- 
phisms  of  tbe  Bible  and  Hsgada  in  their  mmt  literal 
senee ;  or  to  adopt  the  other  extreme  of  the  followers 
of  Maimonides,  who  rejected  altogether  the  Hagsdic 
and  mystical  writings,  and  rationallied  the  Scriptnras, 
it  may  be  conjectured  that  Is.iac  the  blind  contrived, 
■nd  his  two  disciples,  Eira  and  Azariel  or  Zerona,  de- 
veloped the  modem  system  of  Cabalif m  (a)iout  1:!(I0~ 
1230),  which  steers  between  these  two  extremes.  By 
msans  of  the  Sfphiroth  all  the  antliropomorphbma  In 


CABALA 

the  BiU«,  in  UiB  Kagada,  and  evan  In  lie  SIdur  Kama,- 
an  at  onca  taken  fniiii  the  Deity,  and  yst  liMraBly  ex- 

plaiDcd;  while  tb«  lacriticlalinFlitutiaiiB.tbe  preeepta, 
andlfaeritiulorihc  HlUle  and  1'almiul,  renlveattha 
aame  time  ■  profound  (plrltiml  import.  The  Cabala 
in  iU  preatat  ttata  ia  therefura  a  bernieneutlral  aya- 
tam,  which.  In  part  at  leaat,  vai  in^titntfd  to  oppoaa 
the  philoaaphlcal  school  o(  Haimonides  (q.  v.). 

The  relationthip  belireen  the  Cabala  and  Keo-Pla- 
toahm  U  apparent.  The  Cabala  eleTatee  God  aljive 
iieinic  and  Uiinking,  and  likewiaa  deniea  all  divine  at- 
tril.utenj  ao  doee  Neo-PLtoniam.  The  Cabala,  liice 
Neo-Platoniam,  p)«c»  intelligent  principle!  or  lub- 
■Uncea  between  the  Dnity  and  the  wurld.  The  Cabala 
laachea  that  the  StpUnlk,  which  emanated  from  God, 
an  not  equal  to  God ;  Keo-Hatonlsni  taachea  that  the 
tnhaUncea,  thought,  spirit,  and  nature  Ci'ofie,  li'i'OT.and 
'bich  proceeded  from  one  being,  are  not  equal 


r  origin  (om 


ITO.'  ii    1 


TOi 


and  the  CaLiala  bus  adopted  the  very  same  clauificatini 
of  the  SrpUrvih  Into  the  three  grei,!  spherea  of  intelli- 
gence, animation,  and  matter.  1'he  comparison  be- 
tween the  emanation  of  the  Srf,ltirolk  ttma  the  En- 
Soph,  and  the  tayi  proceeding  from  light  to  deacribe 
immanency  and  perfect  unili-,  la  the  aame  as  the  Nao- 
rbtonic  figure  to  illustute  tbe  emanationa  from  the 
one  Being  (ulov  la  ^nif  r>>  i£  al'TiiB  mpiXnfi^i'). 
Tlie  doctrine  nT  the  Cabala,  that  most  of  the  soola 
whieh  enter  tbe  world  have  owupl^d  l>odiea  upon  this 
earth  heton\  ii  Neo-1'Ltonlc  (comp.  Zaller,  Cridt.  drr 
PUimtpiit,  III,  ii,  »I4}.     See  Nf.o-Pi.ato!(1)im. 

V.  Later  Pntcnrt  r-f  Cabiditm. — In  tlie  bands  of 

cret  knowledge  wua  nut  only  studied  in  ita  philosoph- 
ical l)earln);.  hut  also,  and  even  rather,  under  two  new 
Bspi!ct4  (which  were  not  mentioned  by  their  predecea- 
aoro,  and  which  carried  it  farther  than  it  went  at  hrat, 
tliougb  by  this  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it  received 
any  pnsittvely  novel  additions),  namely,  the  practical 
application  and  the  hmnnmliral  method.  We  find 
that  in  oblen  times  secret  philosophical  science  and 
magic  went  hand  in  hand.  1'be  soTctrer  mentioned 
in  Acta  xiii  was  called  by  the  Arab  name  of  dV'^S,  Ae 
mcrrt,  i.  e .  learned ;  In  Acts  xix  we  read  of  books  of 
magic  which  were  at  Epliesus;  the  sporadic  mentions 
mide  of  the  Cabala  in  the  Talmud  are  accompanied 
by  descriptions  of  mlraclsa.  When  B.  Chahina  and 
B.Othla  studied  the  book  of  Jexlrab,  we  are  told  in 
tbe  treatise  aimAidrim  of  the  Gemara,  they  alao  made 
each  time  a  three-year-old  cow,  and  lived  thereon.  It 
ia  no  wonder,  then,  if  the  Jewish  cabatiRta  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  Kiddie  Ages  transmitted  the  conceptinn  of 
their  science  to  their  Christian  adejits,  not  only  as 
specuUtive  C^'"?"'?),  b"  "li"  "  practical  (n'-isr^), 
i.  e.  in  plain  English,  that  they  connected  with  it  the 
Idea  tbnt  a  true  cabalist  must  at  the  same  time  be  a 
aorcerer.  It  is  self-evident,  however,  that  we  must 
here  distinguish  between  theosophlc  overstfaining  and 
mere  Juggling,  although  in  actual  practice  the  diS^- 
ence  may  sometimes  have  been  hard  to  perceive. 
The  affects  hoped  for  or  believed  in  magic  wwe 
accordlnirly  transmitted  outwardly  through  amuleta, 
tilisinaiis,  exorciiims,  images,  slgnF,  and  such  things, 
consisting  of  cert.iin  writitiea,  names  of  angels,  or 
mysterious  letters,  whose  connection,  however,  always 
leads  back  to  tbe  name  of  God,  This  last,  unpro- 
nounceable to  the  unconseerated.  but  known  to  the 
cabalist,  whether  it  consist  of  four  (i'l-in'')  twelve,  or 
forty-two  letters  (numben  which  result  frohi  combina- 
tions from  the  Sepblr  system),  was.  as  such,  called  Dd 
Oi^illsn,  tit  didoT'd  now ;  and  he  who  knew  bow  to 
MM  it' was  a  D^H  ^73.  or  maOtr  of  Iht  name.  The 
well-known  implements  of  magic,  such  as  Solomon's 
keys,  tbe  shield  of  David,  etc.,  owe  their  origin  to  this 
line  of  ideas.    Amateurs  will  find  a  ver}-  enlertaiaiog 


I  CABALA 

account  of  these  thlnga  In  Eisenmcngcr'a  Emldtfitn 
Jvdatllam,  in  Schndt'a  Jetciik  Curiaiilit4,  and  other 
works  of  the  same  character.     Seo  AxnLEr. 

The  exegetical  Ingenuity  of  Ihs  Cabala  la  interest- 
ing to  tbe  theologian.  The  principle  of  tbe  mystic  in- 
terprnition  of  Scripture  is  unlTprsol,  not  particular  la 
such  or  such  schools,  as  every  one  will  perceive  In 
Cborch  hiitory.  and  even  iu  the  hiflory  of  Greek  lit- 
erature. We  And  it  in  Pbilo,  in  the  New  Teat.,  in  th« 
writings  of  the  fathers,  in  tbe  Tabawl,  and  in  the  Ze- 
kar;  and  Ibe  more  it  depurts  trrnn  the  spirit  of  the  aa- 
cred  text,  the  more  hud  the  latter  ta  be  brought  to  its 
support  by  distortiona  of  ita  meaning.  For  sncb  ope- 
ration there  are  no  known  rulca  except  the  exigenciea 
of  the  case  and  the  suljective  mars  of  the  sense.  Seo 
MraTiciaM.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Jews  bad  already, 
by  the  arbitrary  character  of  their  alphabet,  arrived  ht 
all  manner  of  subtletiea,  of  wblch  we  have  already  iso- 
lated examples  in  earlier  writings,  but  which  were  er> 
pacially  estal^lished  aa  ■  rlrtuosoship  in  post-Zobarlc 
tlmea.  From  tbia  araae  the  following  specie*  of  caba- 
listic transfbnnallcn  :  IsL  K^STI,  Grmatiia  (^jiaipi- 
rpla),i.e.  the  art  nfdiacovering  the  hidden  sense  of  Ibe 
text  by  means  of  the  numerical  equivalents  of  the  let- 
ters. For  example,  in  the  lirHt  and  last  tfihs  of  th« 
Hebrew  Bil.Io  are  found  six  K'a,  which,  acoardlng  to 
Ibis  method,  means  that  the  world  Is  to  last  flOOO  year*. 
Tbe  numerical  equi\'a]ent  of  the  first  word  of  Geneaia 
is  9IB,  which  is  also  tbe  nnmber  given  by  the  worda 
^?7  n^lPa  (Sy  UU  idw  He/omni  U,  i.  e.  tbe  world), 
(torn  whence  It  follows  that  tbe  law  existed  before  tbo 
creation,  and  that  the  latter  was  accomplished  throuRh 
the  former.  If  the  second  word  of  Genesis  (if^a)  bo 
added  to  the  first,  the  result  is  1116,  which  is  also  the 
equivalent  of  !t^31  HirH  dxina  (in  tkt  brffnmmf 
rf  !he  year  it  ittu  matti),  by  which  is  known  that  God 
created  the  world  in  the  beginning  of  the  year — that 
is,  in  the  season  of  Autumn.  Tbe  antiquity  of  (his 
method  is  already  shown  in  Rev.  xill,  18,  where  Ihe 
solution  must  be  ciphered  out  with  the  aid  of  the  lln- 
brew  (or  Greek)  alphaiicl.  It  is  also  considered  as 
Gematria  when  Oibllcul  num)-cr<  — ftir  Instance,  di- 
mensions of  buildings — are  expressed  In  letlerr,  anil 
words  again  made  of  them.  Still  later  came  specula 
Hona  on  the  greater,  smaller,  inverted,  and  suspended 
letters  found  In  the  Masoretic  text ;  for  instance,  Deut. 
vl,  4;  Gen.  ii,  1;  Num.  x,  M;  Jndg.  iviii,  SO,  In 
whlcb  some  dpep  meaning  ia  looked  for,  altbou.  h  they 
nay  perhaps  hare  originally  been  but  peculiar  msrka 
to  aid  memory.  !d.  Tbe  particuUriy  so-called  "fig- 
urative" (n-'^nnx)  Cabala,  "i^p^^ai!,  SotarihoK  (fmm 
LaL  notart,  to  extract),  conalita  in  framing  with  each 
letter  of  a  word  several  new  ones,  e.  g.  troia  the  firat 
word  of  Genesis  aix  can  tfaoa  be  ftamed;  K'^S,  ks 
made;  S^p^,  Ihafiraammt;  ^^S,  tkt  tarlkt  OTBl^, 
Iktk-aoeiui  D^,<A«Ko,-  Oinni  tte  oftyss.  Wo  thus 
learn  the  correct  scientific  nature  of  the  unlverae,  bo- 
sides  the  proper  meaning  of  the  text.  Again,  it  con. 
Msts  in  taking  the  fitit  letters  of  several  worda  to  form  a 
new  one:  e.  g.  Deut.  xxx,  12,  n^aEll  »5i-nb?^  -Q, 
who  iJiaBbriiip la  lo  kfaomT  Answer:  nS^,  ctrcBia. 
cutoa.  ad,  n^ilSFI,  TemtiraA  {pemmtatiai),  the  ani. 
gram,  of  two  kinds.  The  sim[de  is  a  mere  transposi- 
tion of  the  letters  of  a  word;  e.  g.  we  thus  learn  thit 
the  angel  in  Exod.  xxiii,  23  C3!tV?<  "9  "ttgrt)  Was 
the  angel  lilichael  (bttS'p).  The  mors  ingenious  kind 
ta  that  by  which,  according  to  certain  estibllalMd  rule*. 
each  letter  of  the  alphabet  acquires  the  slgniAcation 
oF  another :  as  Aleph  that  of  Tau,  both  that  of  Ayin. 
Then,  again,  the  letters  may  be  read  fbrward  and 
backward  (which  constitute  the  alphabet  of  AlkbiMik, 
ti^nx),  or  tbe  first  letter  tbit  of  tbe  twelfth,  the  *o«. 


CABALA  1 

<ad  if  tha  thbtcMth,  and  tb«  revuM  (nuMiig  the  al- 
plubit  cmBed  AOam,  SZ^).  S««  AtbaCB.  The 
Dm  molUr^DDa  tbeM  triflca,  Ih«  cui«r  it  u  to  n- 
rirg  in  cvciy  gircD  cue  it  >  reaalt,  and  lh«  leaa  wit 
or  thoagbt  u  requind.  Ttaiu  the  Cbiiatian  tbeology 
of  tbc  ITIh  ccntDiy,  which  iUe\t  inclined  to  literal  be- 
lief, ond  which,  bv  iti  atrong  polemical  aspect  BKflinnt 
ihr  Jew>,  wu  tad  la  a  dil%enl  stad;  ot  the  cabuliiitic 
nt^  throBKh  them  fnond  everywhere  in  the  Old  Teit. 
cuidencre  of  the  Chriatian  dagmas  (s.  g.  Gen.  i,  1, 

r-cx^a^niar  nrr\^  rriaVi^  ast  hit  ^a,  i.  e.jU- 

In  the  1  ;th  century  we  find  evidenea  of  a  know]. 
•dtR  of  the  cabaliitic  ideu  and  methodi  in  the  work* 
of  the  Spaniard  Kaymood  Lnltoi ;  but  with  him,  aa 
nil  u  among  hla  dirKt  and  indirect  followen,  tbete 
ibnnnta  of  Judaic  philowphy  tike  the  character  of 
«ceDlnciti«9  and  iDp^nti^na  nioro  tlian  of  grand 
^acalalive  theory.  Two  centuries  elapsed  after  this 
before  the  Cabala  really  entered  the  circle  of  Clirinbn 
iBoital  development.  lis  admiwon  was  prepared,  on 
(be  one  hand,  by  the  overthrow  of  the  worn-out  acho- 
lifdciim  of  Arialotle,  and  the  conasqaent  tondency  to- 
ward Platonic  idoji,  although,  of  cnurtie,  these  latter 
w»tB  yet  la  their  more  elementary  form,  m  they  had 
boea  tranamltted  to  Alexandrli  by  Eastern  Influpncei ; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  same  reiult  wai  conduced  by 
in  awakeniDg  interest  In  the  iitudy  of  nature,  which, 
ncy,  bul 


entertain  itself  w 


le  Brat  centuriea  th 


w  oUural  lawi 
r.  Joined  a  third  and  more  pow- 
-'     '   lief  handed  down  br  the 
It  all  the  wbdom  of  na- 
Jefly  Platonic  philosophy,  actaatly  took 
Ibar  wigin  bi  the  Hehralc  revelation;  that,  fn  a  more 
•iteDdsd  aenae  than  the  pcqmlir  religioue  histories  ad- 
nit,  the  Jewiab  people  were  the  poaHiswra  and  keep- 
enof  a  treanryorwiadDmattd  knowled^  which   ' 
er  taakni  reaearch  could  alone  reveal.    What  wo 
li  it,  tben,  if  the  avaertiop  of  tbe  Cahallita  tbat  tbev 
peattdRd  aoch  a  treasure  found  eredeneo  and  gaiDeii 
then  liillowen?     The  progress  of  Chrlnians  towi 
tbe  Cabata  wan  greatly  helped  bv  the  eonverJion  o 
lar^  DBmher  of  Jewa  to  Christianity,  in  which  tb 
ncognised  a  cloaer  relation  to  their  Gnoetic  viewa,  a 
also  by  tbe  Christianj  perceivia  .'(hat  Gnnsticism  could 

the  Jewa.  Among  the  converted  Jews  we  notice  Panl 
Kkd,  pbyadan  In  oidinuy  to  the  Emperor  Haximil 
ias,  and  antbor  of  Calrtlii  Agriculiura;  Judaa  Bei 
laaae  Abrshuwl  (Leon  Hehr«usi,  son  i.f  the  renowei 
tVvtagaeseexeifiat,  Jind  author  of  the  Ajifeyiii;  anun! 
AiBOBg  Christiaoi  we  will  only  mention  tlie  two  moe 
iBpartiUit:  John  Picodeila  Mirandota  and  John  Keach 
lia ;  the  foriBer  ai  a  highly  gifted  and  enthusiastic  nya 
cTBtist,  aaihor  uf  Coaoduiinvi  cabbaliilifa  wcimdam 
Kcrt*am  ditriplimam  aapra/^  llrbr.  (1486) ;  the  o(her 
a  &ithfal  diKdple  of  the  classics,  in  connection  with 

trvpitode.  aothor  of  Dr  eerio  mififiro  (M94);  Ue  artr 
cMaliiliea  (151 ;).  Hl^  and  some  other  writings  of 
Ibe  ame  hind,  are  collected  in  tbe  wiirk  A  rlrt  CuUo- 
MtnA.  t.  rtcimdila  linilngia  a  phS-mjAiit  Scripbinmi, 
\jmt.  i  (diiIciuX  ex.  bILI.  J.  Pisiorli  (boaie,  1687,  fol.). 
Ibe  powerfb]  prepottderauce  of  the  religions  and 
ChuKh  intereats,  as  well  aa  those  of  practical  politics, 
vUib  became  perceptible  in  the  Rnt  quarter  of  the 
ISth  caatary,  giving  to  tbe  mind  a  positive  impulse, 
and  to  ttadiea  a  substantjjl  foundation,  arrested  the 
fanberdarelopment  oftheCabalii;  and  when,  in  lal- 
IJT  tlBKia.  it  W.1S  occasion.illy  tak?n  ap  again,  it  was 
ritber  with  the  view  of  giving  a  faigh-aounding,  mys- 


■dhj 


:h  had  not  atreogtb  enough 
.n  as  a  genuino  reannectioD 


CABALA 

TI.  U/traiart. — As  a  sort  of  accedwry  subject  of 
the  so-called  Orientalism,  and  even  of  Biblical  erudi- 
tion, the  Cabala  Is  mentioned  by  tbe  ancient  archno- 
lognea  and  iaagogics  (us  Cunetis,  Bttpabl.  Iltbr, ;  Wak 
ton,  Pro'egg.  1  Hottinger,  Tkmnirtu  Fiitul.  i  Leosden, 
Philolngut  Hrbr. ;  Pfeifer,  Critiea  Sacra,  and  many 
olhera);  but  they  contain  nothing  of  importince  re- 
specting it.  Much  more  copious,  though  not  yet  com- 
plete. Is  the  inrnrmation  contained  in  the  worki  of  Bud- 
deua,  rnhmphia  E'Toomm  (1702):  Hackspsn,  Mit- 
fUmta:  Eniim,Sdtelaaaera,v,  Riimmjnn,./il<fuak 
Th-vlogie.  The  worlt  of  Sommer,  Speeinen  Ik'olagia 
Sohineai  (Goth.  17B4),  is  (like  miny  others  which  b'j- 
biici us  quotes  in  the  ilib'i  •sniiM.i  A  nHq.  p. -HG)  onij 
a  polemico-Bpologetic  attempt  at  tiacing  the  Christian 
doctrine  of  (be  Trinity  in  the  C^ibsla.  Of  a  higher 
philosophic  character  are  the  wotka  of  Wachter,  ^it- 
Hotiimitt  im  JuikitlAaa.  and  t'JlHe'dariui  cM(JulKVi  i. 
ncoadUe  E'lrjdrmn  pAiiufjAia  brtrii  recauio  (Amst. 
1699),  in  which  the  polemic  tone  prevoUa.  Next  are 
B  isnage,  Nil.  da  J<af,  (torn,  ili),  and  Brucker,  IIU. 
Pkiloi,<jiua  (vol.  ii),  who,  however,  IVoni  insulGcient 
study  of  the  origin»l  sources,  acknowledges  liimself 
unable  to  master  ita  intricate  history.  Among  later 
writers  we  find  the  well-known  works  crfTennemann, 
Tiedemann,  and  Buhle.  The  line  of  tha  mo.e  recent 
monogiapbic  researches  liegina  with  Kieuksr  (Ri.n, 
17S6).  But  Christian  writers,  whose  early  knowledge 
of  rabbinic  literature  bas  been  fast  waning,  uenerally 
forsake  it.  Thoiuck's  treatise,  i).-  orfu  Cabbult  (IHST), 
treats  only  of  a  preliminary  question.  l.ntCerlieck,  in 
tbe  first  volume  of  hia  Xeulril.  tjehrbrgrij.  has  a  very 
interesting  chapter  on  the  Jeiirah  and  '/Miat.  Moli- 
tor'a  extensive  work,  Pldba.  d.  Gackiditt  d.  Tradilion 
(1S2T,  pt.  i-iii),  is  chiefly  theoretical.  Reuchlin  <_Dt 
arte  GiAWiifKci,  1517)  is  still  a  valuable  authoritv. 
One  of  the  latest  is  Echeridge  (^JeraMalem  md  Tibtrua, 
Lond.  1!I56,  12mo).  Next  to  the  extensive  work  of 
Ad.  Franck.  La  A'ctttotc  oa  la  PhiloMopkie  rtHgiaut  dtt  ' 
H^nmx  (Paris,  1842;  tr.  by  Jeliinek,  l.p*.  1844),  we 
name  the  PhihaupMii  C'ibbali4t>ca  el  puHliriimut  (183!) 
of  M.  Freystadt.  See  the  Eclrrtk  Jtec'ev,  Feb.  1856; 
Chriilian  litmm&nmar,  April,  18C2. 

The  earliest  cabulist  was  Asariel,  whose  Commtnlaiy 
OS  tkc  Dorlrine  it/lht  Stp/drolk  (niT'tO  nOS  1S11D), 
in  questions  and  answers,  has  been  published  (War- 
saw, 1798;  Berl.  1850);  bImi  his  Conmenlarf  on  tie 
Soag  n/Simgi  (Allona,  1764),  usuaUy  ascribed  to  his 
popil  Nschmuiides  or  Ramban  (q.  v.). 

Among  the  most  important  cabalists  wo  find  Rabbi 
Moses  Ben  Kachmsn,  anther  of  the  Bodt  of  Froth  taid 
/fqr"  (I'^rtXSI  npiSK);  R.Jose,orCastile,  author  of 
n^iJt  ^^?i;5  (Ooors  nf  Ligif) ;  R.  Moaes,  of  Coniova, 
D":"il|-i  Dl-IB  (Cordm  of  PimesnaiaHi):  B.  Isaac 
LoriB,  D''V'»V"r  "'fP  (.Boat  of  Ihe  Wafvkringi  of 
Souls);  B,Cliayim  Vital,  n-»ny;  (rive  o/ifft);  H. 
KasUll  Ben  .lacoh  Elchanan,  Tl^an  pt:s  (I*a%  r/ 
Me  Kn^");  R.  Abraham  Cohen,  of  Memra  (vuljr. 
Iriva),  O^Cirn  -ITO  (Otwr  "/  HraTtn).  Some  of 
these  works  (translated  into  Latin)  are  to  be  found  - 
whole  or  in  their  principal  porta  in  tho  KMala  De- 
mdala  nfClir.  Kn.ffr^n  Koaenroth  {Suls^  ICH,  S  vols. 
4t«).  with  all  kinds  of  exeiretical  apparatus,  and  some 
texts  fhim  the  Znfcir.  The  cabalistic  literature  is 
fnlly  noticed  in  Rartnloccl's  BiUiolktea  Magna  RaUim. 
ioa  and  in  Woirs  BibUaUKca  Bebnra,  tom.  ii  end  iv, 

also  P.  Heer,  GrKh-ehIt  der  LArtn  allrr  Stclm  der  Ja- 
An,  and  der  CfJibali-  (BrDnn,  1822,  2  vols.  8™)  -.  Scnet, 
De  C'MaiaJiuinfnm  {Kmt.l'(.)2i:  Senncrt, /)e  Cat- 
bnlii  (Witlenb.  l6J>f>);  and  especially  the  copious  list 
of  expositions  upon  the  works  of  Simon  ben-^lvchai, 
the  reputed  founder  of  Calialism,  given  by  FQrst,  Bii- 
liolhfca  Jud.ica,  ili,  329  sq.  We  may  «peri(^  the  fol- 
iowing;   Znni,  CuUad.  lorfr^c  dtr  Jiiden  (Berlin, 


OABASILAS  I 

ISSSX  p.  40!  tq. ;  Landaoar,  in  tha  LUeralvrilaa  dn 
.OriftU,  vol.  Tii(184d)i  viii,  81!  aq.  i  Joel,  Btligioiu- 
pkUotapHe  da  Sokar  (Lpl.  1^9);  Jellinsk,  .VoMjim- 
SchemJob  Je  J^im  (Lpz.  1651);  Btilrdgc  ur  Gtteh. 
<{«-JCaUafa(Lpi.I85!j:  A  tun,aU  Kub-ialiMCha-  My, ti 
(Lpz.  185S) :  uid  PiiioKiphU  und  KitbbalaA  (LpL.  18SJ) ; 
Steiiuchneidcr,  Jtaith  Liltralurt  (Lond.  IHdT),  p.  104- 
115,  2^9-309;  Munk,  iliUutgtt  d»  P/nlatjAui  Juitu  tl 
AriAe  IPM.lB&9\p.iS0 tq.;  mud  enpecUlly  the  mu- 
tarly  Minlysis  of  the  Zohar  by  Igi        "■  "      "' 


e  ludd  tieiUse  of  G 


(I,  Gat*,  dir  Ja. 


i,  443  459;  and  tba  ahls  review  of  It  by  U< 
Brn-Ckawajo,  v,  p.  335  aq.  (tiM  Lpz.  1863,  p.  TS  -»G). 
Ginibur^  hjii  Ul«ly  pnbliihed  k  compendiou*  but  co- 
pious DDd  clear  work  antitled  7^  KeMndah,  etc.  (Loud. 
1805),  in  which,  however,  be  controvertB  the  tradition- 
al view  of  tha  authorship  by  rabbi*  Akiba  and  Ben^Jo. 
chu,  HndiHiipllit  an  ori.-in  prior  to  the  Zohar,  which 
he  aKriUutP*  to  Moua  or  Leon  ;  considering  this  rath- 
er sa  the  oRapring  than  the  parent  of  Cabalism. 

Cabaailaa,  Iflcolaa,  BrcbhUhop  of  Tbesaalonica 
in  1354,  a  firm  anpporter  of  tbe  rights  and  iDdependflnce 
of  tha  Greeks  aj^nst  the  Roman  Church.  In  the 
He^ychastic  controveny  ha  took  part  with  the  monks 
of  Meant  Athos  agidnst  Bsriaam  (q.  v.).  Ha  wrole 
Hveral  works,  amoHK  which  are,  1.  Expntitiim  of  tite 
Grttk  Liiurgji  (Grefk),  tmnslated  into  Latin  by  Her- 
vet,  and  given  in  the  Bibiiaiieca  Patnim  under  the 
title  C/mprmi'eia  lolerprtlalio  hi  Dnnum  O^iam: 
and,  2.  Ylipt  rqr  tv  Xpianf  ^w^c,  etc.,  Lift  nf  Jrna 
C»ri.r(Ingnld.t.1604iabadUtinversbn).  This  book 
ia  of  value  as  illustrating  the  mystical  tendency  among 
the  Byzantine  wrilera.  See  Cave,  Hiil.  IM.  anno  1350 ; 
.•ilad.  u.  Krit.  1841,  p.  7S4  j  Gast,  Die  MsdOc  d.  A'.  Ka- 
batiliu,  etc.  (Greifsw.  18JB)i  Waloh,  Biblwlktca  Thr- 
(•Ji>^,  i,G40i  11,570. 

CabaBllas.inlu>,  uncle  of  tbe  precedinfc,  1  Greek 
thenIoi;isn,  and  archbishop  of  TbesMlonica  in  the  first 
bulfof  the  14tb  century.  He  wrote  Hipi  riiv  ahiuiv 
T-ije  tireXif'tiooTieijt-i'iaiirri'Kun,  first  printed  at  London 
(n.  d.),  afterward,  Greek  and  Latin,  at  Basel  (1544); 
■gain  at  Frankfort  (15S5),  and  at  Hatnault  (1608).  In 
It  he  shows  tbat  the  arbitrary  claims  of  the  papacy 
were  the  true  cause  of  the  ecliism  between  the  East  and 
West.  He  wrote  alwi  Ilipi  tTk  nfxln  roi  nriffo 
(Francfi>rt,1555,8vo!  Hanover,  IMS,  with  tba  works 
of  Usrlum).  Dufdn  says  that  these  writings  are  "  full 
of  learning."  The  tiook  on  the  papal  supremacy  was 
translated  into  EuKlish  by  Grestop  ([.ondnn,  1560,  Rvo), 
Cabaidlaa  died  in  1350.— Hoefer,  Noue.  Biog.  Grninde, 
viii,  IS;  Cave.  ffM.  U.,  Wharton's  Appendix  ;  Da- 
pin,  EccUt.  Writen.  cent.  liv. 

Cabaflsut(Ca5(i(ta(iu<),  Jran,  an  eminent  Roman 
canonist,  was  bom  at  Alx,  in  Provence,  1604  or  lr>05, 
entered  tbe  congregation  of  the  Oratory  1626,  and  died 
at  Aix,  aged  eighty-one,  Sept.  35, 1685.  At  Kome  he 
was  regarded  as  an  oracle  in  every  thing  relating  to 
the  canon  law  and  cainistry,  and  a  good  Oriental 
Bcholar.  Ho  wrote  Jarii  Cunonwi  Ihroria  ft  prazit 
(4to,  1696. 1698,  and  by  Gibert,  with  notes,  etc.,  1 738) ; 
al:>D  lliitarmnun,  Cimcilionim  il  CaBuBuin  imicrm  ciU 
tiUorum  cirmmqae  Eccleiiir  riltim,  ab  ^Mu  Eerkiiir  in. 
canabulit  ad  nostra  utqae  lempnra,  nolitia  rteUiiatlica 
()ieat  ed.  Lugd.  1685,  fol. ;  again,  Lyooi,  17£6;  and  in 
■n  abridged  funs,  1776,  8vo). 

Cab'bon  (Heb.  Kaiton',  pSS,  in  Syriac,  a  rate; 
SepU  Xnl^UJir  V.  r.  Xa^m  and  \a0iia),  a  place  in 
the  "plain"  of  Jndah,  menlioneil  between  Egfon  and 
Lahmam  (Josh,  xv,  40);  possibly  the  same  with 
UachBenah  <1  Chron.  ii,  49).  It  is  perhaps  the 
modem  ruiiieil  Mte  ti-Ku/eir,  marked  by  Van  de  Velde 
(^Ifnp)  at  10  mile*  south-east  of  Ashkeion. 

Cabet.     See  Ck>HHUNiB)i. 

Cabin  (riin,  dmulh';   Sept.  merely  Gnecizes, 


I  CABUL 

t)  x'<"^^  properly  a  vault  or  etU  (so  the  loargin)  wltb- 
In  the  dungeon,  and  under  ground,  for  the  aeparate 
conHnemenl  of  prisoner.  (Jer.  xsxvii,  16).  Othera 
(Scbeid,  in  the  Dimi.  Lugdim.  p.  'JBS)  undersUnd  it  to 
mean  a  curved  post,  i.  e.  tkt  sMob  (camp.  Jer.  xx,  3, 
8 ;  ixii,  26).  The  idea  conveyed  in  either  cau  ia 
that  tlie  prophet  suffered  the  must  severe  and  loatb- 
soine  imprisonment.     See  Prisuh. 

Cabiz,  also  called  Allll4,  a  learned  Mohammedan 
wbo  became  noted  fur  maintaining  tbe  superiority  of 
Jesui  Christ  to  Mohammed.  Being  summoned  beruro 
the  Divan,  he  silenced  the  two  "  cadilaskers"  of  Kou- 
inelia  and  Anatolia.  He  was  then  set  at  liberty,  but 
the  iultan,  having  listened  to  the  discusiiun,  referred 
the  matter  to  the  mufti  and  cadi  of  Constantinople. 
This  time  Cabii  was  found  guiltv,  and  sentenced  tn 
death.  He  was  executed  on  SepL  19,  m;.  An  edict 
published  on  occasion  of  his  execution  forbade  all  Mo- 
hammedans, Quder  penalty  of  death,  to  prefer  thence- 
forth the  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ  to  tbat  of  Moham- 
med.— Hoefer,  BioffrajMe  Giniralr,  viii,  17. 

Cabral,  FR\!i^oia,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  was  bom 
in  IGSfl  at  CovilhuL,  in  Portugal,  and  enticed  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  at  Goa.  Appointed  a  missionary,  he  Crav- 
erspd  great  part  of  India  and  Asia.  After  spending 
several  years  as  professor  of  theology  at  Goa,  be  waa 
made  vice-provincial  in  Japan.  He  baptized,  in  1576, 
I  the  king  "t  Bungo,  who  seveni  yean  before  had  ro- 
ceived  hospitably  Francis  Xavier,  but  was  not  cod. 
\  verted  ontil  the  arrival  of  (^hral.  He  psssed  over 
Into  China,  where  he  labored  abundantly,  and  thencs 
retamed  to  Goa,  where  he  governed  the  hnnse  of  the 
Professed  thirty-eight  years.  He  died  at  Goa,  April 
16, 1609.— Aiegnmbe,  ScrifLSoe.Jami  Hoefer,  A'oMi 
Biey.  Giitirait,  viii,  36. 

CaHiiil  (tleb.  KdbvC,  hvs^,  according  to  e^niol- 
ogy,  benni,  but  signification  nncert^n  [see  bclowj), 
the  name  of  a  town  and  a  district. 

1.  (Sept.  Xn0iU,  but  other  co|des  blend  with  the 
follDwing  words  into  XQ./3n;iaaa;.>  > .)  A  ci^  on  tha 
eastern  liorder  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  apparently  at 
the  northern  part,  beyond  Beth-Emek  (Josli.  xix,  27). 
It  seems  to  cort^pond  to  the  viliu.e  Ckabolo  t_\affm- 
Xt)  mentioned  by  Josephus  {L/r,  §  43,  4o)  as  on  tbe 
confines  of  Ptolemais,  in  Galilee,  40  siddia  from  Joto- 
pata.  A  fortress  by  the  name  of  Kabul  is  mentioned 
by  Arabian  geogmphers  in  the  district  of  Safed  (Ro- 
senmQlier,  Analerl.  Arab,  iii,  20).  Dr.  Roblnton, 
during  his  last  visit  to  l*aiestine,  accordingly  funnil  a 
village  called  A'ntu'on  his  wav  to  Aceho,  aituated  "oii 
the  left,  among  the  lower  hills'"  (SiWi-.t*.  Sacra,  1853, 
p.  121 ;  Lata-  BiU.  £a.  p.  88 ;  for  Talmudical  notice*, 
see  Schwari,  PriM.  p.  192). 

2.  (Sept.  translates  "Ufiiav,  boandarg.  bat  In  neg- 
lect of  the  context,  ver.  12,  which  favors  the  derivn. 
tionorSimonis[Oiuinaf(.  p.417]and  Hiller  [Onnwu'. 
p. 436,  775],  asi. q.  "something exhaled,  as  nothing;" 
Josephus  [^AhI.  viii,  5,  3]  calls  it  XnlinXvi;  and  aava 
[apparently  from  conjecture]  that  it  b  a  FhiEnician 
word  indicative  of  diitafw/iictuia.)  A  district  contain- 
ing "  twenty' cities,"  given  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  by 
Solomon,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  important  servicea 
which  be  had  rendered  toward  the  building  of  the  Tem- 
ple (1  Kings  Ix,  13).    Hiram  was  by  no  means  plaaaed 

'  with  the  gift,  and  the  district  received  the  name  of  (^ 
bul  (as  if  signifving  anpieaamffj  hvm  this  circDmstanee. 
The  situation  of  Cubul  has  been  disputed  ;  but  we  are 
content  to  accept  the  Inlbnnatinn  of  Josephus  (Jut. 
viii,  S,  3),  who  aeema  to  place  it  in  tbe  north-weat  part 
of  Galilee,  adjacent  to  Tyre.  The  foregoing  town, 
named  Cabul  (Josh,  xix,  27),  being  also  in  GaUlee,  il 
is  possible  tliat  it  was  ona  o(  tbe  twenty  towns  consign- 
ed to  Hiram,  who,  to  mark  his  dutsstisfaction,  applied 
the  significant  name  of  this  one  town  to  the  wbole  dis- 
trict. The  cBUMoflliram's  dislike  to  what  Solomon 
doubtless  considered  a  li1>er-l  gill  Is  very  uncertain. 


CADDIS  1 

UhaM  batn  eaajeelnnd  {Kitto,  Pictorial  BilU,  noU  on 
I  tJDgt  ix,  13}  Uut  "protwUy,  u  the  Phanjcians 
**r>  t  maritime  aiid  comuiercul  pmplc,  Hirtiiii  wishal 
Mber  (or  m  part  of  the  coast,  whicb  wai  uuw  in  tba 
k*sd*  af  SolumoD,  and  wiu  theiBfora  not  ptvpared  to 
ajipnive  of  ■  district  which  ml|{lit  hnve  been  o(  contid- 
aihla  Talnc  in  Iha  ayea  of  an  iifTicultunil  people  like 
tba  UBbrew*.  Perbapa  the  towna  were  in  part  pay- 
BfOt  of  *bat  Solomou  owed  Hiram  for  bia  variuui 
KFTkea  and  oontributioni."     81^  Dikam, 

Cad'dia  (KaJci'c,  or  tatber  raSSis,  ai  most  texta 
read  1  ID  >lao  Joaepbus,  Tailic  or  raSi^,  Ani.  xiii,  1, 
i:  dariratioa  ancertaln,  aee  Grimm,  Hamli.  in  loc.), 
It.  *an»me  lBu„^\o6^,^)  of  Joa«>ak  (q.  v.).  the 
tUtat  brother  of  Jndaa  Haccabaiu  (1  Hacc.  ii,  i). 

Codanuum,  Joium  Gkobo.,  a  Germs  n  theolo- 
gian uf  the  17th  cenlurr,  waa  bom  at  Oschati,  in  Sax- 
«T,  and  (tadied  at  Jena  and  Wittenbenr,  where  he 
tuDk  hi>  degree  in  \6iti.  In  1654  be  became  pastor  at 
Dalileii,  and  In  1S76  arcbdeacoD  at  Wurzen,  where  be 
died,  Dec.  !8, 16PT.  Amou);  his  writings  are  Diipiiia- 
ti>  dt  Cnata  {nitrwitoilaH  JmliJiaUiottit  (Jena,  1550, 
4lu):— Dup.  df  prinripUt  Immamtrum  AcAmoim  (Wit. 
«enb.  1654,  4U>)  -.-De  Jititia  DiVribuHBa  (1654,  4to)  1 
~Dc  UajalaU  (1654, 4to).— Hoeftr,  AWr.  Biog.  Gini- 
nrir,  TiU,  63. 

Ca'tfte  IKaliK  V.  r.  Kljtn  and  Kiiit),  a  GrBciied 
(vn  (I  Hacc.  si,  68,  TS)  of  the  name  of  Kedesh  (q. 
v.)  in  Kapbtali  (Jeab.  xx,  7). 

Ca'aia-Bar'ni  iKAtK  Boot")),  ■  Graiclied  fonn  > 

(.jKlith  V,  14)  of  KADESH-BAUrEA  (q.  v.).  I 

Cad'mlel  (Ka^;iii)Xoc  T.  r.  Kn^ifl7Xac),  one  of  the 
Leritea  whoH  "  Sons"  retDrned  thim  the  caplivitr,  and 
■bo  aaunted  at  the  masical  performancea  ut  the  n*ti>. 
rmtlm  of  the  tnnple  vorthip  (1  Esdr.  v,  !6,  58) :  e\i.  \ 
drntlT  tbe  Kadmiel  (q.  v)  of  the  Heb.  texts  (Eirj  li,  1 
40;  Keb.Til,43:  xii,  S4). 

Cadonld.  Giovanni,  an  Italian  thrologian,  was 
bom  at  Venice  in  ITOfi,  and  became  a  canon  of  the 
cbarrb  of  Cremona.  He  wia  a  man  of  learning,  and 
appoaaJ  tbe  pretenaionB  of  tbe  coart  of  Rome  and  the 
darCrinea  of  tlie  HoUniila.  In  a  curious  work,  entitled 
'-  An  Expontion  of  thia  papMae  of  St.  Aniruitlne,  The 
<'haich  of  Jenup  Chriol  shall  be  in  sulijection  t»  aeco- 
I  .r  princes,"  he  sbowa  that  as  princes  are  suliject  tn 
■be  Church  in  tblngi  spiritoal,  so  the  Church  ia  liound 
to  obey  tbem  in  things  temporal ;  and  that  In  ancirnt 
titorgica,  as  tbe  Ambroeian,  Honrahic,  etc.,  prayer 
*«t  made,  specially  and  l>7  name,  even  for  persecn- 
tJn/  princ«s.  He  wrote  also  Sal'miiu  de  St.  Augtii- 
(m(1TGS);  nr.4niu&wyKa'nr«n  (Rome,  1766,  2  Toll. 
4tB).  He  died  Fek  !T,  ITSe.— LandoD,  Ectl.  Bid.  s. 
■. ;  Hoefer,  .Voor.  BHig.  GMirale,  viii,  7J. 

Cadytla.    Sea  Jbrcialem. 

CscUik.    See  Cecilia. 

CnctUan.     See  Doxatutb. 

Cndmou  or  Cedwoo,  an  Anglo-Saxon  Benedic- 
tiM  and  poet,  bom  in  North  urn  l«rland,  died  at  Wbll- 
by  in  67S  or  680.  He  is  the  flrst  prrron  of  whom  we 
pnaitn  any  metrical  composilion  in  our  vemacular. 
Ii  la  ■  kind  of  ode,  of  ei|;htren  linea,  celalintioK  the 
pniaea  of  the  Creator,  preserved  in  AlftvU's  transla- 
tkHofRede.  "BedegivDsthefullowinKaccDunt.  Csd- 
Bun  awma  to  have  had  the  care  of  Ibe  cattle  of  Iha 
Boiiks  of  Whitliy.      It  appears  to  have  hecn  the  cus- 

■upfKT  "ith  impnivlfitore  descants  accompanied  liy 
tba  harpk  as  i*  atill  practised  at  meetings  of  tbe  Welsh 
lards.  C«dmon.  when  the  harp  passed  roand  among 
the  ipieats,  was  fnln.  as  it  approached  bitn,  to  shrink 
away  frnm  the  assrmlily  and  retire  to  hla  own  house. 
<>Bca,  after  it  bad  thus  happened,  as  he  was  sleeping  at 
•igtit,  aDme  one  seemed  to  ray  to  bim, '  Ccdmon,  sing 


C^£SAR 

me  aomatbing.'  He  replied, '  I  cannot  sing;'  and  he 
tuld  bow  bis  insbillty  to  sing  had  been  tbe  cause  of  hla 
quitting  tbe  hall.  'Yet  thun  must  sing  to  me,'  aaid 
the  voice.  '  What  must  I  sing?'  said  he.  'Sing  me 
tbe  urigin  of  things.'  The  snl:^  thus  ^iven  him,  he 
composed  the  short  ode  in  question.  When  he  awoke, 
the  words  were  fast  in  bis  mind.  Cedmnn  in  the 
morning  told  liis  vision  and  repeated  his  inng.  Ihe 
eRect  waa,  tbul  the  aliliera  Hilda,  and  the  learned  men 
whom  she  had  collected  round  her  in  her  monastery  at 
U  bitby,  believed  that  he  had  teceivcd  from  heaven  the 
giflofsonj;,  and  whenon  the  miitrow  he  relnmed  with 
a  poetic  pvrephrase  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  which 
they  had  given  him  to  veriiiy  as  a  test  ofbii  inspin- 
tion,  they  at  once  ackr.OKledged  the  verity,  and  ear- 
nestly besnaght  bim  to  Lecome  a  member  of  tbeii  com- 
pany. He  complied  numerous  poems  on  sacred  sub- 
jects, which  were  sung  in  the  ubley.  Sacred  snljecU 
wen  his  delight,  and  to  tbem  be  confined  himself.  He 
continued  In  the  monuslei^-  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  and  there  he  died,  as  is  conjectured,  about  680. 
Tbe  authenticity  of  the  little  poem  above  menlioned  is 
perhaps  unqueslJonuble.  But,  besides  this,  a  very  long 
Saxon  pnero,  which  ia  a  nutrical  p,.Taphtase  on  parts 
of  tba  Scriptum,  it  atMliutrd  to  Caidmon.  An  edi- 
tion of  It  waa  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1655,  ander  the 
care  of  Junius.  Hlckes  eipreries  doubts  whether  this 
poem  can  be  attributed  to  so  early  a  period  aa  the  time 
of  Cadmon.  He  thinks  he  perceives  certain  Dano- 
Saxonitms  in  it  which  wunld  load  him  to  refer  It  to  a 
much  later  period.  It  has  been  again  printed,  wilfa  a 
much  more  accursto  text,  by  Mr.  Thorpe,  as  a  publica- 
tion  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  (Lend.  tlvo.  188!). 
Mr.  Thorpe  is  of  opiuiou  that  it  Is  snlatantlsUy  tbe 
work  I  f  Csdmon,  but  with  some  sophlptications  of  a 
luter  period,  and  la  this  opinion  our  best  Anglo-Saxon 
■cbolata  appear  inclined  to  coincide." — Prmty  Cj/dapa- 
dia,  s.  V. ;  Hoefer,  Bingrapkie  Ciniralt,  vlil,  64. 

CaeleatliiB.     See  CKLSfTlD*. 

CsernlarlwB,  SIiciiaei.,  patriarch  of  Canrtanllro- 
plo  (A,D.  1W3-10S9).  He  was  one  of  the  chief  pro- 
moten  of  the  great  schism  batireea  the  Eastern  and 
Western  cbunbes-  In  1U54  Pope  Leo  IX  sent  legates 
to  Constunlinople  to  accommodate  matters  ;  but  they. 
Iieing  displcBsed  at  the  treatment  they  received,  left  a 
written  letter  ofexcommunication,  directed  against  the 
patriiir(.'h,  on  Ihe  altar  of  the  churth  of  St.  Snphin,  and 
departed,  having  shaken  off  the  dust  frem  their  feet. 
Tbe  ostensible  causes  of  dlfTennee  lietween  the  chureb- 

Leo,  archliishop  of  Aeryda,  to  John,  bishop  of  Trani, 
were  tbe  following:  that  the  latins  consecrated  with 
unleavened  bread ;  ^at  they  added  tbe  words  Ft  oqve 
to  tho  creed  of  the  CbDreb;  that  thry  taught  that  Ihe 
souls  of  Iho  faithful  make  expulinn  In  tbe  llres  of  Pur- 
gatory ;  and  that  In  aome  other  reupccls  they  dilTcred 
in  their  customs  frem  those  of  the  East.  After  this 
outrage  on  lbs  part  of  the  Roman  legates.  Ccrularins 
called  together  a  synod  at  Conrtaniinople  1064,  and 
excommunicated  them  and  iheir  adherents,  Cvrula- 
rios  himself  was  a  man  of  ambitious  views  and  arro- 
ginl  disposition,  and  little  likely  to  ward  off  the  final 
niptiire  with  Rome,  which  in  fact  took  place.  How- 
ever, the  Emperer  Isaac  Comnenius  took  umlinwe  at 
his  liehavior.  and.  A.D.  lOSil,  having  caused  him  to  be 
seiied,  sent  him  tn  Pneconnesus.  CErnlarius  refused 
lo  resign  the  patrisrcbal  threne  as  the  pmpernr  en- 
deavnred  to  compel  him  to  do,  but  died  shortly  after- 
ward in  e:tll'.— Damn.  Aimit't,  xi,  A.D.  1064;  Mos- 
heim,  0i.  ll'ti.  cenL  il,  pt  II,  eh,  iii;  Keander,  C*. 
/Jitlory,  ill,  5K0- 

Cmu  (Grceited  KnTvo)] ;  lience  tho  Germ,  title 
A'ntfrr,  Russian  Ctur),  a  namo  assumed  l.y  or  conferred 
upon  all  the  Roman  empenirs  aflet  Julius  Cecsar  (who 
is  said  to  have  Iven  so  named  Irom  his  having  been 
bom  I'v  a  surgical  operation,  aitif).     In  tliu  waj 


C^SAREA 

It  becamv  m  loit  of  title,  liVs  Phanoh.  and,  U  ■ucb, 
is  ufuully  applied  to  Cba  einperori  In  tbs  New  Tettu-  ^ 
msnt,  at  th«  aaverei^  orjudea  (John  lix,  IS;  Acts  : 
xvii,  T),  without  tbeir  diatinclive  proper  nstiiei.  See 
alM)  Adocbtus.  It  was  to  blm  ttui  the  Jews  paid  triU- 
uta  (Matt.  ixU,  17 ;  Luke  ix,  23;  x«iii,  S),  and  to  him  | 
tint  such  Jews  u  wen  civei  Ainuiu  had  the  right  of  i 
appeal  (Act*  XIV,  Hi  itaTi,aii  xiivili,19);  in  which  ' 
ciM,  if  their  caase  was  ■  criminal  one,  they  were  sent 
to  Rome  (Acta  x»t,  1>,  !1  ;  eomp.  Pliny,  tpp.  x,  97),  , 
wfaere  waa  the  conrt  of  the  emperor  (I'hU.  Iv,  22).  i 
ThB  C»nn  menUoned  In  Che  New  Tegument  are  Au- 
gustos  (Luke  il.  1),  Tiheriu.  (Luke  "i.  1;  ",  W>, 
CUudios  (Act*  xi,  'iS),  Nero  (Acts  xiv,  fl);  Caligula,  | 
who  aacceeded  Tiberiaa.  is  not  mentioned.  See  each  i 
name.     On  Phil,  iv,  22,  see  Hodbehou).  I 

Ctesare'a  (Knuropiio,  in  the  Tarpini  T'^O'PX  | 
the  name  ofsavenl  citiea  under  the  RomsD  rule,  jiiven  < 
Co  them  in  compliment  of  some  of  the  cmperois;  eipe-  , 
cially  of  two  important  towna  in  Paleitlne. 

1,  CxsabEa  PalbstIs*  {Haifrnpna  >)  naXaiari- 
rm),  or  "Cejarea  of  Palestine"  (so  called  to  diMin- 
guish  it  from  the  other  Cassrea),  or  simply  Cnsarsu 
(without  addition,  from  its  emincnra  as  ths  Roman 
melropolia  of  PjleatJna,  and  the  raiidence  of  the  procu- 
rator). Hie  numerous  pusii^a  in  which  it  occurs 
(Acta  viii,  40;  ix,  SO;  x,  1,  S-l;  li,  II;  xil,  19;  xviii, 
32;  xxl.  e,  16;  xxUi,  23,  St:  iiv,  1,  «,  S,  13)  show 
how  Important  ■  place  thie  city  occupies  in  Ibe  AcU 
of  tlie  Apostles.  It  wai  situated  nn  the  cnast  of  Pdlea- 
tine,  on  the  line  of  the  gre^t  roid  fironi  Tyre  In  Euypt, 
and  about  half  way  between  Joppi  and  Dora  (loMphuH, 
War,  i,  21,  5).  The  journey  of  the  apnttle  Peter  from 
.loppi  (Acta  I,  24)  occupied  rjther  more  than  i  diy. 
On  the  other  hjncl,  Paul's  journey  from  Ptolemaia 
(Acts  xii,  S)  waa  occomplishad  within  the  day.  Tho 
distance  Arom  Jeruaitem  la  stit^d  by  JoeejAua  in  tduu'I  ' 
numbera  as  600  stidia  (Anl.  xili,  11.  2;  War,  i,  3.  b). 
The  JerusaJem  Itineriiy  iilvea  «ixt.v-'?i(ht  miles  ( ITi-t- 
teling,  p.  BOO;  see  Rolitnaon,  B^.  Rt:  lii,  U).  It  has 
been  aacertained,  however,  that  there  waa  a  shorter 
road  tiy  AiUyxilrU  than  that  which  is  given  in  the 
Itinerary — a  point  of  aome  importance  In  reference  to 

The  actual  distance  in  a  direct  line  is  forty-seven  En  j- 
lisb  miles. 

In  Strabo'ttlme  there  waa  on  this  paint  of  the  coast 
merely  a  town  called  ■■  Strato's  Tower,"  with  a  tand- 
ing'place  {Trponop^ov  •l:'u>'),  whereas,  in  the  lime  of 
Tacitus,  Ceiarea  ia  apokcn  of  aa  being  the  head  of  Ju- 
dsi  (-'Juda.B  caput,"  Tac.  Hil.  ii,  79).  It  was  in 
tlili  Inb-rval  that  the  city  waa  built  by  Herod  the 
Great  (JoMphus,  Anl.  xv,  0,  G;  Strabo,  xvi,  3,  27; 
Pliny,  //.  ff.  V,  lo).  The  worit  was,  in  fact,  accim- 
pUshed  In  ten  years.  Tho  utmost  care  and  eupcDso 
were  lavished  on  the  building  of  Ctesarea.  It  nus  a 
pnrod  monument  of  the  rei^  of  Herod,  who  named  it 
in  honor  of  the  Empeior  Augustus.  The  full  name 
was  Ctoarea  S/Amlr.  {Kmnapiia  Ht/Jnirrq,  Joaenb.  Anf. 
xvi,  5, 1).  It  waa  aometimes  called  Ciaarra  S'raloiM, 
and  sometimes  also  (ftrmi  its  poailion)  Uari/imt  CiTKirta 
(rapnXint,  Joseph,  ifur,  iii,  0, 1,  or  q  iri  SaXnrrp.  tA. 
vli,  1,  8).  The  ma'inilicenco  of  Civwrea  is  descrilied 
indctiil  by  Josephua  in  two  places  (i4  at.  xv,  D;  War, 
i,  31).  The  chief  features  were  connected  with  the 
harbor  (itself  called  Tiiintrrlt  Xiph'-,  on  coins  and  by 
Jeaephus,  Ant.  xvii,  6,  1),  which  waa  equal  in  ^iie  lo 
the  Pirteua  of  Athens.  The  whole  coast  of  Palestine 
may  be  aatd  to  be  extremely  inhospitable,  exposed  as 
it  is  to  the  fury  of  [he  western  storme,  with  no  natural 
port  aRbrding  ade<|aale  shelter  to  the  vessels  resortini; 
to  it.  To  remedy  Ihia  dpfect,  Herod,  who,  though  an 
arbitrary  tyrant,  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  Ju- 
da»,  set  about  erecting,  at  immense  cost  and  labor, 
one  of  the  most  stupendous  works  of  anllc|uily.  He 
threw  out  a  seniicircular  mole,  which  protected  the 


s  C^ESAEEA 

I  port  of  Craarea  on  the  soulfa  and  west,  leaving  only  ■ 
'  suSlcient  opening  fur  vesseU  to  enwi  frum  the  north ; 
I  so  that,  within  the  enclosed  apace,  a  Beet  might  tide 
at  all  weathers  in  perfect  security.  Thia  breakwater 
was  constructed  of  immense  blocks  of  atone  lirooght 
jfto.n  a  great  distance,  and  sunk  to  the  depth  of  3<J  fatb- 
I  oiiis  in  tlie  Mj.  Jdroad  lundin^-whurves  sumiunded 
the  harlior,  and  conspicuous  from  the  sea  waa  a  tern- 
'■  pie  dedicated  to  CBsar  and  to  Rume,  and  conlaininx 
,  coliissal  alatuea  of  the  emperor  and  the  imperiul  city. 
I  Besides  this,  Herod  added  a  theatre  and  an  aoipbitlie- 
atre;  and,  when  the  whole  was  finished,  he  lixed  hia 
residence  there,  and  thus  elevated  tlie  city  to  the  rank 
of  Che  civil  and  military  capital  of  Judna,  which  r>nk 
it  coutinned  to  enjiiy  as  long  as  ttio  country  remained 
a  province  of  the  Roman  empire  (see  Dr.  Hansford, 
Script.  OatetiiKr).  VeFpsalan  wus  first  declared  em- 
peror at  Cnsurca,  and  he  railed  it  to  the  lank  of  a  Ri>. 
man  "colony"(<l.  vOi  granting  It,  lirst,  exemption  tiaa 
the  capitatiun  tax,  and  afterward  From  Ihe  ground  tax- 
es (tho  reul  jui  ICitliciBn).  The  place  was.  however. 
Inhabited  chiefly  by  Gentiles,  though  some  Ihoosanda 
of  JewBlivcd>nit(JaMph.  trnr,  iii,  9, 1;  iii.  14;  Ant. 
IX,  8.  7;  L/r,  11).  U  eoeins  there  waa  a  sUnding 
dixpute  between  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  inhabitiDta 
ofCiBsarealo  which  of  them  the  city  really  belonred. 
The  former  claimed  it  as  having  been  buiH  Uy  a  Jew, 
moaning  King  lierod;  the  Utter  admitted  this,  but 
contended  Chat  he  built  II  for  them,  and  not  fbr  Jews, 
seeing  that  he  had  filled  it  with  statues  and  temples 
of  their  gods,  which  tho  Utter  abominated  (Joseph. 
War,  ii,  13,  T).  TUs  quarrel  sometimes  came  to  blow^ 
and  eventually  the  matter  was  retferred  to  the  Emperor 
Nero,  whose  deciHOn  in  favnr  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the 
Irobjvior  of  the  latter  thereupon,  gave  deep  offence  to 
tho  Jews  (pn«r,illy,  and  afforded  occasion  for  the  H™t 
outl>reaks,  which  led  to  the  war  with  the  Romans  (Jo- 
srph.  War,  ii,  14).  One  of  the  tint  sets  of  that  war 
was  the  massacre  of  all  the  Jewish  inhabilania  by  the 
(»«ntilea  to  the  number  of  30,000  (».  11.  16,  1>.  Thie 
city  was  the  head-<(uarterB  of  one  of  the  Koman  co- 
horts (q.  v.)  in  Palestine. 


t;<rfn  of  Cawres  Paleallic, 
Cnsarea  is  (he  sceno  of  several  interesting  circnm. 
atancea  descrilied  in  the  New  Toatsmcnt,  such  aa  the 
conveminn  c.f  Cornelius,  the  first-fnilts  of  the  Gentiles 
(AcU  x);  the  residence  of  Philip  the  Evangelist  (Acts 
xxi,  S).  It  WHS  here  also,  in  the  amphitheatre  built 
bv  his  gmndfotiier,  that  Herod  At(ri|ipa  was  smitten  of 
Godanddied  (Acta  xii,  21-28).  From  hence  the  apojtlo 
Paul  tailed  to  Tarsus  when  forced  to  leave  Jerusalem 
on  his  return  from  Damascus  (ix,  30),  and  al  this  port 
he  landed  after  his  aecond  missionary  journey  (xvili, 
92).  He  also  spent  some  time  at  CieSBrra  on  his  re- 
turn from  the  third  missionary  Joomey  (xxl,  S,  Ifi), 
and  liefore  lon«  wee  brought  liack  a  prisoner  to  tho 
same  place  (xiiii,  23.  S3),  where  be  remained  soma 
lime  in  bonds  before  his  voyage  to  Italy  (xxv,  1,  4, 
8,  IS).  After  Ihe  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Casarea 
lieeame  the  spiritual  metropolis  of  all  Palesline;  but, 

was  divided  into  three  provinces.  Palcftina  Prima,  So. 
cunda,  and  Tertla,  it  became  the  capiul  of  only  the 
first  province,  and  subordinate  to  the  bishopric  of  Je. 
russlem,  which  was  elevated  Into  a  patriarchate  witb 
the  righla  of  primaci'  over  "Ihe  three  Palestine*." 
Ccsarea  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  birthplace  and  episcn. 
pate  of  Eusebius,  the  celebrated  Church  historian,  in 


>e(jtaiir 


idwun>n*|>kaoa>| 
npeciaJly  th*  Lut 


^EtMb.  ai».  tied.  Tiii. 
^  wiH  of  Uri^n'i  ULon  and  the  tiirthpluca  of  Pro- 
oflu.  U  MatiDDcd  lo  be  ■  cil;  of  aoiiic  importunce 
raia  the  time  nfthe  Cniiudea.  It  still  rrtaina  the 
ucHt  umii  in  tlu  fonn  of  KaiKr:fdt.  liut  tun  lonj 
turn  dmditc.  The  mo«  coiupicuoua  ruin  ii  th.t  of 
H  oU  eutle  at  tlw  e.\tr<  nitj'  of  the  ancient  taole.  A 
piat  cxif nt  uf  gimnd  i>  covered  tij  the  reniiins 
iif  tlx  dtT.  A  low  will  of  gnij  itooe  encouipapKi ' 
iImi  niu,  ud  without  this  is  a  mi«t  now  dry.  Be- 
ls«a  tiM  •ccamalatkm  of  nibl.iili  and  the  )^wtfa 
Bf  Vag  gnH,  It  U  diSii-ull  lo  deflno  the  form  and  n(- 
urter^e  variona  ruio' tliut  eniluKd.  Nevertlieleri, 
lit  muim  of  t«  o  aquedocta,  runninc  nortb  and  routh, 
u*  nill  Tlailile.  Tlio  one  next  the  »a  Li  rsiried  upon 
Ufb  arttwa ;  th*  kiwer  one,  to  the  eastward,  amioa  its 
■iilcn  alpng  m  low  vail  In  an  arched  cbunnel  fire  or 
HI  <Ht  WHle.  Tho  water  ia  abundant  and  of  excel- 
Ifitqiality.aDd  the  amall  TefieU  of  the  country  often 
put  in  brre  to  take  in  their  auppliu.  Cmarea  ir,  ap- 
^mnlly,  neirr  frtquented  for  any  other  purpoac;  even 
[be  Ufb-Rud  leaTta  it  wide ;  and  It  has  not  been  viS' 

Tkapment  tmanta  of  the  ruins  are  fniikef,  scorponn, 
tiiird',  wild  bnan,  and  Jackal*. — Kitto;  Smith.  See 
■j.BaUaaan's  Trmti,  1.  199;  Birlletl's  jTaiakm,  p. 
t:  Traflr<  Jote-k*',  p.  Ti.\n :  Tonv  *-ro  and  Ilnw- 
•m't l/fiaJEpiitla of  8L Paul,  M,V9i  RoscnmUler, 
llirrl.  II,  li,  SSS  m.;  Reland,  Falal.  p.  670  pq. ; 
(Itha,  Lb  Rabb.  p.  108  fq. ;  Tbrnnson.  Land  and  Book, 
D.  tM  Kq. :  Ritlar,  JCrdi.  xvi,  59S  fq. ;  Wilson.  Biilt 
/aA.  ii,  !M  Kq. :  Prnkeach,  Keifr,  p.  W  fq. ;  Sieber, 
Ilr  Chpvc  PnlfU'Vt  Fjiltrrj)l$  (Lips.  1784) ;  Wiltsch, 
iMfnjtfimdSua.oflkt  Churrh,  i,  13,  '.14  iq. 

CASAREA,  COUNCILS  OF.  SeTantI  coancUs 
la*a  bera  held  at  this  place.  The  moat  important  are, 
I,  istM,  an  Arian  council,  aKaimt  AtbanaaiDa;  S,  in 
£8,  b  shidi  Cyril  (q.  v.).  Idsbop  of  JrruMlem,  waa 
ttpieJ^Smith,  TMa  oj  ChmkUiil. ;  Landon,  Jfim- 

2.  CiABEA  PuiLippi,  nr  "  CKaarea  of  Philip" 
llaiWfVia  it  ♦(A.Vxolp,  bo  Jowph.  A%l.  m,  8,  4;  War, 
io.  S,  ;;  1,  1  i  Eoaeb.  Hitl.  ErH.  ril,  IT^,  a«  having 
Ixa  h>  later  time*  mDch  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
FUHpIhe  tetnrrh  (JoHph..1iK.iTlii,  2,1;  (Tor,  li, 
-'.  \\  wbo  exiled  it  Cbhth  In  honor  of  Tiberius  tlie 
tBfTnr,  addinK  the  cognomen  of  Phllippi  to  diitin- 
caU  it  fnm  <'Bamr«  of  Palritine.  It  waaalso  known 
H  CaanEA-pAMiAB  (KaiaiSpim  naviDf  or  n<iiioc. 
Jaiph.  At.  xTiii,  %  3;  War,  ii,  9,  1 ;  Ptolemy,  v, 
1'i.t];  Pliny,  t,  16,  lA;  Boiomen,  v,  SI;  on  coins,  K. 
•Ti  nitrfif  or  «7>^  flariim;  In  Steph.  Byi.  incor- 
nnlj  rpoc  ry  nociiiici),  or  simply  /Vbuoi  (ITnvdic, 
nn^.cr  rioHtar.Hierocl.  p.  716),  ita  original  name 
iWfih.  Jiri.  HT,  10,8;  comp.I1iny,  T,  16;  Havat^ 
*  CfdRB.  p.  S06;  Samar.  Qlt^lB):  tram  the  adjoin- 
nc  Doant^n  Pamitu  {nimiv  or  rinfilnv),  which, 
•iA  Iba  nwinK  therein,  was  dedicated  to  the  heathen 
Ab  iThiloMorg.  Tti.  »).  and  which  latter  name  ha.4 
>lMa  l«TB  retained  In  the  present  name  Amum  (Bnrck- 
kitt.i.>0;  cump.  TVir^.  JonUh.onKum.  xxxiv,  i:)i 
Wbc  aoordinfc  to  many,  no  other  thi.n  tha  early 
Una  (q.  t.)  of  Dan  (Jud|t.  xrlli.  7, !!)),  or  Lesiiem 
It^  lix.  4'  1  cmnp.  Thcodont,  Qwif.  m  JwJtr.  S6). 
fawiB  rhmppi  I*  mrnlloned  onlv  In  Ihe  Tint  two 
''■■tfb  (Halt.  iiH.  13 ;  Uark  viU,  IT),  and  In  acnmntx 
■4  iW  lur  trjooartkin*.  The  >lory  nf  tho  early  Chri-. 
IM  wrlMi  that  the  woman  healed  of  the  In-ae  of 
XkA,  ad  wppo— d  to  have  been  named  Berenice, 
'i**d*tAbpU(ia,Te«uaB  nofonndaUon  (Enaeb. //I'lf. 
£al>tt,U;  SoUHn.  *,  SI;  Thaophui.  CArvwyr.  41 ; 
ItaLCWiri,  p.  SS8).  See  SnirHAN. 
tlfa  Bq^  lay  alml  110  tnllei  nortb  fram  Janualem, 


C^SAKEA 

and  a  day  and  a  hilrajonmay  from  Damaacua,  at  the 
'prings  of  tbe  Jordan,  and  near  the  foot  of  label  Shiik, 
or  the  Prince'a  Mount,  a  lofty  bn.nth  of  Lebanon, 
funning  In  that  djret^tiun  the  lonndar}*  between  Pales- 
tine and  Syriii  Proper.  Here  Ucrod  tbe  Great  erected 
a  leniple  to  Auguetua  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  10,  S;  ci-inp. 
War,  i,  £1,  8).  AuiuH  became  part  of  the  tcrritoiy 
of  Philip,  Irtrarcb  of  Trachoiiltis,  who  enlarged  Lnd 
iiabellislied  tbe  town,  and  called  it  CamTea  Pmjpi, 
purtly  after  his  own  name  and  partly  after  that  of  the 
imperur  (Ant.  xviii,  'l,  1 ;  War.  ii,  9, 1).  AgHppa  II 
fulluwedin  the  same  courte  of  flultety,  and  ci.ll.  d  (ho 
place  ATeroiuiia  (Ant.  xx,  9,  4).  Josephua  aecDia  to 
imply  (Lift,  IB)  thst  many  healbena  resided  here. 
TitUB  exhibited  gladiati.rial  cbowi  at  Csrarea  I'bilippt 
after  the  downfall  of  Jerasalein,  in  which  Ihe  Jexi'h 
prisoner  were  compelled  to  f  ght  like  fUdiato-^,  i  nd 
numbers  perished  in  the  inhuman  ccntests  (Ifur,  vii, 
a,  1).  The  old  name  was  not  Ictt.  Coins  of  Onarta 
I'aneoi  continued  through  the  reigns  of  many  emper- 
ors. Under  the  pimple  name  oS  Pomat  It  was  Ihe  seat 
tf  a  Greek  tishopric  in  the  period  of  tbe  great  councils 
(the  second  lirhip  being  preaint  at  tbe  Ci.unril  of 
Kice,  and  tbe  last  at  tbe  Council  of  Clialcedt.n  in  4(>1>, 
cud  of  a  Latin  blsbciiric  of  I'hccnicia  during  rubie- 
quent  Chri(tit.n  occupcncy,  «hen  it  waa  called  Bil- 
lua.  "During  tbe  Crucades,"  asya  I)r,  RoLineon, 
'■it  na*  the  acme  of  vathus  changes  and  conflicts. 
It  first  came  into  the  rossessicn  of  the  CbristiGns  in 
1119,  alont!  with  tbe  fbrlnss  on  tbe  a^iacrnt  moantalu, 
leiug  delircred  over  to  them  by  lis  Israelite  |;overnor, 
i.fter  their  unfuccessful  alten.ptupon  DsmsscuB  in  be- 
half of  that  sect.  The  city  and  csrtle  were  given  oa  a 
the  Knight  Bayner  Brus.     In  IIB?,  dDrin^itha 


ibsenc 


\t  taken 


1  short  as 


an  J»mail  of  Dan 
captured  l.y  the  frinka,  aided  1y  Ihe  DLmLscenaa 
themselves.  In  1189  the  tenporal  control  waa  ro- 
stored  to  Rayner  Brus,  and  Ihe  city  made  a  Ijtin  bish* 
cprlc,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ArchLisLop  ol  lyie" 
(Rararrlut,  iii,  160). 

The  site  la  Ftill  called  Fowiu,  the  flnt  name  havinic 
here,  as  in  other  cases,  furvired  the  seccnd.  It  has 
now  dwindled  into  a  pultiy  and  insignificsnt  villaee, 
whose  mean  and  destitule  condition  contrarta  ttriking- 
ly  with  tbe  rich  aud  luxuriant  character  of  the  sur- 

cbitecture  are  found  in  the  neighLoihocd.  bearing  Va- 
timony  to  the  former  grandeur  of  the  place,  altboii;:b 
it  Is  difficult  to  trace  tha  site  of  the  splendid  tiniplfl 
erected  here  in  honor  of  Augustus.  Ihe  place  itself 
Is  rrmarkalle  in  its  physical  and  pictUTefque  charao- 
terirtics,  as  well  as  in  its  historical  a»ocbitloiis.  It 
was  at  Ihe  easternmost  and  mof  t  important  of  the  two 
recognised  aoorcea  of  the  Jotdsn,  the  other  being  at 
Tell  cl-Kady.    The  spri^^'  rises,  sod  the  city  was  built, 

llermon.  On  Ihe  north-east  tide  of  the  present  village, 
the  river,  held  to  be  the  principi.1  rource  of  the  Jordan, 
iaauee  from  a  spacious  cavern  under  a  wall  of  ro<k. 
Around  thla  source  are  many  hewn  atouea.  In  Ihe 
face  of  the  cliff,  directly  over  tbe  cavern  and  in  other 
jiarta,  aeveral  niches  have  lecn  cut,  apparently  to  re- 
ceive sUluee.  Each  if  these  nichra  had  once  an  in- 
scription ;  and  one  of  thrm,  copied  by  Burckhardt,  ac- 
pears  to  have  been  a  dedication  ly  a  priest  ol  Pan. 
The  situation  isunique,  combining  in  an  unusual  degree 
the  elements  of  grandeur  and  beauty.  It  neattea  in 
its  recess  at  tha  southern  baae  of  tbe  mighty  Hetmcn, 
which  towers  In  majesty  to  an  elevation  of  7000  or 
fiOCO  feet  almve.  Tbe  abundant  waters  of  the  glorious 
founUin  spread  over  the  terrace  luxuriant  frtillly 
and  tbe  gnieefnl  Interchange  of  copse,  lawn,  and  w«v. 
ing  Aelds  (Robinson,  Jjiltr  Bib.  Rt:  p.  404). 

Aliout  three  miles  north-east  of  Bsnla*  are  tbe  re- 
mains of  an  Immense  ancient  castle,  covering  onej  of 
the  spun  of  Lebanon,  alout  flfleen  bundled  feet 


'Xd- 


tbc  idiin  *Dd  dtj.  It  li  (ncliMnd  hjwilli  of  tmniciuc 
itnngth  and  tbickneu,  und  muat  bnva  bccD  >n  Blmoat 
impregnable  rortrais.  It  ia  of  Saricsnic  ■rcbitectun ; 
bat  m*aj  at  the  tine  btvrlled  alonea  with  wbicb  the 
noble  round  towen  ire  Fonstructad  miut  ban  belani;- 
•d  to  ■  far  mora  ancient  edldu.  Thia  caatle  recaircd 
the  name  of  aSuiabrk  about  the  time  of  the  Crnudea, 
psrbapj  from  the  hatr-^ripay  Arab  tribe  of  tbe  uma 
name  that  atill  inhkbit  the  vicinity.  A  ahart  diatance 
cut  of  thia  ca*tlB  there  ii  a  veiy  ancieot  ruin,  sar- 
lonnded  by  a  tbick  grave  of  venenble  oaka.  There 
■n  alao  ruing  weat  of  Bjniaa,  conairting  of  column*, 
capitals,  and  finindatlona  of  bnilding*,  together  with 
eanata  that  formarly  convered  tbe  water  of  tbe  brook, 
now  crossed  bj  a  atone  brid^.  Above  the  fouaCatn 
we  Oreek  inscriptions  in  the  mck,  conflrmlnK  tbe  tea- 
liinony  of  Joaephus  tbat  Agrippa  adorned  Baniaa  with 
tojal  liberality,  and  also  auitainiag  the  kncicntstate- 
menta  that  the  fountain  waa  held  Mcred  to  Pan  {Bib- 
SM.  Sacm.  1MB,  p.  194).  See  Reland,  PnLrtl.  p.  918 
•q.;  Eckhel,  Dodr.  \um.  Hi,  SB9  aq.;  BarekbardI, 
i^ria,  p.  37  aq. ;  Buckinf^ham,  li,  f.i  aq. ;  Thocnaon, 
land  imd  Boot,  1,  3M  aq.;  Schwaiz,  Palfil.  p.  IM; 
Mod.  TraveUer,  p.  327  sq.,  Am.  ed.:  Panmer,  PaOti. 
p.  SIS ;  Wilson,  /.oiHlf  of  £ibk,  il,  1'.  a  sq. ;   Porter, 


Cassrlna,  St.,  up  Aiii.es,  waa  bom  In  4G9  at  Cha- 
loDS-sar-Saone.  He  earl/  developed  monkiah  tcnden- 
ckj^  and  priTalelj  withdrew  ttoni  hla  parent*  to  tbe 
mooaatery  of  Lerins,  where  he  was  appdnted  to  the 
office  oreelUrer.  Afterward,  falling  ill  from  extreme 
•sceticiam,  hs  was  obliged  to  remove  to  Arler,  and  was 
beloved  by  Eonia*  tbe  Insbop,  whom,  in  £02.  he  suc- 
ceeded in  tbe  aee  of  Aries.  He  died  in  645,  leaving 
many  bomitles,  containin^i  evidence  of  mocb  piety 
cambioed  with  great  superstition.  A  volume  of  them 
wai  edited  by  Stephen  Baluxe  (Paria,  1G69,  8vo).  Tbe 
others  are  given  in  tbe  BHiioA.  AUmn,  Tiii,  819,  EGI>,  ' 
and  xxvii,  SSI.  His  Rtgvla  Mmackoram  (contained  . 
in  Holatenii  (bdu  Rrgtd.  Moim(.  Konw,  1661)  was 
adopted  by  many  convents,  and  often  used  by  the 
fooudeti  of  ordere.  Honka  and  nun*  of  St.  Ciesailua  I 
axialed  antil  the  rale  of  Benedict  waa  Eene rally  adopt- 
ed.   A  graphic  iketch  of  bia  life  and  labora  is  given 


by  Neander,  Liffkl  n  Dart  Fiaat,  p.  GO,— Hoaheim, 
Ck.  Bil.  i,  164,  166 1  Nouder,  O.  Hitt.  ii,  261,  904. 
eiiO ;  CaTe,  HM.  IM.  anno  GO!. 
I  CieauitU  or  HBiSTESBjtCH,  a  preacher  and  his- 
tofian  of  note,  in  1199  became  *  Cietercian  monk  in 
the  monartery  of  Heislerbach,  in  the  dioc«*e  of  Co- 
loKna.  He  became  CTentnally  prior  of  the  coovent 
of  tbe  Valley  of  St.  Peter,  near  Bonn.  He  lived  until 
the  year  1327,  but  when  ho  died  is  unknown.  Hi* 
writings  are,  1.  Dt  mirimiu  tt  viaonkia  tm  UtiforiM 
(chiefly  in  Germany,  Cologne,  1581,  evo);  the  fiiM 
edition  la  without  name  of  place  or  date:— 3.  Vitn  S. 
i'ngrltrrli  arrUrp.  Colim.  (Cologne,  1633,  and  in  Sorv 
US,  Novemlier  71h)  : — 3.  Uomiiia,  edited  under  the  title 
of  Faieictdi  Afomlila/it,  by  Coppenitein  (Colofpip, 
I61S): — 4.  Calalngui  EpiictforiBH   CWovmun,    pnK 

ii  of  the  Fonir,  KrruM  Germait.  ('.845)  :— fi.  An  Ined. 
itetl  Vila  S.  EliuibeOa  ia  preeerved  among  the  man. 
uacripta  of  the  library  of  Uniasels.  Munyofbia  bct- 
moos  are  highly  pmiwd  for  their  evangeticxt  toDe,ai 
well  aa  for  tbrir  einqucnce.  Hit  Dt  it.'ranlu  afTsrds 
a  graphic  picture  <^f  tbe  state  of  his  times.  Soe  Kanff- 
mann,Cmuna.p.  Afi!i(er«orA(K6ln,lB60);  Cave, //ijf. 
/M.  anno  12?3 ;  Uenog,  BaU-Eaettl^p.  ii,  490. 

Csesarlns  or  Naeumxvi,  a  younger  Lrothcr  of 
CrcgotA-  Kazianien,  was  educated  lirst  at  Alcximdria. 
wbeni-o  he  proceeded  to  Conatantinople,  where  he  ol  - 
taincd  high  honors,  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  Em- 
peror Julian  lo  win  him  from  the  fjith,  and  died  nnder 
He  was  distingui*bed  fiir  Lis  e 


y  in  phys 


TdeUve 


rmon  {linVii'  Jkn^'t 
arii/ralrii,  Or.  viii).  In  which  his  pietv  and  d 
ore  Uuded.  According  to  Suidar,  he  w^  eimlra  Grm- 
Iti,  and  four  Dialogues  are  given  a*  hb  in  the  Latin 
editions  of  St.  Gre^-ory  and  in  Die  BilhiillKCa  Pab-wm. 
— Ullmann,it/<o/'Cr-yoiy,p.l82;  Cave,  a. m. SGS. 

CsesenniUB.    See  I'atdb. 

Caflr&lia.     See  Kaffkbs. 

Cage  (S^I^S,  bdub',  fuXmcg).  Bird-cagas  an 
named  in  Jer.  v,  37 :  Rev.  xriii.  ! ;  and  are  pcriMpa 
implied  In  Job  zli,  v,  where  "playing  with  a  tiitd"  ia 


CAIANS 

■Mtitntd.  SwBiBD.  Id  tin  drtt  of  tbcM  puugM 
&B  SmpL.  rendan  It  b7  myis,  m  mare,  implj'iog  that 
it  vM  uaad  Tor  bokUng  decoyi  vith  which  (o  CDtnp 
Mher  tanli  until  thi  nge  wis  fUll—u  Idea  which  the 
JtriiWion  of  the  Heb.  word  oonfinni  (rrom  sbs,  to 
datp  logvtbcr  by  the  ehuttuig  of  the  vslvei  or  trap). 
Thli  iBtripretatian  it  therafore  better  than  that  of  the 
Baricin,  "coop,"  or  that  of  the  Talmnd,  "a  place  of 
btlaaiDg,"  Implvinft  that  it  wia  used  for  holdin);  wild 
V  tame  fowls  ODtil  they  liKanie  fit  for  the  table.  The 
main  utlde  Is  referred  to  in  Ecclos.  xl,  30,  under  the 
tann  nipTnUoCi  which  is  elaewheie  usad  of  a  taper- 
i^  buket.  See  Fowi.i:«i.  In  Rev.  xviil,  %  the 
Greek  teriii  fa  ^uXon;,  meaning  a  prison  or  restricted 
habitation  ratlMr  than  a  cage.  This  Just  suffices  tc 
riaow  that  the  ancient  Israelite*  kept  birds  in  cages; 
but  we  bBTCr  Qo  further  infcinnation  on  the  subject,  not 
tmj  ■llosioni  to  the  sinning  of  Urds  so  kept.  The 
t^m  were  prol»bIj  of  the  same  forma  which  we  still 
otuMrre  in  the  Eaat,  and  wbtch  are  shown  in  the  in- 
•exed  engraTing.     It  k  n-mirkulite  that  tbi 


11 


CAIAPHAS 


appsannce  of  Iilrd-caget  in  any  of  the  domestic  scenes 
which  are  portrayed  on  the  mnrel  tablets  of  the  Egyp- 
tiaoa.  Id  Amos  vili,  IV,  the  same  word  tdab'  denotes 
a  frwit-baiket.  so  called,  doubtless,  Tmn  its  resemblance 
la  a  cage.      See  Babket. 

Coikna  (I.),  a  ruune  given  by  Irencus,  Eplpbanl- 
oa,  and  Tbwdoret  to  a  sect  of  OpbiM*,  whom  modern 
■ritm  call  more  correcUy  Cainites  (q.  v.).  (11.)  A 
Btct  mcDtioned  by  Tertullian,  which  rejected  the  doc- 
Irioe  of  baptism.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  >ec[  is 
identical  with  the  preceding.  Tertullian  menUons  a 
ceruin  Quintill'.  as  the  ftiunder,  and  some  have  con- 
cluded from  this  that  the  sect  is  identical  with  the 
Qtdulillians  (q.  t.}. 

Cai'Bphaa  (KaVd^Ci  perhaps  from  the  Chald. 
KC^,  JtpnuKm),  called  by  JasephQi  iAnl.  xTiii,  S, 
t>  Jateph  Ciaapkai  ('Iwniiroc,  u  mi  Kaiii^c),  was 
U|cb-{irie*t  of  the  Jews  in  the  reitrn  of  Tiberius  Ciesar, 
at  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's  public  mlDlstry  (Luke 
iii,  S),  A.  [>.  ii,  and  also  at  the  time  of  his  cundemna- 
tkiu  BOd  cmciGiion  (Uatt  zxvi,  3,  GT ;  John  xl,  49 ; 
itEi,  IB,  H,  M,  SS ;  Acts  iv,  S),  A.D.  89.  The  Pro- 
taralflr  Valerius  Gnitas,  shortly  before  bis  leaving  the 
pmviBre  (A.D.  Ki),  apfniutedhlui  to  the  dignity,  which 
was  before  held  by  Simon  ben-Camilh.  He'  held  it 
daring  the  whole  procuratonbip  of  Pontlos  Pilate,  but 
«na  after  hia  removal  from  that  olfice  »aa  deposed  by 
the  PiDcoiuid  Vltelllu*  (A.D.  86),  and  succeeded  by 
Janithan,  sun  of  Aaanus  (Joeeph.  A»>.  xvlil,  4,  8). 
Some  in  the  ancient  Church  cunfounded  him  with  the 
ktstcaian  Joaephus,  and  believed  him  to  have  become 
>  convert  to  Christijuity  (Assemani,  BiUiolk.  Oritnl. 
ii,  lU).  Hi)  wife  was  the  daUKfater  of  Annas,  or  Ana- 
UBS,  who  liad  formerly  been  high-prieet,  and  who  still 
paestsiud  great  influence  and  contniMn  saoerdotal  mat- 
ten,  aeveral  of  hia  family  sncceiislvely  holding  the 
Ugh-|Kitettiood.  The  names  of  Annas  and  C^aphas  . 
ue  coupled  by  Luke,  "  Annsa  and  Caiaphss  being  the 
Ugh-piasta;"  and  thi*  haa  given  nrcailon  to  no  small 
amount  of  diacussion.  Some  maintain  thut  Annas  and 
CalaphM  then  discharKed  the  fDnrtions  of  the  hiuh- 
(rieathoDd  by  turns :  bat  thii  is  nxt  reconcilsble  with 
ihs  ttatanrat  of  Josephus.  Others  think  that  Cala- 
pha*  is  caBtd  hlgb-pnest,  because  he  then  actually  ei. 
RciiHl  the  function*  of  the  office,  and  that  Annas  is 
»  (aUed  because  he  had  formerly  KUed  the  situation. 
But  It  dMB  not  thus  appear  why,  of  tbon  who  held 


I  the  high-prieatbood  before  Calaphai,  Annas  In  path 
I  ticular  sbonld  be  named,  and  not  Ishnuol,  Ellaaer,  or 
Simon,  who  had  all  served  the  office  mora  recently 
than  Annas.  Hence  KuinOl  and  others  consider  it 
I  aa  the  more  probable  opinion  that  Caiaphae  was  the 
hlgh-prieat,  but  that  Annas  was  his  vicar  or  deputy, 
called  in  the  Hebrew  ^3D,  lagaa.  Sot  can  that  office 
be  thought  unworthy  of  a  man  who  had  filled  the  pon- 
tifical office,  since  the  dignity  of  sagan  was  also  great. , 
Thus,  for  instance,  on  urgent  occasions  ha  might  even 
enter  the  Holy  of  lloUes  (Ligbtfoot,  Bar.  Hd>.  ad  Luc. 
iii, !).  Nor  ought  it  to  seem  strange  or  unusual  that 
the  vicar  of  a  hl^'h-pricst  should  be  called  by  thst 
name.  For  if,  as  it  appears,  those  who  had  once  held 
the  office  were  aflrr  by  courtesy  called  higb-priesta, 
with  greater  justice  might  Annas,  whu  was  both  a  pon- 
liticai  person  and  high-priest'i  vicar,  be  so  called.  In 
fact,  the  very  appellation  of  high-prieit  is  given  to  a 
sagan  by  Josephus  (,A»t.  xvif,  6,  4).  (See  the  oom- 
mentators  on  Luke  iii,  %  particularly  Hammond,  Ught- 
foot,Kufnfil,andBloom(iehl.)  SeeAirNAB.  Cataphas 
belonged  to  tbe  sect  of  the  Saddocees  (Acts  v,  17). 
(See  Heche,  l>t   SaddueaUmo  CuiupAo,  Bud.  lilB.) 

See  UlOH-FBIKST. 

The  wouderful  miracle  of  raising  Laiarua  from  the 
dead  couvincedmunyofthe  Jews  that  Christ  was  sent 
from  God;  and  the  chief  prteats  and  the  Pharisees, 
alarmed  at  the  increase  of  his  followerii,  summoned  a 
council,  and  pretended  that  their  liberties  were  in  dan- 

and  that  their  destruction  was  inevitsble  if  somelhtaj' 
were  notdone  at  once  to  check  his  progress.  Caiaphas 
was  a  member  of  the  council,  and  expressed  his  deci- 
ded opinion  in  favor  of  putting  Jesus  to  death,  as  tbe 
only  way  of  saving  the  nadon  from  the  evils  which 
hia  success  would  bring  upon  them.  His  language 
was,  "Ye  know  nothing  at  all;  nor  consider  that  it  ia 
expedient  for  ua  that  ono  man  ahooid  die  for  the  peo- 
ple, and  that  the  whole  nation  perish  not"  (John  xi, 
49).  This  counsel  was  wicked  and  nnjaat  in  the  high- 
eat  degree;  but  as  there  was  no  offence  charged,  It 
seemed  the  only  plausible  excuse  for  putting  Christ  to 
death.  Tbe  high-priest's  language  on  this  occasion 
waa  prophetic,  though  be  did  not  intend  it  ao.  Tbe 
cvan,;elisl^  bi  giving  an  account  of  this  extraordinary 
occurrence,  enlarges  on  the  prophetic  language  of  the 
higb-priest,  and  shows  the  extent  and  blessedness  of 
tbodLipensatlonormercythAiugb  Jesus  Christ  Koth. 
ing  of  this,  however,  was  In  the  mind  of  the  cruel  end 
bigoted  hlgh-prieat. '  After  Christ  was  arrested,  he 

son-in-law  Cdsphas,  who  probably  lived  in  the  same 
house :  be  was  then  amigned  before  Calaphat,  and 
an  effort  was  made  to  produce  Mae  testunony  sufil- 
tient  tor  his  condemnation.  This  expedient  failed  j 
for  though  two  persons  appeared  to  testify,  they  diif 
not  agree,  and  at  last  Caiapbaa  pot  our  Savlonr  him- 
self upon  oath  that  he  should  say  whether  he  waa  in- 
deed the  Christ,  tbe  Son  of  God,  or  not.  The  answer 
was,  of  course.  In  the  affirmative  (q.  v.),  and  waa  ac- 
compenied  with  a  dedaiaWon  of  fals  Dlvbe  power 
and  majesty.  The  high-priest  pretended  to  be  great- 
ly grieved  at  what  he  considered  tbe  blasphemy  (q.  v.) 
of  our  Saviour's  pretensions,  and  forthwith  appealed 
to  his  enraged  enemies  to  say  if  this  was  not  enough. 
They  answered  at  once  that  he  deserved  to  die,  and 
then,  in  tbe  very  presence  of  Caiaphas,  and  irithoul 
any  retctraint  tram  him,  they  felt  upon  their  guiltless 
victim  with  insults  and  Injuries.  As  Caiaphas  had  no 
power  to  inflict  the  punishment  of  death,  Christ  was 
Ukrn  from  hfan  to  Pilate,  the  Roman  govrmor,  that 
his  execution  mlifht  be  duly  ordered  (Matt,  xxvl,  3, 
6Ti  John  xviii,  IS,  SS).  The  bigoted  furyof  Caiaphas 
Fxhihiied  itself  alto  egsinittbe  first  efforts  of  the  apos- 
tles (Acts  Iv,  6). 

Treatises  mora  or  less  general  on  the  character  and 
conduct  of  Caiapbaa  in  the  abovo  tranuctioa  bava 


CAIET  12  CAIN 

bMD  written  in  Lttln  by  Baumgarten-Cnuins  {Opiac.  huT^mui,  mtarully  brought  at  the  end  of  the  wmc 
p.  1-19  Bq.),  HmM  (BMin.  I70J,  iiImi  ill  lkcn>  rimmr.  (Tot  the  S>l>l>Uli  wm  »]re»dy  a  weU-known  institutloB) 
ii  &49  nq  )  Hecht  (BudinK.  1719),  HuafMi  (Vlteb.  i.n  offering  uf  the  lirat-bora  ind  f.ttort  of  hU  flucks, 
lll3),  Hudcr  (Upwl,  i:71),  Hofnuinn  (in  Henthenli  »hU«  C.iii,  M  ■  huslMndnun  (hon«  the  greater  «.- 
TIm.  ii,  216  2^2),  Lungeraluujen  (Jbj.  1695),  Salt*.  verityoft]iBcur»ewhichl,lmrtedhi«pror««i' nalhoppf), 
manii  (Ardent.  17«),  Schutau  (Luuec,  1715),  Scbick-  preKiited  uD  obUlion  of  ve^-ettibte  prodnctionji.  Tl.o 
«Dduii  (Fcft.  and  V.  1772),  Weber  (Vlteb.  1000,  Sell-  unduvoul  temper  and  wicked  nature  of  Cain  are  sufll- 
ner(Altdorf,17ai)i  in  French  by  Dnpio  (Parij,  IMS),  eientiy  evliieed  by  hit  rewntniert  ■ga)n»  the  Al- 
Se«  »J»o  Evana.  Script.  Biog.  ii,  257.  !  ™i(;"il.v,  M  if  partul  to  hla  brother  (see  below).     1  ho 

CalBt  ("t  Oyet),  Pi-RBB  Views  P.l,-*,  wa.  ;  O'vino  Urin^  eonde^end.  to  exp™t«Lte  with  hm,  o,. 
bom  at  Montrielird,  in  Tonraine,  In  1626.  He  b^  '■  \''  "nrc  sonaLle  beh.vi,.r.  and  to  '^«7'  h.n.  of  the 
came  a  Prot^.Uot  u^der  the  tn.[r:.c<ioa»  of  Peter  Ra-  ^^S''  "'  chen.-h.ng  the  jeJousy  «h  ch  he  .eetna  to 
mus,  at  Paris;  afterward  studied  theoWv  at  Geneva,  '>""'  already  entertamea -gwnpt  Al*l:  "If  thou  re- 
«nd  alKKit  \m  wa.  a  minister  in  PoiWu.  C-lharine  f"™*".  t^"".  »  fo'«'yane«  [with  me  for  thy  p«t  of- 
of  Bourbon  m«i^  him  her  cha,iUn,  .nd  brought  him  ft'"!>*]i  but  if  not,  [then  bewure,  for]  «ii  nouobea  at 
tj  Paris  Here  under  the  induence  of  cardinal  Uu-  '")'  ™'"  L"'"  •  *""  ™*''  ™*dy  to  wiw  thfe  on  tho 
perron,  he  alnur^  PraleBUntL-iii,  Kov.  9, 16ai.  b««ma  A"'  opportunity]  and  again.t  thee  ia  lis  design ;  but 
profeuot  of  Heljrew  and  Oriental  Un^uagea  in  the  coU  *>»'><>"  '"Woe  it  [i.  < .  thy  evildwpoBition].  Instead 
lege  of  Navarre,  and  died  M.rch  10,  1610.  He  left  '^  deeding  Ihia  adTi«p.  however,  tho  iU-n.tored  man. 
many  oontrovereial  works,  on  the  motive,  which  led  to  ,  '■'''™B  "•  "f  otwuion  to  narrate  the  circuniht-nfo 
hU  eonversion  j  on  the  l'-ucl>uri.t ;  on  the  Uaa. ;  on  '■>  hia  brother  (probahly  in  an  upbrniding  manner)  fell 
the  Church  and  the  Apo.st.4ie,.l  Succe.uon,  ete.  IIU  '■>»"  t^e  reiy  enare  of  S,.t«n  again.t  which  he  h»d  l*eii 
beat  known  worka  ar^  hla  a.-wcJ-sV  Splhuin  and    -■™ed;  hla  feelinga  l«e»n.e  aga.n  excilal,  aa  ^ey 

Navmoaire,  1598-16«   (Paru,  I6U6,  Bvo) Hoefer,    two  were  alone  conversing  in  the  open  field,  and,  there 

JVom.  Bi«.  C«.  ii,809.  i  beingnoono  neurtowitneaeor  avert  the  consequence^ 

_  ,     ,„.„.-     „_       ,         CL  .         1.  1      T.     be  suddenly  turned  aasin»t  his  brother,  and  by  an  an. 

Cain  (Heb.  Ka  ,«,  ■;:>&  >  latt  [but  see  below]),  ^  ^_^^^  (probably  with  aome  agricultural  implen.ent, 
the  name  of  a  man  and  of  a  city.  See  Kbhite  ;  Tu-  |n  the  formation  of  which  ho  had  doubtless  already  l«- 
BAuCain.  I  gun  [o  eierclM  the  mechanical  ingenuity  for  which 

1.  (Sept.  and  N.  T.  Kn.V.  The  root  aeema  to  be  tig  descendants  became  f.inioua)  he  laid  him  dead  upon 
*|1p,  toieof,  perhaps  with  aUasinn  to  the  murder;  the  the  ground.  Inttend  of  the  penitence  which  the  »i,j;ht 
context,  however,  ver.  ],  makes  this^MSp,  to  cnofa,  of  his  brother's  hlood  ought  to  have  inspired  in  his  hor. 
oMm,'  others,  as  Eosebin*  and  Chrysostoiti,  derive  It  ror-stricken  soul,  the  craven  murderer  insolently  dr. 
from  some  root  signifying  mrj;  Von  Bohlen,  luirad.  manda  of  the  oli-eoeiugGod,  when  questioned  a«  to  his 
(nCea.  ii,  86,  aeeks  it  in  tho  Arabic  iaya,  a uai*,  from  <^rime,  "I  know  nothiD„'  about  the  matter;  am  I  iny 
thaartaincroducedbvtheCainicest  Joeephu* GrMoiiea  brother's  keeper?"  But  when  conviction  is  bstened 
it,  Kdic,  -i«i,  -<■'■  i,  2,  2)  The  firat-bora  (B.C.  ap. ,  upon  him,  and  the  pr.nuUy  announced,  with  the  de- 
parentlycir.  1170)  of  tho  human  race,  and  likowisB  the  'pjirin^  Imt  still  impenitent  reroorw  of  Judas,  tho 
first  murderer  and  fratricide,  B.C.  cir.  4M3.  His  bi^  '  Bii'ty  wretch  exclaims,  "  My  iniquity  is  too  great  for 
tory  i>  detiUed  In  (ien.  chap,  iv;  the  facts  there  given  '  for^venesst  (XliS313  ^Sh^^'l^jl;  Scpt/iii'Cui' v<"'ria 
are  in  brief  these:  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Adim  and  j  ;iDU  rev  o^iSqirni  fji')  lor  thou  ' 


tho  face  ofthegronod  [of  this  pleaa- 
^gion],"  and  I  shall  be  in  danger  of  starvation. 
ven  of  pBtishhig  liv  the  hand  of  every  stranger 
wnnm  I  msv  meet.     (Sea  Kitbi's  Daitg  BlbU  /  fuM.  in 
hx. ;  Feclitii  lliil.  Ab'lii  H  Cani,  Uoet.  1704.) 

The  puniahnient  which  attended  the  crime  admitted 
of  no  escape,  scnrcely  of  any  conceii'alile  alleviation. 
"He  lost  the  privileges  of  primogeniture,  was  deprived 
of  the  priestbiod,  lianisbad  from  "the  presence'  of  the 
divine  gtorv  l^etween  the  cherubim,  shut  out  from  the 
hopes  .  -     '  


>e  followed  the  business  of  agriculture ;  . 
of  jealongy,  rouaed  by  the  rqectlon  of  his  own  si 
■nd  the  acceptance  of  Abel's,  he  committed  the  crime    i 
■if  muider,  fur  which  he  was  expelled  fmm  the  vicii' 
ity  of  Eden,  and  led  the  life  of  an  exile ;  he  settled  i 
llie  land  of  Nod,  and  hiiilt  a  city,  which   he  name 
after  his  eon  Eniich ;  his  delcenilants  are  enumerateu 
together  with  the  inrenliun*  for  which  liiey  were  rt 
markable.    Uccadnnal  refereneea  la  Cain  art  made  i 
theH.T.(Heb.ii,4;  IJohn  iii,  12;  Jude  II). 

Among  all  the  Inatahees  of  crime,  none  Impress  tl 
mind  with  a  stronger  feeling  of  horror  than  that  of  j  o\-er  unjimtected  to  the  aaaaults  of  the  i 
Cain.  It  ia  not,  however,  oleir  that  ha  had  fully  pre- '  rj-"  (Jo^vl^  CHarrA  of  «e  Redfrmfd,  p.  14).  Cursed 
meditjte  J  taking  the  //e  of  his  brother,  if,  indeed,  ho  rtvm  the  earth  himself,  the  earth  was  doomed  to  > 
was  awaro  by  what  a  siiitht  accident  deith  would  en-  ^  double  barrenneae  wherever  the  olfender  should  aet  hia 
sue ;  for  this  was  the  first  instance  of  human  mortal-  foot.  Physical  want  and  hardship,  therefore,  were 
ity.  But  It  ia  certain  that  he  bad  resolved  upon  some  amonz  the  first  of  the  miseries  hesped  upnn  his  head. 
desperate  outrage  upon  his  brother's  person,  and  he  '  SoM  came  thnss  of  mind  and  conscience :  "  The  voice 
delilieralcly  took  occasion  to  perpetrate  IL  Alwl,  as'  of  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  ground." 
most  think,  brought  two  otT^rings.  the  one  an  ohiatinn,  \  Nor  did  any  retrest  remain  to  him  from  the  terron  of 
the  other  a  sacrifice.  C^n  brought  liut  the  fMmer—  bis  own  soul  or  those  of  Divine  veni-eance :  "  Prom 
a  mere  acfcnowledrment,  it  is  suppoaed,  of  the  sover- '  thy  lace  shail  I  be  hid,"  was  his  avoniiing  and  hnpe. 
aignty  of  God— ne fleeting  to  offer  tho  sacrifice,  which  '  leas  cry.  Tho  st«l«nient  that  "  Cain  went  out  fhnn  ■ 
would  have  been  a  confession  of  (alien  nature,  and,  I  the  presence  of  the  Ijjrd"  represents  him  as  alilding, 
typically,  an  atonement  for  sin.  It  was  Dnt,  ther^  |  t'dl  thus  exiled,  in  some  favored  spot  where  the  At- 
fore,  the  mere  diffference  of  feeling  with  which  (he  two  miebty  still,  by  vieilde  siiras,  manifested  himself  to 
offerings  were  brouRht  which  constituted  the  virtue  of  I  his  fallen  creatures.  The  expressbn  nf  dtnd  lest,  as 
the  one  or  the  guilt  of  the  other  brother.  "The  ma.  he  wandered  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  he  might  l<c 
lignity  of  his  temper  showed  itself  in  his  unwillingness  |  recoimised  and  slain,  has  an  awful  sound  when  ftlling 
to  ask  his  brother  for  a  victim  from  among  his  herd,  fttim  the  mouth  nfn  murderer.  Rut  hi  wastobepn>- 
Ile  offered  before  God  an  unlawful  sarrillce,"  liecanse  tected  a.ninst  the  wrath  of  bis  fellow-men  ;  and  of  tliia 
a  bloodless  one,  Heb.  ix,  SS  (Jarvis,  OwvA  n/lit  R*-  God  gave  him  assurwice,  not,  says  Shuckfnrd,  l.y  seU 
deeMtd,p.  14).  The  circumstances  connected  with  this  ting  a  mark  upon  him.  which  is  a*  false  translation,  but 
offence  are  related  In  a  brief  but  graphic  manner  in  the,  by  appointing  a  sign  or  token  which  he  himself  might 
Heb.  text,  the  force  of  which  is  not  well  irrought  out ,  understand  as  ■  proof  that  he  thould  not  perish  hv  tlie 
in  Iha  Aath.  Vers.  (Gen.  Iv,  2  16>    Abel,  being  a .  hand  ot  another,  as  Abel  had  perished  by  his.  'Thu 


13 


CAIN 


nntan  la  do  him  injur]',  ud  which,  beliiK  wrll 
knovD,  would  prore  ■  lafflcirnt  eaveal.  As  sach  it  la 
nfened  to  b;  hii  descendiat  Limccb  (Gen.  iv,  31). 
The  pKm«g«  io»j-  therefore  be  rendered,  "  Thus  Jeho- 
nb  apfwinted  ■  takeD  for  Cain,  to  that  dd  one  wbo 
^  kim  (hould  rlay  him."  What  wa>  tbe  Divine ; 
pvrpoM  in  aflbrdioK  bim  thli  protection  It  ia  difficult  to  _ 
tattnuBf.  Thmt  it  WM  not  with  Iba  intention  of  pro-  i 
loaipiiK  hi*  miaery  may  be  mnjectured  from  tfas  fact 
that  il  waa  granted  in  inawcr  to  hia  own  pileaiu  cry 
fiir  Dwrcy.  Some  wrilen  have  spoken  of  tbe  poaaibil* 
it]'  of  hii  becoming  a  true  penitent,  and  at  his  having 
at  leflifth  ohuined  the  Divine  for^^iveneu  (Ortlob, 
Ciimu  nm  detpmuu.  Lips.  I'Ofi). 

It  may  tw  wortbj  of  olHervallon  that  eapecial  men- 
tion it  made  of  the  fact  that  Cain,  having  traveled  Into 
lite  Und  of  Nod,  there  built  a  cityi  and  ftiTther,  that 
hb  dMcendants  were  chiefly  celebrated  for  their  rkill 
in  ths  arta  of  social  lifb.  la  both  accounts  may  proli- 
aMy  be  discorered  the  powerful  struf-^lei  with  which 
<"ain  (trove  to  overcome  the  dlfflcultiea  that  attended 
bis  poaition  »t  one  to  whom  the  tlllaf^  of  the  ground 
was  virtually,  prohibitnl.  The  fbllowini;  ]H>inla  ulio 
we  daerving  of  notice. 

0.)  Tbe  position  of  the  "land  of  Nod."  The  name 
ilseif  tells  us  little;  it  means /'>tr  or  crile.  In  refei^ 
ence  to  ver.  J8,  when  a  cognate  word  la  used;  Vcn 
Bofakn's  attempt  to  identify  it  with  India,  aa  thongh 
the  Hebrew  name  Siitd  Czn)  bad  been  erroneonily 
nwl  lUm-Kod,  is  too  Ear  fetched;  the  only  indication 
of  its  pDcitkin  is  the  Indolinlta  notice  thi^t  it  wis  "  etst 
of  Eden"  (ver.  Ifi),  which,  ofcounte,  thrown  ns  back  to 
tbe  pnvioos  settlement  of  the  poaitlon  of  Eden  itself. 
Knobel  (CooM.  in  loc.),  who  adopts  an  ethnological  in- 
Ispretation  of  the  hlstcry  of  Cain's  descendsnls,  wonld 
identify  Nod  with  tbe  whole  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  even 

and  China.  It  seems  rain  to  attempt  the  idintilica- 
tion  of  Nod  with  any  special  locality;  the  direction 
''(■It  of  Edrn''  may  have  reference  to  Iho  irovioas 
Dobce  in  iii,  »,  and  may  Indicate  tbat  tbe  land  waa 
opporite  to  (Sept.  tarii^vTi)  the  entrnnca,  «liicb  wag 
bamd  a»-ainEt  hia  ntun.  It  is  not  iinprot'al.Ie  Ihtt 
the  rasT  was  foTtber  used  to  mark  the  directi.m  whb  h 
tbe  CainitM  lank,  is  distinct  from  the  gethites,  vho 
wobM.  according  to  Hebrew  notions,  be  settled  toward 
tbe  vest.  SimiljrDbservationsmustl'e  made  in  regard 
to  the  city  Enoch,  wbiih  has  liecn  idcndfti 


family  of  Adam  ma]'  have  largely  increased  befn«  tbe 
birth  of  Seth,  as  is  indud  implied  in  the  notice  of  Cain's 
wife  (ver.  17).  and  the  mere  circumstance  that  none 
of  tbe  other  children  are  noticed  by  name  may  be  ex- 
plained  on  the  greund  that  their  lives  furnished  noth- 
ing worthy  of  notice.  These  neighbors  must,  of  course, 
have  been  the  relatives  of  Cain,  who  had  now  branch- 

Isfament  would  necessarily  estrange  him  from  Iheni. 
he  entertained  f 


ochl,a 


a<.u,C,oH««,), 


a  (Hnetiu,),  Ch. 
la  {Von  Roblen).  snd  Iconlum,  ss 
tbe  t^acc  wliere  the  deified  King  Annacoa  was  honor- 
ed (Ewald):  all  such  aUempta  at  identification  mutt 
lie  sobordinated  to  the  pravioos  settlement  of  the  poai- 
tioa  of  Eden  and  Kod.     See  Stin, 

(i.)  Tbe  "  mark  set  upon  Cain"  has  given  rise  to 
virioas  specnlatlena.  many  of  which  would  never  have 
been  limached  if  the  Helirew  leit  had  l<em  confulted ; 
tbe  words  probably  mean  that  Jelnvah  gave  a  li^  la 
Cain,  very  mnch  as  signs  were  afterward  given  to  Noah 
(Gen.  is,  IS),  Ho^  (Exod.  Iii,  3, 12).  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xix,  11),  and  Heiekiab  (Isa.  xxsvili,  7,  8).  Whether 
the  stgn  was  perceptllile  to  Cain  alone,  and  given  to 
Urn  nnoe  for  all.  in  token  tbat  no  man  should  kill  him, 
or  whether  it  was  one  tbst  was  perceptible  to  otliers, 
aad  designed  as  a  precaution  to  them,  as  is  implied  in 
tbe  A.  V.  il  oncertajn ;  tbe  nuture  of  the  sign  itself  Ii 
still  man  onceitain  (but  see  above).  (See  Kraft,  De 
8!gao  Cami,  in  his  Oba.  Saer.  i,  B.)     See  Mark. 

(3.)  Tbe  narrative  implies  the  eiiatenee  of  a  con- 
siderabk  population  in  Cain's  time :  for  he  fears  lest 
be  sboald  be  murdered  in  return  for  the  murder  he  had 
committed  (ver.  U).  Joerphns  (A  ttl.  i,  2, 1)  explains  bis 
fears  aa  •rising,  not  from  men,  but  from  wild  beasts ; 
but  locb  an  explanaliDn  is  wholly  tuoecessaiy,     The 


lifetimi 


might  ei 


coma  his  enemies,  especially  aa  they  would  regard  him 

mnst  evidently  have  been  one  of  his  sisters  (comp. 
"Bona  and  di>ngbten<,"  Gen.  v,  4).  Tndition  eatls 
her  aave  (Epipbsn.  Hirr.  xxix.  6)  or  Atura  (Uablaa, 
p.  2);  the  Arabs  call  Cblnbimaelf  Kahl  by  allller«ticn 
with  tbe  name  of  his  Lrothcr  (D'Herbelot,  Bill.  Or.  a. 
v.  Cabil).     See  Adah. 

(4.)  The  character  of  Cain  deserves  a  fuller  notice. 
He  is  described  as  a  man  of  a  morose,  malicious,  and 
revengeful  ten'per;  atid  that  be  presented  his  offering 
in  this  state  of  luind  is  implied  in  the  rebuke  contain- 
ed in  Gen.  iv,  7,  iihich  mny  be  rendered  thus:  "If 
thou  doeat  well  (or,  aa  the  Sept.  has  it,  tiy  'pfui' 
wpoaiviyt^),  la  there  not  nn  elevation  (rKI^)  [of  the 
countenance]  (i.  e.  perhaps  c  Acrr/Wnrti  baihojpiafa)? 

fmtmrt],  sin  lurketb  (as  a  wild  beast)  at  Uie  door,  and 
to  thee  is  its  deeiro;  but  thou  abalt  rule  over  it."  (So 
Geaenius  and  others;  but  see  above.)  Tie  namtive 
implies  therefore  thut  bis  ofl'ering  was  rejected  on  ao 
couHl  of  the  temper  In  which  it  waa  brought  (Sticht, 
De  tuU-iqaw  Dei  ann  Cmi-;  Alt.  1766).     See  Abei. 

(S.)  Tbe  dcecendanla  of  Cain  are  ennmented  to  the 
ti'  th  grnention.  Some  commentators  (Knobel,  Von 
Bohlen)  have  traced  an  artificial  structure  in  this  gen- 
eulogy.  I  y  which  It  is  rendered  parallel  to  that  of  the 
Setbites ;  e.  r.  tbtre  is  a  decade  of  names  In  each,  com- 
mencini'  with  Adam  tnd  ending  with  Jubal  and  Koi.h. 
tbe  deficiency  of  generatii.ns  in  tbe  Cainilcs  being  lup. 
plied  Ly  the  addition  if  tlie  two  younger  sons  uf  Lu- 
metb  totbelistj  andthercis  a  considereble  aimilsrily 
in  the  names,  each  list  containing  a  Lameeh  and  i.n 
I'nmh,  while  Cain  in  the  ine-CainHin  in  the  other. 
Methuinel-Melhureltb,  and  Mcbajsel-MabaUleel: 
tho  inference  frnm  this  comparifon  teing  that  the  one 
was  frinied  out  of  the  other.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  tbe  differences  fir  rxceed  the  [ointa  of 
similarity ;  that  the  order  of  tbe  names,  the  numiier 
of  generations,  and  even  the  meanings  of  those  ntalrh 
are  noticed  aa  similjr  in  lound.  are  sufficiently  distinct 
CO  remove  tbe  impression  of  artidc!..]  conatruclion. 
(See  Bochart,  Hierot.  i,  587.)     See  pATniARChi. 

(G.)  Tbe  social  condition  of  the  Csinites  is  promi- 
nently brought  forwanl  in  tbe  hi<tnry.  Cain  himaclf 
waa  an  arricultnrist,  Abel  a  shepherd :  the  succewera 
of  the  latter  are  represented  ly  the  Kethiles  and  the 
progenitors  of  the  Hebrew  race  In  later  times,  snong 
whom  a  pastoral  life  w;  s  always  held  in  high  honor 
from  the  simplicity  ind  devotional  bal.its  which  It  en- 
fnndered  :  the  succesFon  of  tbe  former  are  depicted  as 
tho  reverse  in  all  these  respects.  Csin  founded  the 
first  citr  :  Lameeh  instituted  polygamy ;  Jalisl  intro- 
duced the  nomadic  life;  Jobal  Invented  mnsical  in- 
atruments;  Tubal-cain  was  the  llrst  smith;  Limrch's 
binguagB  takes  the  ataUly  tone  of  poetry;  and  even 
'  the  nsmea  of  tbe  women,  Naamah  {pltatant),  Zillali 
'  (sia/ov).  Adah  (onamtninD,  seem  to  bespeak  an  ad- 
vanced stote  of  civilizal'ion.  But,  along  with  thit^. 
there  waa  violence  and  godleasness  i  Catn  and  Lameeh 
furnish  proof  of  the  (brmer,  while  tbe  concluding  word  a 
of  Gen.  iv.M,  imply  the  latter.     See  Antei>it.<7VIAMI. 

(7.)  The  contrast  established  between  tbe  Cainites 
and  the  Setbitea  appejra  to  have  reference  solely  to 
the  pocisl  and  religions  condition  i>f  tlietno  races.  On 
tbe  one  aide  then  is  pictured  a  high  state  of  clviliia- 


CAIN  AN 


14 


CAINITES 


tion.  DiimirUned  1>^  relltpon,  tncl  prndnctlve  of  IgxD- 
ry  and  Tlolcnce;  on  ths  other  eide,a  nbitauf  niniplietty 
vhicb  k9aTd«l  no  milarUl  foi  bulorj  licfoad  U»  dw- 
Uratioii,  "Tbcn  ba^n  men  lo  call  upon  the  namn  of  ' 
the  Lord-"  The  hinlcrlan  tbna  acraunta  for  the  pro- 1 
greulre  degenaration  of  the  religioiu  condition  of  nun, 
the  ev[l  gaining  a  predomtnance  over  the  good  bjr  Its 
illlance  with  worMl;  power  and  knowledga,  and  pro-  | 
duclng  the  state  of  thingi  which  necaaiitated  the  flood.  | 
See  DiLDoe.  | 

(8.)  Another  motivo  may  be  Dwigned  for  the  intro-  : 
ductloD  of  this  portion  of  ascred  hietorv.  All  ancient ! 
nitioni  have  loved  to  trace  lip  the  invention  of  the  arts  ' 
to  aome  certain  author,  and,  generally  >peoking,  then  i 
aathort  have  been  reKirded  as  object*  of  divine  war-  | 
ship.  Among  the  Greeka  Apollo  wua  held  to  be  the 
inventor  of  mnalr,  Vulcan  of  tha  working  of  metila, 
Triplolemua  (see  Hygin.  277)  ofthe  plough.  A  simi- 
lar feeling  of  curioaity  pre vjiiled  among  tiie  Hebrews; 
and  hence  the  hiatorlsn  has  recorded  ths  names  of 
thois  to  whom  the  invention  oTthe  arts  waa  tradition- 
all}-  assigned,  obviating  at  the  aame  time  the  danger- 
DOS  error  into  which  other  nations  had  fallen,  and 

which  their  invenlora  held.     See  Art;  Artificeb. 

Additional  treatises  :  Stockmann,  ZJs  CoMO^mmo- 
«ito(Jen.  17S2);  Dani,  iif.  (i)>.  1G81,  17Si);  Bosseck, 
y?.-  lacnficiu  CiiUi  tt  Habd  (Lip*.  1781);  Niemeyer, 
Charab.  \u  G7  sq. ;  Buttmann,  Mgtkjt.  L  IM  aq. ;  Otbo, 
Ltx.  Rob.  p.  IOh  aq. ;  Eisenmenifer,  Eati.  JudtnUt,  i, 
46e,  171,  832,  8S6;  HotlJDger,  Hill.  Oriaitata,  p.  !d; 
llamb.  nrm.  BiiSotk.  ii,  M5  sq. ;  Sack,  Id  the  Arm.  a. 
t'erd.  BibliM.  I,  iii,  Gl;  Rosen  mill  ler,  «cloJ^  in  loc. 
U«n.;  Fbilo.  ()pp.  i,  185;  V/buMy,  Prato'spei,  p.  lb ; 
Dapin,  A'^nn.  BM.  p.  4;  Kitio,  Dailg  Bible  llbut.  la 
loc. ;  Evans,  Script,  Bv-g.  ii,  1  aq. ;  Hunter,  8ae.  Btog. 
p.  17  aq.     See  Mububb. 

2.  (Ileb.,  with  the  article,  ilil-Jra'5>iB,',73n,  =  "tbe 
lanoe;"  but  may  Im  derived  ^m  *^,  kn,  "a  nest," 
possibly  in  alluunnio  its  portion;  Sept.Znninii/i  v.  r. 
'Aavmatiiii,  by  ioclndlng  the  name  preceding;  VuJir, 
Artain.^  One  ofthe  cities  in  the  low  conntry  (Shr/i- 
lai)  of  Judah,  named  nith  Zanosh  and  Gibeah  (Joeh. 
TV,  56) ;  ippsrently  the  modem  village  I'atm,  a  short 
distance  south-east  of  Hebron  (Van  de  Velde,  Mrmoir, 
p.  800),  now  a  Mohammedan  sUtion,  said  to  be  the 
place  where  Lot  (topped  after  bis  flight  from  Sodom 
(Robinson,  Rneardin,  li,  190). 

Cal'nan  (Heb.  Ktymm',  l)"'p,  derivation  amUgu- 
ous,  as  in  the  case  of  "  Csln"  [q.  v.],  «nd  ai  jnltying 
either  ^KuKHiw  [mi  FOrsi]  or/argeman  [so  Gesenius]  ; 
Sept  KniWi-, but  KaVVni-inCbran.andN.T.;  Jose. 
phns  KnirSi.Ant.  i, .%  4),  the  name  of  one  or  two  men. 

1.  Ths  fourth  antedilavisn  patriarch,  being  the  (nld- 
e«t)BonarEnaa(whowaa  90  years  of  age  at  his  birth), 
B.C.  3846.  He  waa  himself  70  yeaia  old  at  the  birth 
of  hia  (drat)  SOD  Mahalaleel,  B.C.  3776,  afler  which  be 
lived  840  yeara,and  died  B.C.  30S1,  aged  910  (Gen.  v, 
n-14).  See  LoHORvrrv.  The  rabbinical  tisdition  was 
that  he  first  intniduced  Idol-worship  and  astrology — a 
tradition  which  the  Hellenists  transferred  to  the  post- 
diluvian Calnan.  Thua  Ephraem-Sj-njs  asserts  that 
tbe  Chaldees  in  the  time  of  Terah  and  Abram  womhip- 
ped  B  graven  god  called  Cainan;  and  Gregory  Bai- 
Hehrcus,  another  Syriac  author,  also  applies  it  to  the 
son  of  Aiphaxad  (Mill.  Vmdra.o/GamUasif',  p.  160). 
The  origin  of  the  tradition  ia  not  known ;  but  It  may 
probably  have  been  suggested  by  the  meaning  of  ' 
■apposed  root  in  Aialric  and  the  Aramiean  dialects,  Just 
a<  another  aigntflcatlon  of  the  same  root  seems  to  have 
suggested  the  tradition  that  the  daBghtera  of  Cain 

mants  (Geaenias,  Thaaur.  s.  v.  -iXp).  Hla  name  if 
Anglirized  "  Kenan"  Id  the  Auth.  Vera,  at  1  Chron, 
I.  a. 

2.  TbesonofATphaxad,aiidbtheraf Sals, accord' 


lug  to  L^ke  Hi,  Bfi,  Sfl,  and  usually  called  the  aecflw] 
Cainan.  He  la  also  found  in  the  present  copin  of  tb« 
Sept.  in  tbe  genealo^  of  Shem,  Gen.  x,  !4;  xl,  1!  anil 
IS  (when  his  history  is  given  In  fall  like  the  reat : 
"And  Arpbaxad  lived  IB5  years,  and  begat  Cainan. 
And  Arphaxad  lived  after  be  begat  Cainan  400  years, 
and  begat  sons  and  dangbtera.  And  be  died.  And 
Cainan  lived  IBOyeara.andbegatSalah.  And  Cainan 
lived  after  he  begat  Salah  S80  years,  and  begat  taaa 
and  daughtcn.  And  ho  died"),  and  1  Chnm.  I,  IS 
(though  ho  is  omitted  in  1  Chron.  i,  34),  but  U  nowhera 
named  in  the  Hebrew  text,  nor  in  any  of  tbe  vcnloiin 
made  from  it,  as  the  Samaritan,  Cbaldee.  Syriac,  Vul- 

yeara  in  the  scries  of  names  fa  of  great  cbronologicKl 
importance,  and  la  one  ofthe  circa  m  stances  which  ren- 
der the  Scptuagint  compulation  of  time  longer  than 
the  Hebrau,  tbb  nutter  baa  engaged  much  attention, 
and  has  led  to  great  discussion  among  chronologerF. 
See  CiinoFOLOoT.  Some  have  sug^-csted  that  the 
Jews  purpoaelyexclndedtbe  second  Cslnan  from  their 
copies,  with  the  dcaign  of  rendering  the  Septuagint 
and  Luke  suapectod;  others  that  Hoaea  omitted  Cli' 
nan,  being  deeirous  of  reckoning  ten  generations  only 
from  Adam  to  Noah,  and  from  Koah  to  Alraham. 
Some  suipoacthatArphaindwiiafathcrorCainEn  and 
Sulab  — of  Salah  naturally,  and  of  Cainan  Icg-.tly; 
while  others  allege  that  Cainan  and  Salah  were  the 
same  person  under  two  namea.  It  ia  believed  Ly  many, 
however,  that  tbe  name  of  this  second  Cainan  waa  not 
originally  in  the  text  oven  of  Lake,  bnt  is  an  addition 
of  inadvertent  tranacriben,  who,  remarkln;r  It  in  srma 
copies  of  tbe  Septua^nt,  added  it  (Kuinol,  ad  Ijk. 
ill,  S6)  Halea,  though,  as  an  advocate  ofthe  longer 
chronology,  prediipoeed  to  ita  retention,  decides  that 
wn  are  (ully  warranted  to  conclude  that  the  rtcond 
Cainan  was  not  originally  in  the  Hebrew  text,  at  leart, 
nor  in  the  Septuagint  and  other  vernons  derived  from 
it  (CinmoIrOT,  I,  ^91)-  Some  of  the  grounds  for  tbU 
conclusion  are,  1.  Ihat  tbe  Hebrew  and  SamariUn, 
with  all  tbe  ancient  vcralons  and  targums,  concur  in 
the  omisrion;  !.  Ihat  the  Septnagint  is  not  consiftent 
with  itself;  for  in  tbe  repetition  of  genealogies  in  1 
ChroD  i,  S4,  it  omits  Cainan  and  atnes  with  the  Ho- 
brew  text ;  8.  That  the  second  Cainan  i*  silently  re- 
jected by  Josepbus,  by  Pbllo.  by  John  of  Antiocb,  and 
by  Eusebiua;  and  that,  while  OrU-cn  ntaincd  the 
name  itself,  he,  in  his  copy  ofthe  Septuagint,  marked 
itwith  an  obeiiakaa  an  unauthorlied reading.  It  cer- 
tainly was  not  contained  in  any  copies  of  the  Bible 

I  which  Berosus,  Eupolcmus,  Polyblator,  Theopbilua  of 
Aniioch,  JuUug  Afrlcanna,  or  even  Jerome,  had  accesa 
to.  Moreover,  it  seeoia  that  the  intrusion  of  the  name 
even  into  the  Sept.  ia  comparatively  modem,  since  Au- 

I  gaatlDo  la  the  Hrat  writer  who  mentions  It  a*  fbund  in 
the  O.  T.  at  all.  Demetrius  (B.C.  170),  quoted  by  Eu- 
sebius  (Pmp.  Cwmj.  ix,  21),  reckons  1360  years  from 
the  birth  of  Shcm  to  Jacob's  going  down  to  Eg}-pt, 

in  tbe  great  fluctuation  of  the  numbera  in  tbe  ages  of 
the  patriarchs,  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  argu- 
ment. Nor  have  we  any  certainty  that  the  flgurrs 
have  not  l-een  altered  in  tbe  modem  copies  of  Eusebi- 
us.  to  make  them  agree  with  the  ccmpatation  of  the 
altered  coi^s  of  tbe  Sept.  4.  That  the  numbers  indi- 
cating the  longevity  and  paternity  of  this  (atriarch 
are  evidently  borrowed  horn  those  immodiately  adjrdn- 
ing,  aa  is  tbe  name  itself  from  that  of  tbe  antediluvian 
'  patriarch.  See  Heidegger,  Bill.  Palrinrrh.  ii,  8-15  ; 
'  Bochart, /^if^,  liKii,  cap.  IS;  Hill's  rindic.  a/ our 
Lord't  Gemai.  p.  148  sq;  Raa,  Harmim.  Eeatig.  i,  SIM 
sq. ;  Mlchaelia,  Di  Chra^ol'^.  Mofi$  poti  dUm.  (in  the 
Commrntal.  Soc.  GoU.  !7GS  "q. ;  translated  In  the  Am. 
'  Bib.  Repot.  July.  1841,  p.  114  aq.);  Vater,  Commm. 
'  mat  Pe»l.  1, 174  aq.  See  GESEALOOr  (oP  CnBttT> 
I  Calnltea,  a  aect  of  Gnostics  that  sprung  up  about 
'the  year  180,  and  U  classed  with  the  Ophites  (q.  vj 


CAIUS 


]5 


iBiaiH.  Thrj  Iwld  ttut  SopUn  (WindDin) 
amaa  mcana  to  pnttn's  Id  cvtry  age  in  tbia  WDrld,  < 
which  Um  DcmiurKs  bad  cm  ted.  a  mca  beiiiing  witbln  ' 
ibiB  ■  ipiritDBl  nature  liDiilu-  to  bar  own,  uid  Intent ' 
■peaoppninKtbc  lyraDnjofthe  Demiurgt.  TbeCuln- 
itc*  nvirded  Cwn  u  the  chief  of  thii  nee.  They  hou- 
•nd  Cnin,  niiil  the  btA  charecteri  of  SiTiptnrB  genec- 
■Uj,  OB  the  gTonud  that,  in  proportion  la  tha  hatred, 
Nck  chanrten  eTfncod  of  the  lava  of  the  God  ofthia 
varid  (the  Demtni^),  the  more  worthily  did  ibfj  act  '■ 
.  »ibt  tea*  of  Sapkia,  whoH  chief  work  ii  to  destroy  the  . 
kingdom  of  the  l>emlur^.  For  the  aume  reason,  they  | 
horaared  Korah,  Duthan,  and  Abiram,  ai  well  at  the  In- 
kaUtanta  of  Sodmn,  and  Judas  Itcarlnt,  wtuim  tfaej  re- 
icarded  aa  procuring  the  death  of  Chrial  from  tho  pureat 
noliirBs:  Tm  h<  kneir  that  this  was  the  only  poaaiMe 
way  of  cfTecting  the  destruction  of  (be  Demiurge's 
kingdom.      Hippoljiua  mentions  the  Cainilea  Ii    ' 


CAKE 

»«.  i>/lit  O.  T.  (Utr.  Vtl,  Tal.)  (LycDS,  1689,  8  roll. 
fol.):— /••  ^iniiman  Thama  Agvimllu  O-mmnU.  :— 
OpuKula  (amonu  which  ia  bia  treatise  on  the  authori^ 
of  the  pope,  in  which  be  glvea  vent  to  the  extremeat 
vieWB  of  ultn-monUnlsm,  and  wbicb  was  refuted  hy 
order  of  the  Aiculty  of  Parif) ; — Tradaiia  Jt  eampam. 
ttoK  papa  tl  tomcHii  (Venice.  1S31).  His  works  are 
collected,  and  aomawhat  modifled  (Lyons,  16)^0,  fol.). 


-N'eander,  Ch.  Ilitt.  i,  448; 
AigBM.  Dt  n^ra.  cap.  zviii :  TertnU.  Dt  Prtaeripl. 
ap.  zlrii ;  Lardnet,  WaHa,  viii,  £60. 

C«lua  (of  the  Now  Teat.).     See  Gaicb. 

CbIim  (emperor  of  Rome).     &ee  CalIoui.a. 

Cains  or  Oaltl*.  a  pnwbyter  of  the  Ubnrch  at 
Roa«,«bo  flouriahedahoulilO,  in  the  tlmeof  Zephy- 
riana  and  Calliatua.  Photlna  calls  him  Tiv  ifhrmi 
in'anrroe,  a  designation  the  meaning  of  wbicb  i*  not 
rlaar.  When  at  Rome,  be  held  a  celebrated  dispnta- 
Um  with  I^niclDf,  the  head  of  a  sect  of  Montaninta, 
vhicfa  he  afterward  reduced  to  writluK  in  the  form  of 
dJahrxM*.  Eesebiua  quotes  fTaKmenls  of  Ibia  work  io 
lib.  ii.  cap.  !G,  ami  also  in  lib.  iii,  cap.  28,  and  lib.  vi, 
rap.  10.  Caiua  also  wrote  a  book  called  Tht  Labg- 
liatf,  and  another  agiinat  Artemon,  unieia  the  former 
be  the  aame  with  the  work  attribnted  to  Origen,  as 
Can  Buppoaea.  Eusebius  ^ves  an  extract  from  the 
Partmi  Latfrii^ui  a^^iniit  Artemon  and  Theodolna, 
lib.  V.  cap.  iS.  rhotlua  also  attributes  to  this  Caiua  a 
TieatiM  on  the  Dnlvtrae,  but  both  thia  and  the  ■'  I.ab- 
yrinth"  are  now  attributed  to  Hippolytua.  Sea  Ban- 
Mn,  mppBlftiu  and  k  1  Timn ;  also  Orign  or  IKipalg- 
laa,  in  the  MUk.  Qyarfr/Yy  Annr,  \»bl,  p.  S4G;  Lan- 

CsllM  or  Oalna,  a  Dalmatian,  elect<4  bifhop  of 
RoDie  In  VS,  and  la  said  to  hare  auffered  tnartrrdom 
■nder  Diocletian.  April  n,  !«!.  Hia  epialle  was  edit- 
ed, with  notes,  etc..  by  Cna.  Becitlua,  a  priest  of  the 
•■ator;  of  Uriiino,  and  aubjdntd  to  tbe  Acts  of  bia 
Uai^Tdom,  publiabed  at  Rome  in  1628. 

Cttlns,  Jonn  {Kajt  or  Kry,  Latiniicd  into  Couu), 
H.D.,  waa  born  at  Norwich  Oct.  6,  I&IO.  and  liecsme 
■accesfiTSly  flrat  pbyrician  In  Kdward  VI.  Mary,  and 
Fliiabeth.  HediedJoiyfa.lSTa.  Hefonnded the  col- 
lege whicb  beara  his  name  at  Cambridf{e  for  twenty- 
three  stDdenla.  He  waa  a  kooiI  claaaical  scholar,  and 
wrote  many  treatises  on  subjects  connected  with  medi- 
rise  and  natural  hiatorr.  He  published  also  a  treatise 
aa  the  antiquity  of  the  DnlTerrity  of  Cambridge  (wbicb 
ke  states  was  founded  by  out  Canlabrr,  S94  ynrt  b^an 
rlni*),  and  another  on  tbe  proouncbtian  of  Greek  and 
Latin.  Hb  tomb  still  remaina  in  Caius  College,  with 
soly  this  inacripUon,  "  Pui  Caiua." 

Cajetan  (Gaktaxo  Tomhaso  i>t  Vio),  cardinal, 
nmamed  from  GaUa.  wheie  be  was  bom,  Feb.  3n,  14G9 
[olben  say  Jnly  t.'i.H70).  Hia  proper  name  waa  Jacob, 
bat  he  asiumnl  that  of  Thomas  In  honor  of  Thomas 
Aqninas.  At  fifteen  he  became  a  Dominican,  and  in 
IMS  be  was  made  general  of  bis  order.  In  1S17  Leo 
X  Hda  him  catdinal,  and  al'o  bis  legate  In  Germany. 
the  priaripal  olijecl  of  his  mission  Itelng  to  lirlng  back 
Lntber  to  the  obedience  of  the  Holy  See  Iwfore  bis 
■eiaralkNi  was  Anally  completed.  C^tan  fulfliled  hie 
mMon  in  a  haughty  and  imperious  manner,  and  notb- 
iac  csuM  of  it.  In  1S19  be  was  sppninled  to  the  aee 
of  GaCta.  after  wbicb  he  waa  employed  In  other  mis- 
ikier,  and  died  at  Borne  In  Idftl.     He  pablished  a  IVr- 


Cake  (represented  In-  sereral  Heb.  worda ;  see  be- 
w).    The  Hebraws  uaed  varioua  sorts  of  cakes,  which 

'  was  the  form  muallT  given  to  Oriental  broiid  (2  Sam. 

'  vi,  19:  I  Kings  xvii,  Vl).  See  Imat.  They  were 
leavened  or  nnieavened.  They  also  offered  cakea  in 
the  Temple  made  of  wheat  or  of  barlev,  kneaded  some- 
times with  oil  and  aometimea  with  honer.  For  the 
purpoeaa  of  offering,  Ilieee  cakes  were  ulted,  but  un. 
leavened  (Exod.  xxiK,  i ;  L«r.  ii,  4).  In  Jer.  vii,  18; 
xliv,  19,  we  read  of  tbe  Hebrews  kneading  their  dough 
■'  to  make  cakes  to  the  queen  of  heaven"  [see  Abhto- 
rbth}.  which  appears  to  have  been,  f^m  aorly  times, 
an  idolatrooa  pructice,  and  was  also  tbe  custom  of  the 
Greeks  and  Unmans.  ITieancianl  Egyptiansaiaomads 
nfferiURS  of  cakes  to  their  deities,      in  H«ea  vii,  8, 


Ephriiun  is  called  "  s  cake  not  turned."  This  figura. 
,ivs  expression  illustrates  the  mixture  of  truth  and 
dolatry  (.lewa  and  Gentiles  among  the  Ephraimites) 
ly  dough  baked  on  one  side  onli-,  and,  tbarefure,  nei' 
iier  dimgb  nor  bread.     See  BaiAD. 

I.  For  Hcular  Ui'.—Xbn  ordinary  (wbeatan)  bread 
otthe  Hebrews  certainly  bad  the  abape  of  ilat  biscuits; 
and  as  Ibis  has  been  alread.v  sufficiently  discuased  un- 
der the  article  Bake,  we  will  here  consider  only  thoae 
finer  sorts,  which  appear  to  hive  been  of  more  artifi- 
cijl  manufacture.  Tbe  terms  for  these  are  aa  follaws: 
(1.)  A$lii:aJca,  rhi7,  uggoik'.  See  AsB-CaKe. 
(2.)  raaeahit,  baked  in  oil  in  the  ni^ni?,  mieeW. 
iAtIA,  or  pot  (Lev.  ii,  T ;  see  Jarchl  in  KoMnmtltler,  ad 
loc.),  perhaps  like  modern  dais^^HiU.  See  FRrrico- 
PAM.  Different  are  the  ri3''3b,  UliboA'  (i  Sam.  xiU, 
O-IS;  Sept.  iaXX'>r"'^(v),  cakes  kne»ded of  doDgb(vn'. 
R),  which,  boiled  in  a  deep  pan,  were  emptied  out  from 
it  Under,  but  not  liquid  (ver.  8,  9).  The  import  of 
this  Isst,  from  the  etymology,  ia  very  uncertain  (aee 
ROdiger,  De.  in'erpnl.  ArtA.  libr.  hilt.  p.  94;  Thenios 
on  Sam.  xiii,  6;  Geaenius,  Tir,.  p.  Hi).  It  was  pmb- 
ably  a  kind  of  fancy  cake,  the  makingof  which  appear* 
to  have  been  a  rare  accaniplishment,  since  Tamar  was 
required  to  prepare  it  for  Ammou  in  bis  pretended  ill- 
ness (!  Sam.  xiii,  6). 

(8.)  Holt-caka,  ri^n,  duitkth'  (!  Sam.  vl,  19), 
which  were  mingled  with  oil  (',':?:9  nib^^a,  see 
BUir,  BsiaboL  ii,  801),  and  baked  in  tbe  oven  (Lev. 
ii,  4). 

(4.)  Vafrrt,  D''p''p'n,  ntijlm' {Exod.  xxlx,!;  Lev. 
viii,  go :  1  Chron.  ixii'i,  !9),  made  very  thin  (Or.  \a- 

I  yava),  and  spread  with  oil  (111^:9  B^rn^^,  Sept  lui- 

I  «xai»<Tfiiwr  iy  t'^aifi).     See  WafBr. 

(5.)  Cracktri.  the  V^'^'i,  luOtMint' ,  of  1  Kings 

I  .liv,  8,  translated  "  cracknels"  in  the  Authnriied  Vei^ 
alon.  an  almect  obsolete  word,  denoting  a  kind  of  crisp 

'cake,  q,  d.  "cmniii-cake."     The  original  would  seem, 

,by  iUstyniolDgy(tffroin-T'pl.  (/ircibfeir,  Bpotl«d,  Gen. 
XXX,  32  sq.),  to  denote  somelhing  spotted  or  sprinkled 
over,  etc.  Bnitorf  (to-.  TiJm.  coL  1%6)  explaina 
tbua:  "  Ultle  circles  of  bread  like  the  half  of  an  egg, 
Trnmatll,  c.  6;"  and  in  another  place  (^XpU.  md.  Urbr. 
p.  tU),  "Alaa  the  crackers,  I  Kings  xlv,  S,  comnionly 
called  biteml.  received  thdr  name  because  they  were 
formed  in  little  nwwJ  slices  aa  if  stamped  out,  or  be- 
caoae  they  were  punctured  in  aonw  peculiar  manner." 
It  is,  Indeed,  not  improbable  that  they  may  have  been 


CAKK  16  CAKE 

■  mat  of  liiuidt,  or  unull  mnd  hard-bsked  «k»,  alcu-  to,  bat  tbc  import  of  tbe  word*  Ibere  smploy«l  U  rwy 
ktedta  keep  (for  >  journey  or  some  otbrr  purpose)  by  '  uDcertaiu.  Od  the  Greek  cukes,  see  ef pecilll]' Atbm. 
nuoB  at  their  exceggive  hardnua  (or  perhapa  beinK  j  xiv,  644  >q.  See  gcnenlly  K«n,  Ditt.  de  r«  ction  ll«- 
IK^  6aiv<f,  u  tba  word  ii'Ku^  Impliev)-  Kot  only  sra  insDr.  (Tr.adRb.I7<>9).  z^ie  Fo3i>. 
such  hud  cakeg  or  biiciiita  still  used  in  the  Eatt,  bat  j.  ^,  ,:,cnjidal  OjKri'i^i.— The  second  chapter  of 
tbey  are,  tike  all  blBCoitJ,  pimclttrtd  to  render  tbem  Levitieua  ^^ivea  a  sort  of  list  of  the  differml  kiadi  of 
Dion  hard,  »nd  aometimea,  also,  tbey  are  apriakled  ,  bread  and  Cakra  in  UM  smong  tbe  BDcirnl  I^^aelitell, 
Hith  aeed^  either  of  which  circumat^nees  AufSciently  .  for  the  purpOM  of  dittinBuliLbinB  the  kind*  which  were 
meets  tbe  conditiona  aug^^tcd  liy  the  etymology  of  '  ft^m  thoee  which  were  not  Buit4.Lle  for  i  fferinga.  Of 
the  Hebrew  word.  Tbe  eilatence  of  euch  biacuita  is  gactt  as  were  fit  for  offerings,  KS  find, 
further  implied  in  Joah.  ii,  5,  V2,  where  the  Glboonltfa  (,  j  BrradboM  w  ne  w(Uv.  ii.  4);  but  thia  is  liin- 
descrilietheir  bread  as  huvlnjj  become  as  Aarrfmitioli  lied  to  two  ™rta,  which  ippear  to  be,  first,  the  bread 
(not  "  mouldy,"  aa  in  the  AuthoriiBd  Version)  by  tea-  ;  ^jj^  io,|jg  jd^  vessels  of  atone,  meti-l,  or  rartben- 
aon  of  the  length  of  their  journey.  See  Cbal-ksbl.  |  ^g„^  „  ^„g  cu^tomarj-.  In  thi-  case  the  oven  Is  half 
(6.)  ll<mes--at ;  1^373  '^''"B?,  Uappidimi,'  bid-  '  flUcd  with  small  smooth  pebbles,  upon  nhich,  when 
tak'  (E.tod,  xvl,  ai ;  Talm.  T'JKJaS^,  Miahna,  Cialla,  '  heated  i.nd  tbe  fuel  wiihdrawn.  the  dongh  is  laid. 
1, 4).  auch  asare  atiD  much  relishwl  by  the  Arabs.  See  l  ?«**  prepared  iji  tbi.  mode  la  ncc«»arily  full  of  in- 
HOKEY.  Different  from  these  were  tbe  miniwaie.,  <'"'"'"""  "  holes,  fmm  the  pebble,  on  which  it  U 
_.-...^  ...i.^u  !■  i^-  u  '  (Ti  ■■■  ■.  D  .  baked.  Second,  the  hread  prepared  ly  dropping  with 
E^33tt  ■'TD^OH,  (uAii*<3r    aaabim    (Hew.  in,  1;  Sept.    ,,,.  h„„,„,^,.  ' .      j .  ,vi    i  r.i      i    „.i-    "j 

■  . -.      -     ■-.'        ,,        ,     .      ,     J,,      ,      .  .  Ibe  hollowof  the  handa  thin  laTer  of  the  almost  liquid 

''ft^^ll"'"  "J-f'^ot.  Authorited  Version  "flagons    ^       j,  t^e  outside  of  the  same  oven,  and  whi.h, 

of  wlno  ),  probably  a  mass  of  dried  grapea  presaed  |  i^jng  ^.^^  j^y  tbe  mrnicnt  It  louchra  the  healed  siir- 
intoforni;  comp.  the  lumps  ("cukoa^')  .//jt,  D-iM^,  .face,  forma  a  thin,  wafer-like  bread  or  liscoit.  Tba 
ritirlin',  in  1  Sam.  xxv,  IB.  See  fio.  Tbe  term  |  first  of  these  Noscsappiears  to  diFtingubh  by  the  char. 
ri;^-CK,  aduiah'  (aa  explained  hy  the  Targ.  of  IH.-  acteiislic  epithet  of  r>SVn,  chnUall,'  (see  above),  per. 
Jonathan  at  Exod.  xvi,  Bl ;  also  tbe  Mishna,  Xedar.  I  /.ro&d; or/uJ/ '/Aofra  (Exod.  xxli,  !;  Lev.  ii,  4;  vii, 
vl,  10;  see  Gesen.  Tiri.  i,  166  »q.),  seems  to  denote  ^  18;  Nnm.  vi,  15,  etc.),  and  the  other  by  the  name  of 
the  same  kind  of  cakes  as  osed  for  reft«shmcnt  (Cant.  ;  B-BTO-i,  relvKn',  Ain  cakeL  being.  If  ccrrcctly  iden- 
II.  5i  2  8«n.  .i,  19 ;  1  Chron  |,,t.  8).     Seo  F,.A»or,.  I  ^.,/^'^^    ^„^^  ,^,  j^l„„,„  ^,  ^„^j  „^'i„  ^,,^ 

A  'P"""/ "^P«P^  -'•''  '""'*>■  i* '"^B^'  (""  1  East.  A  cake  of  tbe  (bntier  was  offered  «i  tbe  fiirt  «f 
Jcreme)  to  be  referred  to  in  Eiek.  xvi,  18  (ee  Rosen-    ^^^  j^^^  (lev.  viil,  16),  and  is  n.rnlie 


,  in  loc.). 


I  vi,  19,  with  the  addition  of  "  bretd'—prr/brofiif  brtait. 


(7.)  The  liatifd /rrgmml)  rf  the  oj?;™--,  TOP  ^  Both  torla,  «b<n  uaed  fbrofltrinirs.wfretobeunlea. 
D^FI?  rns?,  turp'flfj'  inmAa/A'pi(aB'(lit,e«>i)n5i  cned  (perhaps  to  aecure  their  being  prepared  fcr  tbe 
./the  offiritig  o/[i.  e.  In]  pircn,  Auth.  Vei.  "  baken  fpecii-l  purpuse) ;  and  tbe  first  foit,  namely,  thi.1  which 
pieces  of  the  meat-offering,"  Lev.  vi,  21,  i.  e.  cooked  oppeara  to  have  been  I  aked  inside  the  oven,  was  to  I  e 
and  prepared  like  the  meat-offering,  and  then  broken  flunif  up  with  oil,  while  tbe  other  (Uiat  baktd  Outside 
np  into  pieces;  com  p.  Lev.  ii,  4  aq, ;  vii,  9),  are  prob- ,  thenveo),  which,  thim  It*  thinness,  could  not  pocelbl)- 
alily  cooked  pieced  that  were  again  kneaded  up  with  ;  be  thus  trettcd.  was  to  be  only  smeared  with  <ril.  Tbe 
oil  and  baked  (cnmp.  Wunsleb  in  Panlup,  Saviml,  iii,  IVesh  olive  oil,  nhich  was  to  be  used  for  this  purpoFV, 
SSO:  Buhr, -■  Jmio/.  ii,  BOi).  F.ir  this  purpose  use  was  !  Imparta  to  the  1  resd  something  of  the  flavor  of  bolter, 
made  of  •/rj«v^)<»,r;ms,  ma.*.-6art'  (Lev.  ii,  6,  '  ■"''''^''  '"'  "  usually  of  very  indifl-ennt  quality  [n 
etc.).  probaWv  a  flU  iron  pUte  (stew.pan  or  griddle),  1  ^"^  countries. 

beneath  which  the  fire  was  kindled  (comp.  Niebuhr,  i  (2.)  S-wifaiivrfia  aprifi— 1ft,  Ihat^biih,  as  isslUl 
I  2:'4).     gee  Pah.  I  usual,  in  baked  in,  or  rather  on,  the  tojm.     This  also, 

(S.)  The  lUn  ^1, 0-jaa,  fc«™./«'  ("  c:.ke«,"  Jor.  °f,  ""f"^!'-  ™^".  **  "".'"^'^^f  ''"^?'.'^'^  T.'** 
..  .o  .■  ,n^  -.  r  ,  >■  i  v  ,  <^''  2d,  Tbui,  sccording  to  Lev.  ii,  0,  couM  bc  Inbcii 
,K  18;  xl.r,  19),  a  »,t  of  w||fer  o«d  in  heathen  of-  ,„^  pieces.  «d  oil  pon^  over  it,  forming  a  distln.t 
feringp,  •"  "■"d^rea  tn  the  S*pt.  by  he  Gr«ixed  term  ^,„^  „r ,  ^j  ^j  ^^^^^  ^^j  i„  f  ,^,  ,^i,^  ^  _ 
X«,^<e.  which  is  explained  ly  Snlda.  and  other  an-  ,  ^„,t,  j^^^  „„  .^^  ,„^  „  ,,„  ;,  ^^  "^g^^,  ^i^^,  „, 
cwnt  glo««nsta  aa  signih-rag  barley-cakes  steeped  in  ,,^j  ,^„,  ,,^^^„  „  ^„^  ^^^^^  ,^,^^  kind  of  dough, 
oil :  compare  the  cakes  and  Larley-meal  used  wlHi  ";>  I  f^^  a  kind  of  food  or  ps.try  in  which  the  OricnUli 
rifices  among  the  Greeka  and  Romana  (see  Smith  s  i  ,„i,_ ■.  j,ij_t. j  \.x.:X. i...  .    .    j-      ji  ■_ 

Sii;{,Sr'  '"*■'■  •■  '■  *■"""""■  '*' """"  i  "-"«*•  S"i"rt''.  Tb.":."i:"t.'."' 

— .         ,     '        .  ,       T.  1  I       ...       ...        ■       to  the  Hebrew  JISS,  nngiih  ,  is  the  most  ficquentlT' 

The  onlv  remain  ng  Ueb.  words  relating  to  tbe  sn1>-  i  ,  ,  ,  ,.'>■'"  '  ,,  .  .  ,  ,  ,  .  ' 
,    .  ',      J ,.     ^  ■.■..,.>.  »-  -.;__    I  employed  for  this  purpose.     When  it  is  hiked,  it  is 

}ect.  or  rendered  "cake'  in  the  Antb.  \  ers.,  are,  JVB,  !  ^^^/^  ^^^  crumbs  and  rekneaded  with  wsMr,  to 
nadf, ,  >  (ofc,  i.  e.  whole  piece  (q.  d.  "si™  )  of  bread  ^hi^,,  ■„  ^jj^^  ;„  ,j,g  ^^^  „[  ,[,„  operation,  butter. 
(1  Kings  xvii,  12 ;  in  Psa.  xxxv,  Ifi,  in  the  phrase  ;  ^^^  vinegar,  or  honey.  Having  thus  again  reduced 
nso  "SS J,  mie-lnfjr-^iu,  mora  plaefifir,  "  mockers  j  U  to  ■  tough  dnui  h,  the  mafS  la  broken  into  pieces, 
In  feasts,"  1.  e.  table-testets) ;  UTO,  maltttah'  (Josh.  ,  which  are  baked  in  smaller  cnkes  and  eaten  as  a  diii-- 
T,  11 ;  Jndg.  vi,  19,  SO,  M ;  J  Chiwi.  nxiii,  29,  etc.),  ■  ty.  The  preparation  for  the  Mwuiral  offering  was 
trril  or  unleavened  bread,  as  usually  rendered  [sec  more  simple,  l.tit  it  serves  to  indicetp  the  existence  of 
Leaven];  and  <>1<>S,  litltd',  m  h-^h:t,  lidif  (Judg.  vii,  ""'■''  preparations  among  the  ancient  Israelites. 
IS),  a  romd  aJ,,  of  barley-l)read.  '  The  "in,  cfciri',  ' ,    (3->  A""™*  *^  "^  '*'  *"^*— 'l"t  i"  to  say, 

^rri.-   >i  Iff    h-^i,    „i ~i    .k.  l.r,_..i...    ™ked  upon  the  heart  h-st<  ne.  or  plbte  covcrmg  the 

°1S  -C   =      ^    ^        f^ "  ^  "prewion  ;^.^^  frequently  answers'the  purpc,  rf  an 

■'?"  ■'iO,  Sept-  Mv^  x-'-fp'ri-'.  Vulg.  «m«h-<.  Jhn.  ^.^^  "^Thi,  .i,„  ^^s  (o  he  mixed  with  oil  (Lev.  il  7) 
w  Antb  Ve«.  "rUie  bssketa."  marg.  "baskets /aH  ■  j^,  ^^  ^rfona  kinds  of  baked  br^ad  were  aUowed 
o/*o/e»  ),  may  signify  either  v*  (<■  brrad,  aa  made  of  „  oBtrings,  there  is  no  question  that  they  were  the 
lln^  flour  Cm  the  Mishna.  Edaiolh,  iii,  10,  -nrt  is  a  spo-  be!4  modes  of  prepnring  bread  known  to  the  Hebrews 
des  of  bread  or  cake  like  the  Arab.  rAunuNnry,  white  in  the  time  of  Mwes;  nnd  as  all  the  ingredirnta  were 
bread  or  floor),  or  il  may  refer  to  some  peculiarity  of  such  as  Palestine  abnnd.intly  produced,  tbey  were  such 
tbe  baskets  merely.  See  Babkbt.  In  tbo  Mishna,  offerings  as  even  the  poorest  might  withoat  much  dif- 
CiJf<i,xi,  4  sq.,  many  other  kinds  of  cake  are  referred    llculty  procnrv.     See  iiiia«-wiiw..o. 


17 


CALAMY 


Calah  (HeU  Ke'lach,  rfsi,  ngoTtau  old  age,  u 
b  Job  *,  SC;  in  paoM  Ka'laeh,  rhs;  Sept.  XaXax. 
T«!|5,  nl'ifrj,  one  of  the  nMwtuictent  cltie*  of  AuyHk, 
«Imm  Ibunditkni  is  wcribcd  eitb«r  to  Auhar  or  Nim- 
roJ  (Geo.  x,  11).  Tba  plus  hoB  been  tbouKbt  idtn- 
bctl  with  tha  Ckulieh  (nbn,  Sept.  AAn.)  named  tUe- 
wbera  [we  Halaii]  (:i  King*  xtU,  6;  iviii.  II;  1 
Chnin.*,i6);  bat.  on  monnmentil  e%-ldtnc«,  the  Rav- 
Unwns  {HrroJ.  1, 86«)  re^Knt  the  site  of  Calah  u  nmrli- 
ed  b^  the  Klmrail  rain*,  which  have  furninbed  »  large 
*  pn>pnTti<in  of  the  Anjriui  antlqaltias.  The  Talmud 
(tSKd.  x)  localvii  it  on  tbe  Euphr<ile»,  near  Bonippi 
(rt'^HS).  If  at  Nimrud,  Calib  mult  be  eonaldered  to 
h^v*  been  at  one  time  (abont  B.C.  9eO  720)  the  c>|uUi1 
of  lh«  empire.  It  mi  the  retidrnce  of  (he  warlike 
SanUnapatiu  and  hia  >ncce»or*  dovn  to  tha  tirre  of 
Swvn,  who  bnflt  a  new  capital,  wliich  be  rolled  li 
bit  awn  luine,  on  the  eits  orrupicd  <]-  the  iiiidiii 
XjkmAoJ.  Thit  plice  f^II  continuid  under  llie  li.t<i 
kioip  tn  be  ■  town  of  importance,  and  •Kit  tfpcviull} 
EiTond  by  EurhadUon,  who  luilt  Iheie  one  uf  Ihi 
fCnadeat  of  the  Aaeyrian  paiarer.  In  later  time*  Ca- 
Uh  gsTe  name  to  one  of  the  ihief  diitricta  of  the  tonn- 
tn.  wUch  appean  aa  Calad.^  (tiaXmivij,  Ptolem.  vi. 
l.'n  or  CdadHtu  (Ka\n^;,-i,,  Strabo,  xvi,  p.  680. 
TK),  in  tbe  geographen.  Ijivard  (jV/«<r<A  onffirj  lit- 
moat,  ii,  U)  au  jgeata  that  it  may  poroil  ly  be  extant 
<a  the  very  extensive  mini  cuUrd  Kaltk  Sheiiiat,  on 
the  vf9^  side  of  the  Ti /rip,  a' ove  Itsjnnction  with  tbe 
Lwaer  Zak  But  tee  Resign.  Lcm  probable  ii  the 
identiflcation  with  rbn/.a,  the  former  rummrr  ren- 
dene*  of  the  callpha  in  Arabia  or  Baliylonlan  Irak,  ac- 
fording  to  Abulfoda,  Ave  davs'  )oumry  north  of  Bag- 
dad (In  An»ille,  RBi"  lung  ,'34i°  Iat.X  which,  acard- 
iae  to  Anemani  (&i6f.  Or.  ill.  ii,  4:Saq.,  T5S),  la  1.1m 
called  Cka'ria  (romp.  Mirhai'lii,  Sappl,  p.  TC7 ;  Iiooen- 
mbller,  Atrrth.  I,  ii,  W).  Fphraem  Synii"  (in  loc. 
Gen.)  nnderatanda  the  old  llrsopotamian  Citliv  on 
tbe  Tigris  (Roaenmi^ller,  a.  p.  120 ;  but  aee  Micfaaelif, 
^■iofay.  i,  'US  M).).  As  it  would  Feem  to  have  been 
at  nme  distance  from  Nineveh,  the  rity  of  Resen  lyiup 
Iwtweeo  them,  mwt  eirlier  writers  concni  in  plauinv 
it  on  the  Gieit  Zab  (the  ancient  Lycnf),  not  far  from 
■ujnDctioD  with  tba  Tigii>,  and  Rawn  in  placed  hUh- 

XiiHTeh  (Barhart,  Pk  ilf'g,  iv,  H).     See  AgsvniA. 

CalWDOl'ttlOB  (Kn.\a(i^aAo{.  TuIr.  CUonitt). 
eiven  (I  Eidr.  v,  !j)  at  the  name  of  a  plnce  who>c 
'•«•»"  were  reatored  alter  the  exile;  apparentlv  a 
cormpt  BgelomeTatioii  of  the  oamea  Elam,  Harim. 
LoD,  and  Uadio  in  tha  genoloe  text  (Eira  ii,  81,  Si). 

CalimOD.    See  STCAnnA. 

Cal'amDa  occurs  in  three  passages  of  the  Anth. 
Vera,  for  the  Heb.  mj,  hauh'  (Sept  naAo/ioc,  elac 
■here  "reed"):  Exod.  xxx,  28,  among  tho  incredi- 
enl*  of  tha  holy  anainliii|{  oil;  Cant  jv,  11.  in  an 
caamanlion  of  iweet  scents;  and  £zek.  xxvii,  in, 
among  the  article*  iirongbt  to  tba  marketi  of  Tj-re. 
The  term  deaignitea  thn  marsh  and  river  reed  (rener- 
ally  [see  RsEn] ;  bot  in  the  places  Just  referred  to  it 
appear?  to  rigniiy  the  mrrtjl;;,  (rriXitjioc  aoh>,ianii'H:. 
IlioKvir.  i,  17),  an  Orient.'l  plant  (aiLimai  ndtmHiii. 
nin.xii,12,4'<),orwhich  tha  l.innnan  name  It  Anrvi 
r-^mu.  No  doBlrt  the  same  pUnt  is  Intended  in  Isa. 
iliii,  34 ;  Jer.  H,  BO,  when  the  Auth.  Vers,  has  taeri 
rmr.  In  tbe  latter  text  the  He)..  Is  3Vjn  rop,  Jr. 
»A  *oWo*'  (i.  e.  good  am-),  and  in  Exod.  xxx,  88. 
3?a  n^,ttmtk'  bo'tm  (i.e.oihnflromietmr').  "A 
•canted  one  is  said  to  huve  been  fonnd  In  a  val- 
ley of  Hoont  Lebanon  (Polyb.  v,  48;  Strab.  xvl.  At. 
The  plant  haa  a  reed-like  stem,  which  i*  exeeedinBly 
hagnnt,  like  the  leaves,  esperially  when  bruised.  It 
il  ef  a  tawny  eolrr.  much  jointed,  breaklnR  into  splir- 
tatt.  and  having  tbe  hollow  stem  611ed  with  pith  like 


a  spider's  web"  (KalischonExod.  xxx,  !S.)    Tbeeat- 

amuB  of  Scripture  la  probably  the  reed  by  that  name 

■ometlmta  found  in 

Europe,  but  nrual- 

1y  in  Asia   (Ttae- 

phnut  PhnU.  ix, 

7;  Pliny,  xit,  121, 

and  especially    in 

India  sad  Arul^ia 

(Diod.  Sic.  ii.  JO; 

Pliny,  xii,4t-).    It 

places    in     Egypt 

and    Jndna,    unci 
in    several     perls  . 

of  Syria,  bearing 
from  the  root  u  knotted  stalk,  ci 
cavity  a  soft  white  pith.  It  has  ai 
ble  aromatic  smell,  and  when  cut,  dried,  and 
powdered,  it  fbriiis  an  ingredient  in  tbe  rich- 
eat  perfumes  I  niny,  xv,  7;  see  CeWi  Hit- 
nb.  11,  3^G  sq.).  1  he  plant  from  which  the  "calamus 
aromaticus"  of  modem  shops  is  ol.taiDrd  appears  to  l-j 
a  different  apeciea  (/Vmiji  Cfchpadin,  a.  v.  Acorn?). 
See  Came. 

Calfinm>  aacer  (also  called  pupUarit  or  j£i(u/u), 
a  tube  made  of  gold  or  silver,  iiith  a  larger  oriHce  at 
one  end  tlun  at  the  other,  through  which  the  conre' 
crated  wine  was  drawn  into  the  moulh,  the  large  end  of 
Ihetabe  being  Inserted  into  tho  chalice.   See  CuALirK. 

Calamy,  Edmnnd,  an  eminent  English  divine, 
waa  bom  In  London  A. D.  1600,  and  took  his  B.A. 
degree  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1619.  After 
spending  some  vears  as  cbapUin  to  the  bishop  of  Elv, 
in  1036  he  wis  made  a  lecturer  at  Bary  SL  Edmund's, 
where  he  cnntinned  until  the  publication  of  liisho|> 
Wren's  "  Articles,"'  and  tbe  enforcement  of  the  order 
for  the  reading  of  ths  "Book  of  Sports,"  compelled 
him  to  protest,  and  tn  leive  the  diocese.  He  than  re- 
ceived the  livin,!  of  lt.>chfard,  but  Id  1639,  having 
avowed  himself  a  l-resbyterian,  he  was  made  lecturer 
of  St.  Itlary's.  Aldermanbury,  in  London,  which  office 
he  filled  for  twenty  years.  In  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
trovorsies  of  the  times  he  liore  a  prominent  part  He 
joined  with  Slarshsll,  Youn^,  Mewcomen,  and  Spur- 
stow  in  writing,  under  the  Utle  of  Smtclgwmiua,  a  re- 
ply to  bishop  Hail'a  "  Divine  Right  of  Episcopacy.'' 
As  ■  preacher  Mr.  Calamy  was  greatly  admired,  and 
listened  to  by  persimsoftheflrst  distinction  during  the 
twenty  years  that  ha  officiated  in  St,  Mary's.  Ilia  ce- 
lebrity was  sn  well  esUblished  by  his  writing,  as 
well  us  by  tbe  distinguished  stiition  which  he  ocoupipil 
among  the  minlstenin  the  metr»pi>lis,  that  he  was  Kn^ 
of  tha  -Jivines  appointed  by  the  llnuse  of  Ixirds  in  ml 
to  deviaa  a  pUn  for  roconcilinic  the  differences  which 
then  divided  the  Church  in  regard  to  eccleaiaatical  dis- 
cipline. Thia  led  to  the  Savoy  Conference  (q.  v.),  at 
which  ha  appeared  in  support  of  some  alterations  in 
tha  Liturgy,  and  replied  to  the  reasons  urged  against 
them  by  the  Episcopal  divines.  As  a  member  of  the 
Westminster  Aasambly  (q.  v.),  ha  earnestly  opposed 
tbe  execution  of  king  Charles,  and  promoted  (be  rtf~ 
tontion  of  his  son,  who  made  him  one  of  his  chaplsins, 
and  ofTered  him  tba  sr«  of  Lichfield  and  Cnventri-, 
which  ho  refused.  When  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was 
paased  he  resigned  his  prefemient,  bat  refused,  like 
many  others,  to  gather  a  con.-regation,  preferrinic  reg- 
ularly to  attend  the  chufch  in  which  he  had  so  Ion)- 
officiated.  HediedOct.39,166G,orB  nervous  disorder 
occasioned  by  the  sight  of  the  misery  caused  by  the  Are 
of  Ijmdon.  He  published  Tht  r.nd'g  Mia-i  Art,  .•■'rr- 
m0MonPsa.eKix,TS(Lond.  t6»3.i;thed.  limo)t  TAr 
^a6i[-jnjn'<PaaFni(Li-nd.ll>IB,  lto),and  many  single 

Calamy,  Edmimd,  D.D.,  grandson  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  in  London  April  6, 1G71,     At  the 


CALAS 


18 


CALATRAVA 


■1^  of  KiraiitMti  he  vent  Id  tbe  Uiiivanity  of  Utrecbt, 
where  he  wu  pUced  under  the  tuition  of  the  diitio* 
([aiihed  proTeMon  De  Vria  and  QneriDa.  In  1S9I, 
nhen  Principal  Canton  WM  wnt  lo  HolUnd  in  qaest 
•if  K  gentleman  to  fill  a  profeuor'a  cbiir  in  the  Uni- 
yersity  of  Edinburffb,  he  applied  to  CaUmj-,  end  press- 
ed blm  to  accept  the  situation ;  but  be  declined  the 
honor,  though  soon  afterward  he  TOtumed  to  KngUnd 
for  tbe  parp»e  ofpanaing  hia  atudieiln  the  Bodleian 
Library.  In  1700  he  began  to  preach  among  the  Non- 
canfarnilstt,  and  id  1708  he  tooli  charge  of  a  enngrega- 
lion  In  Weitmlnstcr,  which  he  held  for  many  year*. 
In  1703  he  arranged  for  the  preu  SoKfr't  IJff  tmd 
Timrt,  which  publication  gave  rise  to  a  di*pu(e  be- 
tireen  Calamj-  and  Hoadley.  In  1709  he  was  made 
D.D.  by  the  oniTenities  of  Edinburgh,  Glat^w,  and 
Abeidean.  Aftar  a  lahorious  lir^  diTlded  between 
preaching  and  writing,  he  died,  June  S,  1732.     Among 

his  worka  an   Z)/»i!OBr»r»  nn  Imipiralirn  (Lond.  ITIO,  j  committniaworatotnap 
Kvn):— SemuuMitte  7W>n<:jF(Lond.  17!f,  Bvo)  :—A>- !  appeared  under  the  title  i 
fnat  rf  moderate  Noit-cimformit3(lamA.l'fii-&,ivo\t. .  run Hdtraun cum 
Nvo}:  — J^  Non-cOH/armid't  Mmorial  (Lond,  17«1, 1 1621,  4  vols,  fol.)- 
'1  MoXt-Syo)  ■.—HiiloTy  a/hU  L^e  and  Tbit^  edited  by  i  Ramaine  at  I^ood 
Kott  (Und.  lajfl,  a  vols.  8™).  '  ... 

CalBB,jF.AN,  in  unfurtunat 
of  the  Protertant  rallgion.  I 
hung  himself  in  a  At  of  meUncI 
father  was  aeized  as  guiltj- 

KTnand  that  his  ann  intended  to  emhrace  Romaniam 
the  next  day.  No  proof  could  be  offered  against  hitn, 
hut  the  fanatical  passion  of  the  mob  was  roawd.  The 
™rpee  waa  honored  aa  that  of  a  martyr.  "The  flergy 
exerted  all  their  influence  to  confirm  the  populace  in 
their  delusion.     At  Tottlonse  thi  -     ■       . 


Calw nMi  GicnrTB  (Jiwtfitw  a  matra  Drt), 
founder  of  the  aider  of  the  Ptarult  (q.  v.),  waa  bom  in 
AragoD  in  IWG.  Ha  entered  holy  ordera  In  158!,  anrl 
went  la  Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  protection  of 
Clement  VIII,  Paal  V,  and  Gregory  XV,  tbe  Utter  of 
whom,  after  the  new  wder  had  been  founded  liy  Cala- 
■anza,  named  blm  tnneral  of  it  in  IBH.  He  died  in 
IMIt.  and  vai  canoniied  in  1767.  He  ia  commemora- 
ted on  August  37.— Fehr,  GtiMclUe  d,  MBncktonlai, 
U,61. 

Cklasio.  Habio  di,  named  ttoai  a  vOlage  of  that 
name  in  the  Abmzio,  where  be  was  bom  in  lUO.  He 
became  a  Franctscan,  and  devotol  bimaelf  to  Hebi«w. 
in  which  be  aoon  became  k>  great  a  proficient  Ihtt 
Pope  Paul  V  made  him  D.  D.  and  proreasor  of  Hebrew 
at  Rome.  He  ia  beat  known  by  hk  Htbrrw  Conrord- 
amc*,  which  occupied  him  daring  forty  yeam,  ertn 
with  the  aid  of  other  learned  men.  He  waa  about  to 
he  died,  in  16!0.    It 

irui.«S^.(Bonie, 

Another  edition  waa  published  by 

n  In  1747,  but  It  Is  not  considered 

Dri6«.     Hf  la  Mid  to  have  died 

nl  of  Toulouae.  |  chanting  the  Psalma  In  Hebrew.— Sioj.  t.'»iw.  tI,  604. 

?s'T-^"'"tT'  '      Calatrava,  a  military  onler  of  Spain,  named  Itom 

'V  th   '**"  *"*"  °'  Calatrava,  in  Kew  Caatile.     It  bad  ita 

'_"._  ^'._°['_.._^  !  origin  In  the  following  circumttancca :  When  Alphon- 

ao,  tbe  Bitbrrof  Sancbci  III,  had  taken  the  town  of 

Calatrava,  in  1147,  from  the  Moors,  he  gave  it  to  the 

Templars  to  defend ;  but  when  it  wu  apread  abroad  In 

11&8  (hat  the  AT.iba  were  about  to  attempt  the  recap- 

*  tbe  place,  the  Templara  resigned  it  again  lo 


ebrated  with  great  solemnity  the  funeral  of  (he  young 
man,  and  the  Dominican  monks  erected  a  acaflbid  and 
placed  upon  il  a  akeletoii,  holding  in  one  hand  a  wreath  i 
ofpalma,  and  in  the  other  an  abjuration  of  Protestant- 
ism. The  bmily  of  Calas  was,  in  conacqueiicc  of  the 
popular  excitement,  brought  lo  trial  for  the 
'   everal  deluded  and  (mnat  probably)  — 


Sanchez,  who  thereupon  preaenlcd  it  to  Kaymond,  a 
hot  of  the  Cistercian  nionatttry  of  Si-  Mary.  Ibo 
Araba,  after  ail,  did  not  attempt  the  place;  but  many 
of  the  warrlori  who  had  lieen  drawn  together  for  ita 
defence  (as  well  aa  many  of  the  lay  brethren  of  llie 
convent)  entered  the  Cirterctan  order,  but  under  ■ 
'^!": '  habit  more  fit  for  military  exercifea  than  for  those  of 
■"i"™    _„..!..  ..,.1  ^..■.......^  ..  .k 1„  of  CaUlrai-a. 


iistnl  aa  the  order 


.ease,  appeared  againatthem.    A  Catholic  servant.    ^„  .^|      ►■,         Alexander  III  in  1164,  ao-i  mr- 

i,  and  the  young  man  Ijivavsse,  were  also  imnll-  ■  - .  v_  r- ^m  hut      ti.    i._.  l.      .  f 

d  in  the  accuastion      Calaa  i'nhi^  defence  Insisted   "nned  by  Gregory  VIH  1187.     The  knights  at  first 
..  __!/ !.:_..„.:.  .„  .11 1,.  „i.iu__ .  L^!^A^    "■""'  ■  "*'""  Mapolafr  '"^  ^"oi,  but 


I  all  bia  children;  reminded 
the  court  that  be  had  not  only  allowed  another  of  bia 
sons  lo  become  a  Catholic,  but  had  also  paid  an  annual 
sum  fbr  bis  mainlenanoe  since  hia  conversion.     He 
also  argued  tiom  hia  own  inflrmily  that  he  could  not 
have  prevailed  over  a  atrong  loung  man,  and  referred 
to  the  well-known  melancholy  mooda  of  the  decoaae>i 
oa  likelv  la  lead  lo  suicide;  and,  lainly,  he  poin 
the  imi^hability  thai  the  Catholic  !wrTan^mai<i 
assist  in  Buch  a  murder.     But  all  his  arguments 
unavailing,  and  tbe  Pari  lament  of  Toulouae  sentenced 


litfr.     In  1480,  Ft 


.pope  Benedict  XIII 
'        Veaa,  di!. 
^r-df. 
ind   lu-  ■- 


le  wretched  man— by  n  majority  ofeiuht  agaii 
—to  torture  and  death  on  the  wheel !  With  great 
Armneaa,  and  proteatations  of  hi*  innocence  to  tbe  last, 
the  old  man  died  on  the  wheel,  March  9,1763.  His 
property  waa  conflscsted.  His  youngest  son  waa  ban- 
iahed  for  life  from  France,  Iwt  waa  captured  by  llie 
monks,  and  compelled  to  abjure  Prolesuntlam.  The 
daughters  were  aent  lo  a  convent"  (ChamUra,  a.  v.). 
The  family  of  the  unhappy  man  retired  lo  Cencva,  and 
Voltaire  anbaequently  undertook  lo  defend  his  memorj-. 
Ho  aneceeded  In  drawing  public  attontinn  toward  the 
i-ircumatances  of  Ibe  case,  and  a  revision  of  the  trial 
was  granted.  Fifty  judges  once  more  examined  the 
^4Ct^  and  on  March  !>.  17r>5,  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
declared  Calai  altogether  innocent,  l-oiiis  XV  order- 
ed the  propotr  of  Calas  lo  he  re>lored  to  hia  family, 
and  made  to  Ibe  latter  a  present  of. '«>,0001ivrei>.  Tbe 
investigation  at  lart  led  tn  the  loUmliim  tdk*  at  I.onis 
XVI  in  1787.- Bungener.  Pririil  ond  llipimoi,  vol.  ii : 
Coquerel,  tjittolre  da  ^fiw  du  rUtn-l  (i  vols.  Paris, 
1M1):  Haag.£n/'rY™reP™rt«in«*e,lii.96;  foquerel, 
J™i  CiJat  H  ta  /.millt  (Paris,  IS5fl,  IJmo). 


nomination  of  thegrsndma — 

,.    pope,    Adrian  VI,  however,  annexed 
'     .the  grand  mastersiiip  of  thin  order  to 

■«>:,i. -n  of  Spain.     The  knighu  made . 

ind  conjugal  chastity  (for 


I  immaculate  conception  of  the  Bleaaed  Vlr^n.  Aa  a 
1  mnnaalic  order  the  inalitntion  haa  ceased  to  exlat,  but 
I  tbere  are  now  said  to  be  nearly  eighty  commanderiea  and 
,  priories  in  Spain,  genenlly  given  as  rewards  of  merit 


^Qmi^ 


CALCOL 

to  peUtiol  UniHtf.  Since  ISIB  tha  order  hid 
BiBi,  who  had  lu  provB,  before  being  adniiRed,  thci 
K«M  frooi  Dobla  hoiura.  Tbay  wore  the  Ami  ol 
Cbtardu  nam,  and  their  principal  monutery  wi 
Alnagn.  Tbaj  ue  now  lihewiBS  Mculaiized.^ — 
TVt.  Ordra  Xdig.  vdL  i ;  Landau,  Eai.  Diet.  ».  t, 

Cal'col  (1  ChroD.  U,  6).    Sm  Chalcou 

Calotttt*,  the  cafutal  of  Bengal,  and 
ne  of  the  Chnrch  of  EntfWd,  on  the  HcxigJ?.  I  be 
bittHipTie  wu  erected  in  1814,  and  the  bishc^  la  metro- 
pc^tan  of  India.  Tbe  iocumbent*  have  been.  1.  Tboni' 
»  FuBhaw  Hiddlecon,  Hav  8,  lBt4 :  2.  Ragioald  He- 
ber,  June  t,18!3;  S.John  T.  Jamea,  June  4,  tB37 ;  4. 
J.  HatChiu  Tamer,  Hay  17,  IBKI;  b.  Daniel  WlLmn, 
April  29, 1S32,  died  1BS8,  who  cnmmenced  tbe  building 
•fa  cathedra]  church,  and  the  foondation  of  a  chapter ; 
I.GeDT,(e  Edward  Lvnch  Cutton,  D.D.,  eoneecnted 
ISM:  7.  Ko  *rt  Milm'an,  February  2, 1B67.  CalcutU 
haa  been  the  centre  of  an  important  lyitem  of  Protes- 
tant BiHiuiu,  bith  English  and  Aueriuan.    See  Imdia. 

Caldoroii.    Ses  Kaluerdm. 

CaldBTWOOd,  DjtTiu.  a  Scotch  dirine,  wat  bora 
ii  1675,  and  in  IG04  became  mlnlrter  of  the  parl>hii£ 
rnaliDg.  When  James  tin  1617  aongbt  to  hrini;  the 
Seattiah  Cbnrcb  into  conformity  with  tbe  Church  of 
Kni^nd,  Calderwnad  vat  etreDuons  in  oppoaltlon. 
Pervecution  and  threat)  harin)c  biled  to  ahlke  Calder- 
vsod,  he  waa  Imprianned,  and  afterwird  baniahcd. 
He  retired  to  Hollind,  where  he  puMiahed  Alljre  />n- 

1S13,  beat  ed.  170$,  4t<>),  in  wblcb  he  enten  into  a  f^ll 
(xaninatiaa  of  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, ita  gDverament,  ceremoniea,  and  connectioD  with 
the  atate.  The  work  made  a  K^>'  imprenion  at  the 
time,  and  vaa  tranilited  into  Engliih  under  the  title 
of  Tkt  AUar  o/  Dammcai,  or  tKe  PatUmof  llu  fc'njfiiA 
nimtrdig  tmd  CkmrM  dbtndtd  upon  lite  Church  ofScol- 
lt»d  (1621,  llmo).  A  report  having  been  spread  that 
Calderwood  wu  dead,  a  nun  named  Patrick  Scot  pnb- 
liihed  a  pretended  recantation,  with  the  title  "Calder- 
wood'a  Bacantation,  directed  to  aucb  in  Scotland  as 
nfnaa  CaafoTmit]'  to  tbe  Ordinances  of  the  Church" 
<  Untiaa,  1S2S).  Calderwood,  In  the  mean  time,  had  i 
ralamed  aecretl?  to  Scotland,  where  be  lived  aome 
vean  In  coDcealmgnL  He  cnllected  the  materials  for 
■  mdarjB/lke  Kirk  o/Scillin-l,  which  he  left  Id  MS., 
and  which  has  been  pablished  br  the  iroodnw  Soei- 
fif  (Edinb.  1S4S-9,  8  vob.  »ya\  From  the  materials 
of  thia  work  Calderwood  wrote  bja  Trv.  Hitlory  "/the 
Chm*  of  8cMjKi/mm  H;  B'g»ntg  n/lhe  Rrforma- 
nmnttlJu  £mi"/aeltti^n/Jamrt  I'/ (1678,  fol.j. 
He  died  abom  1650. 

CKldrOU,  pnp.  a  large  cooking  vesael,  is  tha  ran- 
d-risg  IB  oertsin  paasages  of  the  Aath.  Vers,  for  the 
fullowing words:  1. ';'i?|lN,a;inH'(Jobili,20[l!]),  a 
heated  ktllt,  othem  a  burning  rted  ("rub"  else- 
whers);  I.  14^,  (M(S  Chron.  xxxt,  IB;  "pat,"Jab 
iH.  »  [la};  Paiu  Ixxii,  6;  "  kettK"  1  8am.  11,  14), 
a  laqe  Mto- (alM>  a  "ba»ket")i  3.  I-*,  .li- (Jer.  lil, 
Ifl.  19;  Enk.  xl,  8,  7,  II,  elsewhere  "pot"),  the  moat 
B^Mfal  tern  for  ■  keKia  or  lMain(al»a"tlKim");  4. 
rni^,  hiJtaiA'alk  (1  Sam.  11,  14;  MIc.  iii,  3),  a  pan 


9  CALDWELL 

or  pot  C*o  called  from  pouring) ;  6.  \iffiK  (i  Mace,  vi^ 
8),  a  JkOU,  in  this  case  a  lai^  caldron  for  torture. 
Metallic  vessels  of  this  description  luve  been  obtained 
trom  theniinsofE^ypt,andstill  more  lately  two  cop- 
par  caldrons  were  discovered  by  Mr.  I*y«d  among 
the  excavations  at  Nimrond  (iV«.  aitdBab.  p.  149  sqS 
about  3}  feet  ia  diameter,  and  S  feet  deep,  reslin;;  upon 
a  stand  of  brick  work,  with  their  mouths  closed  by 
1  irgo  til»,  and  containing  a  variety  of  smaller  bronie 
otijecta.     See  Pot. 

Caldwell,  David,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  In  Lancanler  county.  Pa.,  March  2i,  1726, 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1761.  and  wsi  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  Now  Brunswick  Presbytery  in  176S. 
Being  ordained  In  17S.%  he  became  pastor  of  tbe  con- 
Kregatinns  of  Doir.lo  and  Alamance,  N.  C,  In  1768. 
In  1776  be  waa  a  member  of  tbe  Convention  which 
formed  tbe  State  Constitution,  and  some  yean  later 
ha  declined  Iho  oRcr  of  the  presidency  of  tbe  Dnl- 
vareityuf  North  Carolina,  by  wbkhinstitc''      ' 


nade  D.D.  i 


1010.     He  died  Aug.  !6,  I 


n  U* 


fttjaae  Caldra.    Frsis  the  t^tHtin  Hemslu 


lOOtb  year. — Sprsgue,  A  mmU,  ii 

Caldwall,  Tamea.  a  Presbyterisn  minister,  wag 
born  in  Chsrlntte  county,  Va.,  17S4,  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1769,  and  in  1761  was  ordained  pastor  of 
tho  PrcBliyleriim  church  of  Eliiabeaitown,  S.  J.  At 
tbe  Revolution  he  entered  with  spirit  into  the  con- 
troversy, and  was  soon  branded  as  s  rebel ;  and  on  the 
formation  of  tbe  Jersey  brigade,  be  vis  at  once  select- 
ed as  its  chaplain.  Tbroagliout  tho  war  be  suAred 
severely;  toward  tho  close  of  It,  his  church  was  bnmt 
and  his  wife  murdered  liy  the  enemy.  The  people  r»- 
posod  great  conlidenoo  In  him,  and  his  labors,  counsels, 
and  exhortations  were  of  great  assistance  to  tbe  cause 
he  had  espi>Dsed.  This  honored  patriot  was  killed  in 
]7H1,  Dt  Eliza  hethpnrt.  I  y  a  drunken  soldier  named 
Moripui,  who  was  tried,  convicted,  and  bang  upon  the 
chiir,ni  of  murder.  Caldwell  was  a  man  of  unwearied 
activity  and  of  wonderful  powers  at  endurance.  Aa 
a  pnvcber  he  was  nni;ommonly  eloquent  and  (latbetlc. 
— Sprague,  .4iMab,  iii,  3K. 

Caldwall,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, the  aothor  of  a  iS^pitest  ^  c7«iiK>r)F  and  a  TVaottM 
b/  Ftane  Trigntunrtrliy,  was  bom  in  Lamington,  N.  J^ 
April  31.  1773,  graduated  at  Princeton  1791,  and  be- 
came PmreSBiir  at  Mathematics  at  the  Uiiiverntv  of 
North  Carolina  in  1796,  in  which  same  year  he' waa 
licensed  as  a  Pretbylerian  minister.  Fmm'l804  till  his 
dealh,Jan.!4, 1835,  with  an  intermission  of  Hre  years, 
he  was  Presiilcnt  of  the  University,  and  to  bis  exer- 
tions it  owes  the  respectable  position  which  it  no*  oc- 
cupies.— Sprague,  AiaidU,'\y,  173. 

Caldwell,  Mmtltt  A.H.,  Protessor  of  Hetapbya. 
Ics,  was  born  In  Hebron,  Me.,  Nov.  29,  1806.  His 
early  education,  both  religious  and  academical,  was 
veiy  carefully  conducted,  and  ho  (fraduated  with  hon- 
or at  Bowdnin  College  in  ir  " 
became  principal  of  the  H 
Readfleld.  In  IP34  ho  was  elected  rrofessor  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Vice-presidrnt  of  Dickinson  College,  Pa. 
In  18S7  he  was  transferred  to  tbe  chair  of  Metaphyslo 
and  English  Literature,  which  he  occupied  daring  tha 
rest  of  his  nfe.  He  soon  became  known  as  a  strong 
thinker  and  excellent  writer  bv  bis  elaborate  contribu- 
tions to  the  Mtlhodiit  QuarieHg  Rniea.  Nor  did  his 
devotion  to  Uteratnre  prevent  him  tmm  taking  an  in- 
terest in  the  moral  questions  of  the  times;  and  in  the 
cause  of  temperance  especially  his  labors  were  abun- 
dantandeven  excessive.  In  1846  he  visited  England 
as  a  delegau  to  the  "World's  Convention."  which 
formed  the  "  Evangelical  Alliance,"  and  took  an  active 
part  in  its  proceedings.  His  health,  which  had  pre- 
vionsly  been  impaired,  was  apparently  improved  by 
his  European  tour,  but  In  IMi  it  failed  again,  and  he 
died  June  G.  184»<.  Professor  Csblv'-n  was  a  man  of 
uncommonly  firm  and  mascnline  character.     As  a  pr^ 


CALDWELL  2 

fttior  and  collega  officer  he  hud  fair  snperion ;  w  a 
writer,  b«  wu  tlwayB  clear,  luf(ic*l,  nod  forcible. 
Huif  of  his  eontrlliutioDi  to  the  periodic^  pma  weie 
ufrartaxcellence.  Hn  Uto  palMibia  Manual  o/ Sl- 
octtlioo,  OKluding  Voice  and  Galun  (Ptiiia.  IMS,  IVmo, 
oftwi  rvprinted),  perh»p»  the  bert  fasnil-bDok  of  the  lub- 
iectexUDU—FUloK>pligo/aruliamPer/.ctiaH['biU. 
1847.  lemn),  "  a  model  of  clear  lhinkiii|(  and  Ibrcjl.le 
eufnsfion-.-'—ChritliaMflnledtgeminaaJ/.niS.-Y. 
1852,  ISma):— Tie  Dodriwnflh:  Aif/ZMA  i  >/*  (1S87, 
Itmoi—Utrtodiit  QKarbrig  Bcniv,  lUbi.  p.  bU. 

CalAvrM,  Zsnaa,  brother  of  Merritt, »  ■>  Iwrn  in 
Ileliron,  Oxford  coimty,  He.,  on  the  Slpt  «f  llarcli, 
]iWO,  grjiduuted  at  Bowdoia  College  in  IF24,  and  »ocin 
LtliT  lesilnj  collefre  look  churge  of  tbc  Arademv  of 
IlallDwrll.  In  IBio  he  was  Ucensed  a«  a  toekl  prraclh 
er,  and  far  moKt  of  the  time  of  hia  connertion  with 
Ihe  Hallowell  Academy  ha  supplied  the  Uethodi-t  ciin- 
grei^tioa  in  Winthrop.  In  the  aame  year  ho  vi« 
unaniniously  elected  principal  of  the  new  MetLodiFt 
SeminaT.v  at  Kent's  Hill,  Readflald,  Me.,  and  proved 
himaelf  almndantly  adequate  to  any  nervice  that  de- 
vulveil  opnn  him.  Rut  bli  ohoU  work  waa  tobe  pir- 
formed  within  fix  month*  ;ihii  lunKs  became  oerioio'y 
aflected,  and  he  dl3d  triumphiintly  on  Dec.  9G,  183S. 
In  185&  a  small  dundecimo  rolame  by  the  Rev.  S.  H . 
Vail,  D.D.,  was  jiubtished,  cDnlaining  a  n.eaiolr  and 
•cversl  of  his  productions,  in  priise  and  poetry.  — 
Sprague,  AmnU,  vli,  699  sq. 

Ca'leb  (Heh.  AT.i&i',  3^^,  appar.  for  3???,  a  dog), 

RAT.iH ;  Meoeb^aubb. 

1.  (Sept.  XaUli.)  The  lant-named  of  the  three  sons 
of  Bezron„Judah'B  Knndson  (1  Chron.  ii.  S,  where  be 
ia  called  ChelubaO.  Hia  three  sons  by  hia  flrat  wife, 
Azabah  or  Jerloth  (q.  v.),  are  enumerated  (ver.  18); 
ha  bad  also  anotber  son,  Hur,  by  a  Uter  wife,  Ephrath 
(ver.  19;  perh^aonly  the  oldest  of  several,  ver.  60); 
beEiides  whom  Bnattier(hia  "  Rnt-bom"}  ia  named  (ver. 
42,  by  what  wife  is  uneeruin),  in  addition  lu  several 
by  his  concubines  Ephah  and  Muchah  (var.  4R,  4S). 
B.C.  post  1856.  The  text  i*  possibly  comipt,  howev- 
er, in  some  of  these  diatiDctlons. 

2.  (SepL  XoXif?.)  A  "sonofHnr,  Ihe  first-born  of 
Ephntab"  above  named  (and  therefore  the  |{n.nd»an 
of  the  preceding),  according  to  1  Chron.  ij,  60,  where 
his  aona  are  enumerated.  B.C.  ante  1668.  S 
however,  have  Identtliad  him  with  the  foregoing, 
poain,C  a  corruptian  in  the  text. 

3.  (Sept.  XAKii3,  but  XoXif)  in  1  Chron.  il,  49;  Ec- 
clna.  xlvi,  9;  1  Mace,  ii,  56j  v.  r.  XaXoi-j.^  In  1 
xx;<,U:JosephiuXdXi^<H','<'>'-iii,14,4,olc.)  UsuaBy 
called  "  the  son  of  Jephnnneh"  (Num.  xiii,  6,  and  else- 
where [see  JkpiidskbhJ),  sometimes  with  the  addition 
"ihe  Keneiite"  (Num.  :ix^ii,  IS;  Jo*K  xiv,  0,  U\ 
from  uhich  some  have  hastily  Inferred  that  he  may 
have  been  a  Ibrelgncr,  and  on]y  pme'grtd  to  iuAtinn. 
See  KeN.iX.  Caleb  ia  first  mentioned  in  tlie  liet  of 
the  mlers  or  princes  (K'bS).  called  in  the  next  verse 
(D''^X^)  "  headis"one  fhmi  each  tribe,  who  were  sent 
to  senrch  tlie  land  of  Canaan  in  the  second  year  of  the 
F.xode  (B.C.  I«57),  where  it  may  lie  noted' that  these 
officers  are  all  different  from  those  named  in  Num.  i, 
ii,  vi't.  X,  as  at  that  time  phylarcba  of  tho  tribes.  Ca- 
leb was  one  of  these  fsmilv  chieftains  in  the  tHI-e  of 
.Indah,  perhaps  as  chief  of  the  family  of  the  lleiron- 
ius,at  the  same  time  that  N'ahshon,  the  son  of  Ammina- 
dab,  wag  prince  of  the  whole  tril>».  He  and  Ophna  ni 
Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  were  the  only  two  of  tbc 
whole  number  who,  on  their  return  from  Canaan  Ic 
Kadeah-Barnea,  encourai^ed  the  people  to  enter  tn  l<old' 
ly  la  the  land,  and  take  pOFSei'sinn  of  it.  for  which  aii 
of  faithfulness  tbey  narrowly  evaned  utonlng  at  the 
bands  of  the  infuriated  people.  In  the  pla^fne  that  rn- 
sned,  wliile  the  other  ten  spies  perished,  Caleb  anil 
Joshua  alone  were  spared      Horeover,  while  it  wat 


0  CALENDAR 

announced  to  the  congregation  by  Hoaea  that,  fbr  this 
rebellious  niur.nurin^,  .11  that  had  been  namber*d 
from  twenty  years  old  and  upward,  except  Joataua  and 
Cale^,  should  parish  in  the  wildemeea,  a  special  prom- 
ise waa  made  to  Ihe  latter  that  he  should  survive  to  ea- 
ter into  the  land  which  ha  luul  trodden  upon,  and  that 
his  seed  should  posseis  il.  Accordingly,  forty-Evp 
years  afterward  (It.C.  IGl:),  nben  some  progrrm  bad 
■■sen  made  in  the  cnnHUot  of  the  land,  Caleh  came  lo 
Joshua  and  reminded  bim  of  what  had  happened  at 
Kadesh,  and  of  the  promise  uhich  Hoaes  nude  to  him 
Kilh  tn  oath.  He  addoil  that  though  he  was  now 
ei^hty-Ave  years  old  (hence  he  was  ijom  B.C.  Ifi9fl), 
he  waa  as  strong  as  in  the  day  when  tlosea  rent  him 
to  spy  out  the  bnd,  and  he  claimed  possession  of  the 
land  of  Ihe  An^kim,  Kiijatb-Arlia.  or  Uet  ron,  and  tht 
ndgbhoring  bJII-coontry  (Joeh.  xiv).  Ibis  was  im- 
mediately granted  lo  him,  and  the  foUowing  chapter 
rrlates  that  he  took  possession  of  Heliron,  driving  out 
the  three  aons  of  Anak ;  that  ha  offered  Achsah,  his 
dau  htiT,inmBrTiage(romp.lSam.ivii,S6;  Hvgin, 
/"oi.  07)  to  whoevpT  would  take  Kir^th-Sepher,  i.  c. 
Debir;  and  that  when  Othniel,  hia  younger  tirotber, 
had  performed  the  feat,  he  not  only  gave  bim  his 
daughter  to  wife,  but  with  her  the  npper  and  Detbrr 
springt  of  water  wbieb  she  ashed  fi>r.  After  this  we 
hear  no  tnore  of  Caleb,  nor  is  the  t^me  of  his  death  re- 
corded. But  we  learn  frrm  Josh.  xxi.  lit,  that,  in  the 
diMrlbntion  of  cities  out  of  Ihe  different  Iribea  for  thr 
priests  and  Levitea  to  dwell  in,  Hebron  fell  to  the 
priests,  the  children  of  Aamn,  of  the  ft-mily  of  the  Ko- 
hathites,  and  was  also  a  city  of  rehigr,  while  the  anr- 
rounding  territory  continued  to  be  tlie  pMsesiuon  nf 
Caleb,  at  least  aa  late  aa  the  time  of  David  (1  Sam. 
XXV,  8).  being  still  called  by  his  name  (I  Sam.  xxx. 
14\  Hia  descendanU  are  called  CaUMeM  ('3^3  for 
■aVs,  Kalitbi',  1  Sam.  ixv,  3 ;  Sept.  trantlatea  as  if 
a  paronomasia  were  Intended,  mvicdc,  Aath.  Ven>. 
"  bouw  of  Caleb"}.  Hia  name  seems  to  be  inserlnl 
in  1  Chron.  ii,  49,  by  way  of  distinction  from  the  oth- 
ers in  the  same  list.     Sec  Ewald,  /<r.  Cesnt.  ii,  ii6  tq. 

Cft'Ieb-eph'ratah,  a  name  occurring  only  in  the 
present  text  of  1  Chron.  ii.24,aBthat  of  a  place  where 
Heiron  died  (ITT^BK  aV:^,  fte-A'oM'  Efkra'ik'A, 
in  CatA  lo  EpknUh).  But  no  SDch  place  ia  elewheie 
referred  In,  and  the  composition  of  (he  name  ia  a  most 
ungrammatical  one.  Again,  neither  Hetron  or  his 
•on  could  well  have  given  any  name  to  a  place  in 
Egypt,  the  Lnil  of  their  bandage,  nor  did  Heiron  prob- 
ably die, ur  his  son  live,  elsewhere  than  in  Eg}- pt.  The 
presentlextth?refareieems  to  be  corrupt,  and  tin  read- 
ing which  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  suggest  (,!,^iiv  XoXi.ri 
hV  'BftioSn,  MtjTfsnu  ttl  Ciii'h  ad  Frkiivkt')  is  proii- 
ahly  the  tme  one,  via.,  nr^BX  SS=  X3.  nieening 
either  "Caleb  came  to  Ephrath,"  i  e.  Itethlehem- 
Ephratah),  or.  elill  better,  "  Caleb  came  in  onto  Eph- 
rah."  Tho  whole  information  i^ven  seems  to  be  that 
Heamn  had  two  wives,  the  first.  whoH  name  is  not 
given,  the  mother  of  Jerabmeel,  Ram,  and  Caleb  or 
Chelti1)ai;  the  aecond,  Abiah,  the  daughter  of  Hacbir, 
whom  he  married  when  sixty  years  old.  and  who  Ian- 
him  Seguband  Ashnr.  Also  that  Caleb  had  two  wives, 
Asuhah,  the  firri,  apparently  the  same  aa  Joriotfa,  and 
Ephrab,  the  second,  the  mother  of  Hnr;  and  that  this 
second  marriage  of  Caleb  did  not  take  place  till  aflf  r 
lleimn'sdcath.    See  Nkokb-Calkk 

Calendar,  Jkwibh.  J.  JftArfv  /.vnot-  Cabwkt 
n/ffoili  ami  Failt.—Ttie  year  of  tbe  Hebrews  is  com- 
poeed  of  twplve  (and  occasionally  of  thirteen)  larur 
months,  of  thirty  and  twenty-nine  days  alternately. 
The  year  liegins  in  autumn  as  to  the  civil  year,  and  in 
the  -prin'--  as  to  the  sacred  year.  The  Jew»  had  al- 
endars  anciently  wherein  were  noted  all  the  feasbi,  all 
the  fasts,  and  all  the  days  on  which  Ihcy  celebrated 
the  memorj-  of  any  great  event  that  had  lu|)pencd  to 


CALENDAR 


21 


dM  Mlictt  <Z«fa.  vilt,  19;  E«tb.  Tui,  fl,  In  Gntc.). 
nut  uricnt  ulemLin  are  MirDStitnra  qaaud  in  tin 
TtlBud  ()ti*bn«,  Tuaitilk,  8),  but  tha  rmblilni  uknowl- 
(dga  that  tbej  >n  not  now  in  txing  (ms  Humonldea 
Md  Butaoora,  in  loc.)-  Tfaoae  that  tra  biv«  now, 
•kMhar  |Bintad  or  In  uumnacript,  aie  nut  vary  ancienl 
(■•  tiotdnr.  Bibliol.  Kabihie.  p.  St9 1  Buxtorf,  letit. 
Tdtmi  ^  1046;  Butolorci,  Bibl.  Rabbmic.  ii,  G&O; 
Uar'f  liitfodartUm  la  tkt  Seriplart;  and  Tlaiibiv.  /an- 
^  ioMb.  ad  An.).  Thi-t  which  piaaea  for  tha  old- 
■1  k  llrgiBak  Taamlk,  "the  voluma  of  affliction," 
•kkh  omlaiDa  tba  daja  of  fea«ting  and  <aating  here- 
Idbn  is  UK  anton);  the  Jewp,  which  are  not  now  al 
Krrad,  »  are  thp;  hi  tba  common  calendan.  W 
kn  inwrt  tb«  chief  hiatnricl  event),  t^lten  as  wal 
bia  thb  vdnme,  Taau'lk,  aa  rrum  othtr  calsndafi 
Iha  Jewiah  moDtha,  however,  luve  been  jilaced  on 
lauciBn  latrr  ttuo  tb«  rabbinical  compariaon  of  them 
■ilh  Iba  madem  or  Jnlian  nicmtba,  In  Hccordanco  with 
the  eaaclnaiaiia  of  J.  D.  UicbaelU,  In  bia  treatita  |)ub- 
bikad  hj  tha  Boyal  Soc.  of  GOttinKcn.  See  Moktu. 
Fir  tba  detaJLi,  compare  each  month  In  it«  [ilpha)>etic<i1 
lilwx.  S«  alwi  CfiMea  BiUtra,  vol.  Iv,  and  the  fol- 
iMriBgfcnnal  trMtlaea:  Cltaitr,  Dt  fortta  toad  Ho- 
'  'a(ViteM71b-);  DntAt,  Amuu  Jwlaietu 
V.K):  Fiacher,CeinH»/rBSn»r.(Viteh.IT10)i 
tUMuao,  De  emU  Jadxarva  dU  (t.ipa.  i;03);  KUu- 
■iag,/>f/nM  ammi  palriarekanm  (Viteh.  1716)  j  RO- 
Kbd.  id.  (Vitab.  1K>?);  Ijinibanacn,  Dt  meme  rrtl. 
BA  la*ari  (Jan.  i;i3)  j  I.aml,  De  witmaut  BArttor. 
lAhOK  lliH):  N>t(el<  ^  Cufeadn'M  (v«.  HthTaor. 
lAhrf.  1746);  Seldcn,  At  attiu  n'n/i /Tcimn'.  (Unil. 
1(M) :  Sommal,  Dr  and  IIAraoT.  teeirt.  H  dv.  (I.ond. 
rtn);  Strurh,  Dr  m  o  Bibmor.  tecUmttleo  (Vll*h. 
1(S>) :  Voa  Uompach,  (Trkn-  dm  aO.  Jidim*.  Katauk} 
(Bnbatl,  1S«8).      Sea  Tixe. 

ABIB  <v  MSAN. 
n>;(n(  aM  -rk  a'  Uo  awxid  rw,  Ui  i 
■I  fmr:  it  ku  Otirtu  iigr,  Bad  onwi 


atOia  Bi«  far  Lka  PhaWllw. 


CALENDAR 

The  leniod  PaaBTer,  In  tlTor  ef  tbiva  who  cou 
■brat*  the  llrHi,  on  iha  15ih  ot  the  fnragalBa;  m 
A  feaat  (or  the  uklng  ol  the  dtr  of  Gasa  bf 

i€«li»u.(Catom(,  Scallg.;  1  »f---    -  "'   "    ' 
'  IheuklngaDd  purlflulloa  of 
II  br  the  Hwxabeai  (i/aJwolr- 

nllw  out  of  Jar— —  •-^- 
n  ( Vi7.  r-amll 


ar  of  S^onlui 


4^44);  or 


blM  iiroilL    The  I 
n.-A  foM  ^  IHa  1 


E  hyinoi 


bi.'A  ttvfl  moMh;  tfdrty  tfi; 


Fwul  nf  Wsakis  bi 


of  the  pmhlMtkiB  by  Jeri 
JO,  fu  bWdinp  thein  lo  i 


Uioflhenbbllu 
iwon,  ton  nf  Cim'^liHl  [•hioael.  «m  ttf  Ellahii;  and 
aalna,  the  high.prlwt'i  ilcpaly. 

fiior  of  the  Jen  br  Aleiaii4cr  the  Creal  egaiBit 
,  IihiDnclliiH,  -hn.  br  rlniit  M  their  Unhrlght, 
LLbtohiapoMeft^onoftheSDdufOauq;  agabiitttba 

I  aiiaiDrt  Ih*  Kgypltan",  who  demandjid 


mlion  of  tha  chlMnn  "f  Jethodl,  nf  Ih* 
.ho,  ■(>«■  lh>  redim  from  the  captlrtlr. 


iif  tha  Aaddur4«s  en 


CALENDAR 

ELUU 


KlUulK;  bututh 


.fAl« 


mlihl  lun  been  defernd  to  the 

frl^iog  {M'-mLnaiuU,;  S«ii 

1T.-A(uihr  the  duih  of  the  >] 

report  <if  the  lnodof  prHuir«(Ni- —  _  ,  _.  . 

A  fefui  Ed  nraembrBUfi  ot  the  eipuL-loD  of 
mam  [rmther  the  Greekc].  who  irould  hiie  on 
■he  Hnbrew"  from  dimtjIih),  u 
duiihtere  of  lanet.    When  Ihej  inwnaeu  v  lur  *lv> 
lence  tonrd  Judtlb.  the  only  duichtor  nC  tlutuhlu, 
he,  irllb  the  ee>i>wnt«  of  hta  eons  orereene  them,  ■nd 


the  Br*  of  the  >1ur  o 


■rb*  mlntned  thus  by  puUIng  Ihrni  to  deelh ;  for  then 
Jiidnm  wu  [D  the  nuMulm  el  Ihe  Oenlllv.  ThFy  ■!- 
■owed  thv*  irtcked  IuwIIih  thne  '  .  .    - 

u  they  ihowed  do  •Ieu  of  repent 

(From  the  heKhming  to  the  enf 
nrnet  !b  FDunded  to  went  «f  the  e 
j«r.J    BeeYtAii. 

ETUAMM  «  TISRI. 
TAi  termlh  Ktrrd,  Jlrtl  eMI  manU  ,- 


1,  n. 

S.— Futtor  the  death  of  Gedelbib  (1  ElDgi : 
ilLI). 

The  Hme  dir,  the  ebdltka  of  <rritl( 
The  irleked  Hnge  hutlnf  furUdden  Uie 

to  liberty  Ihs  A«iwinMn»  or  Mimnbre<  ordejoed  f-- 

Dili  menner:  "In  lurh  •  ye.ir  of  the  Illgh-prlMt 

JihIk»  la  vhom  lh<v«  vrlllng'  wen  pnvenlsA  deer 

■  day,  aiKh  ■  debtor  ehrdl  pay  lucb  e  budIi  eocord 
la  hii  ptohl-a,  alter  which  the  Hhedule  shall  be  tor 
Bui  It  n*  fbund  tliat  the  name  of  Ood  was  taken  a< 
oul  af  the  wriilnir,  ud  thita  (be  whole  became  dm 
■nd  IneAHliial ;  lor  which  naroD  th«y  aboUabed 
the>4  written  cnnuracla,  and  appolnled  a  fMlTal  daj 
memory  of  U  {Miaill.  'jWd'A,  c  I). 

e,— Tlie  death  of  twenty  IiraelliH.  KabU  Aklba,toii 
Joaeph,  dlea  In  priun. 

T AfaitoD  account  of  Ihe  wonhlpphiE  the  goMen  e 


■t  c^TaberoacleAi  with  itM  octare  (Lev.  axUI, 
9  revenlh  day  of  tbe  Feaii  of 


flnt-friilta  (Lev 
the  altar,  but  to 

ulll,  17. 18)  were  not  u  be  nflhi 
be  eaten  hot  {MrgiU.  Tbm.  e.  S). 

UHlSLItU. 

mnmiti  tarril. 

Mnf  cfti«I  vumlh;  thirty  doBt! 

lay  L  -New  mooa,  or  the  flrsi  day  afthe  month. 
S.-A  leait  In  nionury  of  the  [dnU  which  the  Armoi 

threw  oul  of  the  coutv,  where  Ihe  OeniUei  had 

IhemiJfBrfU.  ■ramUI.X 
•.—A  fail  In  nenioyct  theboakofJemnlab,  tor 

the  Teniple  ol  Jeniialfoi,  and  to  aeli  them  a  pan  i4 
MouDl  Uortah,  which  trtiuert  Akiaudar  BTanleJ.  But 
the  high'prlbit  of  Iho  Jewa  afterward  prerenllniE  hhii. 

eDtrvalod  lilD  iw<  io  iiineT  llie  Bamarttanft  to  deftn-y 
Ihe  Temple.    ThpklnRrtplM  tohhu  thai  be  ddheied 

llaDU  of  JeniHlna  took  the  SamirllaBr,  bored  a  hole 
thnuEh  Ihoir  heeU.  ■di>,  tylni;  tbrm  to  Iheir  hanni' 
talhs  dragped  Uiem  alceu  la  Mount  Gerlibn,  which  llwy 
plaoKbed  and  sowed  with  Wro.,  Jiwl  as  the  !isnur4tsn> 
'^ If  Temple  of  Jtnmlnn.    In 


to.— The  dedlcallou  ot 


.1  they  hutiluled  Ifals  h 
In  iCaltadar  lU 


newing  of  ILe  Temple,  piofuwd 
'  omer  or  Aniiocniu  tpl^nDea,  and  purlflvd  by  Ju- 
IS  Hacralvni  (1  Here.  Iv,  et ;  >  Hi.cc.  IL,  !•:  John 
tli.    Thit  foMl  Is  kept  with  Its  orlale.     Jorephua 


thai  a  Irn  tlM  y  we:e  «nploy«t  tn  deantint;  theTmiple, 
aflrr  II  had  been  profaned  by  Ihe  Oreeka,  they  IoudA 
Ihera  only  one  small  phlal  of  all,  naled  up  by  tbe  hl|;h. 
p-4e«l,  which  would  hardly  aufflee  Io  kwp  In  Ihe  IsniH  hi 
mndiaanHnlitM:  bHlOodpermllledtballlfhouUlast 
Hveral  dayo.  iVll  lliey  bad  time  In  make  n»n,  In  mem. 
cry  of  which  the  Jews  ItRhled  up  >erenil  Ismpa  In  Ibelr 

S8n,S?S  n-'I.Hb.lll.ttp.lII.)  Ulhers  affirm  (as  thr 
>e/i»'ii>(inil»'i'iirT',  alMThcaiaa  Acjulnsa  and  Cardt 

Feast  r?I.I||hls  was  s  memorial  of  lliat  lie  fnni  hnv- 


T™ 


lib.  Ill,  cup.  ia.1  But  it  le  doubled  whether  this  oii«1it 
to  be  iiiHJsrrlaod  of  Judith,  dau|[hter  of  Iterarl,  who 
killed  tMofemea,  or  of  another  Judith,  daairhur  of 

Nlcanor,  SB  Ihcy  tell  at,  (See  Gani.  Zmiaeh  Daritl; 
MlUenir.  4,  an.  6il.  el  spud  Mc'en,  Dr  SvanlTil'.  lib. 
ill.  cap.  1^  n.  11.)    Thh-  larl  Jitriith  b  known  only  In 

In  the  Haccabeea  ar  In  Jeeephua,    But  lliere  l>  great 
liki-llhoDd  that  Ihe  Jewa  have  eliered  the  lirMkhlMory 
of  Judith  laplareHIn  the  time  of  Judae  Ma«*l*Da. 
A  prayer  for  nia.    TInw  of  aowlng  hi  giaB  In  Jiidwa. 


faned  by  the  fJroek", 


Msrzzz 

mptiniy. 


II  y  tThnrtdayT],  end  the 
B  lOiInuIiir,  ed.  fiaito- 
•toDM  of  the  altar,  Ino- 

I:  W-T/f U. Ihnn. c SI. 


dayawereovan; 


■/J*«iAinorFi™trAa 


er  Jannrna.     Rabbi  W 


r..!.  wl»,  flylBB 

n«-,ki0BrflhB 

Im,  mini  toBJ  Um  rttj  ttt  Kmn]L 

IB  A'«bi.;  bill. 

^— A  (not  Ib  nemotr  of  the  nJn  obfail 

Vh     the  dM^  1i«  Dd 

(ke  r-I.  wliir  at  Slgnlui  wiu  ll 

IS.— A  liul  In  eoaiDwDHinllnB  of , 

WT  vWrt  iIh  Ubk>  o<  Orwre  h>d  forMiMni 


u  lion  the SM. 


r*.i^r.     Bee  Ywam. 

It.  MaJim  JiAm  CiJntdar  of  lit  Trmpotitm  rmd 
AfiaJtmral  Prodrndi  i^PataHimt/or  rarik  jVdMA  of  lie 
rw.— TbaM  w«n  flnt  cwefully  eallected  by  J.  G. 
Babh,  In  a  pri»  WMy  praMntod  to  tbe  Royal  Society 
•f  G<UtlD|{aii,  prtntad  Id  Latin  smoui;  ttaeli  tnnuc- 
lieu  Dnder  tin  title  CiJrMkirriim  Paktiiitm  O'.eamomi- 
no  (1:85),  ud  tnuUted  at  la^a  by  Hr.  Taylor  ir 
tti  Fro^mealt  aild«d  to  bii  •diUon  DrCaimet't  Dicttim- 
Tjl^tSS  tq.),  ef  whidi  the  inbfaiiMd  «3tH>p*i>  is  an 
UvidKOMOt.  MiuJi  Tiltubla  UbniMtioB,  nlmilarly 
■Maiaed  fnm  Orientil  itinenriea,  combiDed  with  per-    !ifi[  "rldlps  rui 


JANUARY. 

mun  uTltw  Hiere  Id  dlfTenol  xUiiatloDh '^'tIiwii  ^  fie- 
r1Li«wJvad  In  matt  pLacH.     In  tlie  plain  of  Jwicho  th*  ctdd 

(e  thdrjouriMy.     Tbt  wind  iigtnflnily  Donb  or  «■«(. 
Pn^aetiow.^^'n  kindt  of  grain  or  com  iire  now  lunriL 
L«  benDt  are  In  bloovpni,  Hnd  Ireei  in  leaf.     I^Tiiefitappaani 
»  blcMoni  of  the  ■Imond  tiere,  even  before  It  hu  leavaw     If 


earlyLi  th 


"l  b  Tt^l  fuu^d  c 


Br  flu,  and  ^tiiered  early  In  th*  Kprlng, 

lei,  thriviA  they  an  rUimi  of  ibelr  leaves.    Tbe  mlillf- 
-  m  Houriah.     AlDong  the  floren*  ■«! 


Ide.     Itarley  contLuai  K>  be  tnwa  UU  Ibe  middle  el  tbe 

1  paranlpfl  an  nvw  f(atbarad ;  the  piaeh  and  early 

,  whirh,  Hyn  a  InTelieT,  ^^reDdar  these  parts  f 
..,..  ...,>....     A._  ...  —  .    .|  maapertadat 


or  ipell,  and  barley,  BOT  ripen  {Kono""  RWw.p.lSI:  /Viin. 
HiT-K'iim.  p,  99'.  The  upHnpi  Hr  Ir  •Illl  bard  <Flhaii,  p,  tW). 
The  almnd  and  oraiv«  treea  aar  pmdiii  [niil  (Uaundrall,  p. 
ll»>.andlhe<eTiiMnib.t'w<"aHit,''i:eMl  f/fnvb>'.  n  Sl> la  in 
Mnawm  (8aikdy>v  p.  1781.  A  Bcv  ihoot.  hearinc  fralt,  •prlnn 
frntn  thai  hranrh  of  the  Tine  that  van  left  In  the  fhrmermiMllli, 
vhlrh  imirt  no.  be  lopped  (Brsoard,  /M  t-ijil.  T.  .V.  p,  tsai. 
Syria  and  tWerflne  proJn™  canw  frtra  whirh  they  obuln  aii- 
"■  ■  iWdMi, //KTwo^tfm.  TOffrt/oArf,  pk «, 


CALENDAR 


In  tfas  large  edition!  of  tha  Pnjai-book,  coniUu  of 
nina  coIuiddi  :  the  fir«t  conUIni  tb«  golden  naitibfT  or 
cycle  of  tbo  moon  ;  tha  nacDnil  afaDHi  tba  diiri  of  the 

Doininiul  or  Sundir  letter;  tha  fourth  the  ealends, 
nouBB,  and  itlee  (thb  whs  the  Banuin  method  of  com- 
potation,  and  wis  utod  by  tha  early  Chriatiani)  i  the 
fifth  containa  tha  lioly  diiya  of  the  Church,  ■■  alao 
aome  fentlvjls  oT  the   Boinish  Cburcb,  aet  down  for 

renulnln^  four  conlun  the  portiuna  of  Scripture  and 
of  the  Apocrypha  appointed  for  tha  daily  learana. 

The  lilt  at  uinta'  duyaand  feslivil*  iticludaa  a  num- 
ber ofthe  RoDiUh  boliday^  properly  »  called, vii. :  l.u- 
cian,  priest  and  martyr,  Jan.  8 ;  Hilary,  bishop  and  con- 
fteeor,  Jan.  13;  Priaci,  virgin  and  martyr,  Jan.  18; 
FBhian,biKhDpand  martyr,  Jan.  JO;  Agnm,rirgiD  aod 
martyr,  Jan.  *^1 ;  Vincent,  deacon  and  martyr,  Jan. 
S3;  Bloaiuii,  bishop  and  martyr,  Feb.  S;  Agatha,  vir- 
gin and  martyr,  Feb.  G ;  Valentino,  bfahop  and  martyr, 
Feb.  14;  Djrld,  tutelar  aalnt  at  Wales,  March  1; 
Cedde  or  Chad,  Ushop,  Marcii  !;  rarpetua,  martyr, 
Uarch  7;  Gregory,  bishop  and  confessor,  March  1!; 
Patrick,  tntelur  saint  ot  Ireland,  March  17  ;  Edward, 
king  otthe  West  Suxons,  Klarch  IB;  Benedict,  abLot, 
March  21;  Bicbard,  bishop,  ApHl  S;  Ambrose,  Uth- 
op,  April  i;  Alphage,  arcbblshop,  April  19;  G«or|(e, 
saint  and  martyr,  Afvil  23;  Onus,  Invention  of.  May 
S;  John,  Hint,  erangrlirt.  May  6;  Uuntton,  arch- 
bishop, May  19;  Augustine,  arcbblshop,  May  !6 ; 
Bade,  veneral.le,  May  XT ;  Nicmnede,  martyr,  Jana  1 ; 
Boniface,  bishop  and  martyr,  June  fi;  Alban,  saint 
and  martyr,  June  17 ;  Edward,  translation  of,  June 
20;  Mary,  ViT)(in,  visitation  or,July2i  Martin,  bish- 
op and  confessor,  July  4;  Swithln,  biibop,  July  15; 
Margaret,  virgin  and  martyr,  July  SO;  Magdalene, 
aaint  Mary.  July  22;  Anne,  saint,  July  23;  Ummss 
Day,  Aug.  t ;  I'runsll^'u ration  of  our  Lord,  Au|r.  6 ; 
Jesus,  nsn.e  of.  Auit.  7;  I.aurence,  archdeacon  and 
toartvr,  Aug.  10;  Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo,  Aug. 
S9;  John  Baptist,  beheudlng  of,  Ang.  29;  Giles,  abbot 
and  confrssur,  Sept.  I;  Enurchus,  Irishop,  Sept.  7; 
Mary,  Virgin,  nativity  of,  Sept.  S;  Holy  Cross,  recov- 
ery of,  Sept.  H;  Lambert,  bishop  and  martyr.  Sept 
17;  Cyprian,  archbishop  end  martyr,  Sept.  £6  ;  Je- 
rome, priest  and  conhssor,  Sept.  00;  Remlgios,  bish- 
op, Oct.  1 ;  Faith,  virgin  end  martyr,  Oct.  6;  Denys, 
bishop  and  martyr,  Oct.  9;  Edward,  transladan  of, 
Oct,  13 ;  Ethelreda,  virijin,  Oct.  17 ;  Crispin,  saint  snd 
Diaityr,  Oct.  25;  Leonard,  confessor,  Nor.  fi;  Martin, 
bishop  and  confesfor,  Nov.  II ;  Britins,  bishop,  Kov. 
13;  Hachutus.  Mahop,  Nor.  15;  Hugh,  bishop,  Kov. 
17;  Edmund,  king  and  martyr,  Nov.  20;  Cecilia,  vir- 
trinandmartyr,  Nov.  22;  Clement  I.  bishop  and  mar- 
tyr, Kov.  23;  Cathaiine,  virgin  and  mar^r,  Nov.  25; 
Nkrholaa,  bishop,  Dec.  «;  l.ncj-,  virgin  and  martyr, 
Dec.  13;  OSapienlia,Dec.  16;  Silvester,  Mshop,  Dec. 

These  are  omitted  in  the  calendar  of  the  rroles- 
lint  Episcopal  Church,  which  reuins  only  the  scrip- 
tural festivals.  Wheally  assigns  the  following  r— 
sons  for  their  retention  by  the  English  Church  ; 

"Some  otthem  1«lng  retained  upon  acroonl  of  i 
courts  of  Justice,  which  usually  make  their  returns 
these  davs,  or  else  upon  the  days  before  or  alter  th) 
which  are  called  in  the  writs  I'/flif.  Fttt.  or  CraH.,  as  in 
I^tf-  Martin,  Fttt.  MaHia.  CraH.  ifaitin.  an" 
like.  Others  are  proliably  kept  in  the  calendar  for  the 
sake  of  such  tradesmen,  handicraftsmen,  and  othen, 

saints,  as  (he  Welshmen  do  of  St.  David,  the  shoe- 
makers of  St.  Crisping  etc.  And  oiialn,  churches  being 
in  several  places  dcdicntcd  to  some  or  other  of  these 
■alnts,  it  has  been  the  usual  custom  in  such  places  to 
have  wakes  or  fairs  kept  u|ion  those  days,  so  that  the 
people  would  proliably  be  displeased  if,  either  in  this 
or  the  former  case,  their  favorite  saint's  name  should 


26  CALF 

be  left  ont  of  the  calendar.  Besides,  tba  histories 
which  were  writ  before  the  Befurmition  do  frequentljr 
speflk  of  transactions  happening  upon  such  a  holy  dav, 
or  about  such  a  time,  without  mentioning  the  month  ; 
relating  one  tiling  to  lie  dune  at  Ijmniar-lide.  and  an- 
other about  Martinmaa,  etc.,  so  th.t,  were  these  namea 
quite  Ifft  out  of  the  coienddr,  we  might  be  at  a  li«s  to 
know  when  several  of  these  transactions  happened. 
But  for  this  and  the  foregoing  reatons  our  second  re- 
formers  under  queen  Eliubeth  (though  all  those  dava 
had  Ikcen  omitted  In  l»lh  books  of  kin^  Edward  \I, 
excepting  St.  George's  Day,  Lammas  Dav,  St.  Uu. 
rence,  and  St.  Clement,  which  were  in  his  secund  book) 
thought  convenient  to  restore  the  nsmes  otthem  to  the 
calendar,  though  not  with  any  regard  of  their  being 
kept  holy  by  tiu  Church." —Wheally,  O*  Cnrnmom 
f™j«r,ch.i;  Procter,  On  Ctmasina  iVnfrr,  62;  Piper, 
in  [Ienog'sAM{-£iH3Fjt{ifNl<iie,vii.  232;  Coleman,  J«- 
citnl  CAriiliiaiitf,  ch  uvi,  g  5 ;  ChrMai  finsentiraii. 
or,  xl,  891. 

Calendammrestnni.rtnst'/rteCalrwfs.  Thta 
heathen  (bstiTal  *raa  retained  by  many  Christian*,  ai>d 
ia  called  bvia  and  vota.  It  was  in  some  periods  cclo- 
brated,  with  great  indecencies,  underthe  names,f<'Am 

In  later  times,  tbe  people  met  masked  in  tbn  churchns, 
and,  in  a  ladlcrons  way,  proceeded  to  the  election  ot  a 
mock  blahop,  who  exercised  a  juriadicdon  over  them 
suited  to  the  festivity  of  the  occasion.  Fatbcn  and 
councils  long  laliored'to  rerlrain  this  license,  liut  to  lit- 
tle purpose.  Tertullian,  Chiysoslom,  and  Augustiua 
declaim,  in  the  alrontcest  terms,  against  this  festival ; 
and  the  Council  in  Trullo,  A.l).  692,  toridd*  tbe 
dancings  which  were  used  both  by  men  and  women, 
under  the  penalty  of  excnmmunicBthin.  In  aome  iit- 
stances  the  practice  of  sacriflcing  a  calf  wa«  adopted, 
especially  at  tba  bala,  a  feast  of  the  god  I'nn.  Tha 
Council  of  AunTTeUkes  notice  of  the  remans  of  some 
heathen  snperatltion  in  France,  in  eltering  a  bind  c« 
calf;  which  It  designates  a  diaboUcal  observation. — 
Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xx ;  Farrar,  Ecd.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Calendfirum  Frfttrei,  or  CilrnAir  Brethm,  a  so- 
ciety formerly  rpreadover  France,  Germany,  and  Hun- 
gary, and  whicli  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Saxony 
in  the  Ihirteenlb  ccntiuy.  It  awiembled  in  varioua 
places  on  the  flrat  day  of  each  month  to  regulate  the 
observDnce  of  the  ensuing  festivals,  tbe  distrilintion 
of  alms,  davs  of  fisting,  tlie  burial  of  tho  dead,  etc. 
It  was,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  beneficial  society,  nuder  tbe 
pilmnage  of  the  bishnp  of  the  diocese.  It  afterward 
led  to  abufes,  carousals,  etc.,  and  most  ot  the  socletiea 
were  aliolished  at  tbo  Reformation.  Some,  howei'er, 
were  still  In  existence  at  the  bc.-inning  ot  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Even  in  the  Protestant  city  of  Bruns- 
wick a  "caland  "  has  nominally  muiouined  itself.  One 
caland  {'Iho  caland  ot  princes  at  Kabia")  connated 
merely  of  members  of  princely  houses ;  several  (as,  e.  g. 
(he  caland  at  Bergen)  of  knights  and  members  of  the 
higher  cler.-yi  others  ot  knights  only.  Sea  Feller, 
Ditt.  dt  Fratr.  Kid.  (Frankt.  1692,  *\a);  Blumberg, 
Vrbrr  d.  CahauU/radT  (Chemn.  1721);  Ledebnr,  in 
vol.  iv  of  tha  MarlMria  ForKhnnfffii  (Beri.  1850). 

Calf  (prop.  i>a~.  ''g^  iii<nc«s;  (""■  rt^^^t  -a*"*'. 

iri/iaXrc;  sometimes  ifl  or  iB,par,  a  Jteo- or  young 
bullock:  alsoperiphrastically^^ai?."*?/'*'*'^. 
tha  young  of  the  ox  species.  See  BebvB  ;  BnLi^  etc. 
There  is  frequent  mention  in  Scripture  ot  calves,  be- 
cause thev  were  made  use  of  commonly  in  sacrilicep. 
The  "fal'ted  calf  was  regarded  lij  the  Hebrews  as 
the  choicest  animal  food.  It  was  stall-tod,  (h'quenUy 
with  special  reference  (fl  a  particular  festival  or  orti», 
ordinary  sacrilice  (1  Sam.  nxviii,  24;  Amos  vi,  4: 
Luke  XV,  23).     Tha  I ""  '"   '" 


nant,  in  the  obHrrance  of  which  an  animal  w 


_H  io  be  ao  divided  tberoaelna  If  tbey  failed  1«  p«r- 
briB  tbnr  corcDUit  (Gtn.  X7,  9,  ID.  17,  18).  Tha 
etpnnon  "  calrcs  of  oar  lip*,"  in  Hoa.  xjv,  2,  is 
%aruire,  agaitjiog  tha  riuiu  at  our  lip>  (Wolf, 
Jtttmi  btUoTum,  Titeb.  1711).  Aa  cxIto  were 
■■fd  in  aKTiGces,  tba  injunction  nquirei  us  to  ren- 
te tbe  BuriSee  of  prayar  and  pniie  lo  God,  initead 
pt  ib«  uiiaul  tmailkn  (Hab.  xiii,  lli).      Compaia 

C*U'-n'o>BHip.— This  appMis  to  h>Te  origtnit«d 
b  Egfpt,  where  we  koow  that  brntea  of  aBdri;f  all 
•KU  wen  held  In  Tevennee  by  lonie  one  or  another 
«( the  Tiiknu  Domca  Into  which  that  coontr;  was  di- 
Tijad.  See  AnatAi,  WoBSBir.  Of  all  theao  cnu- 
MR*,  however,  the  calf,  or  ratber  bullock,  socms  to 
Ibt*  been  moat  geneniUj  adored,  especLillf  a  peculiar 
dncnptioD,  ct  rather  pecnliarlj-colored  bull.  Id  which, 
nadcr  the  Dame  of  Apu  or  Mneris,  dlvlaA  honors  of 
tbc  meat  extraordiDuy  kind  were  p;iid  thronghonC 
EfTfL  It  ii  (rem  Ihls'form  of  idolatry  thit  the  wrip. 
trnl  examples  of  calf-war«hip  aro  ctosrly  derived. 
Tet  it  ii  pouible  that  the  commentalon  arenotqnite 
(KTtct  in  tappoaing  Apit  to  be  the  deity  whoae  wor- 
ihip  was  imitated  bjr  the  Jews,  at  leut  In  the  firat  iu- 
«»B».  The  Egyptiiiui  gave  that  name  to  a  living 
bull  which  thej  wonbipped  at  Memphis;  Int  the; 
lb)  wonhipped  another  living  bull  in  the  clt;  of  On, 
IT  Utliopalil,  which  they  called  Jfiir,  or,  atmrdlnK  to 
tbt  Grerk  form,  Mnni,  and  which  they  adored  as  the 
UriiiE  emblem  of  the  sun.  Now  the  Israeliles,  from  I 
'their  living  in  the  Isind  of  Gosben, ' 

ch  Heliopolis  was  lituated.  and  also  from  . 

)  of  JoMph,  the  bead  of  thrir  nadon, 
vilh  one  of  the  prietlly  families  of  that  city,  mnst  have  I 
been  well  acquainted  with  its  peculiar  fonns  of  idols-  I 
try.     It  is  slao  very  probable  that  many  of  tbem  had  I 
ieiard  in  those  rites  daring  their  sojourn.     We  might 
UertfbCB  nalunlly  suppuee  that  they  would  adopt  them  j 
m  tha  occaaioo  i  and  the  iuppoaitlon  that 
Ikey  did  i>o  i*  conArmed  by  a  very  curioui 
Act,  which  hai  not  yet  been  noticed,  ai 
bsahag  npon  thit  qoostion.     ChampdlioD 
ku  obaerred,  in  hii  AmAlwn  J^Sjitins,  that 
HKvis  b  said  by  Porphyr}-  and  HuUrch 
Is  have  been  a  Uact  bn)I,  aa  A{da  nnquea- 
CieBably  was;  bat  he  assures  us  that  thb 
iiBDi  the  case  with  regard  to  (he  existing 
nnaina  of  aacitnt  E«}-pt;  for,  altbongh 
mtbeEo'ptianpaintininApislseithercoI-    . 
HHl  black  or  black  and  white,  Mnevis,  on  I 
Ike  omlrary,  in  the  only  flgure  of  him  ' 
lulhcito  dtHovered,  b  colored  iriglU  jd- 
W,  evidently  with  the  intention  of  re{v«. 
Meting  a  ^lUcaisu^.    This  bet,'' 
not  a  concluiive  proof,   aflbnls  a 


?  CALF 

pmnniption  that  the  golden  calf  was  made  accord 
ing  to  the  usual  furni  and  color  of  the  images  of  Moe- 
via.  The  annexed  «n,(rkVinK  rtpresenbi  thb  tym- 
bolical  deity  of  Holiopolb  bb  he  is  painted  on  tha  cof- 
fin of  a  mummy  at  'i'urin,  the  Diime  being  dbtinctly 
written  in  hieioglyphical  charactrrs,  Mne,  without  the 
Greek  termination.  It  diffen  in  coior  Doiy,  and  not 
in  form,  from  another  painting  on  the  same  ci.ffin, 
which  bean  the  name  of  Apis.  Both  hove  the  lamu 
trappings— the  suo'i  di>k  between  the  bomf,  sur- 
mounted by  the  plume  of  ostrich  fei.thera,  signifying 
justice,  and  the  whip,  the  emblem  of  power;  and  both 
lire  accompanied  bv  tha  leipcDt,  representing  the  inir- 
it  of  the  gods.  Ihe  bull  UnevU  or  Mne_for  p>  \n 
merely  a  Greek  term] nalior— was  Bumpluously  lod^^ 
in  Ihe  city  On  cr  Hclii  polb,  and  Ibb  is  all  that  we 
(ind  reccrdcdof  him  In  cncienl  writen.  Far  more  an- 
cient than  A)Hf,  the  era  of  hit  consccratirn  b  lost.ar.d 
perhaps  forever.  The  rnly  circumatance  which  b  of 
importancf,  *t,vc  that  the  Irnelites  fell  into  bis  wcr- 
(hip,  is  that  he  appears  lo  have  rcprCHnted  the  lodiacal 
sign  which  was  depicted  yellow,  while,  ly  a  rurloo* 
EnomBlyiApb,  whose  Ltlribiites  sil  coincide  with  t^o»e 
cf  the  sun,  was  black.  Ite  wotiblp  paid  to  him, 
though  lasting  till  the  downfall  of  the  Fpyplbn  bie- 
raicliy,  Rra>li<ally  <liminished  before  Ihe  more  impnrlanC 
and  ^>!uilar  riles  of  A|.is,  and  lilUa  b  aaid  of  Uitevb, 

Sec  ICMLATBT. 

1.  The  most  ancient  End  remarkable  notice  in  the 
Scripture*  on  thb  head  is  that  of  tbe  Folden  caifuhich 
was  cart  \.j  Aaron  while  the  Israelites  were  encamped 
at  the  foot  of  Sinai.  In  Eiod.  xxxii,  4,  we  are  told 
that  Aaron,  constrained  by  the  penple,  in  the  absence 
of  Moses,  made  a  molten  calf  of  Ihe  golden  ear-rings 
of  ibe  people,  to  represent  the  Elchim  which  I  ronght 
Israel  out  of  Egypt.  He  b  also  said  to  have  "finished 
It  with  a  graving-tooi  ;'■  but  the  word  C^n,  the'nl, 
may  mean  a  mould  (comp.  S  Kings  v,  SB,  Auth.  Vera. 
"bags;"  Sept.  duXanoii-).  BocbaH  {Hitrot.  lib.  li, 
cap.  xxxlv)  explains  It  to  mean,  "he  placed  the  esr^ 


IrJ 


Unuue  Figure  g(Apl>.    t.  The  llarki  on  hia  Buk. 

rings  In  a  bag,"  as  Gideon  did  (Judg.  tUI,  M). 
Probably,  however,  it  means  tbst,  after  the  calf  had 
been  cast,  Aaron  ornamented  it  with  the  sculptured 
wings,  feathers,  n    "      '  .        .  ■  . 


ear-rings  would  hove  provided  the  i 
tity  of  gold  required  for  a  inlid  figure.  More  prob 
ably  it  was  a  wooden  figure  laminated  with  gold, 
a  process  which  <s  known  to  have  existed  In  E^'pt. 
"  A  gililnl  o^  covered  with  a  pall"  was  an  emUem 
of  Osiris  (WilkineoD,  iv,  S3G).     See  Gold. 

*  To  punish  the  apostasy.  Moms  burnt  the  calf, 
and  then,  grinding  it  to  powder,  scattered  it  over 
the  water,  where,  accordini  to  Fome,  it  produced 
in  the  drinkers  elects  similsr  to  the  wster  of 
jealousy  (Num.  v).  He  probal  ly  adopted  this 
conrse  aa  the  deadliest  and  mnst  Irreparable  blow 

;  to  their  supenitition  (Jerome,  Kp.  128;  Plot.  Be 
/a.  p.  GS3),  or  as  an  alleg<  rical  act  (Job  xv,  16), 


CALF  a 

et  villi  nfennee  to  an  EgjipluTi  englinn  (Herod,  il, 
41 ;  Pull  ^fjupsi,  In  loc.).  It  bu  alwiiya  been  a 
dlfflcultj  to  explain  thtprocett  which  he  used;  Hme 
account  for  tt  b]'  Ikla  anppOHid  knomledge  v(  a  Turgut- 
ten  art  (luch  aa  was  one  of  the  boaata  of  alcbeiuy) 
hv  wblch  be  couid  rednca  gold  to  dniL.  Uoguet 
'  {Or-'gate  da  Lou)  invuket  tha  aaalataai;e  of  natrun, 
wbirb  would  have  had  the  additional  advantage  nf 
making  Ibe  dnngbt  D*ua«)DB.  Baumf^aiten  easllr 
endows  tbe  Are  employed  with  miraculoui  propertiea.  \ 
Bochart  and  KoseamQller  merely  (blnk  that  he  cut, 
Itraund,  and  filed  the  gold  to  powder,  ancb  aa  wu  nsed 
to  sprinkle  over  the  hair  (Joaepbua.  Ant.  vlil,  T,  8). 
There  seemB  little  doubt  that  the  Hell,  term  here  ren- 
dered "burnt"  (^^U,  Sept.  xaTOtaiui)  praperiy  haa 
tbia  aigaification  (Hlvamick's  Introd.  to  Ihe  FtnUH.  p. 
292).  Thoae  commentalurs  who  have  been  at  ao  great 
pains  to  explain  Id  what  manner  Hoses  reduced  Ibe 
Koldeo  cair  to  auch  a  atate  aa  to  make  it  potable  In  wa- 

the  science  of  making  gold  leaf  for  gilding  was  already 
practised  in  EtO'P^  tbere  could  bi  no  great  difficulty, 
even  if  chemical  proceasca  had  not  then  been  discover- 
ed, In  effecting  the  object.     Sea  Mgtal. 

The  legends  abont  the  calf  are  nnmeTDus.  Tbe 
luggestlon  is  said  by  the  Jevi  to  have  originated  with 
certain  Egyptian  prooeiytea  (Godwyn'a  Mot.  and  Aar, 
tv,  6) ;  Hut,  "the  desert's  martyr,"  was  killed  for  op- 
posing it;  Abulfeda  says  that  all  except  12,000  wor- 
shipped it;  when  made,  it  waa  magically  anliDated 
(Exod.  iiiii,  24).  ■'  Tbe  devil,"  says  Jonathan,  "  i^-ot 
Into  Ibe  meul  and  fashioned  it  into  a  calf"  (Liirhtfoot, 
Workt,  V,  898).  Ueoco  the  Koran  (vli,  146)  calls  it  "a 
corporeal  calf,  made  of  their  omamenia,  vhirh  lotmt," 
Ibia  waa  elTected,  not  by  Aaron  (according  lo  the  Uo- 
hammedans),  but  by  al-Sameri,  a  chief  Israelite,  whose 
descendants  still  inhabit  an  island  of  the  Arabian 
Gulf.  He  took  a  handful  of  dust  from  tbe  footsteps 
ot  the  horse  of  Gabriel,  who  lode  at  tbe  bead  of  tbe 
boat,  and  threw  it  into  tbe  month  of  the  c«If,  which 
Immediately  began  to  low.  No  one  ia  to  be  punished 
In  hell  more  than  forty  days,  being  the  number  of  days 
of  tbe  calf-worship  (Sale's  Koran,  ed.  Davenport,  p. 
7,  note;  and  *ee  Weil's  Legtndi,  p.  123).  It  was  a 
Jewish  proverb  that  "  no  punishment  befalletb  tbe  fa- 
raelites  in  which  there  Is  not  an  ounce  of  this  calf" 
(Godwj'n,  w  ivp.).     See  Aaron. 

2.  The  next  notice  refers  to  an  event  which  occur. 
red  ages  after,  wben  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  return- 
ing from  his  long  exile  In  Fgypt,  set  up  two  Idols  In 
tbe  form  of  a  calf,  the  one  in  Dan  (comp.  Josepbus, 
War,  iv,  i,  1)  and  the  other  in  Bethel,  the  two  ex- 

rvsorting  lo  Jerusalem  to  worship,  and  so  more  elTect- 
nally  to  separate  them  Tiom  tbe  bouse  of  Uavld.  Tem- 
ples were  built  and  altan  erected  for  thew  Images; 
priest*  were  appointed  from  all  tbe  tribes  without  dis- 
tinction, and  Ibo  priestly  functions  performed  even  by 
the  monarch  himself.  The  calves  continued  to  he  a 
snare  lo  the  people  of  Israel  until  the  captivity.  The 
calf  at  Dan  was  carried  away  by  Tlglath-t^leser,  and 
that  of  Belhcl  ten  yeara  after  by  his  son  Shalraaneaer 
(1  Kings  XI,  29;  xvii,  13;  Prideaux,  Comtctim,  i, 
l.'i).  Jeroboam's  sin  is  always  mentioned  whenever 
his  name  is  used  (1  Kin^B  xi,  40;  xii,  26-83;  !Cbron. 
xi,  1&;   Has.  viii,  b,  6;  x,  5;  xili,  2).      See  Jebo- 

Bochart  thinks  that  the  ridiculous  story  of  Crlsns 
about  the  Cbristian  worship  of  an  ass-hnuled  deity 
(called  Bapa0aii8  q  'Oi'i^*— a  sinry  at  the  aource  of 
which  Tertnllian.  'Ovoeoinjc,  Ajyil.  1«;  Ad  Xnl.  i,  U. 
could  only  guc's)  sprang  from  some  mlsondertlandlng 
ofiuch  emblems  as  the  golden  calf  (MInuc,  Fv\.  Ap'it. 
ix).  But  it  Is  much  more  probable,  as  Origvn  conjec- 
tured, that  tbe  Christians  wers  confounded  with  the 
absurd  mysUc  Opiuam,  or  Ophite  Gnostics  i^Tacitus, 


8  CALF 

Bui.  T,  4;  Herivale,  BUl,  vf  Evtp.  vi,  M).     Bot 

Theory  of  Hit  Idabary.—Thia  almost  tncomprehensi- 
ble  dcgradalion  of  bunun  reason  was,  more  particularly 
in  the  first  instiince,  nndonbtthe  result  of  the  delnsinif 
inflnences  which  operated  on  the  minds  of  tbe  Israel- 
itea  during  their  so>>um  in  Egypt,  where,  amid  the 
d.illy  practice  of  Ihe  moat  degrading  and  revolting  re- 
"  '  ceremonies,  they  were  accustomed  to  see  tbe 
if  a  sacred  calf,  aornunded  by  cither  symbols, 
carried  In  solemn  pomp  at  tbe  bead  of  marching  armies, 
such  aa  may  still  be  seen  defdcted  In  llie  prooeaaions 
of  Eameses  llie  Great  oi  Scaostrls.     Tbe  accompaay- 


Anehnl  l':CTI'Uin  Udf-IdoL 
Ingflgttre  is  arepresenlBtionof  a  calf-idol,  copied  fhnn 
the  ori,jInal  collection  made  by  the  artists  of  the 
French  Institute  of  Cairo.  It  Is  recumbent,  with  hn- 
man  eyes,  the  skin  flesh-colored,  and  tbe  whole  after- 
parta  covered  with  a  white  and  sky-blue  diapered  dra- 
pery; the  horns  are  not  on  tbe  bead,  but  above  It,  and 
contain  within  them  the  symbolical  globe  sarmonnted 
by  two  feathers.  Upon  the  neck  is  a  blus  and  yellow 
yoke,  and  the  Hagellam,  of  various  colors,  is  suspend- 
ed over  the  back;  the  whole  is  fixed  upon  a  broad 
stand  fbr  carrying,  as  here  shown.  Tbe  rendering  of 
the  Aath.  Vers.,  which  alludea  to  the  Image  being  fln- 
isbed  with  a  gravlng-tool.  Is  obviously  correct,  for  all 
tbe  lines  and  toolings  of  tbe  covering  cloth,  of  tbe 
eyes,  and  of  the  feathers  most  have  required  that  man- 
ual operation  (Exod.  xxxii,  4).  It  Is  dnnl>tful  wheth- 
er this  idolatrous  form  is  either  Apia  or  Mnevis;  it  may 


it  the  SI 


's  first  e 


probably,  be  a  symbol  known  to  the  Egyp> 
tians  by  an  undedphered  designation,  and  certainly 
ondentood  by  tbe  Edomites  of  later  ages,  who  called 
it  bakaud  and  khantf,  or  tbe  calf,  tbe  mysterious  oii- 
na  miiwli;  according  lo  Von  Hammer  (Pref.  to  A^ 
ciml^/piaifUXtbeNabalhian  secret  of  secrets,  or  tbe 
beginning  and  return  of  every  thing.  With  tbe  em- 
bloois  on  the  back,  K  may  have  symbolieeil  the  plura! 
Elohim  long  before  the  cahalistical  additions  of  this 
mysterious  type  bad  changnl  tbe  flgnre.  At  Ibe  time 
ofthe  departure  of  the  Israelitea  fhmi  Egypt  this  may 
have  been  the  Moloch  of  their  nelghbora,  for  that  idol 
was  figured  with  the  head  of  a  calf  or  steer.  A  simi- 
lar divinity  belonged  to  the  earUest  Indian,  Greek,  and 
even  Scandinavian  mythologies,  and  therefore  it  may 
be  conceived  that  the  symljol,  enduring  even  to  this 
day,  waa  at  that  period  generally  understood  by  ^e 
multitude,  and  consequently  tbat  it  was  afterward  re- 
vived by  Jembnam  without  popular  opposition.  Egyp- 
tian paintings  illustrale  tbe  contempt  which  the  proph- 
et Iloaea  (x,  fi)  cnsls  upon  tbe  practice  of  those  whom 
he  des  ignatea  aa '' cumins  (D  aamfti  wtd  iiw  Me  cafcu.  ■  ■ 
See  Baal. 

a.  Some  regard  the  golden  calf  both  of  Aaron  and 
Jeroboam  as  Intended  by  the  Jews  for  an  Egyptian 
(rod.  Tbe  arguments  for  this  view  are,  1.  The  ready 
apostasy  of  the  Jews  to  Egi'ptlan  superstition  (Acts 
vii,  B9,  and  chap,  v,  pasnim;  UctanL  InM.  Iv,  10). 
2.  The  fkct  tbat  they  had  been  worahippere  of  A^da 
(Josh,  xxiv,  14),  and  their  extreme  bmiliarity  with 


CALHOUN  2 

U  cdHdi  (1  Eingi  xt,  10).    8,  Tbe  nsembtiinee  of 
tb  hut  dawribcd  io  ^od.  axxii,  G,  tn  tbe  festivsl  in 

kmit  of  ApLi  (SuidiiS,  ■.  v.'Airiott).  Uf  the  vsrioui 
■end  mwi  uf  Eg7pt,  that  of  lait,  of  Atbor,  and  of  (ht 
thnt  Uoda  of  ucred  bulU,  Apia,  Buis,  *nd  Unevis, 
Sir  G.  WilkloMD  flies  on  the  Utter  M  tha  prototype 
tl  Iba  gulden  cilfj  "tbe  Dfferiii((>,  dinclngB, 
Jddiigi  pmcUaed  t       ' 


of  JlMTi»"(JiK.  ii»l.  1 


loubtleis  in 
hey  bad  witaeued  in  bonor 
V,  197,  He  pi,  35,  86).  Ths 
01  ■»  vonhippea  irotn  it*  utility  in  agriculture 
(nut.  De  h.  74;,  and  km  ■  (jmbol  of  the  sun,  and 
ODiecnted  to  him  (Hoin.  Ml  i,xii,  etc.;  Warburton, 
Dk.  Ug.  ii,  8,  5).  Hence  It  ia  almoat  nniv8i«Uy 
iNDd  in  Oriental  and  other  my tbolo^ies.  4.  The  ex- 
ptniiou,  ■■  an  ox  that  eateth  hay,"  etc,  (Pw,  cvi,  20, 
ttc).  when  Mioe  see  an  alloaion  to  tbe  Egyptian  cna- 
toK  of  bringing  a  bottle  of  bay  when  they  cuniulled 
JifhiGoiwyn'i  Moi./md  Aar.  iv,  5).  Yet  these  termi 
of  KOm  an  nther  doe  to  ths  Intense  hatred  of  tbe 
Mibotbtothiaidolatryandtbatof Jeroboam.  Thus, 
iiTiA.  i,  b,  «a  have  one  of  Jerobotm'i  calves  called 
'■Ok  iaftT  Daal"  (>r  taiiaXi^  BirsX),  which  Is  an  nn- 
qgestioaaUe  calnmoy  ;  jusi  aa  in  the  Sept.  venion  of 
Jn.  iItI,  is,  "Afda,  the  chown  calf"  ('Aincufiioifoc 
mr  V  iiAtrrut'),  ia  either  a  mlvtake  or  a  cormption  of 
Ik  uxt  (Bochart,  Hitrot.  ii,  28,  E,  and  Schleiuner,  a. 
T.'Anc).      See  Apia. 

I.  AnsnlinK  to  other*,  the  Jews  in  these  cases  sim- 
ply adopted  ■  well-luiown  cherobic  enihlem,  merely 
•nilTiiig  it  as  a  symbol  of  Jeborah.  Sea  CaERUB. 
la  npport  of  this  poutkin  It  may  be  urgwl.  1.  That 
it  ii  dbrfon*  they  were  aware  of  tbit  ryml.ol,  tines  Ho- 
ne fiodi  H  nnneceuary  to  describe  It  (Exod.  xxv,  ir 
K).  L  JoeephoBseemstolmplfttuit  the  calfsvmlK 
i»d  God  (Aal.  Tiii,  8,  4).  S.  Aaron,  in  pmclaimir 
tbe  feart  (Exod.  xxxli,  6),  dlMinctty  calls  it  a  rea>t 
Jcborali,  and  speaks  of  the  jiod  as  the  viiil.le  rrpre- 
•taution  of  Hbn  who  bad  led  tbem  ont  of  Ep^-jiC 
i.  It  was  extremely  unlikely  (bat  they  would  so  roi'n 
sdop  a  deitT  whan  thev  had  so  recently  seen  hnmll- 
iued  by  tb^  Jodgmenta  of  Miwea  (Num.  xxxiii,  4). 


CALIXTUS 

He  is  beqnently  mentioned  (under  tbe  dmpte 
"Caius")  by  Jueepbue,  who  speaks  of  his  rea- 
on  of  AgrlppB  I  to  his  Jewiah  dominions  {Aal. 
:  7,  in)  among  the  few  acts  of  liberality  that  char- 
acterized the  Hrst  months  of  his  rei^tn.  A^r  bla  re- 
ivery  tmn  illness,  however,  which  Us  excesses  had 
vuftht  upon  him,  he  gave  way  to  hie  naturally  brutal 
temper  in  so  violent  and  irrational  a  manner  as  to  be 
evidence  of  downiigbt  insanity,  and  was  at  length  a>- 
satainated  Jan.  SI,  A.D.  41.  It  does  not  appear  that 
be  moleated  the  ChrUtiani.  He  commanded  Pelro- 
niac,  govemor  of  Sj-ria,  to  place  his  statue  in  the  T(m- 
ple  at  Jernsalem  for  tbe  pnrpoea  of  adoration  ;  but  tbe 
Jewt  so  vigorously  opposed  it  that,  fearing  a  sedition, 
be  suspended  the  order  (Joeephus,  Aat.  xvil,  S).  See 
Smith's^Vl.n/aiut..4iiJ.s.v.j  Conybeare  andHow- 


CelD  of  Cillgnlj,  wiUi  his  Heail  >wl  that  of  AognstBa  <lba 
■alter  cnmed). 

Cal'itU  (Kn>.rac  and  KoXirat),  given  aa  tha 
name  of  one  of  tbe  Levites  who  had  taken  foreign 
wives  after  the  restoration  fhim  Babylon  (1  Etdr.  Ix, 
23,  where  be  ia  al>o  called  Cnuus),  and  who  assisted  In 
expounding  the  law  to  tbe  people  (ver.  48);  evidently 
tbe  Kelita  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  x,  28; 
I  Neh.  viit,  7). 


,11 

tbe  Call 

fmni  tbe  chalice  (ealir),  asserted  that  n 


B,  There 


«Apis. 


no  (alies  (but  see  Jahn,  B!bl.  Arck.  %  464).  C.  Jcro- 
boani'i  well-andenitaod  political  pnrposs  was,  rtot  to 
iatrodnce  a  new  religion,  but  to  provide  a  dlifer^nt 
torn  of  tbe  old,  and  this  alone  explains  the  fact  that 
Hii  wmt  the  only  form  of  Idobtry  Into  which  Jnilah 
KTtr  fell,  since  abe  alnady  posaessad  tbe  archetypal 
wblems  in  the  Temple.  T.  It  appears  ttom  1  Kings 
iiii,  G,  etc.,  that  the  prophets  of  Israel,  Ihoach  sanc- 
tioeiiag  tbe  calf-worship,  atill  regarded  tbempielvea,  and 
wen  Kfianled,  at  "  prophets  itfJekomJi,"     See  Uold- 

Callitmn,  Tgoiu 
■iuteT,  was  bora  ii 
mdled  theoIOKy  in  the  seminary  at  Princeton,  N,  J., 
tod  was  ordained  in  lSi'2.  He  was  tecretary  for  sev- 
oal  totcf  of  tbe  Board  of  Foreign  and  Domettlc  Mit- 
mia  of  tbe  Cumberland  Pnebyterian  Church,  and  ed- 
lUcoftbeJAanowirti.  a  periodical  of  the  Church.  In 
Ihe  winter  of  1858,  while  riding  out.  bit  horse  became 
UBuoscrahlfi,  and  running  0^  a  bridge,  Mr.  Cslhoiin 
«tt  UUed  inatantly,— Wilton's  Prf»*y/,  Alm./orK&>. 

CaligUI*  (so  called  (h>m  caligv,  the  fool-dresa  of  n 
nmnon  soldier,  which  he  wore  while  his  father  was 
in  the  camp  In  Germany),  ptnperly  C*ii;s  Cabar,  the 
Ikbd  of  the  scriet  of  Homan  emperors,  was  the  yonn- 
Rtt  ion  of  GermanlcDS,  the  nephew  of  Tiberius,  by 
Agrippina.  He  was  bom  Aug.  SI,  A.D.  1!  (Suetoniuii, 
Clnd.  8),  and,  after  tpendini;  hia  youth  among  tbo 
ntdlrra  in  Germaiiy  (Tacitus,  Aim,  1, 41, 69 ;  Dio  Cast. 
Ivn,  51,  be  was  leceived  into  &Tor  by  Tiberius  after 
the  Ul  of  Sejanna  (A.D.  82),  althoouh  hie  mother  and 
tanthen  had  been  ditgrmced  by  that  tyrant,  whom  be 
mperoT  In  Ularcb,  A.D.'sl.    Sec  Tibs- 


Tbe  latter, 


h  kinds  1 


:i^l  to  tbe  1 


■J  hey  a. 


generally  ranked  by  Rnmanieta  sniong  beretici, 
for  many  of  them  were  perauaded  by  the  conreaslons 
«r  the  Council  of  Basle,  in  14P3,  to  be  reconciled  to  the 
Roman  pentifT.  The  reformitlnn  they  Himed  at  ex- 
tended principally  to  four  articles:  I.'To  rirtora  tbe 
cup  to  the  laity.  2.  To  fuhject  criminal  clergymen  to 
Ihe  civil  magistrav.  8.  To  atrip  the  clergy  of  their 
lands,  lordship*,  and  all  temporal  juriadlctions,  4.  To 
grant  liberty  to  all  priests  to  preacb  the  Word  of  God. 
— Mnsheim,  Ch.  ftitt.  ii,  4S9;  F.rrar,  £bcfr(.  Did.  s.  v. 
See  Bohrhia;  Hubsitbs. 

(11.)  Followers  of  George  Catixtni.  See  Caux- 
Tira,  Georok. 

CallztlU  I  (or  Callistus),  Pope,  the  son  of  DiO- 
nysiuJ,  and  a  Roman,  succeeded  Zephyrinus  In  217  or 
2-20.  According  to  tbe  Aelii  Jfnrfjrum,  he  waa  put  to 
dentb  by  being  drowned  in  a  well.  aft<r  auHeiinga  long 
Imprisonmenl,  Oct.  14,  322,  or  Oct.  12,  KS,  but  the  ato- 
ry  is  iloubtfut.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban  I.  The 
new  MR.  of  Hippolytna  calls  him  a  '-lierrtic,"  a  "  tcr. 
vile  and  deceitful  profligate,  and  an  cmbeuler."  In 
doctrine,  according  to  Hippolytna,  Ctlixtua  WEB  a  KoO- 
llsn,  or  worse;  in  practice,  a  violator  both  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical and  tbe  moral  law.  And  yet  he  ia  a  raint 
of  the  Romiibcalendurl  He  is  said  to  have  built  the 
baailicB  of  St,  Msry  Trmu  Ttfrim,  and  the  cemetery 
on  tlie  Appian  AVay  now  called  (he  catacrmb  of  St. 
Seliattian  (where  174,0W)martyraare  said  to  lie  barlcd). 
— Ughellus,/fo/io5acm,vol.i;  Bing.Unit.!  Mfik.0'. 
Rev.  1851,  p.  648 !  Schaff.  Hiil.  of  Chriitiim  Ciank,  i, 
291,447.     Se^HiPPOtTTDa, 

II,  Pope,  son  of  Guitlaume,  count  of  Bunrundy,  was 
made  archlrfshnp  of  Vienno  in  1088,  and  elected  pope 
Fell.  I.  IIIB,  while  in  retirement  at  Clnny.  He  was 
judged  likel)'  to  compose  the  troubles  about  Inveatltura, 
which  had  ngiUted  the  Church  for  fifty  years;  and 
even  Henry  V  appeared  to  Join  in  tha  goner il  aatisfac- 


OALIXTUS 

Hon.    At  the  coancil  held  al  Rbelm*  in  1110  nothii 
however,  could  be  concluded  to  effect  a  ncondlisti 
betveeo  Ueni^  and  the  pope,  tnd  tha  former  wu  fur- 
null}' excomoinnicated.    lnir2S,ittbeDietaf  Wonna 

(Sept.  48),  an  accommodation  «a*  ajgreed  upon  !>«- 
twwn  the  two  purtiee,  the  emperor  reservitnf  Ui  him- 
iiBlf  hlB  right  of  Bivinn  to  the  elect  the  investilura  of 
the  renlla,  while  the  pope,  on  hi*  part,  conferred  the 
investltura  bj-  the  cro»»  and  ring.  In  lliO  Calistua 
returned  to  Rome,  and  re-eetabli^d  the  pjpicy  there. 
In  ms  he  held  a  Lateran  council,  in  which  the  edicta 
orthcanti-popeUregoryVIlI  wereannulled.  Uedied 
Dec.  12, 112-1.— Miwhoim,  C*.  Hill.  cent,  xii,  pt.  ii,  th. 
li,  §  S,  6 :  Landon,  Enl.  D'.d.  A,  «M. 

Ill,  Pope,  a  Spanijird  of  Vslcncia,  named  Alphonso 
Borgia,  who  waa  elevated  to  the  papicy  April  %,  146S. 
If  a  tcrjnted  a  commiMinn  Co  review  the  proceedlnKi  on 
the  trial  of  Joan  of  Arc,  which  decided  that  nhe  died  a 
martyr  for  her  rell|^on  and  country.  Calf^tua  did  not 
cinoniie  her,  bat  permittsd  the  ci^lebratlon  of  certain 


t  prodaced  at  the 


It  her  t 


mb.    Calixtua 


t  ofhispontifloteforthe  a;Krandi 
nephews  (or  eoni?),  the  Borgiaa.      Be  proclaimed 
cruiado,  ecillcdHl  im.nense  nams  and  "ent  an  expei' 
tioD  against  the  Tariia,  wblcb  fjileil.    Ho  died  Aug.  6, 
14u8.— Undon,  Kcd.  Diet,  ii,  1!M. 

CallztiU,  GsnnoR,  perhapa  the  moat  independent 
and  influeallal  of  the  Latherin  divlnM  of  hit  age.  was 
born  at  Uedetby:;  (..r  Flen^bor,;  ?),  Schleswig,  158G. 
His  proper  name  waa  KiUiafin;  hla  father  wa§  pastor  at 
HedelDye.  Oear^  was  flrgttjui;ht  by  hia  father,  then 
want  lo  Bchool  at  Flenaborg,  and  tinajly  studied  at  the 
Unlverwty  of  Helmstidt.  16O.I-1607,  After  thorough 
culture,  especially  in  the  Aristotelian  philosopbj'andln 
theology,  he  travelled  into  England  and  France  on  lit- 
erary Journeys  (161)9 -1-1).  On  his  return  to  Germany  in 
Iftn  he  was  appointed  divinity  professor  M  Helmstidt. 
The  thesis  of  his  iniu  ,-ural  waa  that  kinj^oma  and  states 
onnut  safely  eoexist  with  the  religion  of  Tupists  or 
Jesuits.  Fur  nearly  half  a  century  he  led  a  life  ofnn- 
wejried  literary  activity  at  Helmatadl.  Peaceful  him- 
peir,  the  aim  of  hie  studies  and  oaorta  was  tn  settle  the 
disputes  of  the  ChrislJan  pirties,  and  It  led  him  into 
endless  controversies.  Though  a  Lutheran  all  hia  life, 
his  tendencies  wero  Mel-incthonian,  both  by  nature  and 
education.  "  He  had  adopleil  the  opinion  of  the  peace- 
makers and  RjmonstTjnts  that  the  essential  doctrines 
of  Christianity  were  held  by  all  the  churches,  and  de- 
sired to  propigate  thii  opinion,  and  lolringtlie  adher- 
ents of  all  the  churches  to  some  nearer  understand- 
ing." Ha  wrote  against  all  exebu'V*  claims  in  any 
of  the  churches.  Against  Rome  he  wrote  De  Pimiif. 
,tfi-«MB  Sacrifido  (Francf.  16H);  and  numerous  other 
puhlicstions  to  the  same  end  followed  it.     In  the  C«l- 

the  Calvinistic  view  of  the  Eucharist :  but  be  did  not 
hold  thftse  errors  to  he  fundamental  (De  PnrdjnBi 
CknU.  Rtlig.  CapUOnu  [Helmttidt.16IB]) ;  nor  did  ri^- 
id  Lntbemnism  find  any  more  favor  with  liim,  and  he 
especially  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  the 
body  of  Christ.  His  Hist  publications  trave  umbrage 
to  the  Btrict  Lutherans,  who  regarded  him  as  lax  in 
theology.  In  1G19  he  published  bis  EjHomt  Throl-g'/r, 
which  was  warmly  welcomed  by  his  friends,  but  awak- 
ened new  opponents  amrm^  the  rigidly  orlhodoT.  Ha 
applied  Aristmlc's  philosophy  to  theolos?',  dividing  the 
aclence  Into  three  hearts:  "(1)  the  objeet,  man's  beat 
(mod,  including  hollne«tt,  immortality,  etc. ;  (2)  thetub- 
jiet,  God,  creation,  apoitasy,  etc. ;  (3)  the  rarinw, 
erace,  redemption,  tha  sacrnments,  etc.  He  also,  in 
bis  Epil.  Thtolngiic  Mornlii  (1634),  separated  theolu  -y 
fnim  ethics,  giving  the  latter  the  form  of  an  independ- 
ent science.  On  this  Dr.  Pusey  remarks,  in  bis  Timi- 
ngs n/arTma»s.  p.  04,  that  "the  separation  hy  Cnlixlua 
of  the  system  of 'Christian  moral'  from  'Christian 
doctrine,'  with  which  It  had  been  hitherto  interwoTrn, 
Ihongb  in  itself  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  unity 


iO  CALL 

'  of  the  latter  science,  seems  lo  have 

'  time  no  effect  but  that  ofex 

^  of  the  necessity  of  presenting  It  in  a  form  influential 
upon  the  Christian  life,"  The  very  titles  of  his  wKt- 
Ings  and  those  of  his  upponsnli  would  AH  pages.  Hii 
liberal  views  were  styled  Crypto-Papism,  Phtlipplsm, 
Cri'pto-Calvinism,  Babetlsm|  and  many  other  hard 
names,  ending  with  AlheLm.  Especlallv  after  the 
Colhiquy  of  Thorn,  16)5.  where  be  showed  a  stronj; 
disposition  lo  compromise  all  minor  differences  in  or- 
der to  bring  about  a  reunion  of  Lutherans,  Reformed, 
and  Rnmanista,  the  opposition  of  tbo  bi^  ortbodas 
party  to  him  and  to  the  Heltortiidt  thoolagtans,  who 
were  more  or  less  Imbued  with  bis  Syncretism,  iii. 
creased.  See  Thorn.  Colloqut  op.  His  followers 
were  known  both  ■■  SgnrrrtiOt  and  CaliitHie4.  Tha 
chief  objection  litmigbt  aj^inst  him  I  y  the  more  can- 
did of  his  opponents  was  that  ho  maintained,  1.  That 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity,  by  whic4i 
he  maanc  those  elementary  principles  whence  all  its 
truths  Bow,  were  preserved  pure  In  all  three  commun- 
ions (Romb*,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinistlc),  and  wero 

I  contained  in  that  ancient  form  of  doctrine  known  hy 

!  the  name  of  the  .'^poetlea'  Creed.  2.  T^Bt  tbo  tenets 
and  opinions  which  hud  been  constantly  received  by 
the  ancient  doclon  during  tlie  Sm  Hve  centuries  were 
to  1)0  considered  as  of  equal  truth  and  authority  with 
the  express  declarations  and  iloctrines  of  Scripture. 
S.  That  the  churches  which  received  these  points,  and 
"held  Che  additional  tenets  of  the  particular  churches 
as  non-eseentlal,  should  at  once  cnme  Into  peaceful  n- 
lations.and  thus  pavo  the  way  for  B  future  union  of 

'the  churches."  Hia  opponents  were  legion,  but  tho 
most  bitter  and  persevering  was  Calnvius  (q.  v.).  Ca- 
lixtus  died  March  19, 1656.  A  fuW  list  of  his  writiuKa 
is  riven  tn  his  Connltaiio  de  (ofcrairf'o  Stformobirtim 
(Helmst.  1697. 4to).  An  Bceonnt  of  Callxtus,  from  the 
Pnsevite  stand-point,  is  given  in  the  Ckritlimi  Srmem- 
braaerr,  1865,  art  i.  See  also  Gasi,  ffearg  Catirt «.  rf. 
j^rv(wiiiia(BTesl.lS46);  Gie«elcr,C1t.  ffiifDrjr.pt.  iv, 
div.  i,  ch.  Ivi  Henke,  Caliaai  u.  :  Zeit  (18M-50,  2 
vola.  8to)  ;  BH&Hhrca  iSocm,  April,  18G6,  art.  vi ; 
Mosbi-im,  Ch.  iliiloiy,  cent,  xvii,  sec.  ii.  pt.  fi,  ch.  i ; 
Dowding,  Life  ami  Corr.  a/  G.  Ci£xlmt  (Lend.  1863) ; 
Gass,  Pnl.  Dogmnlik,  ii,  68.     See  STHCRimsif. 

Calker  (p^5  P^T*^?.  morfotii'  bt'dtk,  a  repoirer 
i^the  brtack,  u'ln  2  Kbga  xil,  S;  iiii,  6;  Sept.  and 
Vqig.  translate  at  random,  ouroi  iv'taxoov  riiv  jiof- 
Xijv,  hiii«ermt  nautm  ad  mmiil'nioa  van'rr  mprltretUCiX 
a  workman  skilled  in  stopping  the  seams  of  tbodecli  or 
sides  ofa  vessel, which  appears  to  be  the  correct  idea 
of  tha  pasaagea  (Ezek.  xxvii,  9, 2T)  where  the  inh*1>- 
Itants  of  Gehal  (or  Byhlus)  are  said  to  have  l>een  cm- 
ployed  in  this  capacity  on  the  Tyrian  vessels.  See 
Ttrk;  NAvioAnon. 

Call  (usually  te^Ji.  hn',  raXiw,  both  which  worda 
evidently  contain  the  same  root  as  their  Kngl.  equivft. 
lent]  signiliea  (besides  Its  use  in  giving  a  name),  I.  To 
crj'  to  another  for  help,  and  hence  to  pray.  Iho  drat 
passage  in  whicji  we  meet  with  this  phrase  is  in  Geoa- 
eisiv,86,"Tbenbeganmen  to  call  upon  the  name  of 
the  Lord"  (nin^  OUJa  tt'^p^  inin  IX,  Sept.  and 
Vulg.  understand  the  Drat  word  as  a  pronoun  referring 
to  Enos,  ovroc  iiXriirtv  imKaXttv^at  rA  itvepa  tov 
t}fo",  ufe  ca}Kt  inmcart  iXMim  Donnri),  a  phrase  that 
baa  been  understood  I  ysome  as  meaning  that  Jehovab'9 
worshippers  were  then  called  ij  Hit  name,  but  erro- 
neoush-  (comp.  Gen.  xii,  8;  Psa.  Ixxix,  6;  cv,  1 ;  Isa. 
Ixiv,  6';  Jer.  X,  25;  Zeph.  Hi,  U).  In  both  the  Old 
and  Kew  TesL,  to  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  im- 
ports invokin.:  the  true  God  in  pnyer,  with  a  coafes- 
alon  that  Ha  is  Jehovah ;  that  is,  with  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  essential  and  Incommunicable  attributes. 
In  this  view  the  phrase  is  applied  to  the  worship  of 
CbrisHActsii.21;  vli,59!  Ix,  14;  Rom.  z,  12;  ICor. 
i,2).     SoeWousaiP. 


CALL 


n.  DiTiiiE  Cali.    (I.)  Tha  word  "rtW  li  nud  In 

5oi|«an  wttb  varioiu  riKoiflotiona, »  Lpplied  to  tha 
AU||lit7  witb  rcajwct  lo  Disn.  1.  In  ita  ordloiiy 
Ha«  uf ''to  namft,"  to  "  d«i)fnAt«"  (of  which  oxftin- 

u."  I.  $."  He  shall  be 'culled  Ihe  Son  of  God"  (Lnke 
i  U):  ■'  Ha  name  ihall  be  culled  WooderTul"  (lu.  ix, 
(]:  tkat  b,  be  alwll  1m  the  Son  of  Cud,  he  shall  l« 
nodufDl,  and  sbiiil  be  thui  acknowiedged.  2.  In 
tta  dengnaluin  uf  individuals  to  some  <ipsL-ia1  office  or 
ftactkm.  e.  g.  the  call  of  Beulwl  (Exod.  ixxi,  3) ;  the 
cJUij  of  the  )iidKw,  propheti-,  etc  (r.  g.  tio.  xxii,  SO ; 
AoUiiii,!)  a.  In  tbedeaigiutiKiiorniitioiu  tocer- 
tiin  furtiuiu,  pTlviU.-f  I,  or  puniabmonts  (Lam.  ii,iS; 
l*i.'i,J6),e*pectany  oflaimel  to  be  God's  cbnren  peo- 
pla(I>«it.vii.G  B;  lM.xli.9;  xli1,6;  xliii.l;  xlvUi, 
li  li;  li,  1;  Ho*,  xi,  1).  4.  To  denote  the  invitation 
tadnnen  to  accept  the  ktjcb  of  God  in  the  Riftnf  His 
Sia(Hatt.L]t,13;  xi,-;H;  xxii.li  Liilie  xiv,lG,17). 
S.To  dcooW  the  extent  of  the  divine  i^riUtioI^  to 
Gealiln  ai  well  aa  Jewi,  shooing  the  univenality  of 
li»  iJi  (Rom.  ii,  a,  35).  6.  To  denote  a  condition  in 
life  (I  Cor.  Tii.  SO.  etc}. 

(II.)  Two  qaestionn  aiix  a>  to  the  divine  call  (o 
■ra.(l.)  Why  do  not  all  who  receive  it  embrace  it? 
•sd  (:>  Why  have  not  uU  mankind  eren  }-rt  had  the 
biilatkin  ?  In  view  of  tbcae  qurationa,  the  old  l.n- 
tberan  divines  spejk  of  Lbe  vGcaXio  onfminit  dirrcUt 
{tbe  DTdinarir  direct  call)  as  being,  1.  Stria,  i.  e.  really 
naaot  as  a  call  on  God's  part,  aa  be  desires  snd  in- 
uadi  tbe  salvation  of  all.    Thli  Is  opposed  to  the  Cal- 

pcedntined  to  salvatioa  sre  really  called.     S.  Egiear, 
<r  bFlm  Snjicirtu,  i.  e.  always  adequate  to  the  conver- 
niiB,  DoC  only  <i[  those  who  heed  tin  call,  but  of  those 
■bo  disfei^aid  it;  and  therefore,  B.  AmriiftiJw,  reu    ' 
Ills,  aad  not  couipnlaory  (Qoenstedt,  Thol.  Did.  i 
ud  il»,  4.  Umrrrialu,  univernil,      God  called  all 
hunaD  race  (1.)  In  tbe  promise  of  Chript  to  lirulse 
isqi^nl'i  bead  (Cien.  iii,  1&),  given  to  the  race  tbrra 
«r  dnt  pircDta;  (3.)  in  Xoab.tbe  preacher  of  ri);bt- 
Munesi.  a  call  to  all  Au  deacendaiita  (Gen.  ix,  9;  i 
VtL'a.ifi  (3.)  in  tbe  Gospel  commission  (Malt,  xxviii, 
19;  lUrk  xvi,  15i  comp.  Rom.  x,  1«;  fol. " 
TTii.  Sli).     The    roiflinUsion    eitCDded   to 
■grid."  and  its  execution  is  declared  to  have  been  ec- 
anplulied  in  Acts  xvii,  30  ;  Rom.  i,  18;  Col. 
Tbe  qiwstinn  whether  even  America  vtaa  reac 
tbe  Knt  preaching  of  Christianity  is  treated  b 
Uu  in  his  essay  entitled  An  ijb  ApinlBlli  Etmngtlian 

sTMnAq  did  not  (to,  the  iwiaroX^  did.  As  to  tbe 
fiihirFof  men  lo  receive  and  obey  the  divine  call.  It 
BM  God's  fault, but  tbeir  own.  He  "calls,"  but  thi 
"■ill"  not.  In  general,  it  may  be  assumed  that  wb( 
rvei  the  Church  of  God  is  set  up,  men  receive  the  i 
TIM  call,  and  tbeir  reaponsibility  is  pioportlonal  lo  tl 
M^rt  of  light  which  shines  upon  tbem  (Matt,  xi,  'i' 
)1 ;  uiii,  37  :  Luke  xii,  ■17,  «•).  The  same  princif 
ipplir*  to  the  case  of  heathen.  Here  also  lies  tl 
dotToflbe  Church  to  send  ni  in  ion »  to  tbe  hesthrn. 

(HI.)  The  CalviDistic  doctrine  of  i-^ecTui/ cofi'i's^  is 
tbaset  forth  in  the  WritmimiUr  Cai/r.   ' 

•' L  All  those  whom  God  bath  predesl 
Old  ihnee  onlv,  be  in  pleased,  in  bia  aj 
npted  dme,  effertaally  to  call,  by  bia  Wonl  and  Spirit, 
«et  of  that  Mate  ot  ain  and  dealb  in  which  tbey  are  by 
nitnre,  lo  irrwe  and  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ ; 
tidilniing  their  minds  spiritually  and  savingly  to 
dsntsDd  tbe  thing!  of  God ;  taking  away  their  heart 
•fftooe.  and  giving  onto  tbem  a  heart 
ng  their  willv,  and  by  bis  AlviigAlf  p 
H^  lo  Hal  wJUcA  u  ffnod;  and  effectually  orswmu 
Ana  to  Jesus  Cbrlst,  yet  ao  u  tbey  come  moat  freely, 
bein^  aiade  willin;;  by  his  ^race. 

"?.  This  effectual  call  is  of  God's  trra  and  special 
pirt  alone,  not  from  any  tblng  it  all  fOrewen  in  nun, 


31  CALL 

who  la  altogether  paaalve  therein,  nntU,  being  quick- 
led  and  renewed  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  <a  tberel.y 
laliled  to  answer  thia  call,  and  to  embrace  the  grace 
fered  and  conveyed  in  It, 

"3.  Eleiit  infants,  dying  in  Infiincy,  are  regenerated 
id  saved  by  Christ  through  the  Spirit,  who  worketh  . 
ben.  snd  where,  and  bow  he  pleasetb.     So  also  are 


nnt  elected,  aldinugb  they  may  be  called 
by  the  mlDistry  of  the  Wi  rd,  and  may  have  some  eoin- 
of  the  Spirit,  yet  tbey  never  truly  corns 
, and  therpfiire  cannot  be  aaved;  miuh  liti 
prflfijt  ng  /As  Chr<9iUm  rtligion  be  tmrd  .n 
mjr  eltieT  nuimier  u  kaliorrrr,  be  Ihry  trtr  to  dihgnit  lo 
'rawHtlvirliranccofdiiiglo  iJie  light  of  naturr,  Itni  the 
iw  of  that  religion  tbry  du  profbu ;  and  to  assert  and 
laintain  that  they  nihy  Is  very  pemiciouB,  and  to  be 
detested." 

The  scriptural  argument!  for  and  against  the  doc- 
trine are  thus  aUtad  by  Watson : 

1.  According  to  the  CBlviniadc  view,  "In  the  gold- 
en chain  of  sphilual  bleulnga  which  the  apoatle  enu. 
meralea  in  Bom.  vlii,  Bll,  orl.  inating  In  the  divine  pre- 
deetlnation,  and  terminating  in  tbe  bestowment  of 
eternal  glory  on  tbe  heirs  of  xalvation,  that  of  calling 
forma  an  important  link.  '  Moreover,  whom  he  did 
predestinate,  them  he  also  called ;  and  whom  he  call- 
ed, tbem  be  alto  gloiifled.'  Hence  we  read  of  'tbe 
called  according  to  hla  purpoae,'  Rom.  viii,  28.  Then 
la  indeed  a  univerul  call  uf  the  Gospel  to  all  men ;  fbr 
wherever  it  come*  It  ia  the  voice  of  God  to  those  who 
bear  it,  calling  them  to  repent  and  lielieve  the  divine 
taalimDuy  unto  the  avlrution  of  their  rouls;  and  it 
leaves  them  laexcusable  in  rejecting  it  (John  111,  14- 
19);  but  this  univeraal  call  is  not  insaparubly  connect- 
ed with  salvation;  for  it  la  in  reference  lo  it  that  Christ 
says,  'Many  are  called,  bat  few  are  cboaen'  (Ustt. 
xxii,  U).  But  the  Scripture  also  apeaka  of  a  calling 
which  is  effectual,  and  which  conseqaently  is  more 
than  the  ontward  ministry  of  the  Word;  yea,  more  than 
some  of  lis  partial  and  temporary  eflbcts  upon  many 
who  hear  it,  Rir  it  Is  always  ascribed  to  God'a  making 
hb  arotd  al^tual  through  the  enUithtening  and  sanc- 
tifying inflnences  of  bia  Holy  Spirit.  Thus  it  la  Bald, 
'  Paul  may  plant,  and  Apollos  water,  but  God  gtveth 
the  increase'  (1  Cor.  til,  6.  7).  Again,  Ha  ia  said  lo 
have  '  opened  the  heart  of  I.ydia,  that  ahe  attended  to 
tbe  doctrine  of  Paul'  (Aru  xvi,  14).  '  Ko  man  can 
come  unto  Christ,  except  tbe  Father  draw  faim'  (John 
Ti,  44).  Hence  faith  ia  said  to  be  the  gift  of  God 
lEph.  ii,  8;  Pbll.  i,  39).  The  Spirit  takea  of  tho 
tilings  of  Christ  and  shows  them  to  men  (John  xvi,  14), 
and  tbua  <q>ena  tbeir  eyes,  turning  them  from  darkness 
to  lUbt.  and  fh  m  tbe  power  of  SaUn  unto  Cod  (Acts 
xxvl,  la).  And  so  God  saves  his  people,  notl.ywotka 
of  righlaouaneee  which  they  have  done,  but  according 
to  hia  mercy,  by  the  washing  of  regenrri-tion  and  re- 
newing of  tho  Holy  Spirit  (Tifua  iii,  S).  Thus  they 
are  aaved,  and  called  wllh  a  holy  calling,  not  accord- 
inw  to  tbeir  work*,  hut  according  to  tbe  divine  purpnre 
and  RTace  which  was  civen  them  In  Chiiet  Jesus  be- 
fore tbe  world  began  (2  Tim.  1,  S). 

"!.  To  thia  it  is  replied  that  this  whole  statement 
respecting  a  l>ellever'a  calling  ia  without  any  snpport 
from  the  ScHpturri.  'To  call'  signifies  to  invite  to 
the  bleaaings  of  the  Goapel,  lo  offer  ralvation  through 
Christ,  either  by  God  himself,  or,  under  his  appoint. 
ment,  by  his  servants  ;  and  in  tbe  paraljle  of  tlie  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  son  (Matt,  xxii.  1-14),  which  ap- 
pears to  have  given  rise.  In  many  instances,  to  the  nre 
of  thia  term  in  the  epistles,  we  have  three  descriptions 
of  'called'  or  in\-ited  periona.  (I,)  The  disobedirnl, 
.who  would  not  come  In  at  the  csll.  but  made  light  of 
It.  (!.)  Tbe  class  of  persons  represented  by  the  man 
who,  when  the  king  came  in  to  see  bis  cue»ts,  had  rot 
OD  tlie  wedding  gam-.cnt,  and  with  respect  to  an» 


CALL 


32 


CALL 


onr  LoM  makea  tiia  gsnenl  nnurk, '  For  manv  an  I 
oll«d,  but  hn  an  cbown ;'  »  diat  ths  perwD*  tbuB  | 
npreiented  by  this  Individual  culprit  wsra  not  ooly 
■  called, '  but  actually  cims  Into  the  company.  (8.)  The 

approvsd  gaerts  —  thoM  vho  vera  Iwth  called  and  | 
ciio«n.  As  far  ■■  the  simple  calling  or  invitilion  is  | 
concMTied,  aU  Wood  upon  equal  ground  — sll  were  in-  j 
vited ;  and  it  depended  upon  their  choice  and  condnct  I 
whether  Ihes  emiiraced  the  invitation  and  were  ad- 
mitted as  guenti).  We  have  nothing  here  to  counter 
nance  the  notion  of  what  li  termed  'eff^ctaal  calling.' 
Tfaii  Implias  an  irreaiitilile  Influence  sxert«l  upon  all 
the  approved  Kneata,  but  withheld  Troni  the  diaobe- 
dient,  who  could  not,  therefore,  be  otherwise  than  dis- 
obedient, or,  at  moat,  could  only  come  In  without  that 
wedding  Kanneat.«hich  it  was  never  pot  Into  their 
power  to  take  oat  of  tbc  king's  wardrobe,  and  the 
want  of  which  would  necesserllj  exclude  them,  if  not 
ttom  the  Church  on  earth,  yet  fn.m  the  Church  in 
tieaven.  The  doctrine  of  Christ's  paraUIci  is  in  rntire 
contradiction  to  this  notion  of  Irresititilile  inflaence; 
fi>r  they  who  refused  and  they  who  complied  but  par- 
tially with  the  callhig  are  n^tesented,  not  mrrely  as 
being  left  without  the  benefit  of  the  frsst,  but  aa  in- 
clining additional  guilt  and  condemnation  for  refusing 
the  invitation.  It  is  to  this  ofl«r  of  salvation  by  the 
QoFpel,  tbia  invitation  to  spiritual  and  eternal  brnefita, 
that  St,  Peter  appears  l«  refer  when  he  sayi, '  For  the 
prmniie  is  unto  you  and  to  yonr  children,  and  to  all 
that  mn  afar  off,  even  aa  many  aa  tiM  Lord  onr  God 
rball  eaW  (Acts  U,  89);  a  passage  wbicb  declares 
'the  promise'  to  be  as  exl«iuive  aa  the  'calling,'  in 
other  words,  as  the  offrr  or  invitstion.  To  this  also 
i  t.  Taul  refers  (Rom.  i,  6,  6),  '  By  whom  we  have  r»- 
calved  grace  and  apoBtleiblp,  fi>r  obedience  to  the  faith 
rmong  all  nations,  for  his  name;'  that  la,  to  publish 
bis  GoBpel,  in  order  to  bring  all  nations  to  (be  cbe- 
dirnce  of  faith;  'among  whom  ye  are  aire  the  caOid 
of  Jeaua  Chrlit;'  you  at  Kome  have  heard  the  Gospel, 
and  have  been  invited  to  salvslion  In  conrequence  of 
tliis  design.  This  promnlgitlon  of  the  Gospel,  by  the 
perronal  ministry  cf  the  afostle,  under  the  name  of 
caU'vg,  ia  airo  referred  to  in  Gal.  1,  It,  '  I  marvel  that 
ye  are  so  aeon  removed  ttotn  him  that  calltdj/oii  into 
the  grace  of  Cbritt,'  obviously  meaning  tbat  it  was  be 
himself  who  had  called  them,  by  bis  preaching,  to  cm- 
brace  the  grace  of  Christ.  Eo  also  in  chap,  v,  IS, 
'For,  brelhren,  ye  have  been  ealird  unto  lilenv.' 
Again  (1  Theaa.  ii,  12).  '  Tbsl  j-.  wonid  «alk  wcrthy 
of  God,  who  bath  (ntfed  you,' invited  you,  'to  hiskJog- 
dom  and  glory.' 

"8.  In  onr  Lord'*  parable  it  will  alao  be  o1  served 
that  the  peraona  called  are  not  invited  as  separata  In- 
dividuals to  partake  of  aolitary  lilesfinps;  but  they 
■re  called  to  'a  feait,'  Into  a  company  or  tociely,  be- 
fore whom  the  lanquf  t  ia  apnad.  The  full  revciatlon 
of  the  transfer  of  the  visible  Church  of  Chrift  IVcm 
Jews  ly  l.trtb  to  believcra  of  ail  nationr,  waa  not,  hnw- 
evcT,  then  made.  When  Ihii  Irsnch  of  the  evangelic 
syatem  waa  fully  revraled  to  the  apostle  >,  and  taught 
ly  them  to  otheri,  that  part  of  the  meaning  of  our 
Lnrd'a  parable  which  waa  not  at  flrat  developed  waa 
mnre  particularly  diccovrred  to  lilt  inspired  filloirers. 
The  catling  ofguests  to  the  evangelical  feait,  we  then 
more  fully  learn,  was  not  the  mere  railing  of  men  to 
partake  of  ainritual  benrAta,  l.ut  calling  them  alfo  la 
form  a  spiritual  society  composed  of  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
the  believing  men  of  all  nations,  to  have  a  comir.on 
fellowship  in  there  hlee^oga,  and  to  be  formed  into 
this  fellowship  for  the  purpose  of  inrreating  their  num- 
tier,  and  dlffualng  the  tenef.ta  of  salvation  among  the 
people  or  nation  to  which  they  respectively  l*iorgcd. 
The  Invitation,  'the  calling,' of  the  lirst  preachers  kcb 
to  all  who  heaid  them  in  Rome,  In  EptarFUn,  in  Corinth, 
and  other  places;  and  those  who  enil  raced  it,  and 
Joined  themsekea  to  the  Church  by  faith,  I  aptirm.  ard 
continued  pullic  fmfcEtion.  were  named,  iFpeciallr 


and  eminently,  'the  called,'  because  of  their  obedtance 
to  the  invitation.  They  not  only  pnt  In  their  claim 
to  the  hlea^n^a  of  Christianity  individually,  but  be- 
came memtiers  of  the  new  Church,  that  spltitnal  aoei- 
ety  of  believers  which  God  now  visibly  owned  aa  his 
people.  As  they  were  thus  called  into  a  common  M- 
lowahlp  by  the  Goapel,  this  ia  sometimes  termed  tbeb 
'vocation;'  aa  the  olijact  of  this  Church  state  was  to 
promote  '  holinesa,'  It  is  termed  a  '  holy  vocation ;'  u 
sanctity  waa  requlrvd  of  the  members,  they  were  said  Uk 
have  been 'calledto  be  saints;'  asthe  final  result  waa, 
through  ths  mercy  of  Gnd,  to  be  eternal  life,  we  hoar 
of 'the  hope  of  their  calling,'  and  of  their  being  'call- 
~  to  his  alamal  glory  by  Chrlat  Jenu.' 

These  views  will  abundantly  explain  the  vb- 


of  the 


in  which  the  term  ctiliag  occun 
epiatlea;  'Even  na  whom  he  hath  ca'lrd,  nol 
Jewa  only,  hut  tin  of  the  Gentiles'  (Rom.  in,  n); 
that  is,  whom  ho  hath  made  meml)eni  of  hla  Church 
through  fulth.  'But  unto  them  which  are  catltd,  both 
Jewa  and  Greeka,  Christ  the  power  of  God  an<t  the 
wisdom  of  God ;'  the  wisdom  and  efficacy  of  the  Goa- 
pel  being,  of  course,  acknowledged  In  their  very  jaa- 
fbsslon  of  Christ,  In  opposition  to  those  to  whom  the 
prjachinK  of '  Christ  crucltleil"  wss  '  a  stumbling-block' 
and  'foolishness'  (1  Cor.  i,  34).  'Is  any  man  catlBF 
(brought  to  acknowIsdj(e  Christ,  and  to  become  a  mem- 
bar  of  hia  Church),  'bein;(  circumcised?  let  him  not 
b3comn  undrcumclAOl.  Is  any  calM  in  iindrcnn>- 
eision  ?  let  him  not  be  circumcised'  (1  Cor.  vU,  18). 
'That  ye  walk  worthy  of  the  tDcilian  wbei«with  ye 
are  called.  Then  is  one  body  and  one  S|nrit,  even  aa 
ve  are  cailedln  one  hope  of  yonr  calling' (Eph.  It,  1,4). 
'  That  \>e  would  wulh  worthy  of  God.  who  hath  cafini 
you  to'  his  kingdom  and  glory'  (1  Thesa.  ii,  IS). 
'Through  aanctlHcation  of  the  Spirit,  and  belief  of  the 
truth,  whereunto  he  called  you  by  oar  Goapei,  to  the 
obtaining  of  the  glow  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Chriat'  (2 
Thess.  ii,  18,  14).  'Who  hath  aavad  us  and  called  ua 
with  a  holy  calling;  not  according  to  onr  works,  bat 
according  to  hia  own  pnrpose  and  grace,  which  was 
given  ua  In  Christ  Jesua  before  the  world  be;jui,'but 
ia  now  made  manifest  by  the  appearing  of  our  Saviour 
Jeans  Christ'  (3  Tim.  I,  9, 10).  On  this  passage  we 
may  remark  that  the  'calling'  and  the  'purpose'  mea- 
tioned  In  it  must  of  necessity  be  interpreted  to  refer  tn 
the  establishment  of  ths  Church  on  the  principle  of 
faith,  ao  that  It  might  Include  men  of  all  nations;  and 
not.  as  formerly,  be  restricted  to  natnrjl  descent  For 
p^nowiiefcrfiKiand  a  purpose  otfjectitnlptrtoruilcall. 
mg  cnuld  not  have  been  hidden  till  manifested  by  the 
'appe3rin;jnf  Christ,'  since  every  instance  of  true  con- 
venion  to  God  In  any  age  prior  to  the  appearing  of 
Christ  would  be  as  much  a  manifestaCion  of  eternal 
election,  and  an  instance  of  personsl  effectual  callin:^, 
acciirdin;!  to  the  CaMnlstic  scheme,  as  It  was  aflur  the 
sppBBTancfl  of  Christ.  The  apostle  Is  speaklna  of  ■ 
purpose  of  God,  which  waa  kept  lecr^  tilt  revealed  by 
the  Christian  system  ;  and  th>m  various  other  parallel 


>t  tills    SI 


he  often  calU  it,  was  the  union  of  the  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles in  'one  body,' or  Church,  hy  faith. 

"3.  In  none  of  these  passages  is  the  doctrine  of  tha 
enclusivB  ciHIn;;  of  a  set  number  of  men  contatnei'; 
and  the  Synod  of  Dort,  as  thou.-h  they  felt  thL',  onN 
attempt  to  infer  the  doctrine  from  a  text  alnad}- 
qnoCed,  but  which  we  will  now  more  fully  notice: 
'  Whom  he  did  predestinate,  them  he  also  coUnf ;  and 
whom  he  caUrd.  them  he  also  justified ;  and  whom  be 
Justified,  them  he  also  glorified'  (Rom.  viii,  30).     Thb 


docti 


which 


e  Calvii 


st  their 


T,  ihmu'ih  It 


calling;  and  tracing  it,  as  they 
9  and  links,  they  conclude  tbat  a 
number  of  persons  having  been 
'edestinated  unto  salvation,  this  set  numlier  only  are 
I'frJ  iJTrcltiallg,  then  Jnatifled.  and  finally  gloriHed, 
uttbis  piBsige  was  evidentiy  nothing  to  the  purpoee, 


CALLENBERG  3: 

inlriT  ff  had  ipokcn  nf  a  Kt  and  d«t«niiiDate  number  ' 
gf  men  u  pi«deitUnited  and  called,  Independent  nf  any 
flHudenlHia  ortbeir  faith  and  obedience,  which  nuin- 
bit,  u  b«iD)(  detFTminaUi,  would,  \ij  coDnquence,  ei- 
(Me  the  n*t.  llie  context  declare*  that  tbOM  who 
iR  fanknown,  and  (mdeatinated  to  eternal  glorr,  are 
tne  believara,  Iboos  who  'love  Ood,'  as  stated  in  a 
»lH<]iteBt  Tene  ;  for  of  such  only  tha  apottle  tpcake; 
ai  when  he  addi, '  Uoreover,  whom  he  did  ptedeiti- 
aitr.  tb«(D  he  alao  called,  and  whom  he  called,  Ihem 
be  >1»  jntUted,  and  whom  ho  }n>tifled,  them  be  aJto 
^nrifled,'  be  ahoirs  in  particular  how  the  divine  pur- 
iw  lo  glotify  believers  is  carried  into  effect  throajjh 
ill  in  iiU/».  Th«  icreat  instrument  of  brlnRing  men 
In  'leve  God-  is  the  Goapel;  they  are,  therefore,  ealf- 
ot,  laiilel  liy  it.  to  this  state  and  benefit ;  the  callinK  ' 
teiaf:  aherBd,  they  atjiitlijfd!  and  being  JuMitied,  i 
udntitlnaiDg  in  that  Mala  of  grace,  they  ore  fln-ijM.  . 
Sstbini;,  hnweTer,  !>  here  said  to  fdror  the  concluskin 
tlul  many  others  who  were  ailtrJ  by  the  Gospel,  hot  | 
nfsinl.  might  not  have  been  Joslilled  and  glorifled  us  ' 
wdl  u  Ihey  ;  nothlnic  to  distinguish  this  calling  Into 
nanxm  anil  effectual ;  and  the  very  guilt  whicli  thoae 
trr  every  where  represented  as  contracting  who  de- 
r|iti«dthe  GiMpel  culling  shows  that  they  reject  a  grace  ! 
wkick  B  sufficient,  and  aincerely  Intendod,  (o  save 
tbMa." — Watson,  liutitiilti,  a,  362  sq. ;  Henog,  Rtal- 

Wirren,  SftlrmiL  TkroUipir,  p.  147.  ' 

III.  .Kftjitotkt  auautrj  of  the  Gospel  is  regarded  | 
by  l-'briitluu  generally  aa  pmceeding  from  God ;  and  I 
Ibe  Church  of  England,  the  Pntestint  Episcopal ! 
narch,  and  the  Uelhodiat  EpiMopal  Church,  require  ' 
rfeaadidate*  for  ordination  an  express  pmfeuion  that 
llwy  ttvat  the}- arc  ao  movtd  of  the  Holy  Gboit.     Se« 

IV.  lliBisTSBiAL  Call  is  an  invitation  on  the  part 
rfacongtegation  lo  a  prsacber  lo  heoome  their  settled 
futor.    a«*  I.tn'ALi.ATioii. 

CallenbttTg,  Joka:iii  Hkikbich,  waa  bom  Jan- 
■rr  11,  IGM,  in  Saxe-Gotha.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
(iving  gpecial  attention  to  the  Oriental  languages,  to 
■hkh  be  was  ori^nally  lad  by  becoming  a  member 
•f  the  CuUegium  Orienlak  TTmiogicam,  which  was  es- 
tsUiibal  at  Halle  in  ITOi.  He  had  for  special  tutor 
Satnnoo  Xegrl.  a  learned  Orientallit  from  Damaacni. 
Hi  was  appointed  proEnaor  (utroonf.)  of  philosophy 
ia  1717,  and  profeiaar  (otiIhi,)  of  Iheoliqfy  In  1789. 
H*  became  deeply  hilerettod  in  Pratestant  missions  lo 
Ibe  East,  especially  among  the  Jews  and  Uohamme- 
diat,  la  ITiB  ha  organiied  a  school  for  the  edncalion 
of  auuionartea ;  and  be  afterward  established.  *l  his 
eva  expense,  a  printing-office  for  the  publication  of 
■grki  in  Grrman,  Araliic,  and  Hebrew  for  the  fUr- 
tbarance  of  tfae  missionary  canee.     His  stodents  went 

of  ibem  even  to  Aaia  and  AfHca.  He  printed  in  Ara- 
bic pivtiona  of  the  O.  T.,  the  whole  of  the  N.  T.,  Lu- 
iWr's  Skerler  Calrckiim,  the  /mifatuw  of  Jtaa  Ckriit 
(voKwhat  cortailed),  pcntions  of  Grotiue  on  Ibe  Tnth 
ifllm  CkrMiin  Kd.'gicm,  the  BmUmenU  of  tine  AtiAie 
I^ifiuige,  and  other  works  for  the  use  of  missionaries 
m  the  East.  With  a  view  to  tbe  conversion  of  the 
ltwt,hfwrot»n  KartaAidriliHgurJiidiiei-Tnilfr-lien 
dpvte  (Sbort  IntiDduction  lo  tbe  Speech  of  the  Ger- 
BID  Jcwa.  8ro,  1733),  to  which  he  added  In  1736  a 

IbemHivea  by  the  Jews  of  Germany.  In  1728-S6  he 
pablifbed  Brricilt  vm  taem  VrmKh  dai  JOStdu  Vnlk 
Bf  Ertrmmlmiu  in  Ckriiditltrn  OHZukilen  (S  volt.  8vd)  ; 
B  nXi,  Dt  Omrtrmmt  Mmlia<imt<tainmm  ad  ChriiKm 
ufttila  trmlatvim  (l!mo).  He  continued  writing, 
trutslating,  and  printing!  variety  of  works  usefiil  for 
ih  misaioiurles  till  hi*  death,  which  octnmd  at  Halle, 
Jily  IS,  ITW.  Tbo  mere  Ibt  of  bis  publications  would 
fll  a  colsmn,  but  they  ara  nol  of  sufficient  scientiflc 
«ratlon  here.  But  the  name  of 
Il.-a 


J  CALLIRRHOE 

Caltenberg  deserves  alwayi  to  be  cherished  In  tba 
Christian  Church  as  that  of  one  of  the  foundera  of 
l>rDtestant  missions,  and  of  a  devoted  and  eelf-sacri- 
flcing  laborer  in  that  cauM.—Doering,  Hit  O'fktrtm 
nmloprn  IM  UteUatiU,  i,  X21  sq.  i  Hoefel,  Kaurelit  Bi- 
igrafUc  (JtnentU.vil,  ill2;  Ersch  und  Uruber,  AUgf 
mcinf  Eiteydcpdiiie,  s.  V. 

CallBnder,  Bllsh*,  miDltter  of  the  first  Baptist 
church  in  Boston,  was  the  sou  of  Elll*  Callender,  who 
officiated  as  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  church  in  Uos- 
tun  fur  many  years,  dying  about  17i6,  at  about  eighty 
yean  of  age.  Ihe  son,  Ellsha,  was  bum  in  Boston, 
and  graduated  e>  bachelor  of  arts  at  Harvard  C(>lle,{e^ 
in  1710.  He  was  baptized  and  admitted  to  church 
inemberebip  August  ID,  1713,  and  was  ordained  aa  a 
II..ptiBt  minister  May  Vl,  171H,  and  Dr>.  Increase  and 
Cotton  Mather  and  Mr.  Webli,  though  of  a  different 
denomination,  gave  their  aHistance.  It  li  said  that 
Thomas  HoUis  (a  Baptist)  was  so  impressed  by  this 
catholic  procedure  when  he  hoard  of  It  in  Eogland, 
that  he  made  his  well-known  benefactions  to  Harvard 
College  in  conrequence.  Mr.  Callender  abounded  in 
labor*  not  only  In  Boston,  but  throughout'  the  com- 
monweallh,  till  his  death,  March  SI,  I7S8.  Ha  was 
the  first  American  Baptist  minister  who  had  iweived 
a  college  education. — Sprague,  Atrnalt,  vi,  M  {  Allen, 
BiagrapMral  Din.  s.  v. 

Callend«r.  John,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister, 
nephew  nf  Elisha  Callender,  waa  bom  about  ITOC,  and 
grodualed  at  Harvard  College  In  1728.  He  was  or- 
dained colloaguD  with  Mr.  Peckham  aa  putor  of  the 
chnrch  at  Newport,  Oct.  18,  1731.  Here  he  labored 
usefully  lor  seventeen  years,  and  died  Jan.  !G,  1748. 
He  collected  many  papers  relating  to  the  history  of 
tbe  Baptists  In  this  country,  which  were  used  by  Bsck- 
ns.  He  published  a  Hukineal  Ditctmrte  on  Riode  f$t- 
and  and  Frot'idatce  iUmfafioM (17S9) ;  also  a  Strm-m 
ai  Ihe  Ordinal'im  ofjrrttaiah  Comdy  (1789) ;  and  a  Sen- 
mna  OHlht  Dealh  nf  Mr.  Cbip,  of  ffttrfort  (17ia).— 
— Sprague,  ^WMit,  vi,  87  j  AHea,  Biagn^ucx:!  Die6im- 
ory,  S.T. 

Calling  ((X^nic,  vocatio\  a  term  used  In  theology 
to  derignate  the  divine  invitation  to  man  to  share  in 
the  gift  of  aslvation.    Sec  Call. 

CalUrrb&ii  (KoXXi^pdit,  btaatiftdilnsn),  tbe  name 
given  to  certain  warm  springs  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Jurdan,  not  far  ftom,  and  flowing  into,  the  Dead 
Sea,  to  which  Herod  tho  Great  resorted  during  his  last 
illness,  by  the  advice  of  his  physiciana  (Josephop,  Anl. 
ivii,  6,  6).  The  same  arc  probably  meant  by  the  jk- 
mm'  (O-"?:,  Anth-  Vers,  "mules")  of  Gen.  xKivi,24. 
See  Ahah.  Pliny  (v,  10)  also  describes  them  ("cali- 
dns  fons  medicc  aalubrilatis'')  as  possessing  medicinal 
properties  (Reland,  /Wnirt.  p.  30-?,  878).  In  Slay,  I81«, 
these  springs  were  visited  liy  Irbv  and  Man  -les.  Of 
the  vaUey  of  CalUrrhoS  they  say  (TrnvfU,  p.  467  4ri9) : 
"The  whole  bottom  is  filled,  and  in  a  maniieT  chuked 
up,  with  a  crowded  thicket  of  canes  and  aspens  of  dif- 
ferent species,  inti^rmixed  with  the  paim,  which  is  also 
seen  rising  in  tufts  in  the  recesses  of  the  mountain'a 
side  in  every  place  whence  the  springs  issue.  In  one 
place  a  consiiierable  stream  of  hot  water  ia  seen  preclj*. 
itating  itself  from  a  high  and  perpendicular  shelf  of 
rock,  which  is  strongly  tinted  with  Ihe  brilliant  yellow 
of  BDlphur  deposited  upon  it.  On  reaching  the  bottom, 
we  found  ourselves  at  what  mav  be  termd  a  hot  river, 
so  copious  and  rapid  is  it,  ami  its  heat  so  little  aliatcd. 
For  some  way  the  temperature  is  kept  np  by  tbe  con. 
stent  supplies  of  water  that  Sow  Into  the  river.  In  or- 
der to  visit  these  sonrces  In  snccaakin,  wa  creased  over 
to  the  right  bank,  and,  ascending  by  tbe  nountain  side, 
we  passed  four  aliondant  springs,  all  within  the  dis- 
tance of  half  a  mile,  discharging  themselves  into  the 
stream  at  right  angles  with  Its  course.  We  Judged  tba 
distance  IVom  tbe  Dead  Sea,  by  the  ravine,  to  be  about 
one  hour  and  a  half.     Maclean  aaya  there  was  a  pi^ 


CALLISTHENES  3. 

of  Uia  BHne  dbdis  In  tbe  Talis;  of  Calliirhoe,  tn  which  I 
we  tbink  be  must  b«  wron  ',  since  there  1>  not  apace  fur  ; 
a  toim  In  the  TallB;  aa  fU  ■*  w«  saw  it.  That  Herod  : 
miut  hAT«  had  aoma  lodging  when  he  rifllted  Uieae 
springs  to  tnie,and  there  are  snfficientremalns  to  prove 
that  soma  sort  of  bailding*  have  been  erected."  Ac- 
cording to  Ji>aephuFf  the  fortreee  of  MacbKnis,  which 
WIS  rebuilt  I17  Herod,  was  upon  this  hot-water  stream, 
and  not  far  ftmn  the  fonnlains.  It  is  sapposed  Chat 
John  the  Baptist  waa  impriaoned  and  beheaded  in  thia 
furtresr,  and  that  the  feast  was  also  made  at  Uachcrna, 
which,  lieaidca  being  a  strong-hold,  was  sIm  a  palace,  ' 
IwUt  by  Herod  [he  Great,  and  that  Hetwi  bimaelf  was 
now  on  his  route  toward  llie  territory  of  Aretaf,  with 
whom  be  waa  at  war.  The  rains  of  this  fortress  still 
oitiBt  (JoMphll^  -411*.  uTii,  B,  6;  ivlii,  6,  2;  War,  i, 
33,  6).  The  Znrka  Main,  which  empties  Itself  into  the 
Dead  Sea,  visited  and  described  by  Seetien  (Hate,  il, 
338  sq.),  ia  deacribed  as  a  aweet  and  thermal  stream, 
and  is  doobtleaa  the  ontlot  of  the  hot  stieama  of  Cul- 
lirrhol  (Killer,  Erdi.  xv,  67!,  67S).  Lieut.  Lynch, 
who  explored  it  in  184^,  Baya:  "The  Bliuni,  twelve 
feet  wide  and  ten  inchee  deep,  mshea  in  a  eontherly  di- 
roctinn  with  xnat  velocity  into  the  sea.     Tcmpcratnre 

one  mile  of  ttie  chatm,  9C>°.  It  was  a  little  sulphare- 
ooj  to  the  taatr.  The  atream  has  worn  its  bed  through 
the  rock,  and  flowa  between  the  perpendicular  sides  of 
the  chaxm,  and  throngb  the  dolts,  bending  to  the  south, 
about  two  furiongF,  to  the  aea.  The  banks  of  the 
■tream  alonit  the  delta  are  fHnged  with  canes,  tam- 
arisks, and  the  caator-bcan.  The  chasm  is  ]  22  feet  wide 
at  the  mouth,  and  for  one  mile  up,  aa  far  aa  we  traced 
it,  doca  not  lessen  in  width,  Tha  sides  of  the  cliasm 
ore  about  eighty  feet  high  where  it  opens  upon  the 
ilsltn,.  but  within  tbcy  rise  in  altltade  tonpward  of  150 
feet  on  each  aidn,  where  the  trap  fonnotion  ia  exhibit- 
ed. In  the  bed  of  the  chasm  there  was  one  stream,  on 
the  Bonth  tide,  eight  feet  wide  and  two  deep,  and  two 
Binall  streama  in  the  centre,  all  rasbing  down  at  the 
nta  of  alx  knots  per  honr.  There  were  no  bouldera 
lu  the  bed  of  the  ravine,  which  in  the  winter  muat, 
IhfDugbODt  lis  width  and  high  up  the  sides,  ponr  down 
an  impetuoua  flood.  The  walls  of  the  chasm  aro  lofty 
and  perpendicular,  of  red  and  yellow  sandstone,  equal- 
ly majestic  and  imposing,  but  not  worn  in  such  fantas- 
tic shapes  nor  of  so  rich  a  hue  aa  those  of  the  Amon. 
Waded  up  alKiat  a  mile,  and  saw  a  few  dsto-palm-treei 
growing  in  the  chasm.  The  luma  about  200  raids 
apart,  at  first  gently  rounded,  hut  aubsequcntly  ahcrp 
and  an\nilar.  There  was  a  succession  of  rapida,  and  b 
cascade  of  four,  and  a  perpendicular  fall  of  tive  or  six 
feet.  A  little  above  the  rapid  trap  shows  over  sand- 
stone. The  current  was  ao  strong  that,  while  bathin-', 
I  could  not,  with  my  feet  against  the  rock,  keep  from 
b^ng  carried  down  the  stream ;  and,  walking  when;  it 
woj  hut  two  feet  deep,  could  with  difficult  retain  a 
foothold  with  my  ahoes  off.  At  7  P.M.,  bathed  fiiat 
In  the  sea  and  af^rward  in  the  stream — a  most  delicious 
tianeitlon  from  the  dense,  acrid  water  of  the  sea.  which 
made  our  innumerable  sores  smart  severely,  to  the  soft, 
tepid,  and  refreabing  watera  of  the  Calliirhof"  iErpt- 
ditim,  p.  871).     See  oiso  Lasba. 

CalUs'thanea  iKaXkiaSivri^,  a  frequent  Greek 
name),  a  partisan  of  Nicanor,  who  was  burnt  by  the 
Jews  on  the  defeat  of  that  general  in  revenge  fnr  his 
(cuilt  in  Betting  Are  to  "the  aacred  portals"  (3  Uacc. 
viii,  33).— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Nicandk. 

CalliatuB.     Sec  Cauxtcb  I. 

Calmet,  AronsTT^E,  a  learned  Benedictine,  of  the 
congregation  of  St.  Vannea,  bom  at  Mesnil-la-HoTKne 
Feb.  26, 1672.  He  studied  at  Breuil,  and  aflFr  having 
pronounced  the  vows  in  Oct.,  1G89,  be  pmceedpd  (o 
make  his  course  of  philosophy  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Evre, 
and  allerward  devoted  himself  to  Hebrew,  which  be 
studied  under  Fabre,  a  Reformed  divine,     tn  1704  he 


I  CALNEH 

passed  to  the  abbey  of  Hnnster.  where  be  tanght  d>« 
yoang  monks;  and  lectures  which  be  there  read  to 
them  formed  the  bosto  of  his  "Commentaries  on  tlie 
Old  and  Naw  Teatamentr,"  which  he  wrote  in  Latin, 
but  trinsUted  into  French,  and  published  in  1707  and 
I7I6,  in  33  volumes  4te.  This  work  waa  fallowed  1  y 
hiB  Butain  Sainle  dt  TAttaen  H  Naieeaa  Tet/amenl — 
History  of  the  Old  and  New  TesUmenta  (Paris,  ITli*, 
3  vols.  4lc>),  and  bia  celebrated  Dicttimary  r/lkt  Biblt. 
In  ITIS  he  was  made  abbot  of  St.  Leopoid'a  at  Nancy, 
and  ten  years  after  be  was  removed  to  the  abbey  of 
Sinones,  where  ha  died  (having  refused  a  bishopric  m 
partOna)  0<*.  Vt,  176T.  His  Uft  waa  written  1 7 
Fang6,  his  nephew  (1768,  8vo),  where  a  complete  list 
of  hia  numerous  works  wUl  be  found.  The  beat  edi- 
tion (French)  oftheDieluiwiHiire  Inttoriqui  rteritiqae  de 
h  Bible  ia  that  of  Paris,  17B0  (4  vols.  ftol.).  The  best 
English  editions  are  those  of  ITBS  (4to,  with  additions) 
and  of  1847  (edited  by  Taylor,  fi  vols,  4to).  His  Com- 
mtnti-irt  litliml  tur  laiu  Ui  iitTfi  de  r Ancirm  tt  dm  ti'im- 
trau  Tatanitnl  (reprinted  at  Paria,  17IS,  M  vols.  4to, 
also  9  vols,  fol.)  was  abridged,  and  pnbUshed  in  17 
vols.  4te,  at  Avignon,  1TST-177S ;  also  tranilated  into 
Latin,  with  the  DiuerlalioHi,  by  Hanse  (Wirceb.  ITfg, 
19  vols.  4to).  Calmefa  JXrtioUny  n/tte  fHitt  has,  un- 
til lately,  formed  the  basis  of  all  anlsequrnt  works  of 
the  same  kind,  lbs  beat  abridgmenl  la  that  of  Kob. 
inson,  whose  additions  are  perhaps,  to  the  modem  stu- 
dent, of  more  value  than  the  original  work.  —  Biag. 
Uaiv.  vi,  fioS  1  Landon,  Eedt*.  Diet,  ii,  197.  See  Dic- 
tion abies  (BlBLICAl,). 

Cal'neh  (Heb.  K<Jtuh',  n;^f ;  Sept.  XaXnrvti), 
the  fourth  of  Nimrod's  cities  (~Gen.  x,  ID),  and  proli. 
ally  not  diflbcent  f^m  Che  Calko  (Heb.  Kalno', 
13^5;  Sept.  XnXoiij)  of  laa.  x,  9,  or  the  CakkbH 
(Heb.  Kaimeli',  n!3;  Sept.  \avaa)  of  Eiek.  xxvii, 
23.  The  word  la  thought  to  mean  "  the  fort  of  the  god 
AnaaiAna,"  who  waa  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  Baby- 
lonian worship.  According  to  the  Chaidee  tninFlatinn, 
with  which  Easebius  snd  Jeremc  agiee,  this  ia  tho  fame 
place  that  waa  subsequently  called  Ctnipkon,  It  lay 
on  the  Ti'jTis,  opposite  Selencia,  and  was  for  a  time  (he 
capiui  of  the  Partbians,  and  the  whiter  residence  of  tho 
Parthian  kings  (Stmbo,  xvi,  p.  SIS;  Ollarii  A'ohV.  ii, 
774:  see  Bochart,  PfuAg-  1^.  ^^-  MicbaeU^  Spiril-g. 
i,  328).  I'hia  opinion  leapecting  Calneh  derives  aom« 
support  from  the  circumstance  that  the  district  nomrd 
Cteaipbon  was  called  by  the  Greeks  CMiJimiSi  (Pliny, 
IT:i.  Nal.  vi,  !G,  27 ;  Polyb,  t,  44) ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  this  province  does  not  appear  to  have  exlended 
BO  far  west  as  Calneh  must  have  lain.  Ammlanua 
Marcollinns  (ixiii,  6,  iS)  sutea  that  It  waa  the  Persian 
king  Pacorus  (who  reigned  lh>m  A.D.  71  to  107)  who 
changed  the  name  of  the  city  to  Ctesiphon ;  but  that 
name  muat  have  been  more  ancient,  as  It  is  mentioned 
by  Polybinn.  In  the  time  of  the  piopbetAmoa  Calneh 
appears  to  have  constituted  an  independent  principality 
(Amos  vi,!;  Sept.  omits,  v.  r.  KnAai^  or  Xoltiin^); 
but  not  long  after  it  became,  with  the  reat  of  Western 
Asia,  a  prey  to  the  Assyrians  (Is<l  x,  »).  About  160 
yeats  later,  Calneh  was  atili  a  considerable  town,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  its  lieing  mentioned  by  Eiekiel 
(xxvii,  2S)  nmnnu  the  places  which  traded  with  Tyre. 
We  may  gather  ttvm  Scripture  that  in  the  eigbtb  cen- 
tury B.C.  Calneh  was  taken  by  one  of  the  Assyrian 
kings,  and  never  recovered  its  prosperity.  Hence  it 
is  compared  with  Csrchcmish,  Hamath,  and  Gath  (l»a. 
X,  S  j  Amos  vi,  3),  and  regarded  as  a  proof  of  the  ro- 
aistlcas  might  of  Assi-ria.  The  site  of  Ctesiphon  was 
afterward  occupied  by  fX-Modain,  i,  e.  Iht  (ttai)  dirt, 
at  which  the  only  remains  ate  tho  nilns  of  a  rrmarka. 
Itle  palace  called  Taiit-itiTa,  or  ''Arch  of  Khonuea," 
some  mounds  of  mliliUb,  and  a  conaideralili-  extent  of 
mOBsire  wall  toward  the  river.  (See  SmitL'n  Diet  rf 
Claa.  Oewj.  a.  v.  Ctesiphon.) 

More  recent  explorers  have  rendered  it  probable  that 


CALNO  S 

1m  dtB  gf  Calneh  \i  the  modvni  Ntffrr,  which  wu  cer- 
bhilir  OQ*  of  the  catIj  cipitAlSf  and  which,  under  tho 
uatalNoplirr,  the  Talmud  IdenlJHei  with  Cilneh  (Ke 
the  I'naa).  Anb  tnditlons  miide  NiSer  the  originBl 
BkbjkiD,  and  Mid  that  it  «u  the  place  where  Nimrod 
tfldcavond  to  nxnint  on  Baglee'  winm  to  heaven.  Slm- 
ilari*tlwSepuepe«kofCa1nehorCalnoa*"lhep1ace 
when  the  tower  wu  bnilt"  (la*.  :i,  9).  Niffer  ii  tita- 
■ted  abont  alxty  miles  E.S.E.  of  Babylon,  in  the 
nanhea  on  the  left  bank  ot  the  Enphratu.  It  baa 
been  rialtfd  and  explored  by  Mr.  Layard  {S'm.mdBab. 
p.  US  aq.),  and  is  thna  dncribed  by  Ur.  l^ltoa  {ChiU- 
dm,  p.  101);  "Thepresent  wpect  of  Niffer  ia  that  of 
a  lofty  platforro  of  earth  and  rubbish,  divided  into  two 
DuriT  rqiul  parti  M-  a  deep  channel— apparently  the 
bed  of  >  rivB^-abonl  ISO  leet  wide.  Nearly  in  the 
natre  of  the  eutem  portion  ofthii  platform  are  the  re- 
muna  of  ■  brick  tower  of  early  conatruction,  the  dsMi 
of  which  conatitntea  a  conical  mound  riling  aevenly 
fcet  above  the  plain.  Thi«  i>  a  coiMpicnona  object  in 
the  diitance,  and  exhibits,  when  the  brick-work  is  ex- 
posed, obloDK  perfbrations  aimltar  to  those  seen  at  Birs- 
Nlmradandotberedlflceaoftbo  Babylonian  age.  Tho 
weoten  diviaion  of  Iho  platform  bas  no  remarkable 
tatore,  except  thai  it  ia  atrowed  with  fragments  of 
potterr,  and  other  r«Iicsofa  later  period  than  tha  tower 
iait  a'llodtd  to.  At  the  distance  of  a  few  biindrc<l 
nrdi  on  the  eaatof  tbe  mlna  may  be  distinctly  traced 
a  low  continnona  mound,  (he  remains  probably  of  the 
fxtenul  wall  of  the  ancient  city.  As  to  tbe  obelisk, 
the  pwtleular  object  of  my  visit,  tbe  Arabs  positively 
df«lar«l  that  (here  was  one,  but  none  of  them  had  seen 
it  Dt  could  iodicale  its  poaitlon  on  tbe  mounds."    See 

CaKKKH. 

Cal'no  (Isa.  X,  0).     See  Cauibh. 

CalosSil     See  Calotess. 

CalOTli;*  (or  Caix)v},  Abraham,  a  celebrated 
Lotheran  divine  and  controrersialist,  wa*  bom  in  \&2 
at  Uofaranmn  in  Pmsfda.  He  studied  at  Kdnigsber^ 
and  Rostock,  and  became  I>rofessor  of  Theology  at 
IVittember,;.  where  he  obtained  great  distinction  aa 


S  CALVARY 

and  holidays,  to  prrform  their  devotions  at  the  Best 
monastery.  The  Recluics  shut  themcelrea  npln  grot- 
toea  and  csrems  on  the  (ops  of  mountains,  which  they 
never  leave,  abandoninjt  Ihemaelvee  entirely  to  ProT- 
idence.  They  live  on  the  alms  sent  them  by  tbe 
neighboring  monasteries.  I'he  Caloyers  have  foot 
Lents.  The  Hrst  and  greatest  is  that  of  tbe  resurrrctiot 
or  Easter;  it  lasts  eight  wseks.  and  Is  called  the  Grand 
Qnarantaln.  During  this  Lent  the  monks  drink  no 
wine;  and  such  Is  their  abstinence  that,  if  they  are 


Djian. 


died  Fel 


S3,  IS8G.  Ha  was  a  violent  opponent  of  George  Ca- 
listna,  wboae  gmtlenasa  be  by  no  maana  shared.  In- 
deed, so  bitter  was  Calov's  seal,  that  it  has  been  said 
of  him  that  "ho  was  bora  for  an  inquisitor."  He 
wrote  with  great  ability  a»lnat  the  Sodnlaus.  Hia 
■nasi  important  work  woa  his  BMia  lUialrala  (Dres- 
den, 1719,  4  vols,  fol.),  which  contains  the  whole  of 
rirotiaa'g  Ametatiiau,  with  severe  criticisms  on  them, 
la  dogmatic  theology  ho  prepared  a  vast  Syttema  fjtat- 
nrn  Tkfologieanm  (1SS5-I677,  IS  torn.).  Id  the  Syn- 
nrtistic  controversy  (q.  v.)  he  took  the  most  consfHCu- 
OBspait.  His  writings  are  very  volnminous,  nearly  all 
bitter]  V  controversial,  and  now  little  read.— Hoshcim, 
fL  Hill,  li,  341 1  Henog,  Rea'-EmyUnp.  a.  v. 

Caloyen  or  CalosSrL  The  word  Calot/tr!  is 
fhnn  tbe  Greek  (M^Xoytpoi),  and  tneins  good  old  mm. 
The  name  Calnifert  is  of  aimilar  eignilication,  and  la 
generally  given  to  the  monks  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Tbey  are  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  and  consider  It  to  be 
aslo  tofidlow  anyother  order  than  hi*.  They  are  di- 
Tided  into  threo  degrees:  the  novices,  who  are  called 
.trdari;  the  ordinary  professed,  called  Mimrhmi: 
•Dd  the  more  perfect,  called  \frgjb<Aemi.  They  are 
likewise  divid«l  into  Ccenobites,  Anchoriles,  and  Re- 
cliaca.  Tha  Ccenohilcs  ore  employed  in  reciting  their 
(Ares  fhnn  midnight  to  sansct ;  and  as  it  is  impossible^ 
ia  so  long  an  exercise,  (hat  they  should  not  be  over- 
taken with  sleep,  there  is  one  monk  apptrfnted  to  awake 
them;  and  tbey  are  oliligtd  to  make  three  gennflex- 
nu  at  the  dnor  of  the  choir,  and,  returning,  to  bow  to 
tbe  right  and  left  (o  their  lirethren.  The  Anchorites 
RtitB  l>nm  tbe  world,  and  live  in  hennitages  in  the 
aeigbborbood  of  (he  monasteries ;  tbey  caltlvate  a  lit- 
tle apot  of  ground,  and  never  go  out  bat  on  Sundsyg 


due  (o  the  I 

boly  apostles  I 


The  I 


nerally  ci 


eight  day 


d  Len(  ii 


after  Whltsnn- 
'eek.<,  sometimes 
longer.  Unring  Ibis  Lent  the  monfcs  ara  allowed  to 
drink  wine.  The  third  Lent  ia  that  of  the  aaanrnption 
of  (he  Vir.^n  :  it  lasts  fourteen  days,  during  which  they 
abstain  from  Seb,  except  on  Sundays  and  on  (he  trana- 
figuration  of  our  Lord,  'the  fourth  Lent  is  that  of  (he 
Advent.  The  Caloyers,  In  addition  to  the  usual  monk, 
iab  habit,  wear  over  tbdr  ahoniders  a  square  |Hcce  of 
stuff,  on  which  are  represented  tbe  cross  and  the  other 
marks  of  Christ's  paaaion,  with  Ibeae  letters:  IC.  XC. 
NC,  'liiaovi  Xpinri.!:  viK^,  Jriui  Cliriil  amjutTM.  Tbe 
inscription  was  sometimes  written  thus:  IC.  XC.  Ni 
KA;  and  we  Und  it  occaaioually  arranged,  especially  on 
coins,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  thuf,  "  ^.  Visi(orsor 
exarchs  are  placed  over  (hem,  who  visit  (he  conventa 
only  to  draw  fiom  them  antns  of  money  which  the  pa- 
triarch demsoda.  Ye(,  notwitbclanding  these  monks 
are  compelled  to  pay  both  to  their  patriarch  and  to  tbe 
Turks,  tbeir  conventa  are  very  rich.  Tbey  have 
many  monasteries  in  Aria,  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  in  Pal- 
estinej  in  Europe,  n^ar  Athens,  In  Chios,  and  In 
Antuttrgo,  one  of  tbe  Sporades,  also  on  Mount  Alhos. 
I'hose  on  Mount  Athos  are  (he  most  celebrated,  and  ais 
twenty>  three  in  number.  There  are  female  Caloyers, 
or  Greek  nuns,  who  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  their 
nunneries  are  always  dependent  on  some  raonaater^'. 
See  AjHOBi  Obkbi  Ckdiick, 

Cal'pbi  ('<  Xa\^,  V.  r.  XnAf>ii,  perhapa  for  .1 '^kbna 
[q.  v.],  JosepbUB  Xail^aioi;  Ant.  xiii,  G,  '\  father  of 
Judaa,  which  latter  woa  one  of  the  two  coptains  (<ip- 
XovTii)  of  Jonathan's  army  who  remained  firm  at  the 
battle  of  Genncsar  (I  Mice,  xi,  1(1). 

CalvailBtB,  or  MissioNAnr  Pr(b»ts  op  Calva- 
ry, a  monastic  congregation,  established  in  1630  by 
Hubert  Charponticr,  licentiate  of  the  Sorboune,  on 
Mount  Bethasam,  in  France,  for  propagating  Koman- 
ism  by  missiana.  In  tl>3H  tbey  united  with  tlia  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Propagation  of  Faith,  from  which  (hey 
separated  again  in  IG&D.  In  1664  they  were  re-formeil, 
and  united  with  the  congregation  of  St.  Sulpice.  Tbo 
conirregation  disappeared  in  I7iM>,  but  araee  again  in 
18;S. 

Cal'TBry,  a  word  occurrinsin  the  Auth.Ten.on1y 
in  l.uke  xxiii,  B3,  and  there  not  as  a  proper  name,  but 
arising  ttom  the  translators  having  literally  adopted 
the  word  c  tlvaria,  i.  e.  a  bare  itull,  tho  Latin  word  liy 
wbicb  the  ttpaviov  of  tha  evangellsta  is  rendered  in  the 
Vnlga(e,  maviov,  again,  being  nothing  but  the  Greek 
interpretation  of  (ho  Hebrew  Golootiia  (q.  v.). 

1.  fmporl  rf  i/u  A'oow.— Many  have  held  that  Gol- 
gotha was  tho  place  of  pnblic  execution,  the  Tyburn 
of  Jerusalem,  and  that  hence  it  was  terme<f  the  "place 
of  a  skull."  Anolher  opinion  is  that  the  place  took 
its  name  from  its  shape,  being  a  hillock  of  a  form  like 
a  human  ukull.      It  is  true,  there  is  no  express  men- 


ditional  tenn  mouat,  applied  to  Calvary,  appears  (o 
confirm  (hIa  idea.  Such  a  shape,  too,  it  must  be  al- 
lowed, is  in  entire  ajrecment  with  the  name,  that  is. 


CALVARY 


30 


CALVARY 


"(knll."  To  the*e  contideralioni  tbcn  an  idded  ecT- 
Uln  difficulties  which  iui»  ^m  ths  olber  explanation. 
So  far  an  we  know,  there  ia  no  hiilorica!  evMence  to 
>ho«  that  lh«rs  was  a  place  of  public  exwution  where 
GolKOthft  is  commonly  fixed,  nor  that  any  inch  place, 
In  or  near  Jerusalem,  bore  the  Dime  Gol^^tha.  Mor 
is  the  term  Golgotha  deacriptire  of  snch  ■  place ;  to 
make  it  «o,  to  any  extent,  the  name  ahould  have  been 
'■akullB,"  or  "the  place  of  BkullB."  Equally  unapt  ia 
the  manner  in  which  (he  wriura  at  the  Goapel  apeak 
of  (be  place:  Matthew  calls  it  "a  place  oiled  Gol- 
gotha; ihatiB  toaay,  a  place  of  a  tktill  i"  Mark,  "the 
place  Gol)(athB,  which  la,  being  interpreted,  the  place 
of  a  aknlt ;"  Luke,  "  the  place  which  ia  called  Calva- 
ry;" .luhn,  "a  place  called  of  a  sknil,  which  la  called 
in  the  Hebrew  Golfcotba."  In  tnth,  the  context 
aeema  to  show  that  the  Roman  gnard  horried  Jeaus 
away  and  put  him  td  death  at  ibe  tint  convenient  spot  j 
and  that  the  rather  because  tber«  was  no  small  fear  of 
a  popular  insurrection,  especially  as  he  waa  attended  by 
a  crowd  of  people.  Ihlaplace,  wemay  BuppoHe,waanat 
far  l^nm  the  Judgment-hall,  which  waa  doubtless  dther 
near  Fort  Anlonia  or  In  the  former  palace  of  Herod. 
See  Ps.ETORtvti.  In  either  case,  the  crucifixion  wruld 
niOHt  naturally  have  occurred  at  Iho  niuiA-viii  of  the 
citi-.  Somewhere  in  the  north,  it  is  clear,  they  would 
execute  him,  as  thoi  they  uould  mont  easily  effecl 
their  oiiject.  But  if  they  chose  Iho  north,  then  tht 
road  to  Joppa  or  Damascus  would  be  moet  convenient, 
and  no  apiit  in  the  vicinity  would  probably  be  so  suit- 
able as  the  slight  rounded  elevation  which  bore  the 
luuno  of  Calvary,  That  soma  hillock  would  be  pre- 
ferred it  is  easy  to  see,  as  thns  the  exposure  of  (hi 
criminal  and  the  alleged  cause  of  his  crucillxion  woold 
be  most  effectually  secured.  Dr.  Barclay  is  at  great 
pains  to  show  [Cii^  -/the  Gnat  King.  p.  78  sq.)  that 
the  vicinity  of  the  garden  of  Gethscmane  b  (bo  more 
probeble  location  of  Calvan',  but  his  arinimfnts  are 
made  up  of  a  aeries  of  the  most  uncritical  conjectures. 
Indeed,  the  verv  hct  that  of  the  arbitraty  pcnidons  aa- 
aigned  by  all  those  who  (chiefly  tram  an  ultra  Prot- 
eatant  prejudice  apparently}rejcct  the  traditlonar;' site, 
no  two  agree,  while  all  are  alike  destitute  of  any  his- 
torical basis,  ia  an  Important  evidence  in  favor  of  the 
current  identi5cation.     See  Jerds.\i.bh. 

2.  Scriplurat  Kctifft  K/Ihe  Localili/.—Tbe  acconnt  In 
the  evanuelibti  touching  the  place  of  the  cruciflxion 
and  burial  of  our  Lord  ia  as  follows:  Havintc  been  de- 
livered by  Pilate  to  be  cruclAed.  Jesus  was  led  away 
followed  by  a  great  company  of  people  and  women 
vho  bewailed  his  fate.  On  the  way  the  soldiers  me 
tine  Simeon,  a  Cyrenian,  coming  tmC  tifiAe  covntry^  who 
was  compelled  to  bear  Jesus's  cross.  When  they  wen 
come  to  the  place  which  ia  called  Calvari-,  there  the; 
cmcined  him.  This  place  was  nigh  to  Ilie  city ;  and' 
sitting  donn.  they  watched  him  Ihere.  They  that  pass 
ed  by  reviled  him,  vajcging  their  heads  and  scoffinR. 
likewise  also  the  chief  priests  mocked  him,  with  the 
scribes  and  elders,  and  the  people  stood  tiehiildlng. 
The  soldiers,  (do,  mocked  him.  There  stood  by  the 
cross  of  Jesus  his  mother,  and  his  mother's  sister,  «nd 
Maty  Magdalene;  and  all  his  acquaintaucc,  and  (be 
women  (hat  followed  him  from  Galilee,  stood  aCir  off. 
beholding  these  thini-s.  /»  tht  place  tahtre  he  ircu  cm- 
oVini  there  was  a  garden,  and  !n  the  garden  a  now  aep- 
nlchre  bewn  out  in  the  rock ;  (terr  kid  they  Jesus,  and 
rolled  a  great  stone  to  the  door  of  the  sepulchre.  The 
writer  of  the  F.putle  to  the  Hebrews  adds  that ,' 
■nffbred  aiiJutuI  1^ golf,  subjoining,  "Let  us  thet 
go  forth  to  him  without  the  camp  (or  the  citv),  bearing 
his  reproach"  (Heb.  jiui.  II,  13).  We  thus'  learn  that 
the  eraelfixion  and  burial  took  place  out  of  tbe  city, 
and  yet  ni|ih  to  the  city,  apparentl}'  at  the  north-west, 
and  probably  just  on  the  outer  side  of  the  second  wall. 
It  is  also  clear  that  the  place  was  one  around  which 
many  persons  could  assemble,  near  which  wayfaien 
were  passing,  and  the  snffereTi  in  which  could  be  seen 


addressed  by  peraons  who  were  both  near  and  m. 

>te ;  all  which  concurs  in  showing  that  the  spot  was 

e  of  some  elevatioD,  and  equally  proves  that  "this 
thing  was  not  done  In  a  comer,"  but  at  a  place  and  un- 
der circumsUnees  likely  to  make  Calvary  well  known 
and  well  remembered  ^ike  by  the  foes  and  the  frienda 
-our  Lord. 

S.  line 'if  Tradition  rt^tet!vgrlKSpiit.^'Wu  it  like, 
ly  that  Ibis  recollection  would  perish  ?  Surely,  of  all 
spots.  Calvary  would  become  the  moat  sserrd,  the 
most  endearing  Id  the  primitive  Church.  Kor  did  tho 
Jew,  with  his  wsnn  gushing  affectiona,  feel  on  such  a 
point  less  vividly  than  his  fillow-men.  "  The  Itmbs 
of  the  propheOi,"  "  the  sepulchre  of  David."  were,  wo 
read  (Matt.  xxiiJ,  S9 ;  Acta  11,  29).  tevenntialty  regard- 
ed and  religiously  prrserved  from  age  to  age.  Thai 
of  "  David's  Lord"  would  tsauredly  not  be  negkcted. 
It  was  a  secson  nf  public  religious  festivity  when  our 
Lord  suffered.  Jerusalem  was  tlien  crowded  with  vis- 
itors from  foreign  parte.  Such,  too,  was  the  fact  at  the 
time  of  the  effuiicn  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  These  pil- 
grims, however,  soon  relumed  home,  and  wber»-er 
they  went  many  carried  with  them  the  news  of  (he 
crucifixion  of  Jesns,  and  tcld  of  the  pUee  where  be  had 
beer  executed.  Perhaps  no  one  spot  on  earth  btd 
ever  so  many  to  remember  it  and  know  its  precise  lo- 
cality as  the  place  where  Jesns  died  and  rose  again. 
First  in  JerusaUm,  and  soon  in  all  parte  of  the  earth, 
were  there  hearta  that  held  the  rcccllection  among 
their  must  valued  treasures.  Accordingly,  we  Wm 
from  Ibe  passage  In  Hebrews  that,  far  on  in  the  Erst 
century,  the  tradition  was  preserved  In  so  living  a  fi  rm 
as  to  be  made  the  subject  of  a  flguratii-e  illustration  of 
Christian  doctrine.  The  memory  of  dieliugnisbed 
places  la  among  the  least  perrshable  cf  esrthly  Ibings. 
Fatben  would  convey  their  knowledge  and  their  im- 
pressions to  sens;  one  gcneratinn  and  one  Thurch  to 
anotber.  Tbe  paasape  In  the  nebrews  would  tend  to 
keep  slive  the  recollecticn.  Moreover,  it  was  the  fate 
of  Jerusakm,  after  its  capture  by  the  Homans,  to  Im- 
come  a  heathen  city ;  even  it*  namo  was  changed  Into 
Colonia  .£lln  CapitoUna.  In  the  excels  of  their  tri- 
nmphsnt  joy,  the  conquercrs  made  Jupiter  its  patrcn 
god,  and  erected  statues  of  Jupiter  and  Venus  on  the 
place  where  Jesus  bad  been  crucified  (Sozomcn,  xi,  1). 
This  was  done  prrhaps  not  so  much  to  insult  aa  to  con- 
ciliate. New-comeni  in  religion  have  always  availed 
themselves  of  established  feeiings,  and  therefore  erect- 
ed their  racred  edifices  on  places  already  consecrateil 
in  tho  minds  nf  the  people.  The  mere  fact  of  a  tem- 
ple to  VenUB  sUnding  on  Calvary  suffices  to  show  (hat 
Calvary  was  the  place  where  Jefus  suffered.  Tho 
temple  thus  tnkes  up  the  tradition,  and  tnnFinits  it  In 
stone  and  marble  to  coming  ages.  Thia  conilnustlon 
of  the  tradition  is  the  more  Important,  because  it  begina 
to  operate  at  a  lime  when  the  Christians  were  driven 
from  Jerusalem.  But  the  absence  of  the  Christiana 
fmm  the  Holy  City  was  notof  lung  duration,  and  even 
early  in  the  third  centuri-  we  Und  pilgrimages  frrm 
distant  places  to  tho  Holy  Land  had  already  Itegiin  for 
the  express  purpose  of  viewing  Ibe  rpota  which  the 
presence  and  sufferings  of  tho  Saviour  had  rendered 
sacred  and  memorsblB  (ffitf.  B!erBKt.  p.  191 ;  Euaeb. 
UUl,  Ka-lri.  vi,  11).  A  century  later.  Eusebius  (A.D. 
315)  Informs  ua  that  Christians  visited  Jerusalem  from 
all  regions  of  the  earth  for  tho  same  oliject.  E^rly  in 
the  fourth  century,  Eusebius  and  Jerome  write  down 
the  tradition  and  fix  the  localiQ'  of  Calvary  in  their 
writings.  Eusel  ins  waa  bom  at  Cieaarea  in  Palestino 
about  A.D.  i:0.  In  315  he  became  a  bishop  in  his  na- 
live  country,  and  died  in  340.  He  was  ■  lesmed  man, 
end  wrote  a  history  of  tho  Christian  Church.  About 
330  he  composed  bis  (!>noin'UfTi:(in,  which  was  expressly 
devoted  to  the  business  of  detcrminin);  and  recording 
tbe  sites  of  holy  and  other  places  in  Palestine.  This 
work  of  Ensetilns,  written  in  Greek,  Jerome  aflerwsnl 
translated  into  Latin,  and  thus  milieA  bis  anthorll)-  to 


CALVARY                        87  CALVARY 

Ihit  of  EowUdi.     JeroRW  took  Dp  bU  resldenet  in  auch  acouruTeiy  anpbilosophicnl,  to  throw  dnabt  dd- 

tht  Holy  Luid  in  tlu  latter  put  of  tb«  runrlh  ceDInty,  (piriD/fly  over  tha  wholo,  ta  (Lj  no  nie«DB  in  th«  but 

ud  remainnl  tHcre  till  hli  death.     (For  an  eatiniJte  tiule)  iom  Ur.  liobiatcm.     However,  an  tbe  aite  thua 

nf  tlie  vm|g«  of  these  jjeognpliical  anthorities,  Me  Ke-  afcertaineil,  waa  erected,  whether  by  ConBtantina  or 

bad,  PiUait.  p.  167  aq.)     PilKrimi  now  atrejiniid  to  Heleaa,  certainly  by  Roman  inflaence  and  treassr«,  a 

JusaJeiD  from  all  parte  of  the  world,  and  that  eiCawaa  splendid  and  extensive  Christian  temple.      Socratea 

Baed  for  Golj^tlu  which  has  Tciaained  to  tbe  preaant  {BccUt.  Htl.  i, li)Mya,  "The  emperor'a  mother orect- 

boar.  ed  over  the  place  where  tbe  Bepulclire  wu  a  moat  ma^- 

4.  Ertctiom  tiflie"CiMn:kBftie  I/oljf  StpaltAre"  oetr  nificen I  church,  and  called  it  New  Jeniaalem,  liDiiding 

SrStr, — The  acta  of  tbe  Emperor  CooatanCine  and  bii  it  iifipiafetitlAfiloUdeierted  Jeru>aleni"(a>inp.  Euseb. 

mDtb(rHeleiut,'>«-<BP™™*'><>'^*'>*lp'>*''>C'l>i^*"o°  ^^-  f^'™'-  '"•  ^'-     "^^^  church  was  completed  and 

to  thia  tradition.     Tbia  empreaa,  when  very  fir  ad-  dedicated  A.D.  ^.     It  waa  a  great  occasion  for  tbe 

vanccd  in  life,  rlaited  Jeruaalem  for  tbe  exprca*  pur-  Cliriatian  world.     In  order  to  give  It  Importance  and 

poae  of  ereciing  a  church  on  tbe  apot  wbi^ns  the  Lord  add  to  ita  splendor,  a  council  ofbiahopa  was  convened, 

Jenn  had  been  crucified.     The  preceding  details  show  by  order  of  the  emperor,  tnia  all  tbe  provincea  of  the 

Out  the  preaeTTBtion  of  the  memorv  of  the  lucality  waa  em]»re,  which  auembled  Hist  at  Tyre  and  then  at  Je- 

aay  tliinx  but  impoHible.     Helena  would  njturidly  be  ruulcm.     Among  them  waa  Flutebius,  who  took  part 

Mlierlsas  to  discover  tho  true  apol,  whence  ensues  tbe  in  the  soleinnitics.  and  held  several  public  ditcoutaea 

Ukelilwod  Ihjt  aha  waa  not  misUkea.     She  bad  pre-  in  the  Holy  City  (Euseb,  T.V.  Ohm*,;  Robinson,  ii,  18). 

Tionsly  heard  that  tbe  holy  places  bod  been  heaped  up  Tbe  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  burnt  b)'  tbe 

udconc!^il'>d  by  the  heathen,  and  resolved  to  attempt  Persia ns  in  A.D.  GI4.      It  was  shortly  after  rebuilt  by 

ts  brin,^  th.-m  to  light,  ti't  fuic  ayayilv  (Theoph.  in  Uodestus  with  resources  supplied  by  John  EleemoT, 
Chvu.  p.  18).      "  On  her  srriv  j  at  Jerusalem,  she  in-  '  patriarch  of  Alexandria.     The  basilica  or  martyrioQ 

qaind  dili^ntly  of  tbe  iohabitanta.     Yet  tbe  search  enicted  under  Constantlne  remained  aa  before.     Tbe 

•tnictwns  by  which  the  heathen  had  sought  lo  render  At  length  HarAn  er-Baabid  made  over  to  Charjemagne 

tbe  apot  unknown.     These  being  all  removed,  the  aa-  the  jurisdiction  of  the  holy  sepulchre.     Paleatine  again 

end  sepulchre  waa  discovered,  and  by  its  aide  three  became  the  rcene  of  battles  and  bloodshed.     Muei.  of 

cn«e^  wltb  the  tablet  bearing  tbe  inscription  written  the  rjce  at  the  Fatimites,  tionaferred  the  sest  of  hia 

bj  Pa^U"  (Robiaioa.Bilil.  Hti.ii,U:  lbeodorBt,l,  IT),  empire  lo  Cairo  when  Jerusalem  fell  into  the  handa  of 

Tio  account  of  her  proceedings,  tjken  from  one  who  new  masters,  and  the  holy  sepulchre  la  said  to  have 

Ubon  to  tiring  into  discredit  the  whole  of  Helena's  been  Sigain  set  on  fire.      It  waa  fully  destroyed  st  the 

[mceedin^  and  who  i>  far  too  indtacriminate  and  commandof  tbe  tbirdottbeFatimite  calipbsiti  Egypt, 

•weeptDg  in  bla  hostility  to  the  piimilivt  traditiona  of  the  buitdinj  being  razed  to  the  fonndadona.     In  the 

■be  Church,  shows  aufSciently  that  Helena  waa  c:iu.  reign  of  bla  auccesaor  it  was  rebuilt,  being  completed 

tioss  in  her  prDceedinga;  that  there  did  exist  a  Ir^di-  A.D.  tOlB;  but  instead  of  the  former  maiinificent  ba- 

tfan  on  the  aabject;  that  by  that  tradition  the  empress  silica  over  the  place  of  Golgotha,  a  small  chapel  only 

WM  gnbled ;  and  thit  she  found  reason  to  iix  the  silo  now  graced  the  spot.    The  Crusades  soon  began.     Tbe 

of  Calvary  on  the  spot  where  the  heathen  bad  erected  Cruudera  regarded  the  edifices  connected  with  the  sep- 

tlieir  temple  and  set  np  their  pnjfane  rites.     That  no  nlchre  bb  too  contracted,  and  erected  a  stately  temple, 

aaall  portion  of  tbe  marvellous,  not  to  say  legendary  the  walls  and  general  form  of  which  are  admitted  to 

and  incmlible.  is  mixed  up  in  the  apcounta  which  the  remain  to  tbe  preaent  day  (Robinson,  ii,  61).     So  re- 

ecrleaiaatical  historians  have  given,  we  by  no  means  cently,  however,  aa  A.D.  1^08.  the  chureb  of  the  holy 

Seny ;  but  we  aee  no  reason  whatever,  and  wa  think  sepulchre  was  partly  conaumed  hy  fire ;  hot,  being  ra- 


Front  View  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sapulchra. 


b/Goot^lc 


CALVARY  38  CALVERT 

bD-«.  by  tlio  Groeki,  it  now  olTan  no  tni^M  «f  Hi  n- '  of  tmh  b  podtioD ;  for  bow  an  RoUnBon  know  thu 
cenf^  dmlallon.  I  lila  meuurei  exUndtd  along  the  ume  graaud  u  out 

S.  Oijrctimu  to  On  Idatifieatien. — Thcaole  «videnca  Ixird  wu  horrlcd  oTiir?  Butieuoo  hunbreadj  been 
of  «Dy  wei  ht  in  the  oppoaita  baluico  is  that  UTiCOd  by  given  why  the  Jewa  ahonU  biva  talun  no  rcry  pro- 
Robinaon,  that  the  piaea  of  Iha  crucinilaD  and  the  i>ep~    tractcd  coarae. 

ulchre  are  tiow  fbuad  in  the  midit  of  the  modsrn  citj'.  Two  or  threa  addltJonal  facta  in  confinnatioD  of  the 
But,  to  render  thla  argumeat  deci^ve,  it  ahonld  Ih  identity  of  the  present  pUc«  may  Anally  be  addooed. 
proved  thjt  the  city  occnidea  now  the  wma  t^und  Uackingham  (Aifuf.  p.  288)  aaya,  "The  presnit  rode 
that  it  occapied  in  the  dayi  of  Christ.  It  i>,  at  Uaat,  called  Calvary,  and  inclosed  within  the  Church  of  tbe 
as  likely  that  tbe  city  aboold  have  undergonB  cfaanKCS  Holy  Sepnlchre,  baara  marka  in  every  part  that  {■  n> 
U  thiit  the  ilia  of  the  cmcilUlon  ahould  have  been  ked  of  Ita  having  been  ■  roond  nodule  of  rock  standing 
mistaken.  The  identity  of  tueb  a  fpot  it  more  likely  above  tbe  common  level  of  the  sDrf.w."  Scboli  (Cf 
to  be  preserved  than  the  size  and  relative  proportion*  Colgalka  tint,  p.  9)  state*  that  be  traced  tbe  reoiuiu 
of  a  city  whlih  baa  undertone  nion>  violent  changes  of  ■  wall,  which  ran  as  the  second  wall  on  tbe  plan 
than  proliaiily  any  other  place  on  earth.  The  present  runs,  eiclndin^'  Gol^'otha,  and  Liking  in  the  Pool  fit 
walls  of-lerusalem  were  erected  so  Uta  aa  A.U.  IJJS;  Heiekbh  (Raumrr,  p.  35!).  It  may  alto  be  remark- 
and  Robinson  himself  remirks  that  a  part  of  ZiuD  is  ed  that,  rince  the  pulilication  of  Robinson  s  work.  Rao. 
now  left  oat  (p.  67).  If.  then,  the  city  has  been  con-  mer  haa  pot  forth  a  piece  (Batrage  Mar  Bib.  Ge-g.  1843X 
tnctedon  the  south,  and  if,  also,  It  wus  after  the  death  in  which  be  revlHS  hit  AiUjfina  so  br  as  Kobinaoa'a 
of  Christ  expindcd  on  the  north,  what  should  wo  ex-  aicertiinal  rwulu  render  necesaary;  but  he  remains 
pact  but  to  And  Golghtha  In  tho  midst  of  the  modern  of  the  ajme  opinion  in  regard  to  tbe  po»lliili^  of  tbe 
city?  ■  present  Church  of  the  Sepulchre  being  ontof  tbe  litr, 

Jerosalem,  in  the  days  of  Christ,  had  two  walls.  At  most,  a  very  few  hundred  yards  only  can  tbe  origi. 
termed  the  "  Ant"  and  the  ''  aecond."  It  Is  with  the  nal  Golgotha  have  lain  from  the  present  site,  and  the 
second  wall  that  we  are  here  chiefly  concerned.  It  be-  |  evidence  in  favor  of  Its  identity,  if  not  decisive,  is  &r 
gin  at  a  tower,  nsmed  Gennadi,  of  Ihe  lirst  wall,  stronger  thin  any  that  has  been  adduced  against  it. 
curved  outward  to  the  north,  and  ended  at  tbe  castle  At  tbe  best,  then,  very  small  is  Ihe  reason  for  disturb. 
of  Anlonia,  The  third  wall  ambrjced  ■  wido  snl«rb  ing  tho  convktions  and  dUlr3s.>ing  tbe  hearts  of  the 
on  the  north  and  nortb-weat.  This  comprehendvJ  a  sincere  believers  who  visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  order 
tort  of  new  city,  and  was  built  in  consequence  of  tbe  to  give  vent  to  tbeir  tearful  gratitude  and  cberiah  their 
large  population  which  by  degrees  Axed  Ibeir  altodc  in  pions  f.iith.  A  similar  conclusion  is  warmly  coat«Dd- 
the  spies  which  blls  between  the  second  and  thirl  ed  Ibr  by  Dr.  Olin  (^TroBflt  in  lie  Eatt,  ii,  37*6  k\,\  aid 
walb.  This  wall  was  began  an<l«r  Claudius,  at  least  stilt  m-ire  at  length  by  Mr.  Williams  (^Halg  Cils,  voL  iL 
Ibrty-one  yean  after  Christ  (Joxephus,  irnr,  v,  4,  ix  ch.  iandil).  It  it  also  ably  examined  and  maintainnl 
camp.  Tacit  HU.  v,  1!).  This  thini  wull,  then,  did  by  Thnipp  t^Aneiat  Jrnualtm,  Und.  1S55).  It  han, 
not  exbitinthc  time  of  our  Lord  ;  and  Roliiiuon  allows  however,  been  either  stoutly  denied  or  lightly  aneered 
that  ir  Ihe  present  sila  of  the  sepulchre  fell  uithont  Ihe  at  by  many  otbi^  writers,  who  may  Iwstyladaa  beloDg- 
aecond  wall,  all  Ihe  cundilions  of  the  gener.iI  question  ing  to  the  molem  anti-traditionary  school.  At  tbe 
would  be  satJsDed.  Man.v  traveller.i  and  antiquarians  hsad  of  these  is  Dr.  KoLinsoo,  who  takes  every  occa. 
hare  decided  that  this  was  tbe  case,  while  others,  more  sion  to  Impugn  the  aalhenticit]'  of  scriptural  localities 
nameroas  perhaps,  but  not  better  qualilied  to  judge,  in  geiwral,  as  iniw  pointed  ont.  See  Goujoraa ;  Sep- 
bave  come  to  the  oppoiila  conclusion.     See  Jebdsa-    ulchri  o»  Cubist. 

I-KH  iTopogra]*3).  (It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Dr.  [  CALVARY,  THE,  a  name  given  in  Roman  Calho- 
Kleprrt,  of  Berlin,  the  most  eiperiennxl  carlognpber  I  jj^  countries  (o  "  a  represeiitatiun  of  the  varioua  accnea 
probably,  especially  on  this  and  kinlrfd  sn%ject«,  bat '  of  ,he  paalon  and  cnicittxion  of  our  Lord,  either  in 
vacillated  on  this  point  in  the  maps  of  liis  own  con- !  ,  chapel,  or  exiemal  lo  the  chuTCb,  aa  at  St.  Jacqon, 
ttruction,K)meofthemlncludingBndolh?n)Bxcloding;Bt  Antwerp.  It  consista  of  thive  cnma  with  tbe 
thecontealed  site  along  the  courseofthewsll  in  qucs- 1  figure,  of  Christ  and  Iba  thieve*,  uwallv  at  large  at 
tion.)  Tho  whole  question  tarn*  upon  the  position  of  Jifc,  surrounded  by  a  number  of  flgu^^  rrpieaent. 
the  gjte  Gennath :  if  this  wjb  at  the  eitrome  north-  i„g  n,,  various  penonagea  who  took  part  in  tbe 
west  angle  ofZion,  then  the  second  wall,  in  order  to  bo  micilixion.  At  Aii-U-Chtpelle,  the  Calvary  ia  a 
at  all  "circling"  (■ri.aD^/ii™^),  conki  not  well  have  ,  church  on  the  lop  of  a  bill,  suirounded  by  iwelv* 
excluded  the  site  in  question:  but  if,  as  it  more  prob- '  iculptuied  stones,  each  marking  sn  event  which  look 
able,  it  was  some  duluice  east  of  the  tower  Hipplcut '  ^Uce  on  the  joumev  of  the  Saviour  to  Uount  Calrarv. 
(for  while  Joaephut,  ul  lup.,  eiprcssly  begins  the  ArsI  j  The  approach  to  'the  Calvary  it  called  tbe  fia 
and  third  walbi  from  this  lamr.  he  begins  the  second  Dolanna,  rach  of  the  Hones  msrking  whst  it  called 
from  this  jKr,  situated  along  the  northern  part  of  the  : ,  ,„,ion,  at  which  th*  pious  ny  a  prayer  in  pata- 
tint  wall),  then  the  second  wall  could  hardly  have  bent '  ing." 

?J!^  r»v'lf,,l*°^''nuT'^o  ^h!"n!;^  ":.  if^o^^^'™  I  C«lv«ry.  CODBr««.tion  of  Onr  Lsdy  oC  an 
•Die  -^'ty  l'"'--'^  ""t,""  th"  n'^,  ~  It  contracted  on  ^^^  ^f  Benedictine  nun-,  originally  fonnded  at  Pol- 
(he  s.3Uth,  ttms  brmging  Golgolha  mtoitt  cenir J  p:,rt..    ^       j^    Antoinette  of  Orleans,  if  the  house  of  I.ot.«,c- 


nbinvm,  however,  a 


■ .  ville.     Tuiie  Panl  V  eoniirmed  thU  order  in 


either  have  excluded  the  Pool  of  Heaekiuh,  which  (at  ,  '"/     '  "*"  '~"'  u,ri^oi,ndrBM  l«. 

h.^  tliinks)  was  in  tbe  city,  oi  included  tbe  site  of  tbe  '  .    .    i    i  'i,    ,  p„-,-  _      i,v  ?  f™™"™   "'  ■ 

,  i_    '     . .  .  ^'  ^    ,  .r, .      ,  convent  newly  butit  at  Poitiers,  with  twentv-four  nan* 

..pulchre,  which  WM  out  of  the  city.      [>;'»•"*«"-  of  the  ord.rof  Fontavrault.     In  t6M  Mary'd.  Medici, 

ta  ™t  aWuiell  n™!5L^";  "™"^L  '™i'lf  «^^  """*■«'  »*"«'  "}""  ^S''^"'  "i  «?''}'■''**'  **"  ■ 


r  the  Luxembourg  Palace.     The  de.*ign  of  their 
cnce  lo  varioui  pians  oi  me  city  tnat  nave  neen  con-          ,  ij  u        ,  _„  (.  honor  the  mvtterv  of  tb 
struclod,  in  which  the  second  wall  leaves  l«lh  whorj  .,  .  '    „.     ..  ,„ .  ...  ..,_,^ \,  ^i  ... 


H  plans  of  the  ci  _  ^^     „„„„reni,  wao  »  ..oi™.  L...  .,1    .».     « 

'  e  second  wall  leaves  Iwlh  whorj  ™' ""JI!'"I"  T"  ^."""^1'" '"  j'^i.i! 


tbe  Scripture.  pUco  Ih.m.  Sf.  Hbiek.aii-s  Poou  "'  '"f  "f "  ■"'  "■"  •""""■■»■  " , J^""'':  ""  """t 
D...  !ii.>.  ~i  n«n, ...  ,  °  ■...!.  T  1  M  other  of  the  nun.  wem  compellwl  to  b.  lUj  Biid 
B.t  11,.  aKl..™  Hot  lb.  ...bm  ijin  .1  ft.  T.mpl.  ,„  „(,„  n.  ™,.  Tow.rt  tb.  ol...  of  lb.  li.t 
.lb,|j„™i,mrflb.»H*r.noMb««oo™iJ.r.  ir,  ft.  .,*,  „,.t«l  .born  l.™i,  ra„„l,  .11 
l...«..l,  ,1  bo,,,  oblj-  .K..1  .  ,„rl.,  of  .  .lb,. ,  .,  ,j'J,  ,„  ,^  ^  I,  „,.  p^Ji,  R,,.,„i„. 
\\  0  bbow  bol  tb.1  ftor.  ,,  ..,  ft,,,  ,„  „,pi|,rd  .o-   si.„  ,„.,  „       ,  „„'„„,  ,'„  p.,,,.  ^  .„„j  „.„, 

^7,  B'rt^?o?i'^ii7r..««iiroZ^bto^'ftr,^  I '"'■'''"'"'"  "^ ''"""■'""'**"  "^ 

cotjU  crenta.  W  My  noftini,.  of ibe  M«;ntiil".,kn^  I      Calvert,  Jt,u,t  P..  o  Melhoairl  Epjcopal  mbiin.,; 


CALVES  3 

>M  bem  In  BcIinoDt  eonnty,  Ohio,  Octotier  !S,  18S8 ; 
M^iol  at  tbe  Ohio  Cnlvinity,  uid  wm  admitted  do 
■ml  u  k  pnachcr  ia  tha  Ohio  Caafaimet  in  186S. 
WkHi  tlM  American  dvil  war  broke  oat  In  IBSl,  no 
la«  tk*n  six  of  hii  bretben  entered  tbe  irmy,  and  fae 
•BO  afliT  hk  it  bis  dot;  to  roUow  thein.  At  the  bit. 
lb  tt  Shilofa,  Aag.  7, 1862,  he  wu  woanded,  end  on 
Ifei  faUovinf  Sunday  he  died.  He  lud  been  very  u»- 
M  in  (^  amy,  preaching  and  holding  prayeT-mrel- 
bigi  whcDeTCT  oppDitiuiity  affotdsd. — MiaHltt  of  Can- 
ftraatt,  1862,  p.  138. 

Cklve*.     See  Ztx-r. 

Calvin,  Jo  as,  one  of  tbe  meet  eminent  or  the  Re- 

1.  AAA  oflm  U/i.— He  mu  born  at  Koyon,  Joly 
l6tk,1609,hia£Uiier,  GcnTdChaDTin,bdng  ■  nolari'. 
He  vat  from  tbe  Brat  edocated  for  tbe  Churcb,  and 
befae  be  waa  twelre  yean  old  wai  prmenled  to  a 
benefice  lo  the  Calbednl  of  Noyon.  Six  yean  after 
thb  be  waa  appointed  to  *  cure  of  souls  at  Montville, 
lad  thoa,  altboogh  not  yet  twenty,  and  not  even  la 
lb*  ■Binn'  orden,  he  ira*  enjoying  the  title  and  rere- 
■■•e  of  a  core.     "His  father  now  changed  hla  mind 

Ui  attaotioB  to  the  Uw  h  the  rowl  to  wealth.  This 
thanfa  was  not  aoacceptable  lo  Calrln.wfao,  from  his 
penial  of  the  Scriptorce — a  copy  of  which  was  fur- 
■iated  him  by  BobaTt.011vetan,  wbo  wu  his  fellow. 
echtdar  at  Paris,  and  likewiae  a  native  of  Noyoo— had 
alieady  haen  convinced  of  many  of  the  errors  of  the 
RoDiefa  Charcb.  He  accordiagly  repaired  to  OrUana, 
■here  he  studied  nnder  Peter  Stella,  and  then  to 
Bnge^  when  Andrew  Alciat  filled  the  chair  of  law, 
and  when  also  Mtiduor  Wiimar.  the  Reformer,  taught 
bla  Greek.  Hen  Calvin  waa  conflrmed  in  tbe  duc- 
tiiiies  of  the  Belbmiation,  and  began  indeed  to  preach 
them  in  tbe  vUlagea.  His  father,  howerer,  dying,  he 
retaned  to  Nc^on,  bat  aner  a  abort  period  weot  lo 
Puis,  where,  in  1G31,  bs  pabliihed  commentaries  on 


"He  I 


»,Dt 


Mw  resigned  his  benefices,  and  doTOted  him- 
self lo  diTiolty.  in  158S,  Cop,  tbe  rector  of  the  Uni- 
TSBI7  of  Paijft,  baving  occasion  to  read  adiscoDne  on 
the  liistivKl  of  All  Saints,  Calvin  persuaded  him  to 
declare  hb  opinion  on  tUs  new  doctrines.  This 
tnogfat  apoo  them  l>oth  the  Indignation  of  tbe  Sor- 
bsBBc,  and  tfaey  wen  forced  to  leave  the  city.  Cal- 
Tia  wBBt  to  several  piscee,  and  at  length  to  Angon- 
Uoe,  wbere  be  gut  afaeller  in  the  house  of  Lonis  do 
Tsilet,  a  csoMii  of  Angonl^me,  and  supported  himaelf 
soBc  tinw  by  teaching  Greek.  There  ho  composed 
the  gnatai  part  of  his  InHhiln  n/  Ike  ChrulUm  He- 
hfim,  wbkh  wen  pohlished  in  1E>::G.  The  Queen  of 
Kavarre,  titUr  to  Fnnds  I,  having  shown  hlm  smne 
cntntcBBBce  ki  respect  for  his  learning  and  aliilitki-,  he 
ntaraed  to  Paris  in  16U  under  her  protection,  but 
funai  nwiee  the  same  year,  having  first  puLKtbed 
Of  cfcy  mmtrUa,  to  conflite  the  error  of  those  who 
held  that  tbe  soul  remained  in  a  state  of  sleep  between 
death  and  tbe  naarrection.  He  retired  to  Baple.  when 
be  pobliibad  tbe /aMthKn  <ld!W),  dedicated  to  Fran- 
ca I  In  an  elegant  Latin  rpialle.  The  design  of  the 
/Wirttfx  was  to  exhibit  a  full  view  of  the  doctrinH  of 
the  BefoRiier* ;  and  as  no  similar  work  had  approred 
•idea  the  Reformation,  and  the  prculiarities  of  the 
Koobh  Church  were  atUcked  in  H  with  great  force, 
!>b3iedlately  became  popniar.  It  soon  went  through 
•nmX  edltiDDs,  was  translated  by  Cslvhi  himKClf  into 
Fitnch.  and  has  since  been  translated  Into  all  the  f  rin- 
^I  modem  langoaaea.  Its  eflbct  npon  the  Chri«ti>.n 
ntid  has  lieen  so  rrmarkahle  aa  to  entitle  it  to  lie  kok- 
ti  Bpon  aa  one  of  those  hooka  that  have  changed  the 
hce  of  (orlety.  After  this  pnbticatian  Calvin  went  to 
hely,  and  ma  received  with  distinrtion  hv  the  Doch- 
fw  of  Farraim,  duigfater  of  Loiila  XII.  But,  notwllh- 
■asding  bcr  prateetisn,  he  waa  obliged  to  retuni  lo 


»  CALVIN 

Prance,  bat  soon  left  it  again,  and  In  the  mondi  of 
Auguat,  1686,  arrived  at  Geneva,  where  the  Beformct 
religion  bad  been  the  aanM  year  publicly  established. 
Then,  at  the  request  of  Fsrel,  VIret,  snd  other  emi- 
nent Reformers,  by  whom  thst  nvotution  had  been 
achieved,  he  became  a  preacher  of  tho  Gospel,  andiro- 
fessor,  or  rather  lectnrer  on  divinit;-.  Fanl  waa  then 
twenty  years  older  than  Calvin,  hat  their  objecta  were 
tbe  asmo,  and  their  lesminc,  virtue,  snd  leal  aliko, 
and  these  wrn  now  combined  for  the  complete  refor- 
nutlon  of  Geneva,  and  the  dilTnaion  of  their  principles 
throughout  Europe.  In  tbe  month  of  November  a 
plan  of  Church  government  and  a  confession  of  faith 
ware  laid  before  the  pnUIIc  aulhoiities  fhr  their  ap- 
proval. Beza  makes  Calvin  the  author  of  these  pro- 
doctionsj  hat  others,  with  perhaps  greater  reason,  at- 
tribute them  to  Parel.  There  la  little  doubt,  however, 
that  Calvin  waa  conanlted  In  their  composition,  and 
still  leaa  that  he  lent  his  powerful  aid  to  secure  their 
sanction  snd  sppnval  by  the  people  in  the  month  of 
July,  1637.  Tbe  asms  year  tbe  Council  of  Geneva 
conferred  on  Fsrel  the  honor  of  a  bui^as  of  the  city, 
in  token  of  their  napect  and  gratltade.  But  the  papu- 
lar will  was  not  prepared  for  the  severe  discipline  of 
the  Reformera.  and  in  a  abort  time  the  people,  nnder 
thedlrectionofa  faction,  met  in  a  public  assembly  and 
expelled  Fsrel  and  Calvin  from  the  place.  Calvin  re- 
paired to  Bern,  and  then  to  Gtraaburg,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  dictnlly  snd  minister  of  a  Fnnch 
church,  into  which  he  introduced  bis  own  fcrm  of 
church  government  and  diactpline.  In  his  absence 
great  efforts  wen  made  to  get  the  Genevese  to  ntum 
to  the  communion  of  the  Churcb  of  Rome,  psrtiinlsrly 
by  Cardinal  Sudulet,  who  wrote  to  tliem  eamesllv  to 
that  effect:  bat  Calvin,  ever  aUve  to  the  maintenbDce 
of  tbe  principles  of  the  Beformation,  diaappainted  all 
the  expectations  of  his  enemies,  and  conl.tmed  the 
Genevese  In  tbe  new  faith,  addressing  to  them  two 
powerftal  and  sffisctlonate  letters,  and  replying  lo  that 
written  by  Ssdolot.  While  st  Slraabnrg  Cslvin  also 
published  a  treatise  on  the  lord's  Supper  (TraiU  de  !a 
Samti  Our),  in  which  he  combated  tbe  opinkma  both 
of  the  Ruman  Cutbotics  and  Lutherans,  and  at  the 
aame  time  explained  his  own  views  of  that  ordinance. 
Here,  too,  he  published  his  Ci,mmnitaTy  on  llit  Ep'illt 
tolktRomam.  Calvin  became  acquainted  with  Csats- 
lio  during  his  residence  at  SlrasUurg,  and  procured  for 
him  the  situation  of  a  ngent  at  Geneva ;  and  It  was 
during  his  sUy  in  this  city  that,  by  the  advice  of  his 
friend  Bucer,  he  married  Idellet,  the  widow  of  a  con- 
verted Analiaptist. 

"  In  Novcml  er  of  the  same  year  he  and  Farel  were 
solicited  by  the  Council  of  Geneva  to  ntum  to  their 
former  charge  in  that  city-,  in  May,  1541,  their  ban- 
Isbincnt  WDS  revoked,  and  in  September  following 
Ciilvin  waa  nceind  into  the  city  amid  the  congrat- 
ulations of  bis  flock,  Farel  remaining  at  Kenfchatel. 
Ho  immediately  laid  before  tbe  conncil  his  scheme 
of  church  (.'ovemmcnt,  and  after  It  was  sdopled  and 
pulilij'bed  by  authority  (30th  of  November,  1541),  be 
was  unhesitating  in  its  enforcement.  His  prompti- 
tude snd  firmness  were  now  ccnFplruoos ;  he  was  Iho 
mling  pplril  In  Geneva;  snd  tbe  Church  which  be 
lisd  ertabliFhed  there  he  wished  to  make  the  mother 
sr.d  seminary  of  all  tbe  Reformed  churches.  Hie 
personal  labors  wen  unceasing.  Geneva,  however, 
was  tlie  common  centre  of  all  hla  exertions,  and  ita 
prosperlt}-  prculiarly  interested  him,  though  tcsa  for 
Its  own  Fake  than  to  make  it  a  fountain  for  tbe  sup- 
ply of  the  world.  He  eftablished  sn  academy  then, 
the  lii.h  character  of  ublcb  was  long  msintained;  he 
msde  the  city  a  lllenry  mart,  and  encouraged  the 
Fnnch  nfugees  and  others  who  sought  lils  advice  to 
apply  themselves  to  the  occupslioo  of  a  printer  or  li- 
brarian j  and  having  finished  the  eccletlasticil  ngi- 
men,  he  directed  hla  ailention  to  the  improvement  of 
the  mnnicipsl  |;overBment  of  tbe  place.    That  Calvin 


CALVIN 


40 


CALVIN 


■bonld,  In  tlis  circnniilaiicu  ip  wbich  fag  vaa  now 
placed,  rhow  marks  of  iatoIetBiiM  loviird  otfaera,  it 
potiarpriunc;  uid  loaeek  a  palliation  of  fait  guilt,  wa 
Deed  not  pi  haik  to  the  time  when  he  lielonged  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  nor  yet  to  the  uotiout  of  civil  aod  re- 
ligious  liberty  prevalent  in  hia  age.  We  have  only 
to  reflect  on  the  conatitntion  of  the  bnman  mind,  and 
the  conitant  care  neceMiiy  to  prevent  power  in  any 
hande  from  degenerating  into  tyranny,  llJe  rondnct 
toward  Servetiis  [«ae  Sbrvetib]  Ius  been  jmtly  con- 
demned, yet  the  punishment  of  Servelns  was  ajijiroved 
of  liy  men  of  undoabted  worth,  and  even  by  the  mild 
Melancthon.  Kor  was  hit  treatment  of  HdImc  (q.  v.) 
witboDt  reproach.  In  ]5M  Calvin  published  a  worli 
in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  igaiaM  Ser- 
velOB  (Fidrlii  Krfmntio  Emrun  M.  Serttii),  and  to 
prove  the  right  of  the  dvil  magiatrate  to  punish  hcie- 
rv;  Baia  the  same  year  puijlished  a  work  on  (he  like 
subject,  In  reply  to  the  treatise  of  Caatalio.  The  state 
of  Calvin's  health  prevented  hfan  going  in  15G1  to  the 
Conrerence  of  PoiJsy  (q,  v.),  an  assembly  Mhkh  in 
his  view  promised  to  be  of  great  consequence,  and 
which  waa  indeed  remarkable  in  this  respect,  (hat  from 
that  time  the  folkiwers  of  Calvin  lecame  known  as  a 
distinct  sect,  ttearing  the  name  of  their  leader.  To  the 
last  he  maintained  the  same  firmnei<n  of  character 
which  had  dittin^iEbcd  hint  through  life.  On  his^ 
death-bed  be  took  Qod  to  witners  thst  he  had  preached ' 
tbe  Gospel  purel.A',  and  exhorted  all  about  hint  to  walk 
worthy  of  (be  divine  goodoeas:  his  slender  tntm 
vnduallv  became  quite  emaciated,  and  on  the  27th  of 
May,  l(i64,  he  died  without  a  struggle,  in  the  flfty-fifUi ' 
year  of  hia  age.  The  person  of  Calvin  was  middle- 1 
sited  and  naturally  delicate ;  hia  habits  were  fingal 
and  nnostentatiour ;  and  ho  was  so  sparing  in  his  food ' 
that  fof  many  years  he  took  only  one  meal  in  the  day.  I 
He  had  a  clear  understanding,  an  extraordinar}-  mem- 1 
ory,  and  a  flrmness  and  inflexibility  of  purpose  which ' 
no  opposition  cnnld  overcome,  no  variety  of  objecta  de- 
feat, no  ricissUude  shake.  In  his  principles  he  was 
devout  and  sincere,  and  the  purity  of  hie  character  in ' 
private  Ufa  was  witliout  a  stain." — Engluh  Ct/dopmlia. 
It  Is  imposAililo  to  contemplate  without  astonisb- 
menttbe  labor))  of  Calvin  during  the  last  twenty  years 
of  bis  life.  He  presided  over  the  ecclealastical  and 
political  air.ura  of  Geneva;  be  preached  eveiy  day, 
loctumd  thrice  a  week,  was  present  at  every  meeting 
of  the  Canaistaty,  and  yat  found  time  for  a  vast  corre- 
spondence, and  to  continue  his  vt^aminaus  tilaraiy  la- 
bors. Bssidea  his  printed  works,  there  an  now  in  the 
library  of  Geneva  '2026  aermona  in  MS,  His  health 
during  all  this  period  was  feeble,  yet  he  conUnued 
bis  various  toils  almost  up  to  tbe  very  day  of  his 
death.  Ho  chose  to  be  poor,  refusing  on  several  oc- 
cssions  proposed  additions  to  his  very  moderate  sal- 
ary, and  is  said  uniformly  to  have  declined  receiving 
presents,  nnlesa  for  the  sake  of  giving;  them  to  the 
poor.  From  his  numerous  publicatlDns  it  is  believed 
that  he  derived  no  pecanLary  pivflt;  and  yet,  as  was 
the  case  with  Wesley,  be  was  assailed  on  all  sides 
as  having  amaased  great  wealth,  ^'  I  see,"  said  he, 
"wbit  incites  my  enemies  to  nrge  these  falsehoods. 
They  measnre  me  according  to  their  own  dispositions, 
believing  that  I  must  be  heaping  up  money  on  all 
siclei  because  I  enjoy  sucb  favorable  opportunities  for 
doiatt  BO.  But  assuredly,  if  I  have  not  been  able  to 
avoid  the  reputation  of  being  rich  during  my  life, 
death  will  at  last  free  me  fVom  this  stiin."  And  so  It 
was.  By  his  last  will  Calvin  disposes  of  his  entire 
property,  amounting  to  about  two  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-live dollars,  and  on  the  !7th  day  of  May,  1364,  be- 


cultivation  was  in  harmony  with  it.  Sealiger  declaica 
that  at  twenty-two  Calvin  was  the  most  learned  man 
in  Europe, 

"  The  flrst  edition  of  his  great  work,  Tke  fuMtttl 
of  the  Chriitian  HtHgiim,  wt  pulilinbed  when  he  was 
twenty-seven  yean  of  age  {  and  it  is  a  most  extraordi- 
nary proof  of  the  maturity  and  vigor  of  hia  mind,  ol 
the  care  with  which  he  bad  studied  the  Word  of  God, 
and  of  the  depth  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  medita- 
tions upon  divine  things,  ttiat,  though  the  work  ytat 
afterward  greatly  enlarged,  and  ll]ough  lome  allera- 


in  tbe  I 


a  few  «. 


.f  fiflyJI 


ge,  he 


ralmly  breathed  hia  last  in  the  arms  of  hi-i  friend  Beza. 
He  was  buried,  according  to  bis  own  requeat,  without 
pomp,  and  no  monument  marks  hia  list  resting-place. 
Calvin's  intellect  was  of  the  very  fint  cIsfs.  at  once 
acute,  penetrating,  ptofound,  and  cwnprchcnaive.    Hia 


discussed,  yet  no  change  of  any  importance 
in  the  actual  doctrines  which  it  set  forth.  The  first 
edition,  produced  at  that  early  age,  contained  the  snb. 
stance  of  the  whole  system  of  doctrine  which  baa  sine* 
lieen  commonly  associated  with  his  name,  tbe  develop- 
ment and  exposition  of  which  has  been  regarded  Lj 
many  as  constituting  a  strong  claim  upon  the  esteem 
and  gratitude  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  l^y  many 
others  as  rendering  him  worthy  of  execration  and  ev- 
ery opprobrium.  He  lived  twenty-eeven  vears  more 
after  the  publication  of  the  firtt  edition  of  the  /airi- 
Jutes,  and  a  large  portion  of  his  time  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  examination  of  the 
Word  of  God  and  the  investigation  of  divine  Irutb. 
But  he  saw  no  reason  to  make  any  material  change  In 
he  views  which  be  had  put  forth  ;  and  a  large  propor- 
lion  of  the  most  fuous,  able,  and  learned  men  and  most 
careful  students  of  the  sacred  Scnptures,  who  bave 
since  adorned  the  Church  of  Christ,  have  received  all 
his  leading  doctrinas  as  accordant  with  ths  teaching 
of  God's  Word."— Brit,  and  far.  Erang.  /tiviem,  Ko. 

A>  an  expositor  of  the  Scriptures  and  as  a  writer 
of  evstematic  theology  Calvin  has  bad  few  rivals  In 
the  Christian  Church.  His  Latin  atvle  is  better  than 
that  of  any  Christian  writer  since  fertullian.  Even 
the  Roman  Catholic  Audin  says,  "Never  does  the 
proper  word  fail  him ;  be  calls  It,  and  it  cornea."  In 
brevity,  cleamesa,  and  good  sense,  his  omimeDtaTies 
ate  unsurpassed.  As  a  civilian,  "  he  had  few  equala 
amimg  hia  contemporaries-  In  short,  he  exhibited, 
in  strong  and  decided  development,  mnral  and  intel- 
lectual qualities  which  marked  him  ont  for  one  who 
was  competent  to  guide  the  opinionB  and  coDtrol 
the  commotions  of  inquiring  and  agitated  nations. 
Through  the  moat  trying  and  haaardous  period  of  tbe 
Kefonnation  he  exhibited  invariabl}-  a  wisdom  in  coun- 
sel, a  prudence  of  eboI,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  deci- 
sion snil  intrepidity  of  character  which  were  truly  aa- 
lonlafaing.  In  the  full  Import  of  the  phrase,  he  may  be 
etyted  a  benefactor  of  the  world.  Most  intensely  and 
effectually,  too,  did  he  labor  for  the  highest  temporal, 
sud  espetially  for  the  eternal  interests  of  bit  fellow- 
men.      He  evidently  brought  to  the  great  enterprise 

power  than  did  any  other  of  the  Reformers."  In  tbe 
Just  language  of  the  archbishop  of  Cashel  (Dr.  Law- 
rence), ''Calvin  himself  was  both  a  wise  and  a  good 
msn ;  inferior  to  none  of  bis  contemporaries  In  general 
ability,  and  superior  to  almoet  all  in  tbe  art,  aa  well 
OS  elegance  of  composition,  In  tbe  persiricuity  and  ar- 
rangement of  hia  ideas,  tbe  structure  of  his  petioda, 
and  the  Latlnily  of  hia  diction.  Although  attached 
to  a.  theoiy  which  he  found  it  difficult  in  the  extreme 
to  free  ^om  the  suspicion  of  blasphemy  against  God 
aa  the  author  of  sin,  he  certainly  was  no  blatpbemer, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  adapted  that  very  theory  ftom 
an  anxiety  not  to  commit,  bnt,  aa  he  conceived,  to 
avoid  blsaphcmy — that  of  ascribing  to  human  what  be 
deemed  alone  Imputable  to  Divine  agency." 
I  II.  Co/nn's  AtBloginl  IVnn.— The  following  state- 
ments of  C>ilvin's  theology,  which  are  lielieved  to  be 
impnrtial,  are  taken  firom  Xeander,  History  "/Dogmai, 
vol.  ii.  (I)  Aa  to  the  Cliurth.  he  says, "  By  the  Church 
we  understand  not  merely  the  letUtia  vitibilU,  bat  tlta 


CALVIN 


41 


CALVIN 


•Uct  of  Oad,  to  whom  eren  ths  d«*d  belong."  Hanoa  | 
b>  fitttnfiiiilm  tbe  idemDribeoutmrdCharrh  ■ilha 
pwmlkr  CfariMUn  commanitj-  throagb  which  Blona ' 
«c  aa  obtain  «itmic«  to  UcrTial  life ;  out  of  it*  pile 

■■ill  of  lUi  Cbarth  an,  that  it  publitbca  the  Word . 
of  God  in  H*  poritj,  uid  adtniniatna  tbc  ucnnwnta  | 
panlr  kccarding  to  tbeir  iiutitatkiD.  Tha  nniveiHl 
Charck  b  so  called  inaaranch  aa  it  indadea  beliavrn 
sf  all  oatioiu.  Here  Ibe  important  point  ii  not  agree- 
atat  m  aB  thinga,  bnt  only  is  eaacntial  doclrinea  (/n- 
a6.  lib.  iv).  (S)  Aa  to  the  Saenmtnli  Calvin  occu- 
pad  a  niddla  poaition.  "On  the  ona  hand  he  pro- 
ifMad  againat  tlte  notion  of  a  magical  mSuencr,  and 
BB  tke  other  be  haM  firmly  to  the  objactiTa.  The  ur- 
nwienta  an  not  UMre  algna.  bnt  rigat  Inttitatod  by 
God,  whkh  notily  to  men  the  Divine  promiae.  They 
wa  (he  oBtwanl  tpnbcda  by  which  God  teals  the  pmm- 
itn  of  hi*  icnce  to  oar  cauacienco ;  they  Utart  the 
waakneBB  of  oar  fUtb,  and  at  the  aatne  time  oar  love 
ta  Uim.  The  aaciwoent*  effect  thia,  not  bv  an?  Mcret 
■KCical  power,  bot  bec«n»e  they  are  inatitut*d  for  tbii 
chI  ^  the  Lord ;  and  tbey  can  only  attain  it  when  the 
inward  agency  of  the  Holy  ST«rit  is  added,  wberaby 
aleoe  the  faemnwnta  find  Uieir  way  to  the  heart ;  th^ 
are  Iharefiire  eAiacloua  only  for  the  predestinated." 
"  Bigfiim  ia  >  aeal  of  a  eoTenuit.  Chriit  blessed  chil- 
dno,  commended  tbem  to  their  heavenly  Father,  and 
«H  that  of  snch  waa  the  kincdnm  nt  beavcn.  If 
rhndran  oo^t  to  be  brongbt  to  Chrirt,  why  should 
they  not  raeelTe  the  aymbol  of  commanion  wilhChriat? 
Abo  in  the  New  Te-itiment  mention  is  made  of  the 
taptiim  of  whole  bmilies.  and  the  early  uae  of  iofknt 
haptbm  allows  the  concloaion  that  it  had  come  down 
ftom  the  tlma  of  the  apoetlea.  Infunt  baptlrm  ia  alaol 
imponant  tor  the  paienta,  ai  a  seal  of  the  Divine  fmni- 
M  which  ia  omtinued  from  them  (o  their  children; 
aBDtfcer  reaaon  !•.  that  by  baptism  children  are  incor- : 
treated  in  tbe  Church,  and  are  H  mnch  the  more  coai-| 
mrmHrA  to  the  other  members.  He  believed  in  aeer-. 
Iain  inflnenre  in  Inbnt  baptltm,  and  aoawera  the  ob- 
JectJDO  to  it  by  Hyin^  that,  although 


d  this  c 


t,  it  doe 


«  that  it 


appealed  to  the  fact  that  John  waa 
Cited  with  the  Holy  Spirit  fnan  his  birth,  snd  Christ 
ftnm  the  banning  with  the  Divine  nature.  From  his 
hamanity  tba  principle  of  sanctiBcatlon  mnit  ove 
to  D>en,  and  this  wobM  bold  good  of  children"  (/«<(■ 
iWes,  bk.  iv,  ch.  xvi).  On  the  doctrine  of  the  I/tTrTi 
I'apprT,  "be  opposed  those  who  explained  tho  vrorda 
'raliDi;  the  Oesh  of  Christ  and  drinking  his  blood,' 
only  of  bith  in  Christ,  and  the  right  knowledge  or 
him  (/•MiMfri,  Ilk.  iv,  ch.  xvii).  Whoever  received 
the  Sapper  In  (kith  waa  traly  and  perfectly  a  partaker 
of  Cbriat.  This  commonion  was  not  merely  a  com- 
BimioH  of  spirit;  tba  body  of  Christ,  by  ita  connection 
with  the  Divine  nalore,  received  a  fnlneaa  of  life  which 
aowed  over  to  believen.  Calvin  therefore  admitted 
arawthing  aopenMnrBl,  bnt  thooght  that  the  event 
took  place,  not  by  virtaa  of  the  body  of  Christ,  which, 
V  socfa,  oDold  not  be  in  ssveni  place*,  hot  by  rittoe 
of  tba  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost— a  sopematural  com- 
luaoieatlon  which  no  bnman  understanding  conld  ax- 
l^ain.  This  communion  with  Chriat,  liy  which  he 
romBranieatea  himself  and  all  his  blessings,  the  Sap- 
per srmbolically  repreaenta.  The  ontward  ia  indeed 
Benly  a  *ign.  hot  not  an  empty  sign  ;  it  really 
pmenta  that  which  la  lignifled  by  it,  namely,  the 
artaal  participalion  of  the  body  of  Christ  by  the 
fowwr  of  the  U<Ay  Spirit.  He  explalna  the  word* 
af  tba  Institstions  metoaymicsllyi  In  the  sense  that 
e>t  sign  ia  need  for  tbo'thlni  signified;  he  denied 
ay  bodily  pneence  of  Christ;  Christ  does  not  de- 
■esod  to  earth,  bat  believers  by  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  are  raiaed  to  eommnnion  with  him  In 
beavoi.  Christ  also  descends  to  them  Bnt  only  by 
riitoe  of  bis  Spirit,  but  also  hy  Iho  outward  symbol ; 
U.-2- 


the  organ  by  wbicb  communion  is  attained  ia  faitli . 
ha  is  presented  to  all,  but  received  only  by  believers. 
The  mere  aymholical  view  depreciatea  the  sign  too 
moch.  and  separates  [t  from  the  aacnunent ;  lint  by 
the  other  view  the  aign  is  exalted  too  mach,  and  there- 
by the  nature  of  the  mystery  itself  is  obacured."  (8) 
Calvin'a  viawa  on  Gract  md  iVedulirioftDa  were  so 
atrooitly  prononnced  that  his  name  ia  now  used  to  des- 
ignate an  entice  system.  He  msinlained  the  "doc- 
trine of  absolute  predestination,  which  In  him  was 
connected  with  a  one-sided  tendency  of  Christian  feel- 
ing and  a  rigid  loslcal  consequence.*  hike  Zuingte, 
he  regarded  prescience  and  predestination  aa  of  equal 
extent,  and  even  esbililiihed  the  fonner  iiy  Ibe  latter ; 
God  in  no  other  way  forwees  the  fntnre  but  aa  be  hat 
decreed.  Hence  Calvin  allowed  no  contlngencv  even 
in  tbe  fall ;  be  aays.  How  could  God,  who  effects  all 
things,  have  formed  tho  nnljlett  of  hia  creatures  for 
an  uncertain  end  ?  What  than  would  become  of  hla 
omnipotence  P  The  InAslspaarisna  must  still  allow 
BDch  a  predestination  la  tbc  case  of  Adsm't  deacend- 

loat  aalvation  tbrongh  the  Kullt  of  one.  Yet  he  him- 
self feels  shocked  at  the  thnUKht;  dtcrtltm  jaidem 
korribile  fat/or.\  he  aays.  Consequently,  God  created 
I  the  greatest  part  of  mankind  in  order  to  gloriiy  him- 
aeir  in  them  by  bis  punitive  justice,  and  the  smaller 
by  tbe  revelation  of  hla  love.]  His  opponents  might 
give  a  reason  why  God,  who  conld  have  made  them 
dogii,  created  them  In  hia  own  Image-  Ought  imt 
tional  timtes  also  to  argna  with  God?  All  donhts 
may  be  silenced  bv  tbe  thought  that  God's  will  is  the 
highest  Uw  and  bause.  Yet  he  did  not  mat  here. 
The  idea  of  an  absolute  omnipotence  of  God,  not  con- 
ditioned by  holiness,  he  looked  upon  as  profane,  and 
appealed  to  the  incomprehensibility  of  this  mystery. 
It  it  to  tM  acknowledged  that  Calvin  sought  to  evade 
the  piBctlcatly  injurious  consequancea  of  the  doctrine 
ofaliaolat*  predestination,  and  especially  exalted  the 
revealed  grace  of  God  in  tho  work  of  redemption. 
'  Hen  oniihl  to  keep  to  the  Word  of  God  atone ;  and, 
instead  of  inquiring  respecting  their  own  election,  look 
to  Christ,  and  seek  in  bim  God's  fatherly  grece.'  Cal- 
vin labored  very  much  to  procure  tbe  universal  ac- 
knowledgment  of  thia  doctrine  in  Switzeiiand,  but 
met  with  aerious  opposition,  amnng  others,  from  the 
learned  Sebastian  Castalio  (q.  v.).  In  Geneva  Cal- 
vin at  laat  obtained  the  victory,  and  then  soon  came 
to  an  understanding  respecting  it  with  other  gwiai 
tbeologiana.     Ha  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  get  Ue- 


innaiF 

llelmplnEiL    QiiW 

nlm,  qumn,  v 

m^iT^B 

Qdti,  qiilnnimUK'' 

nverii  oiml  fill 

fli,irt,.>velj„. 

»  vl  Fptt'lm 

e''°N«  ab-unluia 

vlderi  deb-1  q 

od  4lca,  Deom 

primi  hominU  <v 

-nvldiac 

;  Hri  arbllrio  qii^i 

T,S,i\<^^ 

«.     Ut  anin  ad 

-.^l 

lim  <|ii>  fnlnr* 

■^''r,miii;i.'''cZ'r 

t  111.  IS.  l.-Cnntent«  •!! 

■nHm  llllgsDill 

cum  l>eD,  tl  ah 

a  pan 

ToliDi'  ™i™defe  i 

■m  et  noUm  f 

«r»  paunlism 

irordiic,  que  prwjHrni 


[n  e>°vla>n-      HInfaaB 


■bscondUum  IM 


CALVIN  4 

MinctlKKi  on  hia  ride.  MeUnetbon  called  him  the  mod- 
rrn  Zeno,  who  vanted  to  introducti  ■  ■lolcul  neuuttjr 
Into  the  Chorch,  and  expnnud  hlmwlf  rery  wannly 
■gainst  bim  iCarfut  Rrfarmal.  vil,  931).  When  Cal- 
vin Hnt  Melanctbon  hia  ConfcHlon  oT  Faith,  the  lat- 
ter waa  w  excited  that  he  ■truck  bis  pen  through  tiie 
whole  pUHge  on  predentlnaUon.  Calvin  remarked 
that  this  wu  verj-UDlike  hia  ntgaiita  mauuelado ;  that 
he  could  not  imagine  how  a  man  orHelnncthon'a  acate- 
IKU  conld  reject  thia  doctrine,  and  laid,  reproachfully, 
that  he  could  not  believe  tbit  he  held  the  doctrinea  he 
profmed  with  a  alncere  heart  On  account  of  a  doc- 
trine to  which  apecuUtion  had  by  no  means  led  him, 
he  reproached  him  with  Judtflng  mmiM pUlomip/iiie  con- 
corning  irvo  will/' 

Calvin  profcisea  to  be  only  a  borroirrr  from  SI.  Ao- 
gaatina  {Imt.  bk.  ill,  ch.  xxlii,  §  13);  and  bs  repadlatos 
the  conaeqnencesthat  have  been  charged  upon  hia  doc- 
trine. For  Instance,  ha  atrenuoui<ly  maintains  that 
God  Is  not  the  aathor  of  aln,  that  men  act  fVeely  and 
acoountalily,  and  that  election  is  a  stimulus  to  i^ood 
work)  rather  than  an  opiate  to  inaction  (/naf.  bli.lii, 
ch.  xxiil,  §  S,  9, 19).     See  CALViniaM ;  Predesti:(a- 

III.  /uternftirt.— The  beat  edition  of  the  Latin  worka 
of  Calvin  is  that  of  Amaterdam  (1671,  9  vols.  fo!.).  A 
new  edition  is  now  going  on  in  the  Corpiu  R'/ormal'- 
nun,  under  the  litle  CaMtd  Oprvi  ipm  nprnuni  imnia 
(Tola,  l-v,  Brnnewirk,  1864, 11^7).  An  excellent  and 
very  cheap  edition  of  the  Cammmaru  in  A'.  7*.,  edited 
l.y  Tholuck,  waa  pul.liahed  at  Halle  (Ig33-»>,T  voh. 
evo);  one  of  tlia  Comm.  ta  Ptalmot  (1S3G,  3  rots.)  and 
of  the  /njI'Vafinwii  Religianii  Ckrvliana  waa  likewl*c 
edited  bj-Tholock  (Halle,  1B34,  IfBh,  9  Tola.  Svn)  ;  ono 
of  the  Omn.  in  Bb.  Gtmuot  (I8W,  Bva)  liy  Hengften- 
berg.  Heat  of  Calvin's  wrltinK*  have  been  translated 
into  Engliih ;  and  a  new  and  mviaed  edition  has  been 
isfued  ander  the  auspices  of  the  "  Calvin  Tranalation 
Rodety,"  in  very  handsome  style,  yet  cheap  (Edinb. 
B1  volj.  8vo).  Its  contents  are  as  follows :  IniHtuIrt 
oftht  Cliriitim  Rilisian,  8  vols,  i  Tradi  on  lit  Rrfa 
maliim,  S  vols. ;  Comrnmlary  im  Cenuu,  1  vols. ;  Ha 
mang  of  At  lal  Four  Booh  n/lhe  PoUatftuA,  4  vols 
CoaaiBibny  m  Jo^ua,  1  vol. ;  Commmlarj  on  lie 
Pmhu,  6  vols. ;  CBnmmlan/  on  Itaialt,  4  vola. ;  Com- 
BfltAiFy  on  JrrewuaA  and  Lamfntatioru,  5  vola. ;  Con- 
Bienlo;^  on  EtrUri,  2  vols. ;  ConmailaTy  on  Daniel,  2 
vola. ;  CbntntfliCary  m  Hatfo,  1  *ol. ;  Ctmrntntary  on 
Jorl,  A<no»,oniObadiak,l  vol.;  Conininlary on  Jimak, 
Mioah,  and  AUkiin,  1  vol. ;  Comnmlaiy  on  ffiialitik, 
Ztphaniah,  and  llapgai,  I  vol. ;  Commtntarg  on  Zttlin- 
rioh  and  Makala,  1  vol. ;  HaTmans  of  lit  Sgnoptiad 
EvangelitU,  3  vols. ;  Conrnentary  on  Jnkn't  Gntpel,  S 
vols. ;  Commtnlarii  on  AM  of  lie  ApotHei,  2  vola. ; 
Qmrarniary  an  Rnrnant,  1  vol. ;  Qmmenianf  on  Corin- 
liiatu, 2 y til,;  Commrnlary on  Oalaliani and  JCpi/t'oni, 
1  vol.  j  Commenlaiy  on  PhUippiani,  Cotouiant.  and  TAm- 
•aJminna,  1  vol. ;  Ci'mntnlaiy  on  TVmoMy,  Tflut,  and 
flU/nnon,  1  vol.j  Cammmlaiy  on  Hrhrrvj,!  vci. ;  Om- 
minlars  on  Ptier,  Mm,  Jiima,  and  Jodr.  I  vol.  There 
are  Engliah  tranilatioua  of  his  /nUilutiona  by  John 
Alli>n  (Land.  IXlil,  reprinted  in  Mveml  edition*  by  the 
Philadelphia  PrrabjIrrisD  Board  of  Publication),  and 
byBeveridKe(Kdinb.l863,8vo).  Calvin'*  life  waa  writ- 
ten in  l^efbv  Bexa  (l-^ng.  ed.  1844,  Edinb,  Trana.  Soc.; 
alsoPhlla.  1836,  ISmo)  and  Parel;  bat  witbln  the  last 
few  yputs  aevcnil  bineraphies  have  sppeared.  The 
moJt  ropinua  and  elalHiratc  is  l.tbtn  J.  Calrin't,  von  Paul 
Henrj-,  D.D.  (Hamb.  1886-1844,  »  Tola.  evo\  The  an- 
thoT  procured  fnr  his  work  the  incditfd  letters  of  Calvin, 
Bhicharcprrten-odinGeneva,  and  gives  the  moftim- 
pnrtant  ofthem  in  the  appendices.  A  poor  trantUtion 
has  been  publishrd. entitled  TAt/i/c  n/CaInn,fncmi/a- 
Irdfron  Ihe  German -fDr. Henry,  by  H . Stehhinp,  D.D, 
(Und.1849,  S  vola.8vo)i  it  omita  most  of  the  notes 
and  appendicea  which  make  up  great  part  of  Henry'a 
work.     A  Roman  Catholic  bh^phy  by  Audin  (_Hie- 


!  CALVINISM 

loin,  rlp,,deJ.Cateim,par3.il.V.  Audin, Park, S Tola. 
1B41)  bas  the  sole  merit  of  a  lively  and  piquant  ityle. 
An  English  tranalation  haa  been  pnUlihed  in  Baltimore 
i/litary,  ele.,  of  Join  Calvm,  InaidaUdjhmi  A  wAa,  bv 
John  H'GllI,  Hto)  ;  and  it  haa  alao  been  tianeUtnt 
Into  German  (An^nb.  1843-44,  2  vols.),  into  Italian  (In 
PirotU's  fiiito.  Eeclet.  vols,  ix  and  x,  Milan,  1843), 
and  into  other  languages.  A  graphic  bat  superScUl 
lognphy  bas  been  published  \.v  Thomaa  H.  Dver 
(Lund.l)<I>0;  N.  Y.,  Harpera,  1851).  A  iilt^.raphy.'lo- 
gethei  with  aelect  writings  of  Calvin,  was  puldished 
by  StUieiin  (X  Chin.  l.eb.  u.  ongeraUlt  Schriflm. 
Elberfeld,  2  vols.  1880, 1863).  Tiirre  la  a  tiocd  sketih 
of  Calvin  a  life,  by  Bobbin*,  in  the  HibHaliiea  i-arm, 
vol.  ii,  toi  1846.  On  ihe  theology  of  Calvin,  tee  Gaa», 
Pni.  Digmatih,  voL  l,bk.i;  art-CALViKiSM;  andArmp 
CiriiicM,  1868,  p.  "M;  Cunninisbam,  Jit  Heformrm 
and  Tirologg  if  lit  Brfomolton,  Fasays,  vl-x.  See 
alao  Tnlloch,  Ltadrri  of  lit  Rrformaticn  (new  ed.  Lend. 
1861);  Bungencr,  Cs/m,  kh  lift  tind  Works  (Edlnb. 
1863,  8vo).  Tht  IMIfrt  -fCMn,  ttrm  original  HS.S.. 
wen  lint  edited  bv  Bonnet  and  translated  by  Conatl- 
ble  (Edinb,  1866,  4  vula,  8vo,  repub.  1  y  Presbyterian 
Board  [Philadelphia]}.  A  new  edition  of  the  Imtitwlrt 
in  French,  Jnetlliition  de  la  Jtrligu  n  Cirilit  mat,  en  fualrr 
lirrtt,  appeared  In  rarir,I869  (S  vols.  6vd).  It  containa 
an  introdaction  by  the  editors,  with  a  hiatoiy  of  prvvi- 
ou«  editions.  See  ilrlL  QkiH.  Anw,  Oct.  1860,  art. 
Ui;  Atner.  Tiiol.  fl™™,  Feb.  1800,  p.  lit;  Norlk  Brit. 
fln*m-,vot.  xiii;  Bril.  ondFunign  Etamg.  Retiew,  Nii. 
xxxlii;  BMi.ilk.  Surra,  xiv,  p.  126;  KOeUiu,  in  St: 
dim  u.  KHdieM,  1868, 1,  II. 

Calvinism,  properly,  the  wholo  system  of  thsolo- 
gy  taught  by  John  Calvin,  including  hia  doctrine  of 
thesacramenta,ctc.  Ills  now,  however,  generally  uanl 
to  denote  the  theory  of  grace  and  predestlnalioD  wt 
forth  in  Calvin's  InMula,  and  adofrted,  with  more  or 
lesa  modiUcation,  by  aevenl  of  the  Protestant  chnrcli- 
ea.     See  Calvihistb. 

I.  Calrin'e  skw  VieKi  (Snpralapearian).— Tbeae  are 
act  forth  (from  Keandar)  under  the  article  Cai.t»  (q. 
v.).  We  give  here  limply  sach  farther  extracts  from 
Calvin's  ovn  writings  as  are  neceuaty  to  show  hit 

(1 .)  "  Predestination,  by  which  God  adopta  rome  In 
the  hope  of  life,  and  adjudges  otbera  to  eternal  death, 
no  one  deairona  of  the  credit  of  piety  dare*  ab«aliit«ty 
to  deny.  But  it  la  Involved  In  many  cavils,  especially 
by  thoae  who  make  foreknowledge  the  cauae  of  it. 
We  maintain  that  both  belong  to  God;  but  It  i*  prr- 
poeteroua  to  rcpreac nt  one  as  dependent  on  Ihe  other. 
Predestinstlon  we  call  the  eternal  decree  ft  God,  l<v 
which  be  hath  determined  In  himaelf  what  he  would 
have  to  brccme  of  every  individual  of  mankind.  For 
they  sre  not  all  created  with  ■  similar  dettiny;  but 
eternal  life  ia  forfordalnrd  for  some,  and  eternal  dam- 
nation for  othera.  Eicry  man,  therefore,  I  eing  crea- 
ted for  one  or  the  other  of  lliete  endf,  we  say  be  ia  pre- 
deatinated  either  to  life  or  to  death."  After  havinK 
spoken  of  the  rledion  of  the  race  of  Abraham,  anil 
then  of  particnisr  I  ranchea  of  that  race,  he  pT«»eds : 
"  Though  It  la  sufficiently  clear  that  God,  in  hia  secret 
counael,  freely  chooses  whom  be  will,  and  rejecta  oth- 
en,  his  gratuitous  election  is  but  half  diaplayed  till  wp 
come  to  particular  indivlduila,  to  whom  God  rot  only 
oHera  salvation,  but  auiffm  it  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  certainty  of  the  effert  is  Iral.le  to  no  torpcnae  or 
doubt."  He  sums  up  the  chapter  In  vhich  be  thus 
generally  tUtea  the  doctrine  in  theee  worda:  "In 
conformity,  therefore,  to  Ihe  clear  doctrine  of  tlie 
Scripture,  we  arsert  thai,  by  an  eternal  and  immotablc 
counsel,  God  bath  once  for  all  determined  I  oth  whom 
he  would  admit  to  salvatiDn,  and  whom  he  wonU  Con- 
demn to  destruction.  We  afflrm  that  this  ninnaal,  as 
far  ai  coDcema  Ihe  elect,  ia  founded  on  his  gntultau* 
mercy,  totally  Irreapertlve  of  human  merit;  but  that 
to  thoaa  whom  be  devolw  to  condemikation,  the  gate 


CALVINISM  43  CALVINISM 

•f  Bfc  b  cloMd  by  >  jtut  and  Impnbenilble,  bnt  m-  I  pradeMlnation  of  God."  "Far  tfaoogb,  hy  tba  atanul 
wmfrritmtiUa  Jndement.  In  the  elect,  we  coniider  j  providence  of  God,  men  was  ataled  to  tbat  mUery  ta 
ailing  u  ut  evldanoe  nltUcdoo;  and  JoitlAcation  u  which  he  ii  suLject,  yet  th«  pmwiil  of  it  hs  hei  derived 
—Cher  tukeo  of  lu  mamfettttion,  till  tbey  urive  in  Avm  himHlf,  not  God,  unce  he  is  thus  ruined  Milelj 
floiT,  which  conMltatee  ill  completion.  Aa  God  aeali !  in  eonMqaenee  of  his  having  degenerated  IhMn  the 
hbclact  by  vocMion  and  jnitification,  lo,  by  exdudimg  pun  creation  of  God  In  TichiiUMid  Impure  depravity." 
Ibe  niirabate  from  the  Iinaw1edg«  of  hia  nunc  and  See  especially  ImtittOa,  bk.  ill,  ch.  xzlii,  S  S7,  and  ch. 
HnctificitiiHi  of  hli  Spirit,  be  affurdt  another  indication    xxiv,  §  8. 

eftbejadgment  that  awaits  them."— ^iulirala,bk.  ill.  From  the  above  pasMgea  it  will  be  seen  that  Calvin 
ch.  zil.  I  went  beyunrt  the  Augnslinian  theory  of  predeslinatloii, 

(I.)  A>  to  tbelhavTy  thatpredeatinatioD  dependaon  and  held  to  the  supralapaarian  view.  Supratapearian- 
fcnkaawledge  of  bolineia.  Calvin  aaya:  "  It  la  a  no- 1  ism  regards  man,  &-/arv  the  fall,  aa  the  object  of  the 
lioa  BBiiiKHily  entertained  that  God,  foreseeing  what  uncondiEiDnal  deem  of  salvation  or  damnation ;  Sob. 
■Bold  bs  the  respective  merita  of  every  individual,  j  lapeartaDiim,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  the  decree 
lafcw  a  comvpondent  distinctioii  between  dUTerent  |  aobordinale  to  the  creation  and  fall  of  man.  Ao. 
pnams:  that  he  adopta  aa  bis  children  sncbas  before- ;  carding  to  Dr.  Shadd's  daflnEtion,  "aupnlapearUnism 
knows  w3t  be  deMrving  of  his  grace,  and  devotes  to  holds  tbat  the  decree  to  eternal  blisa  or  woe  precedes, 
tbe  damnatkni  of  death  Dtberi  whose  dlspoaltioni  be  '  in  the  order  of  Datare,  the  decree  to  apostasy  j  tnftv. 
sea  wilt  be  ladined  to  wichedneia  and  impiety.  Thoa  |  lapaarianlrm  holds  that  it  succeeds  it"  {Htilory  of  Doc- 
they  Dot  only  obeenre  election  by  covering  it  with  the  .  rr»u,  ii,  lOf ).  Tbe  SapralBpaarlana  hold  tbat  God 
veil  of  fbreknowledge,  but  pretend  that  It  originates  |  itcntd  tbe  fall  of  Adam ;  the  Soblapasrisna,  that  be 
JB  anotber  canse"  (bk.  iii,  ch.  xxii).  Consistently  i  ptrmiUed  It.  Some  writers  have  nuintidned  that  Cal- 
witfa  tbia.  he  a  little  fnrtbcr  on  aaserla  that  election  vin  was  not  a  lupralapaarlan,  bnt  that  view  of  his 
doiB  not  Bow  from  holineaa,  but  holiness  from  elec- !  teaching  is  hardly  tenable.  Cslvin  tenns  "  the  equ- 
ina: "For  when  it  is  said  that  the  Wthful  are  elect.  |  aion  of  the  ftll  of  the  Snt  nun  from  tbe  divine  pre- 
adttet  tbey  should  be  holy,  it  Is  fully  Implied  tliaC  the' deatinatlon  a^^idww  cmifBflihHa"  (Ui,  ch.xxiii,  $  7). 
halbeaa  tbey  were  in  future  to  possess  bad  its  origin  '  So  also,  f|  4,  he  says,  ^^Quum  ergo  in  ana  comiptlono 
IB  deetion."  lie  proceeds  to  quote  the  esample  of  pereunt  (hominea),  nihil  aliud  qnam  pnnaa  launt  «]■<• 
Jacob  and  Esau,  ns  loved  and  hated  before  they  had  dam  calamltatis,  in  qnam  ipsnu  pmilatiwUtonn  It^ 
dsoe  good  or  evil,  to  show  that  the  only  reason  of  elec-  |  tut  til  Adam,  ac  poeteroa  suos  pracipitea  aeciun  tniit. 
lion  and  reprohation  is  to  be  ;daccd  In  God's  "secret '  It  is  on  this  particular  point  that  Calvin  goes  farther 
cauaeL"     (Bk.  Iii,  ch.  xaiiL)  |  tbao  Augustine,  who  did  not  inclnde  tbe  fill  of  Adam 

(3.)  So,  as  to  the  ground  of  rvpnbation :  "  ^  God  '  in  the  divine  decree''  (Smith's  Hagenbach's  Binary 
bslb  mercy  <ni  whom  he  will  have  mercy,  and  whom  o/ Doclrinft,  ^  2iS).  Amyraldui(q.  v.)  sought  lo  rc> 
be  will  be  hardeneth.'  Tou  see  how  he  (tbe  apostle)  dace  Calvin's  ayetem  to  aublapsarianltm,  but  was  ef- 
atCribBtea  ioCt  to  the  hktv  vill  at  God.  If,  therefore,  fectoslly  answered  by  CurcellBiia  In  hia  tractate  ds 
wc  «an  asaign  no  reason  why  he  grants  mercy  to  his  jinv  Dei  in  CrratMnu,  But  Fisher  (JVeig  Emglamler, 
peofil*  bat  beciuse  such  la  bis  [daasare,  neither  shall  April,  1868,  p.  806)  holds  that  Calvin  was  Ml  a  anpra. 
we  find  any  other  cause  but  Ut  wiS  for  the  reprobation  iapsarlao.  (See  CkriH.  RaatnAnmar,  Jan.  ISU,  art. 
afathara.  For  when  God  is  said  to  harden,  or  abow  '  iv;  Warren,  hi  J/ri'Aoduf  QaorMr^  Aemtw,  July,  18(7, 
ntaicy  to  whom  he  pleases,  men  are  taught  by  thia  j  ait.  i ;  Uohler,  Sgmbuliim,  %  4.) 

deelanUDB  lo  seek  a"  cant  tetide  kit  mIL"  (Ibid.)  Ii.  DoetriMt  of  Dart  (Inftvlspsarian).— Tbe  oonlKb 
*-  Haay,  indeed,  a*  If  tbey  wished  to  avert  odium  (him  vany  with  the  RemonFtrante  on  tbe  Ave  points  (tee 
God.  admit  election  in  aocb  a  way  as  lo  deny  tbat  any  ARHiNiANian;  REiaoNBTRA;(T«)  led  to  tba  clearer 
sae  ii  reprobated.  Bnt  this  la  puerile  and  absurd,  be- ,  definition  of  the  doctrines  in  question  by  tbe  Synod 
canae  electioa  itself  conld  not  exist  without  being  op-  |  of  Dort,  which  refused  to  accept  the  sapralapsarian 
posed  to  tepnibation:  whom  Godpcisaej  bg  lu  Ihsrtfnre  |  view,  at  least  In  terms.  See  Ihe  (%ii/(!aisnii  aid  Cait- 
nfrobata;  andfioai  »  adLer  caiui  than  his  delermi- ;  •Mto/'rAcray)udD//>iir(forthefh]lstalement.  Thefbl- 
latioB  to  exdoda  them  ^m  the  inberlCance  which  be  \  lowing  summing  Dp  la  given  bv  Watson,  from  Scott's 
fwdeatinea  for  hb  children."     (Bk.  Ill,  ch.  ixlll.)  I  J^iui  d/ Owl,  of  the  five  articlVa  which  constitula  tbe 

(i.)  Calvin  denies  that  his  doctrine  makes  Uod  tbe  etandardof  what  la  now  generdly  called  strict  Calvin- 
anUKW  of  tin,  asserting  that  the  min  of  sinner*  la  their  l  ism: 

"Tbeir  perdition  depends  on  the  divine  (],)  "  (y iVrdiab'M&Ht.— Ai  all  men  have  iiniiad  in 
m  In  sufji  a  manner  that  the  ooirte  and  Adam,  and  have  become  exposed  to  the  curse  and 
are  found  iattnue'eu.  Fur  liifirtt  mrm  etemid  death,  God  would  have  done  no  injnitice  to  any 
jm  ttramie  the  Lard  k  id  ddrrmiaRJ  if  sAWJ  to  iappm.  '  one  if  he  had  determined  to  leave  Ihe  whole  bnman 
Tbe  reasen  of  this  determination  ia  unknown  to  us.  race  onder  sin  and  the  curse,  and  to  condemn  them  on 
HaB,  therefDre,  f^lls  according  to  tbe  oppoinlmail  of  aecoiml  of  sin ;  according  to  those  words  of  the  spos- 
Divine  Provideoce,  bnt  bs  falls  by  Hi  onfatit.  Tbe  tie.  'All  the  world  Is  becnme  guilty  before  God'  (Bom. 
l«rd  had  a  little  before  pronounced  every  thhig  that  iii,  IB,  IS;  vi,  !H).  That  some,  m  tine,  have  fai^ 
be  had  oudalobe  'very  good.'  Whence,  then,  comrs  idventhem  by  God,  and  others  have  it  not  given,  pro- 
tbe  depravity  of  man  lo  revolt  from  his  God  ?  Lest  It  ^  ceeds  from  his  eternal  decree ;  for  '  known  onto  God 
iboald  be  tbougfat  to  come  from  creation,  God  ap-  are  all  bis  works  from  Ihe  beginnlikg,'  elc  (Acts  xv, 
preved  and  commended  what  had  proceeded  from  him-  18;  Eph.  i,  II),  According  to  which  decree  be  gra- 
•alf.  By  hia  own  wickedness,  llierefare,  man  corrupl-  |  doosly  softens  Ihe  beaita  of  tbe  elect,  however  hard, 
cd  tbe  natore  be  bad  received  pore  tnm  the  l.ord,  and  and  he  bends  them  to  believe ;  tint  the  non-elect  he 
by  hi*  bll  he  drew  all  bis  posterity  with  bin  lo  de- '  leaves,  in  hin  Judgment,  to  their  own  pervprsily  and 
■tmction."  '  hardness.     And  here,  especially,  a  deep  diacrimina- 

(&)  In  much  the  same  manner  he  contends  tbat  the  |  tion,  at  Ihe  same  Ume  both  marclfnl  and  lost;  a  dls- 
aacMaity  of  alniitng  is  laid  npon  the  lepmbate  by  tbe  crimination  of  men  equally  lost,  open*  itseif  lo  us;  or 
aidiBatiu«  of  God,  and  yet  denies  God  to  be  the  author  that  decree  of  election  and  repnihation  which  la  re- 
<f  tbeir  siafhl  acts,  since  the  corruption  of  men  was  vealed  in  Ihe  word  of  God,  which,  as  pervarte.  im- 
darirad  tnat  Adam,  by  hi*  own  fault,  and  not  from  pure,  and  unslable  pereons  do  wrest  lo  their  own  de. 
Odd.  lie  exhort*  us  "rather  to  contemplate  the  evi-  atruction,  noitafforda  Inaffisble  conselation  lo  holy  and 
deot  causa  of  condemDation,  which  ia  nearer  to  a*,  in  pinna  souls.  But  election  is  the  immnUbla  purpo*!* 
Ibe  coTvupt  nature  of  mankind,  than  aearch  after  a  '  of  ijnd.  hy  which,  before  the  fonndatlons  of  the  world 
kaddn  and  allogether  incompteliensible  one,  in  the    ware  laid,  be  choee,  out  of  tbe  whole  human  race,  bll- 


m  bj  thair  own  bnlt  from  their  primeTiI  intagritj  '  nbleAathnr  of  4tl  good  ihould  ■work  in  nt,  then  oooM 
lalo  sin  and  deMnictioD,  kccotdinK  to  the  moat  (res  |  be  no  hope  to  man  of  riling  from  the  fall  by  thatyna 
foodpltanm  of  bl>  own  will,  and  otnere  gnu*,  a  cer-  iciilby  which,  wbrn  itaDdinfc,  be  fell  into  rain." 
tain  nomber  of  men,  neither  batUr  nor  worthier  than  (I>.)  "  On  Pirtenrma. — God,  who  i>  ricb  in  mercj-, 
others,  but  lying  b  the  tame  miaerr  with  the  mat,  to  !  from  bit  Inmatable  parpen  of  election,  does  not 
nivation  in  Chriat,  whom  he  had,  e»n  (nun  eternity,  I  wholly  take  away  hia  Holy  Spirit  thnn  hit  own,  eTen 
coai^toted  Mediator  and  bead  of  all  llie  elect,  and  the  in  lamentable  falla;  nor  doea  he  ao  pennit  them  to 
foandUion  of  aalTntion;  and  therefore  he  decreed  to  glide  down  [pruUAiy  thet  tbey  iboald  fkll  fTom  the 
{[ive  them  unto  him  to  be  saved,  and  eSbdiully  to  call .  grace  of  adoption  and  the  state  of  JoMllication ;  ot 
and  draw  them  into  commanion  with  him  by  his  word  I  commit  the  'sin  unto  death,'  ot  against  thellolr  Sptr- 
and  Spirit;  or  he  decreed  himself  to  give  nolo  them  I  it;  that,  being  deaertod  by  him,  ther  should  cast  them- 
true  failh,  to  jusliQ',  to  sanctify,  and  at  length  power-  selves  headlong  into  eternal  dcstnctbn.  So  that  not 
fully  to  glorify  them,  etc.  (Eph.  i,4-8;  Horn,  vlii,  SO),  by  their  onn  meiita  or  stT«ngth,  but  by  the  gratuitona 
This  tame  election  ia  oot  made  from  any/urewm  faith,  mercy  of  God,  Ihey  oblain  it,  that  thpy  neither  totaag 
obedience  of  fhith,  hoUneas,  or  any  other  good  quality'  fati  from  Mth  and  (race,  nor  fatallf  rtMiiate  in  tfaeli 
and  dieposMon,  aa  a  prtrrquiiitt  onaa  or  condition  in   blls  and  perish." 

Hie  mm  who  should  be  elected,  etc.  '  He  hath  choeen  The  ConfBaaiinu  of  the  Refofmed  Church  agree  moiv 
us,'  not  twcaose  wo  mrt,  but '  that  we  nwjiAf  be  holy,'  or  Ini  cloaely  with  the  statements  of  Dort,  whetfaef 
(Eph.  t,  4  ;  Rom.  ix,  11-13 ;  Acts  xiil,  48).  MoreOTer,  they  preceded  or  followed  it  in  dats.  See  the  Om- 
holy  Scripture  dotbiUostnM  and  commend  to  UB  this  I /■nil)  r>(U[M»,  art.  IS;  Cimfttiio  Btlgica,  tJt.U;  Form. 
atemsl  and  free  grace  of  our  election,  in  this  more  es- 1  CmtnuSf  Belrel.  arts.  4  and  19;  Cimf.  Htktt.  ii,  10. 
pacialty,  that  it  doth  teatify  all  men  not  to  be  elected ;  '  (See  Winer,  Comp.  Darthlhrng,  ix,  1 ;  Hagenbach,  J/i*- 
bat  that  some  are  non-elect,  or paard  bj/,  in  the  eter-  lory  of  DofHrut,  §  !4e.)  Tbe  Walminiltr  Cmfatiim 
nal  election  of  God,  whom  truly  God,  fTom  most  free,  '  is  the  standard  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  of  the 
Jost,  irreprebenaible,  and  immutable  good  pleasure,  j  Tariona  Presbyterian  Cburcbea  in  Europe  and  Anerl- 
deereed  to  leave  in  the  mrnmon  inaerjr  into  which  tbey  ea.  It)  Sd  article  slatet  Cod't  Eltrnal  Derm  at  fol- 
had,  by  /iar  om  faiih,  east  themeetve* ;  and  not  to    lows : 

bestow  on  them  living  faith,  and  the  grace  of  eonver-  ■  "  (ff  Cod't  Etental  /fcrrw.— God  fTom  all  eternity 
■Ion;  but  having  been  left  in  tbeirown  ways,  and  un-  '  did,  1^  the  most  wise  and  holy  coantelof  hia  own  will, 
der  jDSt  Judgment,  at  length,  not  only  on  aeconnt  of  ftvely  and  anchangeably  otdain  whatsoever  comes  to 
their  unbelief,  bat  also  of  all  their  otiier  sins,  to  con-  pass;  yet  so  ss  thereby  ndther  Is  God  the  author  of 
damn  and  eternally  puniah  them,  to  the  manifestation  sbi,  nor  ii  violence  oflered  to  the  will  of  the  creatnrefi, 
of  hia  own  jaatlce.  And  this  is  Uie  decree  of  rrprofro- ,  nor  is  the  liberty  or  contingency  of  second  caupea  taken 
IMM,  which  delerminea  that  God  is  in  no  wise  the  an-  ,  away,  but  rather  established.  Although  God  knows 
titor  of  ain  (which,  tobe  thoughtof,  iaiilasphemy),  hat  whataoet-er  may  or  can  come  to  pau  upon  all  sap. 
•  tremendous,  incomprehensible,  just  Judge  and  area-  posed  conditions,  yethalhhe  not  decreed  anything  he- 
ger."  ;  cause  he  foresaw  its  future,  or  as  that  which  would 

(3.)  "  0/  lit  Dtali  of  CHriii." — Passing  oyer,  for  come  to  past  upon  nicb  conditions.  By  the  decree  «f 
bravity'a  sake,  what  ia  said  of  the  necessity  of  atone- ,  Gud,  for  the  manifestation  of  his  glory,  some  men  and 
ment  in  order  to  pardon,  and  of  Christ  having  otterfA  ■  angels  are  predestlnsted  unto  everlsstlng  life,  and  oth- 
that  atonement  and  aatisfactloa,  it  la  added,  ''  This  en  foreordsined  to  everlasting  death.  These  angels 
death  of  the  Son  of  God  la  a  single  and  most  perfect  and  men,  thus  predestinated  and  foreordained,  are  par- 
sacrifice  and  satisfaction  for  sins,  of  inltnite  value  and  licnlarly  and  unchangeably  designed,  and  their  nuio- 
price,  abundantly  eufGcient  to  expiate  tbe  aiiia  of  the  ber  la  so  certain  and  delinlte  that  it  cannot  be  either 
wholeworld;  but  becaaae  many  who  are  called  by  tbe  increased  or  diminished.  T^ae  of  mankind  that  ara 
Gospel  do  not  repent,  nor  believe  in  Christ,  but  per-  predesOnated  nnlo  life,  God.  before  the  foundation  of 
bh  in  unbelief;  this  doth  not  arise  from  defbct  or  in-  the  world  wb»  laid,  according  to  his  eternal  and  nnmu- 
soiSciency  of  the  sacrifice  olTered  by  Christ  upon  the  .  table  purpose,  and  the  secret  counsel  and  good  pleaa- 
eroes,  bat  from  their  own  &ult.  God  willed  that  Christ.  '  nre  of  his  will,  hsth  chosen,  inChrial.  nnto  everlasting 
through  the  blood  of  the  croea,  should  ont  of  every  peo-  gloiy,  out  of  hie  mere  free  grace  and  lore,  without  any 
pic,  tribe,  nation,  and  language,  rficacioiiMlf  redeem  foresight  of  faith,  or  good  works,  or  peTseveranca  in 
all  those,  sad  those  mig,  who  wero  from  eternity  chn.  either  of  them,  or  any  other  thing  in  the  creatnn,  u 
•en  to  aatvation,  and  given  to  bim  by  tbe  Father;  that  conditiona,  or  cauaea  moving  him  thereunto;  and  all 
be  shoold  confer  on  them  the  giftof  fidlh,"  etc.  ]  to  the  praise  of  hia  glorious  grace.     Aa  God  hath  ap- 

(3.)  "0/Jf(i>i'>Corrtt;>(iiM,c(c.— Allmen  are  con-  pointed  tbe  elect  nnto  gtory,  so  hath  be,  by  the  eternal 
ceived  in  ain,  and  bom  the  children  of  wrath,  indls-  '  and  most  free  parpose  of  his  will,  foreordained  all  the 
poaed  (I'vp'i)  to  all  saving  good,  propenae  to  evil,  dead  means  thereunto.  Wherefore  they  who  are  elected. 
In  ain,  and  the  slaves  of  ain ;  and  without  the  regener-  being  fallen  <n  Adam,  are  redeemed  by  Christ,  an  ef- 
atinggnceoftiieHoly8pirit,thpy  neither  are  willing' fectually  called  unto  faith  in  Christ,  by  his  Spirit 
nor  able  to  retam  to  God,  to  correct  (heir  depraved  na-  working  in  dne  season;  are  justified,  adopted,  aancti- 
ture,  or  to  dispose  themselves  to  the  correction  of  it."    ,  fled,  and  kept  by  his  power  through  faith  nnto  salva- 

(4.)  "  0/  Graxt  and  /VfMPitf.— But  in  like  manner  |  tion.  Neither  are  any  other  nideemed  by  Cbrial,  ef- 
a«,bythelBlI,mandoeBnot  cease  to  be  man,  endowed  I  fectually  called,  jartified,  adopted,  sanctified,  and 
with  intellect  and  will,  neither  hath  sin,  which  hath  saved,  but  the  elect  only.  The  reet  of  mankind  God 
pervaded  the  whole  human  race,  taken  away  the  na-  i  was  pleased,  according  to  the  unsesrchablo  coansel  of 
ture  of  tbe  human  apectea,  but  it  bath  depraved  and  j  his  own  will,  whereby  ho  eztendeth  or  withholdeth 
ipiritually  Btsined  it;  ao  that  even  this  divine  grace  j  mercy,  as  he  pleaaeth,  for  the  glory  of  his  sovereign 
of  regeneration  does  not  set  upon  men  like  atocks  and  '  power  over  hia  creatures,  to  pass  by,  and  to  ordain 
trees,  nor  take  away  tbe  properties  of  his  will,  or  vio-  them  to  dishonor  and  wrsth  for  their  ain,  to  the  praise 
lentty  compel  it  while  unwilling;  bat  it  apiritually    of  his  glorious  justice." 

r|iiickens,  heals,  corrects,  and  aweetly,  and  at  the  atme  |  The  ITth  article  of  the  Ciurvh  i^f  Englaiid  it  aa  fol- 
tlme  powerfully,  inclines  it;  fo  that  whereas  before  it    Iowa  ; 

was  wholly  governed  by  the  rebellion  and  reaiitance  "  Of  Pndttliiiation  and  button. — Predestinathn  to 
of  the  jCnA,  now  prompt  and  sincere  obedience  of  tbe  lifa  is  the  everlasting  purpose  of  God,  whereby  (befbre 
S^drit  may  begin  to  reign;  in  which  the  renewal  of  the  tbnndation*  of  the  world  were  laid)  he  hath  am- 
our apiritoal  will,  and  our  liberty,  trtily  consist;  in  j  stantly  decreed,  hr  his  connsel,  secret  to  ui,  to  deliver 
which  manner  (or  fbr  which  reason),  nnless  tbe  admi-   from  corse  and  damnation  those  whoiB  ha  hath  chosen 


45 


CALVINISM 


laOiiitcintofDutikind,  kndto  biiDgtbem  by  Chiiit 
IB  evei luting  Bftlrmtion,  ai  TanelB  mada  to  faonor, 
Wberafon  tliey  which  tw  endued  with  ao  •iccllent  a 
bKwtlt  of  God  b«  called  according  to  God't  purpose, 
^  hi*  Spirit  warkjng  in  due  Haeoa:  they,  throogh 
frm.  obey  the  calling :  they  be  jnttified  fnely :  the^ 
be  Bade  aona  of  God  by  adoption  :  they  be  made  like 
ttH  im^e  of  hia  anly-liegotten  Sun  Jeioi  Christ :  they 
walk  mligiously  In  pwd  works;  and  at  length,  by 
Gad'i  gtmct,  they  attain  to  everlsating  ftUcity.  A< 
iba  (codly  cooeideration  of  pTcdeBtindtion  and  our  eleo- 
tiOD  in  Chriit  in  full  of  aweet,  pleasant,  and  nntpealiB- 
bla  eomlbrt  to  godly  persona,  and  Buch  as  feel  in  tbem- 
■elvu  the  wurking  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  mortifying 
tbe  warkM  of  the  H«h  and  tbelr  earthly  memlien,  and 
tewing  up  their  mind  to  high  and  heavenly  things, 
■■  well  becsuaa  it  doth  greatly  eatabllah  and  coniinn 
their  faith  of  sternal  salvation  to  bo  onjoyed  thtough 
Christ,  aa  because  it  doth  fervently  kindle  their  lore 
toward  God;  so,  for  curious  and  cjinat  persons,  lack- 
s' the  Spirit  of  Christ,  to  have  continually  lierore 
tlMir  eyes  the  sentence  of  God's  predeatinstlon  is  a 
mat  dangerMu  downfall,  whereby  the  devil  doth 
tlnst  them  eittier  into  desperation,  or  Into  wretcbed- 
■ees  of  most  unclean  living,  no  less  perilous  than  des- 
pcratkai.  Furthermore,  we  must  receive  Ood'i  prom- 
(KB  in  sucb  wise  as  they  be  generally  set  forth  to  ns 
in  luly  Scripture.  Aud  in  our  dolngr,  that  will  of 
God  Is  to  be  flowed  which  we  have  expressly  da* 
dared  unto  us  in  the  Word  of  God." 

It  has  always  been  a  question  in  the  Chtat;h  of  Eng- 
land whetlker  the  Articles  an  or  are  not  Calvlnislic. 
Oa  this  qucation,  see  Toplady,  AictriauJ  CaltmitM  of 
Ht  CjUrok  ofEuglamd  (Works,  vol.  i  and  il)i  Overton, 
TVwedMrnliwH  (id  ed.  York,  1801);  Laurence,  Amp- 
(3B  LtOnn  tat  18H  (Oxford,  1805,  Bvo);  Cnnnlng- 
haoi.  71s  Br/orma^  Essay  iv  (Edinb.  1862,  8vo); 
fisted  also  in  the  Brit.  <mtd  Far.  Ecang.  Srv,  (Nn.  85) ; 
fvprinled  in  the  Xa.  Tteal.  RetioB  (October,  ISfil,  art. 
t);  Hardwick.ffisIofy^ArybnwKwi,ch.iv,p.!l>0. 

The  Lutheran  Chunh  never  adopted  the  Caivinlatic 
sntem.  In  the  beginning,  both  Luther  sod  Helsnc- 
tbea  received  the  Angostinltn  theology ;  but  as  early 
as  liS9  Melanelhon  expunged  the  pasaagei  supporting 
it  &ofn  his  Loci  Tkeoiogiri.  Luther  bestowed  the 
hiKbest  praise  on  the  last  editions  of  the  Loci  (Luther's 
Warti,  IMS,  voL  1,  preface;  see  Laurence,  Bompion 
Ik*.  Sermon  ii,  note  81).  The  Augsburg  Cm/eti' 
Fatiala  (xs)  aavt :  "  Non  est  hie  opus  dlnputationibi 
de  pradestlnatione  et  simillbus.  Nam  pronilssio  e 
vniTenaiia  et  nihil  detrahit  operibus,  sed  exsnsdtat 
■d  Odem  et  vere  bona  opera"  (see  Gieaolar.  Church  B 
tw7,  iv,  g§  36,  37).  In  the  German  Reforaied  Cbui 
tM  strictly  Calvinlstic  doctrine  "never,  at  such,  re- 
ceived any  symbollctl  aatborily;  snd  it  waa  sianifi- 
eaatly  left  out  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  hand- 
ed over  to  the  schooli  and  scientlUc  theology.  At  the 
«WH  time,  it  was  never  rejected  by  the  Geimau 
ChoTcb,  nor  unaided  with  any  thing  tike  hostility." 
Apficl.  in  the  Ttrenitemarg  MnnamHit  a/the  Hadtibtrg 
Cbneiiset,  p.  S2T ;  Hase,  Ckunh  Hiilory,  $  364. 

III.  The  Calrlnistic  system  waa  stIU  farther 
tted  by  the  Federal  Tbeolog}',  or  the  Thecii 


Under 


a  mSue 


■f  the  doctrine  of  Predeslinatian,  it  had  assumed 
lastjc  character,  trtna  wbich  it  was  in  part  relieved  by 
the  iBtrodnetion  of  the  idea  of  the  CvcmmJ,  as  a  oon- 

tnised  in  the  Qennsn  Reformed  theology  (bom  at 
Bmacn  1«09,  died  1699),  flm  developed  the  system 
^der  tida  pidnl  of  view,  the  tStct  of  which  was  to  In. 
Irodnce  historical  Ihcta  and  elements,  end  a  dtstlncllve 
ethical  Idea  (a  covenant  Implying  mntual  righte),  into 
Iha  haart  of  the  system,  and  to  banish  the  idea  of  the 
AviM  eoverelgn^  as  mere  will.  Coceelue  distln- 
niahed  between,  1.  The  covenant  before  tlie  Fall,  the 
t  of  works;  and,  S.  The  covenant  after  the 


Fall,  the  oovenant  of  grace.  The  latter  covenant  em- 
brace* a  threefold  economy :  (1)  The  economy  beftm 
the  law;  {i)  The  economy  under  the  law;  (S)  The 
economy  of  the  Gospel.  See  his  iSunnui  Doetriaa  de 
Faden  et  Tatammdi  Dei,  l&te.  Ueppe  says:  "The 
fmit  of  bis  infloence  was  to  lead  the  Reformed  thcolo. 
glansback  to  the  freedom  ofthe  Word  of  God,  deliv- 
ering It  from  the  bondage  of  a  traditional  scholastic 
cism."  This  type  of  Calvinism  was  still  farther  de- 
veloped in  the  writings  of  Brtun,  Doarina  Fadentm 
1G98 ;  of  Burmann  of  Utrecht  (t  1679),  Spmpiii  TKea- 
lo^  tt  (Eeimomia  Fadenau  Dri,  1671 ;  Heidanna  of 
Leyden  (f  167B),  Corpm  ThuA.  Chiid.  16H7 ;  and  espe- 
cially of  Witsius  of  Leydsn  (f  1708),  whose  A'cnunrf 
of  lAe  Ctaenanlt  (1694)  was  translated  into  English 
(Lond.  1763;  revised  ed.  Edlnb.  1771, 1H03 ;  New  York, 
8  vols.  1798).  Thia  theology  of  the  covenants  also 
shaped,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  Reformed  aysicm 
aa  it  was  adopted  In  England,  Scotland,  and  America. 
tt  is  clatrly  recognised  in  the  Westminster  Confesaion 
of  Futh  snd  Catecbisma.  Later  writers  divide  the 
covenant  of  grace  into  two  ports,  vll.  tfae  covenant  of 
redemption  tietween  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  the 
covenant  of  grace  between  God  and  his  people  in 
Christ.  On  this  Important  phase  of  the  Calvinlstic 
theology,  see  Ebrard,  Dogmatit,  i,  GO  sq. ;  Gats.  Gt- 
KkhAU  drr  PraUtl.  DognaHt,  Bd.  3.  ISSi ;  Schwelier, 
GlaubtiuUhre  der  etaitg. -rrfirrmirttn  Kirdu,  !  Bde. 
1S44,  and  also  his  Prolettantitrhe  CeiDraldogmm,  i  Bde. 
1864;  Schnecken burger,  VergUicianir:  Dtrd^bng  der 
latherildtHt  us-i  re/ormirtea  Lthrbegriffe,  1855;  G. 
Frank,  Gnchichle  dtr  Protal.  Thfoi.  i  Bde.  ]865i  also 
Heppe,  Digntaiik  d.  dtatichtn  PralalaiitumUM,  1,  204; 
Dogmatit  ier  ewmg.-Ttf.  Kirtht,  i,  378;  and  Uie  wiA- 

de  FkDEBAI.  TllBOLOOT. 

IV.  Moderate  Calvimil:  —This  phrase  deaignatet 
those,  especially  in  England  and  America,  who,  while 
adhering  to  the  CalviniiUc  as  contrasted  with  the  Ar- 
mlnisn  system,  have  yet  receded  ^m  some  of  the  ex- 
tnme  statemenla  of  the  former,  especially  upon  the 
two  articles  of  ReprobaUon  and  the  Extent  of  the 
Atonement.  See  Dr.  E.  Williams,  Dt/enee  o/ Modem 
OaiB'Hiim,  1812,-  Sermm  and  Chargei,  p.  128,  and  Ap- 
pendix, p.  399.  Dr. Williams  says:  " Kepnbation, or 
'  predesdnation  to  death  or  misery  aa  the  end,  and  to 
sin  ss  the  means,'  I  call  an  'impure  mtzdin'  with  Cal- 
Tlnbm,  OS  luving  no  foundation  either  in  the  teal 
meaning  of  Holy  Writ,  or  in  the  nature  of  things; 
except,  indeed,  we  mean  by  tt,  what  no  one  qnestions, 
a  determination  to  punish  the  guilty ."  He  calls  thia 
a  "  'mixturt,'  becauae  its  connection  with  predeatina- 
tion  to  life  la  arbitrary  and  forced ;  ^impvn,'  because 
the  supposition  itself  ia  a  foul  aspersion  upon  tlia  di- 
vine character." 

The  other  point  on  which  the  moderate  CslviniMs 
modiAed  the  system  is  the  future  snd  extent  of  tlie 
atoning  work  of  Christ.  Strict  Calvinism  asserts  that 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  made  atonement  to  God  by  hit 
death  only  for  the  alns  of  those  to  whom,  in  the  sover- 
eign good  pleasure  of  the  Almighty,  tho  beoeflta  of  fait 
death  shall  be  finaUy  applied.  By  this  deflnltion.  the 
extent  of  Christ's  atonement,  aa  a  proviaion,  la  limited 
to  thoae  who  ultimately  enjoy  Its  fruits ;  it  ia  restrict- 
ed  to  the  elect  of  God.  Both  Strict  and  Moderate  Cal- 
vinlsts  agree  as  to  the  intrinsic  worth  of  the  atone. 
meni,  and  as  to  its  Anal  application.  It  hat  been 
asserted  (e.  g.  by  Amyraut,  q.  v.)  that  Calvin  himself 
held  (o  general  redemption ;  and  certainly  his  law 
gnage  in  hia  CVimn.  n  Job,  ill,  1&,  16,  and  in  1  Tim.  ii, 
6,  seems  fi^lytoaaaert  the  doctrine.  Com  p.  Fletcher. 
Woria  (N.  Y.  ed.  II,  71);  but  see  also  Cunningham. 
TU  Rrformert  (Essay  vii).  As  to  tho  varlationa  of 
the  Calvinittic  confessions,  see  Smiths  Hagenbach, 
HiOorg  of  Dotlrimt,  §  249.  In  the  French  Refbrmed 
Churvh,  the  divines  of  Saumnr,  Camero,  Amy^aldu^ 


CALVINISM  4 

Um  Sjaoi  of  Dot  (Hall,  Hik,  Divanaot)  all  fitnxa- 
tad  genenl  ■loDement,  In  which  tbaj  were  rollowed 
by  BaiUr  (animal  Rtdtrnptiatj  Melkadia  Tirohgi- 
ra;  Onn«,  Uft  of  Baxttr,  %  64).  The  "modenle" 
doctrina  ai  to  the  nature  of  the  atoiiaiiieDt  in,  in  brief, 
that  It  conaiita  in  "  Oat  latiBfaction  for  ain  which  waa 
rendered  to  God  ai  moral  governor  of  Qm  world  bj  tha 
obedience  unto  death  of  bla  ton  Jeaut  Chriat.  Thli 
aatisfactioD  preaftrTea  the  authoritj^  of  the  moral  gov- 
ernment of  God,  and  yet  eonblea  him  lo  Rirgire  ein- 
nera.     That  tfala  foritiveneas  could  not  be  giTea  b; 

Atomehbht.  That  Christ'a  atonement  waa  aufflcienl 
for  all,  that  it  I*  actually  applied  only  to  the  elect,  and 
that  it  enhancaa  tha  guilt  of  tboae  who  reject  it,  ia  now 
almoat  untveraally  conceded  by  the  differant  acboola. 
Bat  ita  universality,  ai  a  proviaion,  la  also  aaaerted  l>y 
the  moderato  Calviniata,  with  aoRie  modiflcatlona  in  the 
atatemeat  of  iU  nature.  The  EnglUb  vkwt  aa  to  the 
natura  of  the  atonement  are  preaented  in  the  follow- 
ing extracta:  I>r.Mageo{0ii(*«^toiiemnU)aay8,"The 
aaerifice  of  Chritt  wm  never  deemed  by  any,  who  did 
not  wiah  to  calumnhite  (he  doctrine  of  atonement,  to 
have  mail  God  placatk,  but  merely  viewed  aa  the 
namu  appointed  by  divine  wiadom  by  which  to  be- 
Btow  (brgiveneaa.  Bat  atill  it  ia  demanded,  in  what 
way  can  the  death  utChilat,  conaidered  as  a  aacriilce 
of  expiation,  be  conceived  to  operate  to  the  remlaaion 
of  ain,  nnlaaa  by  the  appeaaing  of  a  Being  who  other. 
wiae  would  not  have  iorglTea  us?  To  thia  the  anawer 
oftbe  Christian  ii,  I  know  not,  nor  dori  it  concern  me 
to  know,  in  tduit  autimer  the  Hcriflce  of  Chriat  is  COD- 
tiected  with  the  forgiveaesa  of  sina  i  it  la  enough  that 
this  ia  declared  by  God  to  be  the  awdian  thnugh 
which  my  salvation  Is  elTected:  I  pretend  not  to  dive 
into  the  comiclia  of  the  Almighty.  I  aubmitlohis  wia- 
dom, and  I  will  not  reject  hia  grace  Iwcaiiae  hia  mode 
of  Tonchsafing  it  is  not  within  my  comprehension." 
Andrew  Fuller,  Id  his  OilviiHitic  and  Socrmm  5ya- 
Irmt  eimpared  (Letter  vii),  strongly  reprobates  tbe 
idea  of  placating  tbe  IHvine  Being  by  an  atonement, 
"conteoding  that  the  atonement  la  the  rffrel,  and  not 
the  eatit  of  divine  love"  to  men;  and  iniista  "that 
the  contrary  ia  a  prosa  mlarcpresentation  of  the  Cal- 

Calvlnists  have  given  loo  much  connteiiance  to  anch 
an  idea.  Mr.FDller  adda,  "  If  we  aay  a  way  was 
opened  by  the  death  of  Christ  for  the  f^  and  consiat- 
ont  exercise  of  mercy  in  all  the  methods  which  sm-er- 
tngn  wisdom  saw  fit  to  adopt,  perhaps  we  shall  include 
every  material  Idea  which  tha  Scriptnrea  ^ve  ua  of 
that  important  event." 

V.  Farther  modificatloDa  In  tbe  Calvlnlstlc  system 
have  been  made  In  this  country  through  tbe  influence 
oftbe  so-called  New-Eholadi)  Thboijkit,  eapedally 
as  set  forth  in  the  writing*  of  Jonathan  Edwards  and 
hia  successors.  In  respect  to  original  ain.  the  elder 
Edwards,  Id  his  work  on  that  subject,  advocated  the 
mediate  rather  than  the  Immediate  imputation  of 
Adam's  flntt  rin  lo  hia  poaleritj.  On  the  nature  of 
virtue  he  Introduced  an  Important  modification,  in 
making  lovt  lo  teimg  (in  the  two  forma  of  love  of  be- 
nevolence and  love  of  complaeenci')  to  conatltule  the 
essence  of  virtue.  On  (he  nstaie  of  the  atonement  he 
made  no  modincatlon.  He  also  distinguished  more 
carefully  than  had  prevkraslj-  been  done  between  nat- 
ural ahility  and  moral  inability,  and  this  diatinctlon 
was  further  elaborated  by  the  younger  Edwards,  who 
nlso  represented  the  atonement  aa  conaiating  in  ■  satis- 
faction to  the  general  rather  than  the  distributive  ]na- 
(Ire  of  God.  Hopkins  and  Emmons  carried  out  these 
views  still  brther,  hut  under  (he  influence  (especially 
In  the  case  of  Emmons)  of  the  supralapesrian  scheme. 
Tbeie  dbKussions  extended  from  New  England  into 
the  Preabytertan  Church.  The  parties  there  known 
as  Old  and  New  School  diBin'  chiefly  on  the  following 
articlea:  1.  Impolation  of  ain,  whether  it  be  immedi- 


6  CALVINISTS 

ate  or  mediate;  t.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  atMtn- 

ment;  8.  AbUlty  and  inatdlity. 

For  the  history  of  the  development  of  Calvloiam,  se* 
RBroRKKDCHURCu.  Forthe  Anljnomlan  and  extreme 
BUpralapaarian  developments  of  Calvinism,  see  Aim. 
rfoHiAHiBKi  Cribp;  HorKinaiAHa,  For  certain  mit- 
igated schemes  of  Calvinism,  see  AniKALDiaii ;  Bax- 
ter ;  Cahero.  On  two  oftbe  principles  which  di*- 
Ilnguish  the  so-calied  Modersle  Calvinism,  via.  (].) 
tbe  universality  of  tbe  atonement,  see  AToKEMBar; 
KBDEHmoii ;  (S.)  Tbe  natural  ability  of  all  men  to 
repent,  see  IxaBii-iTT;  Theolckit. 

VI.  /iwrotare.  —  The  literature  or  the  Calvinistk 
controversy  is  enormous.  Ibe  principal  bock*  only 
can  be  naioed  here;  Calvin,  Iiuluuiiam ,-  ZwingUue, 
Sreni  liagoge;  Comm.  de  rtra  tifilta  rtli^ont;  the 
Cooftesions  of  tha  Hefoimed  Chntchea,  ^iicn  in  Au- 
gustl,  CoTjnu  Libronm  SgnMicoram  (1818),  or  in  Nic- 
meyer,Cutf(«inCot>>«ioM(B(18<0);  the  WertminEter 
Confession  (IMS) ;  the  Decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Dort 
(1619).  The  chief  Calvinistic  writers  of  the  I6th  and 
]7th  centuries  were  lleia,  Uullingvr,  Alstedt,  Whit- 
gift,  Cartwright,  Crvp,  Perkins,  I.eighloa,  Baxbr 
(moderate),  Uwen,  Howe,  llidgety,  Gomar,  Alting, 
Ulvetus,  Heidegger,  TurTetln,Plctet.  OftbelKthand 
19th  centuries  tbe  following  an  aelected:  Stapfer, 
Wyttcnbacb,Gill,TDplady.  Enkine.Uick,  Hili,  Breck- 
inridge, Kmmmacher.  Uf  the  new  Amrrican  tchool : 
Edwards,  Bellamy.  Emmona,  Dwight,  West,  ^'nuUey, 
etc.,  whose  influence  was  seen  in  England  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Fuller,  Kjland,  Hall,  Jay,  Pye  Smith,  and 
Chalmers.  The  so-called  Old  Calvinism  has  produced 
few  writers  of  Ute  in  EngUnd.  It  is  al.ly  defended  in 
America  by  (he  rrincetoD  Iheologlana.  For  (he  hia- 
torical  trealment  of  the  aniject,  see  Gill,  Coiw/ Corf 
o«i  7V»«,  pt.  iv ;  Noander, //utoryo/iJ.j»M(l.c.); 
Hageubach,  BUt.  of  Doehiiia  (ad.  by  Smith,  g  319- 
213);  Ebrai^,  Chritll.  Dogmata,  %  17-GI,  and  S  566- 
56i;  Womack,  Caitiidlie  Cabuut  Vidothid:  Wataoo, 
TlKoUg.  liutilult;  pU  ii,  cb.  xxviii ;  Herrmann,  Ce- 
aoUcAte  da-  Frol.  iM-gmUik  (Leips.  VMT);  Gasa,  Gt- 
fUchU  der  Pnt.  Ifngmatit  (Berlin,  1^64)  t  Hrppe, 
Dogmalit  der  evny.-rrfom.  Kircie  (Ellierfeld,  !8Sl)j 
Hoiley,  A aguttimuiii  Doclrint  of  Pndataatiim  (Lond. 
1856);  Ciritiiem  Sf-rmbTonctr.  Jan.  If66,  171)  r q. ; 
Nicboiis,  t'o/pinuw  and  Arminmm  m  aiviptind  (Lend. 
1«U,  i  vols.  Bvo)  is  very  full  as  lo  English  writ- 
ers, and  abounda  In  valuable  citations,  but  Is  desti- 
tute of  scientific  arrangement :  Tunninvham,  HuIot~ 
teal  TKeotogii  (lS6S)i  Ditto,  Thfelogy  of  lie  Brforma- 
Um  (IflflS) ;  Hill,  /^rHirf  on  DiHmiy,  chap.  xi.  For 
the  later  forms  of  Cslvlnlsm,  especially  in  America, 
see  Tyler,  Jlitlory  of  He  Kev  H"rr%  Thtchgg  (188T); 
Beecber,  Vim  in  Iktotogt:  met.  Old  and  Sem  .'rkoijt 
{186S) :  Bangs,  frrori  of  Ha^^imiiaiMm  IfilS) ;  Hodg- 
son, Krv  DiriMls  (leSUj ;  Fi>k,  Tht  Catmattic  Omtro- 
veriy;  and  especially,  on  the  whole  subject,  Warren, 
SyslmKitucAerAeoJo^ic,  SSI  (firemen,  18(16, 8ro).  Po- 
lemical works  against  Calvinism :  (a)  LnHeran,  Chem- 
niti,  in  hia  Ijifi  Theotigd;  Dannhaner,  Uodomaria 
SpinuuCalmn{\6(A):  FeuerUm.  £>A(rw£rTvr.  CaAr. 
(1G61)  ;  (b)  ^nai'ajoa  imd  Uttkodid  (besides  thoMi 
above  nan^ed) ;  Arminlua,  Episcoplus.  Liml  orcb,  Cur- 
cellaus  (writings  generailv);  Wealev  ( 1)  orii,  see  In- 
dex); Hetcber,  CAa-fa  lo' Aatimmi^m,  etc;  Wat- 
son, Thtol.  Jrulitnlft,  vol.  ii;  Goodwin,  IMen,piim  St- 
(temrJ:  Foster,  Calp.'mim  <u  il  it;  (c)  Lairr  fitrmim 
arilcn-  Ebrard.  in  his  Dogmaltk  (KOnlgfberg,  16&1, 
2  vols.  Svo) ;  Langs,  Dit  Lfhre  do-  heil.  SdmjitH  «a 
dfrfrrien  knd  aUgtmciiun  Ciuufa  GotMt  (Elberf.  1631, 
Svo).  Writers  on  special  topics,  a.  g.  Election,  Re- 
demption, Predest'nation,  etc.,  will  be  named  uitdcr 
tboee  heads  respectively.  See  Arminiahisii  :  Elec- 
tion ;  FKHEHALTUEOLIXlt  j  Gbaoe  ;  PKEDsanxA- 

CalTlniBtfl.  (:.)  a  nqme  furmeily  used  on  the  Con. 
tinent  of  Europe  to  de.'ignate  all  msmben  of  the  sth 


CALVISIUS 


47       CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT 


(■Bed  Srjiirmtd  chnrcbca,  u  dwtlagulihcd  tana  ths 
;.Mkraa  Church.  It  li  Mill  »  and  to  m  certuD  ei- 
irat,  (•peciaUy  in  Fnna  ud  Aiutrb. 

(S.)  It  i*  DOW  gcDfnJI]'  In  nM  to  dniKiiatc  thoM 
vhs  faoiT*  tha  tbeolD|[i«l  teneli  of  Calvio,  vUbout 
racird  to  Chntch  or  iKt.  SaaCALviHj  C^lvihwh. 
la  the  «Ari)'  put  of  ttie  16Lh  o«ntur}-  (he  Brformtd 
rknrcbei  of  Switierllnd,  Ilungin,  Fnni'e,  GeimiDf , 
BBd  Hollud  wan  all  ralvioiatic'  in  this  mdh  ;  nnv 
th*  pi^iortion  of  Calvi.  irU  in  Mmie  of  Ihcm  ii  eniBll. 
Th*  Pnabf  tcrian  churi.Liei  of  En({Land,  Scotland,  Ire- 
kod,  and  Amatica  are,  vitli  few  exceptloua,  CaWini*- 
tic  So  alao  an  many  of  the  Independent  and  Con- 
m^MliiHial  charche*,  bolb  m  England  and  America. 
la  (be  Church  of  England,  and  the  Proteitsnt  Epiaco- 
pal  Cfawch  of  the  United  Stiter,  Calvinigm  praraila  to 
a  <«(t«iD  uicnt,  but  Hatlalio  are  waating.  BUhop 
UOCBW  ramarkB  tJiat  "although  the  Church  of  Eng- 
laad  hwl  been  npreaentad  at  Ibe  Synod  of  Dort,  iU 
rbvgy  acquiesced  not  at  all  In  the  deteroil  nation  of 
that  ■aaemUy,  and  the  biahopa  vho  vere  thete  were 
awoBg  tha  ■■■(  of  tbeir  order  wbo  have  wrilttn  upon 
iha  akie  whkh  »>i  there  triumphant.  The  Caliiniim 
of  the  Church  grew  fainter  till  It  acarcel;  utruggltd. 
It  «sa  not  M  much  overcome  l>y  direct  laeanlta  a> 
pni]|ilaiiled  throagh  the  more  rccletiutical  f  pirit  which 
iradDDiinattd  at  the  Reetnation.  For  a  ccntuiy  after, 
its  nice  wu  almott  unheard,  except  alonK  with  the 
irrcgnlaiitics  of  WbiteBeld.  and  then  It  wsa  much 
■on  tbu  OTcrbalanced  bj  the  Armlnianlim  of  We»- 
irj.  Within  the  Uat  centnrj  it  hat  been  revived  In 
tin  wtitiDgi  of  man;  ploUB  men,  but  can  Ksriel;  bo 
viewed  oa  having  vary  largely  affected  the  prevalent 
taacUng  of  Epiacopslianf,  either  in  Great  Britain  or  in 
AiDetka''(/fa'M>atai&icni,  ]S6S,p.  86.1).  The  Dutch 
Ketnaad  Church,  the  larger  part  of  Ibe  Baptiiti  and 
of  tha  Welah  Uethodliti,  an  alao  CalviniaU. 

CmlTlBloB,  Seth,  or  Kalwlts,  i  ceteUrattd  chn>- 
miiifptt,  waa  bora  at  Gor*cbleben,  Thnrlngia,  Feb.  W, 
15a«.  He  atodled  at  Frankenhanten  and  Magdeburg, 
■bare  he  gained  bis  bread  \fj  linglnE  in  the  street*, 
and  Uld  bj  enough  to  aupport  him  at  the  Academy  of 
Hdnuttdt,  wblther  he  went  In  1679,  and  thence  to 
Leipatc.  He  gained  a  profound  knowledge  of  mnsic, 
rhnmology,  aatranotn}'.  and  Hebrew.  He  died  it 
Ldpdc  Not.  Sa,  1613,  leaving,  benidea  other  workr, 


Faoialie  ^Morm 


qam. 


ii  CliriiH  {Erfuntt.  1610,  -Ito)]  alio, 
/3bf*wQitaiAiriJCrfgof«H»(Heiili'lbrrg,1618).  But 
hb  friDdpal  work  la  entitW  Opta  Chnmiiht/intiH,  "ex 
aBctotkate  patiadmam  Sanct.  Scriptune  et  bittorico- 
nin  Ode  dignUiimorum,  ad  motnm  luminarium  cslea- 
tiun  tempore  et  annoi  diatlngaentJam"  (Frankfort, 
*>lias  leM  and  1684).  In  this  work  he  endeavored  to 
Hipplj  (ha  defecta  and  correct  the  trmn  of  Sraliger 
nil  other  cbronologiM*,  by  having  rvcoorM  to  antro- 
imnieal  ealeulatiuna,  In  order  to  An  the  precise  time 
of  diflbreDt  event*.  For  tbii  purpoae  he  calculated 
iDore  than  one  hnndrtd  and  fifty  eclipse*.  John  Kep- 
Irr.  David  Fareu*,  and  othera  warmly  attacked  hia 
work  oa  It*  appeannre,  hot  8caltger  ipoke  of  it  in  the 
highest  tenzii,  declaring  it.  In  a  letter  to  Isaac  Caua- 
boo,  to  be  arr«rn(unaurM  alrnanm.  CalvlMut'ii  work* 
are  Insetted  In  the  Roman  Index  .^Huefir,  Bi<)g.  Gtni- 
mlt.  Till,  378;  Landon,  Enfx.  i>imViHry,  il,  G06. 

Cammldnlw  (CamaUalad,  Ca-taUmlmtu,  Orda 
C^taUnlammi).  a  religious  order  foonded  about  1000  by 
Soaasldn*,  wbo  iiuilt  a  manartery  at  Canpo  Haldoll, 
or  CamaUoll,  a  vilUge  thirty  miles  eut  al  Florence, 
and  belonglaK  to  a  lord  nameil  Haldnii,  whence  the 
order,  aeon*  time  after  the  death  of  Rnmualdus,  took 
ita  name.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  they 
hole  the  Dane  of  their  founder,  and  were  called  Romu- 
aldiaeL  The  monk*  observe  the  rale  of  Sl  Benedict, 
with  tome  all«r*tioa*  and  addlttona,  and  combine  tha 
it  fint  they  wore  a 


black  dre**i  but  Komuatdiii,  having  aeen  a  vision  ol 
hi*  monks  mounting  a  ladder  toward  buiven,  and  all 
clothed  in  while,  changed  their  haljil  from  black  to 
white.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
the  order  was  divided  into  Are  congregatlonB,  under  to 
many  generate  or  "major*,"  with  about  SOOO  tnrm- 
bers.  Ihe  life  of  these  hermit*  wu  originally  very 
severe ;  Lut,  like  okoet  other  order*,  u  it  grew  rich,  it 
became  corrupt.  They  were  re-fbrmed  in  1431  by  Eu- 
gene IV,  and  again  in  1518.  A  new  order,  with  a 
itricter  rule,  ws*  forroed  by  GusCiniani  In  ISSO,  and 
aince  that  time  both  divisions  exiat  Independently. 
They  appear  never  to  have  had  sn  establishment  tn 
England.  In  France  there  was  hut  one  convent  of 
Camatdule*  or  Csmaldoli,  rii.,  at  Groaboia,  near  Tar- 
ia.  They  were  of  the  congregation  of  "  Our  Lad.v  of 
ConaolatloD."  Tbe  Camaldule  ccenobltef,  to  w'lioni 
Pope  Grpgory  XVI  belonged,  have  their  principal  con- 
vent at  Rome,  and  a  few  more  house*  in  Italy,  with 
abont  one  hundred  memlvn.  The  hermit*  are  a  llllla 
more  nameroue,  counting  upward  of  two  hundred 
members,  with  two  mnjora  at  Camaliioll  and  Monte 
Corona,  near  Perugia.  Iheir  convents  are  likewlae 
all  in  Italy,  with  the  eiceptlDn  of  one  In  Poland. 
There  wa*  alio  a  congregstion  of  Camaldule  nuna, 
founded  by  the  fburth  general  of  Camaldules,  Kudol- 
phus,  in  108S,  at  Mucellano,  In  Tuscany.  They  h»I 
in  the  seventeenth  century  twenty-four  convents,  of 
which,  in  IBGO,  only  two  were  left,  at  Rome  and  at 
Florence. — Fehr.  Cad,  4er  Utnrhaor^at,  i,  68  aq. ; 
Ilelyot,  Ord.  Hilig.  i,  677 ;  Landon,  Ectt.  Did.  li,  US. 

CambiJdKA  Uuiniorlpt  (Copkx  CAtrrAeiu- 

oiEtiBtB,  from  its  present  place  of  deposit),  called  alen 
ConE:^  Brxx  (fton  its  depoailor),  usually  designated 
a*  D  of  the  Goapela  and  Acts,  Is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant uncial  USS.  of  tbe  M.  T.  It  containa  the 
Greek  text,  with  a  Latin  translation  on  the  opposilo 
page,  of  the  entire  four  Gospela  (in  the  order  Matthew. 
John,  Hark,  Luke)  and  Actr,  with  aerenl  gapa  (Mstt. 
I.  1-20;  vl,  :0-1x,  i;  xiTli,  3  11;  John  i,  I6-iii, 
SB;  Acts  viii,S9-i,14;  i»i,  8-10, 15-18  [which  paa- 
sage  seem*  to  have  been  extant  in  Wetsteln'*  tlmej; 
xxii,  10^ SO,  a9-ixvili,  SI,  in  all  which  the  Umi  ia 
wholly  sbtenl;  end  MaU.iU,7-lGj  Maik  xil,  16-20; 
John  xvlil,  14-xx,  18,  where  tbe  Greek  ha*  been  aup- 
plied  I  y  a  scribe  not  esrlier  than  tbe  tenth  centnry ; 
1  esidet  about  ae  numeroua  (.mission*  and  almilsr  res- 
torations of  the  Lain,  hat  mwtly  at  different  pUces 
from  tbe  foregoing),  and  a  few  versea  of  the  catholic 
Fplailea  (John  iii,  11-15,  in  the  Utin  only),  which 
once  Etood  entire  Letwetn  Ihe  Gospel*  and  Acta.  1  be 
M8.  is  a  quarto  volume,  10  inches  high  by  8  broad, 
cr.nalatlngof  414  leave*  (11  of  Ihem  nore  or  let*  muli- 
tutrd,  and  9  others  by  later  bsnda),  with  but  one  col- 
umn (in  rach  page,  tbe  Gteck  I.eing  on  tbe  left  page 
and  the  Latin  on  tbe  right.  The  vellum  i>  not  veiy 
fine.  There  ire  B3  line*  on  each  pa^e,  and  thete  are 
of  unequal  length,  the  MS.  being  arranged  In  cisusp* 
or  iiTi\Bt,  and  the  corresponding  onra  in  tlie  L*t.  and 
Gr.  aa  npsrly  a*  possible  oppoalte  each  other.  It  has 
not  the  Ui«o  nfoXnio  or  Eutebian  canona,  but  only 
the  Ammonian  sections,  and  these  often  incorrectly 
placed,  obviously  l>y  a  later  band.  Tbe  leaves  tre 
arranged  in  quties  of  4  eheeta  (8  leavea)  each,  the  nn- 
meral  "signatnrea"  of  which  are  set  by  the  Arft  band 
low  in  the  margin  at  the  foot  of  the  Uat  page  of  each. 
tt  originally  conalaled  of  upward  of  64  quires,  and  nni? 
of  the  gspa,  which  omita  67,  ending  with  S  John,  11, 
would  he  too  great  a  apace  for  all  Ibc  canonical  Epis- 
tles merelj-.  Tbe  ftrat  three  llnee  of  each  book  were 
written  in  bright  red  Ink,  which  waa  sIpo  occssiunally 
employed  elaewbere  by  way  of  oraament.  The  char- 
actera  betrar  a  Ister  age  than  Codices  Alexandrinus, 
Vaticsnaa,  and  Ephraeml  (A,  B,  and  C),  and  copitats 
occur  at  in  Codex  Slnalticua  (K).  IU  Alexandrine 
fbnn*  would  argue  an  Egyptian  oriEln,  but  the  fact  of 


CAMBRIDGE  PLATFORM         48  CAMBYSES 

tha  Lktln  tnnilitloii  |  Word  af  God.  Tba  Chnrch  In  Beiwnl  eombtl  tt  the 
S  shoin  that  it  i«  ■  W«t-  ,  wholn  compin;'  of  tha  redeemed,  bat  tbe  aUU  irfthe 
™      em  ropy.   It  U  Mslgn-  I  visible  Cburvh  mUlUnt,  walking  in  order,  ma  belbra 

!ad  wltb  gTBit  prolia-  tha  law  ecoDomlciJ,  or  In  boiiliui  under  the  lav,  na- 
,  blllt;totheiiith«n-|  tional;  ■inceChriat.oalf  congniKitianal.  "llie  mat- 
^  f  tnry.  It  it  chiefly  re-  !  t«r  of  tbe  riaible  Church  in  quality  conalfta  of  Uinta 
jf  t  markable  for  Ita  bold  '  by  calling;"  and  in  quantity  "a  chorch  ought  not  to 
^^  ^  '  and  esEtenaiTa  interpo-  b«  of  greater  number  than  may  oTiiiuarity  meet  togcth- 
P^  s  latlooa,  amounting  to  I  or  conveniently  In  one  place,  nor  feirer  than  can  con- 
^^  ^      "i       Kimo  >ix  handred  in  I  venlently  cany  on  church  work."     ■"■■■  — ■-•- 


3 


_  Acta    alone,    on  j  have  a  visilile  palldnl  union  amon;  themielves,  anil 

n  n  '  which  account  It  b;ia  .  thii  fbrm  la  tbe  vialble  covenant  whereby  Ibey  ^ve 

■9  PB  a  '*""    caatiounly    em- '  themaelvei  up  to  the  I^ord,  to  tbe  obaervingof  the  or- 

2  ^  /\  I  .  ployed  bycritid,  not-, dinanceaorChriattoKetherinlheMmosoclety.     The 

3j^  ^\^"J"  witiuitandin/ ita  great    njireiiie  ptBTdr  in  the  Church  belongs  to  Jeans  Chrirt; 

^*  H  t|  antiquity.      See  Chit- |  tubordinBta  power,  aa  extraordinary,  to  apoatlea,  etc. ; 

-  ij  ^  W  icisH  (BiBUCAL).         aa  ordinaiy.to  everyparticnlarchnrtb.   Tbe  njjlctra in 

fa  ^^  P*  °  t        Tlta  HS.  wit  pre-  !  a  church  are  neceaiary  to  ita  well-being,  but  not  to  Its 

J*  ^^  ^'  I  J  aented   to  Cambrid^s  j  eiiatenco.     The  eitraordinary,  as  apoatlen,  are  tiera- 

^  Q  ey  ."!  ;  Unlvenity  in  1581  by  ,  pomry;   the  ordinary,  which  are  elder*  (or  biihop*) 

jr  IS  ^  "}'  Theodore    Beia,   who  I  and  deacons,  are  perpetual.     There  in  a  difference  bo- 

w  pH  ^^  55  aaysheobtaloeditdur-    tween  leaching  and  ruling  cUov.     Tbe  ruling  elder  i» 

^^  ^K  ^^  ^  *  ing  the   French  wan  ,  to  aaaist  the  teaching  elder  in  ruling.     Tbe  dmooia'a 

^  ^  Q  3  S  in  1662,  when  it  wa*  i  office  ii  confined  to  t«nporiililJea.     Cbarch  ofirrrw  are 

^  ^  ^  ^  *  '''"'■^  '°  *^"  Dionaa-   elected  by  tbe  church  In  which  they  are  to  minlater, 

*^  ^^  ^~      ^  ^  S  tery  of  St.  IrensDs  at    and  the  cbarcb  may  depose,  as  well  as  elect  them, 

^^  <M  7       J  gj;  Lyona,  and  donbtless  '  tboughthe  adviceof  neighboringchurcbain  snchcaae 

•Q  Je  ^      ^  u^  reacued  by  aome  Hu-  '  ahould  be  sought     Cburcb  officers  are  to  be  ordained 

S  2  W       O  £  *  E"™***     "Itlivf'        It  I  "/^  tli^r  election  by  the  church ;  ordination  is  the 

^  ^  V      sj  ~i  seemalo  have  beenthe    Bolemn  pnttinga  man  into  hia  place,  butdoea  notcon- 

^  ^  pm      2  J'  same  mted  as  0  in  tbe   ililute  an  officer.     As  tbe  people  may  elect,  they  mav 

jf  ^  ^^     ^  ^4  roatgin  of  Stephens's  j  also  ordain  j  though,  where  there  are  eldere,  these,  aa 

^«  ^  ^^    ^  ■■  third  edition.     It  waa   representing  the  cbarcb,  are  to  perform  the  wrvice  of 

tm  ^  ^       ly  gt  tint  completely  exam-  '  imposition  of  hands.     In  respect  to  Christ,  tbo  head, 

Ifi  /\  fi       ^  '^'  InedbyPatrick  Young,    the  Church  is  a  nionarchv;  in  respect  to  the  biiithor- 

Mt  V  W      j^  '^'  thclibrarianofCbarlea  :  hood,  the  body,  it  resembiei 


I  o  ^  P  M  i^ 

^      V      y,      rfl    ^  5  insertion  of  many  of  |  are  rala  also  for  tbe  support  of  church  officers,  ad- 

0     B^    P    S  J;  lb.  

S       E      ^       X     -i  ■  Tftsodori  fiffie  CimJo-  ;  ought  to  pteaerre  choich  communioi 

05^™!  ftfvi<«™,  1"B3,  2  vols,    lit,  by  way  of  mutual  care;  id,  by 

(^      ^      ^      ^     Igi  fol.).      Scrivener    haa  ;  Hon ;  8d,  hy  way  of  admonition ;  1th,  by  way  of  par- 


V       >.       ^       M      ,9  " I -— ■- .■■    Churchgovem- 

I\J        J      ^     S,  I  1>y  Usher  for  Walton's  1  ment  or  rule  la  placed  by  Christ  In  tlie  officers  of  the 

ftn       'y      ^      j(     '^  /U^(.    Dr.  Kipling    cbnrch,  who  are  subject  to  the  power  of  the  church, 

W      ^      ^      ^*    SA  publiahed   It   in    tiill  J  andwhapronouncesentencewithconsentorthechurcb. 

^       '"'  ;      U    J  t  irom  fac-almila  types,  |       In  a  right  administration,  all  church  acts  proceed 

ti  bntwiththeancriticBl,afUir  the  manner  of  a  mixed  administntion.     Thent 

■35  i  ■ 


rginal  readings  .  mission  and  dismission  of  members,  eicommi 

A      Ij    V   the  

^     ^      O    £i  Into  th  .         „ 

C      jg      S     ■£  ■    Theodort  Btat  Cia^a-  \  ought  to  preserve  chuich  communion  with  each  other. 


2^       ^       fit     g  I    by   the    second   bund    etc.,  all  based  on  the  preceding  principles;  and  it  is 
^     iC      Q    £4.  Into  the  text  (Oxfu  ;  declared  IhU  churches,  though  distinct  and  equal, 
—        ^        -^       VC     j!  3    Tieodari  Btae  Canto-  I  ouirht  to  nteserve  chuich  communion  with  each  other. 

L  V  ^  m  ^  since  reprinted  it  more  '  ticipation  in  acta  of  worship,  etc. ;  Sth,  by  way  of 
fT  "^  jj  *  g  carefully  in  ordlnsiy  j  ommendation ;  6th,  by  way  of  relief  and  succor. 
O       UJ      <^      }ff    W       trinSi  vitb  Introduc- 1  gathering  a  church,  this  conununion  ahould  always  be 

h^       L       ■••      9       tlon,  annotations,  and    attended  to. 
<      •  '■'    3       exact  facsimiles  (Co-        Synods  according  to  tbe  pattern  of  Acta  nv,  thoof^ 

^  s       der  Brta,  etc.,  Lond. ,  not  necessary  to  the  being,  are  useful  Ibr  the  well-b»- 

=       IflW,   8yo) — Scriven-    ing  of  the  churches.      They  are  constituted  by  the 

!H  «  a       "^'  ^'''"'^'  V-  ^  "l-i  \  churches  sending  forth  elders  and  other  messenKera  to 

•^1  I       Tregelles   bi   Home's    meet  together  in  tbe  name  of  Christ.     A  magistrale 

M  I  ^       iHlrod.  (new  ed.),  iv, '  has  power  to  call  a  synod,  hnt  tbe  constituting  of  a 

f  x\  Ji       p.  169  sq.    See  Mand-    synod  is  ■  church  act.     Sinoda  are  not  to  exercise 

'^  '  scRirrs  (Biblical),      church  censures  by  wsy  of  discipline,  but  to  debate  and 

Cambridge  Platfonu.  a  system  of  Church  dis-  determine  the  principles  on  which  such  acts  are  baaed, 
ripllne  agreed  npon  by  tbe  elden  and  messengers  of  and,  so  ftrasconsonant  with  God's  Word,  they  are  to  be 
the  Mew  England  churches,  assembled  in  synod  at  received  with  reverence  and  submission.  Synods  are 
Cambridge,  ISH.  The  object  of  tbe  synod  was  to  da-  not  permanent  ecclesiastical  bodies.  An  article  on  the 
fine  accurately  tha  eccle-iiastical  position  of  tbe  New  i  powerof  civil  magistrates  in  matters  ecclesiasdcalcom- 
Kngland  churches.  In  matton  of  fslth  they  were  pletes  the  platform. — Savage's  l^mtA^D7^  vol.  ii;  Boa- 
agned,  but  there  were  differences  in  regard  to  Cbnrch  ton  ed.  Cnrnbriilpe  and  S-igbrmi  Plaifarmt;  Sbedd, 
Koreroment,  some  being  inclined  to  a  more  strict  Pres-  |  Ui^-  n/Doetrinn,  11. 482.  See  Co:caKEaATiO!iALmB. 
Iiyterisnism,  some  to  a  morelonse  ]ndependenc]\while  :  Camb^BB  (Kn/if^utiit,  a  Orvcized  fbnn  of  the 
the  great  majority  were  ConKtegatlonalieta.  ;  old  reralc  KiOmjisa,  a  "  Ijard,"  Rawlinaon,  llfr  iahu. 

As  regards  doeirinr.  the  synod  declared  their  adhe-  til.  4!iB),  the  second  Persian  monarch  ofthe  name,  was 
sion  to  the  Westminster  Confession  ;  but  they  did  not '  thssonofCyms  the  GreatCbuthy  what  mother  is  dis- 
aecept  that  confession  In  regard  to  discipline,  but  pro-  pated\  whom  be  succeeded,  B.C.  580.  In  the  fifth 
ceeded  to  construct  a  platform,  of  which  we  give  the  year  of  bis  reign  he  invaded  Egypt,  taking  oBlence,  >c< 
following  abstract:  Itdeclireithat  tbe/om  of  Church  .  cording  to  Herodotus  (ill,  I),  at  the  reftasal  of  Amasls, 
eovemment  Is  one,  immutable,  and  prescribed  in  tbe  I  the  father  of  Psammenilus,  the  then  reigning  Egyptian 


CAUEL 


40 


CAMEL 


Ub|C  to  gli-e  him  his  dangfalcr  tn  marriage;  but  tb<  ' 
nal  caoH  of  tbe  cimpai^n  (cnmp.  Herodotiu,  i,  77) 
va*  ilie  UDbition  of  Cambvaca  (mi  Uihlnuun,  Hirod. 
p.  148)  to  Bcccmpliah  tfa«  ded^  of  his  father  in  re- ' 
Bwering  thia  pank>n  of  Nebucbadntiiar't  ronqneaU 
(*M  Jer.  xliii;  slvij  Ezek.  xxix-xxxii;  comp.  New- 
laa,  (M  Ua  Prcpiaiia,  I,  86'>).  See  Ctsd*.  li^tjpt 
vaa  aDbdned,  according  to  Clijeiu,  throDKh  treachery ; 
acatrdiog  to  PantKBiu  (vii,  B),  by  intrigue;  bat  ac- 
conliDg  tn  Uerodotiu,  in  ■  pitched  battle,  after  which 
the  whole  conntry,  t»  tho  the  CyreniADi  and  Barcang, 
toboiittad  to  him.  He  proceeded  to  eiecate  hii  de- 
rigD  of  nducing  Ethio[da  abo,  but  wu  compelled  to 
retreat  for  want  of  ftrovuiona.  hia  atlaclc  on  Carthage 
haTing  liknriie  £iiled  through  the  refueaJ  of  hU  Phin- 
■idaB  aJUea  to  co-operate  with  him  a^iuat  their  qwd 
ooks*.  Be  waj  IhDB  defiated  In  hia  plana,  which 
doabtleaa  mnteniplated  the  wearing  to  Psnla  the  or- 
■ru  bade  of  the  Deeeft  (Herod,  ii,  I ;  Hi,]  £6;  Cte- 
riaa,  Pen.  9 ;  Jnetin.  i,  0 ;  comp.  Heeren's  A/riean  Nu- 
luw.  i,  fi).  Diodonie  aaya,  Indeed,  that  be  penetrated 
aa  fiu  aa  Herofi,  and  enn  founded  that  city,  naming 
It  aAei  hia  mother ;  but  ttaia  atatement  la  equally  in- 
Eonct  (aMStrabo,  p.T90)irith  thatof  Joaepbna,  who 
Hya  ha  changed  iti  name  to  MeroS  in  booer  of  bia  ais- 
Mr  iAtU.  ii,  10,  !).  The  conduct  of  Cambyaea  after 
thia  exhibited  the  darkest  charicler  of  tyraBDV  to 
BBch  an  extent  that  tbe  ^[yptiana,  whom  he  ruled 
with  an  iroQ  (way  (comp.  Isa.  lii,  4),  attributed  to 
Um  madnesa  as  tbe  pnniahment  of  his  hnpiety,  and 
•ran  tbe  Peruana  ever  after  atyled  bim  the  "despot" 
(jwronfC,  Herod,  lii,  89).  Indeed,  he  appean  to  have 
baea  aBbjeet  to  epileptic  flta  fnim  hia  birth  (Herod,  lii, 
t\  and  hia  bcha-Tior  evinced  a  violence  of  tamper  bor- 
dving  upon  tmaj.  He  b  aald  to  hare  man  led  his 
Dwa  dstens  and  to  have  brutally  killed  one  of  them 
feic  bewailing  the  execution  of  hia  own  brother  Smer- 
dia  by  hi>  order.  Hia  atrocHlea  provoked  an  Insur- 
rection,  headed  by  one  of  tbe  Ha^n  priests,  who  is- 
fDincd  tbe  name  of  the  murdeied  prince  "Smerdis" 
(q.  V.) ;  and,  aa  Cambyses  waa  marching  to  pot  down 
the  pnCender,  be  died  at  Ecbatana  of  an  accidental 
wvMod  in  the  thigh,  B.C.  aal,  leaving  no  heir  (Herod. 
Bi,  61  aq.  Cteaiaa,  Bsetrjit.  Ptri.,  give*  a  aoniewhat 
diffiTtdt  accaunl  of  his  end,  and  also  makes  hia  reign 
eighteen  yean ;  but  Clemena  Alexindrinna,  Sln.m.  i, 
MSl,  aajrs  be  reigned  ten  yean).  See  Perbia.  He  is 
^med  Kabmj^  on  the  Persian  taMet  of  the  Beblstun 
■KriptioD  (RawlinsoD,  Herod.  U,  4!>S,  493)-  See  Cu- 
■KiFOBia  Ikxcriptioss.  Hia  name  also  appeara  on 
(he  Eryptian  monumenta  in  a  royal  cartouch.     See 


IIlenglTph  of 

Canhyaes  ta  pmhably  the 
m  Ena  1*.  6,  a*  tbe  Peruan  king  addreaaed  by  tbe  en- 
eaniea  of  the  Jews  Ibe  the  purpose  of  frustrating  thi 
iwbaihtiBg  of  the  Temple,  B.C.  629-      Joaephus  alM 
ealla  thb  monarch  Cmiitfara,  U(  mm  ofCsm,  and  ht 
Kf<re*  the  cmrespondonco  between  the  king  and  bii 
■lytias  Ticeroya  in  detail  {Ant.  xi,  il,  I  and  2).  which 
he  has  evidently  blended  with  that  which  took  pli 
with  hi*  aDccrmer,  the  pseudD-Smerdis  ("  Artaxerxei 
Ein  It,  7  aq.),  since  be  does  not  name  tbe  latter,  t 
-aiy  alludes  to  tbe  asnrpation  of  the  Magians  In  t 
Uterral  before  the  acoeaalon  of  Dariua  Hyatsapia  ( 
iii,  t).      Sea  AuAsnaKiis. 

Camel  (a  word  fbnnd  In  esaentislly  tbe  same  form 
Ib  an  tbe  Sheoitie  Isngnagea  [Heb.  \-^y,  gamal' ;  Syr- 
bc,  the  aamoj  Cbald.  gamala;  ancient  Arabic, jemr/, 
■BsterB,  ytmmtt] ;  in  the  Greek  [«ifii)Xi>c]  and  Ladn 
Temlfaaj,  wbapca  it  hat  pasaed  Into  the  langnagea  of 


Western  Esrope;  alao  in  the  Coptic  jfcmntt  In  S>n> 
acrit  it  occurs  aa  krantila  and  linimilaka ;  and  bence 
Schlegel  traces  the  word  to  the  root  tram  =  to  ilep. 
Bochart  derives  it  from  the  not  ^p|,  lo  rwtnge,  be- 
cause the  camel  la  vindictive  and  retains  the  mcmcry 
of  injoriea  [animal  /irjiainatai'}  ;  but  Gcsenlus  conaid- 
s  likely  that  ^^1  should  have  aasumed  the 
force  of  the  cognate  Arabic  nal  jamat,  to  carry),  an 
animal  of  tbe  grder  RumiiiaiitUt,  and  genoa  Caatlu. 
Aa  Gonititoled  by  moat  modem  naturalitla,  it  com- 
priaeg  two  apedea  positively  distinct,  but  etill  poaiess- 
Ing  tbe  common  charactera  of  Letng  ruminsnta  with- 
tut  boms,  without  muzzle,  with  noetrita  forming  ob-  , 
Ique  slits,  the  u^qrar  lip  divided,  and  separately  mov. 
ible  and  exUnaile,  the  aolea  of  tbe  feet  homy,  with 
wo  loss  covered  by  ungulculated  clawa,  the  limba 
ong,  the  abdomen  drawn  up,  while  the  neck,  long  and 
alender,  is  bent  down  and  up,  the  revene  of  that  of  a 
horar, which  ta  arched.  According  to  othrr  nataral- 
ista,  however,  the  two-humped  camel,  (ometimea  call- 
ed tbe  Bictrian  camel,  is  a  variety  only,  not  a  diitinct 
ppeciea  (Patterson, /atrW.  (oZooJij^,  p.  417).  Camels 
have  thirty-six  teeth  in  all,  of  which  three  cutpldate 
on  each  aide  above,  six  incison,  and  tno  curpidate 
on  each  side  below,  though  differently  n,.roed,  Etill 
have  all  more  or  less  tbe  chancter  of  Cuthrs.  They 
have  callosities  on  tbe  breaat-bone  r.nd  on  the  flexnrea 
of  the  joints.  Of  the  four  atomachs,  which  tbey  bare 
in  common  with  other  snlmala  cheuing  the  cud,  the 
veotriculuB,  or  paunch,  la  provided  with  meiDbranons 
cella  to  contain  an  eitr.!  provitloD  of  water,  enibllng 
tbe  species  to  snl>aist  for  four  or  more  diyi  without 
drinking.  But  when  in  the  desert,  the  cemel  liaa  the 
faculty  of  amelUng  it  afar  off,  and  then,  bi^aking 
through  all  control,  he  ruahis  onward  to  drink,  stir- 
ring the  elcTnent  previously  with  a  fcirc-foot  until 
quite  muddy.  Camels  are  temperate  animsls,  bfing 
fi<d  on  a  march  only  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  with 
about  a  pound  weight  of  datea,  beana,  or  barley,  and 
are  enabled  in  the  wilderness,  by  means  of  their  long 
flexible  npcks  and  strong  cuspidate  teeth,  to  snip  ta 
they  pass  at  thlstlea  and  thomj'  planle,  mlmosia  and 
capcT-Ireea.  They  are  emphsticaUy  called  "  the  ships 
of  the  deaert;"  having  to  cross  regiona  where  no  veg- 
etatloa  whatever  ia  met  with,  and  where  they  could 
not  l:e  enabled  to  continue  their  march  bat  for  the  aid 
of  the  double  or  single  bunch  on  the  lack,  which,  be- 
ing composed  of  mutculsr  Hiiro,  and  cellular  aubFtacre 
highly  adapted  for  Che  accumulation  of  fat,  awella  in 
proportion  as  the  animal  is  healthy  and  well  fed,  or 
ainks  by  absorption  as  it  aopplira  tiio  want  of  auf  le- 
nance  under  fatigue  and  scarcity;  thus  giving  an  ex- 
tra stock  of  food  without  eating,  till  by  ezhaoation  the 
skin  of  the  prominences,  instead  of  standing  up,  fells 
over,  and  bang*  like  empty  bags  on  the  fide  of  the 
dorsal  ridge.  Now  when  to  these  endonments  arc 
added  a  lofty  stature  and  great  agility  ;  cjis  that  dis- 
cover minute  objects  at  a  distance;  a  sense  of  ameUing 
of  ptodigioua  acotenoM.  ever  kFpt  in  a  state  of  aenal- 
bility  by  the  inimai's  power  of  closing  the  nostrils  la 
exclude  tbe  acrid  pirticlea  of  the  sandy  deaerta;  a 
spirit,  moreover,  of  patience,  not  tbe  rrsult  of  fear,  but 
of  forbearance,  carried  to  the  length  of  self-sacriflco  In 
,  tbe  practice  of  obedience,  so  often  exemplifled  by  tfaa 
'  camel's  bones  in  great  ntmiben  strewing  the  surbce 
I  of  the  desert;  when  we  perceive  it  fumiehed  with  a 
I  dense  wool  to  avert  the  solar  heat  and  nightly  cold 
while  on  the  animal,  and  to  clothe  and  hidge  his  mos- 
I  ter  when  mannflictured,  and  know  that  tbe  female 
I  carries  milk  lo  liwd  him,  we  have  one  of  the  most  in- 
,  controvertible  examples  of  Almighty  power  and  b^ 
neHcence  in  the  adaptation  of  means  to  a  direct  pnr- 
poae  that  can  well  be  aabmilted  to  the  apprebenaion 
I  of  man  ;  for,  without  the  rxirtence  of  the  cameL  im- 
mense portions  of  tbe  surface  of  the  earth  would  be 
nninbabitalde,  and  Ck-en  impassable.   Surely  tbe  Araba 


are  rigbt:  "Jab's  bcastti  ■  monument  of  God't  mst^ 

'  1.  Tba  Bcctrtin  camsl  (RDiMflu  Bactriaua  of  >Q- 
tbnri)  h  large  and  robott ;  naturaUj'  iritfa  two  hunch- 
es, and  origiDall}'  a  n^Te  of  the  hiBfaeat  table-land* 


1  CAMEL 

part  of  hie  donation.  Thii  cau  tw  Irae  only  upon  thj 
Buppoeition  that  bat  a  fe*  of  these  anlmalt  were  deUv- 
erad  to  him,  and  therefore  that  they  wen  itill  ran  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  though  loiin  after  there  is  abou' 
dant  evidence  of  the  nations  of  Sj'ria  and  Palaatinc 
having  whole  herds  of  them  fully  dnmeeticutad.  Thcae 
■  ■em  to  imply  that  the  genus  Camelus  was  oti^nall}- 
an  inhaliitanl  of  the  elevated  deserts  of  Central  Asia, 
its  dense  fur  showing  that  a  cold  but  dry  atmosphere 
wii  to  be  encountered,  and  thst  it  came  alnsdy  domm- 
ticated,  towaid  the  south  and  west,  with  the  oldest  col- 
onies of  mountaineeiB,  who  are  to  be  distingoishod  from 
earlier  tribes  that  sulidued  the  ass,  and  perhaps  from 
others  alill  more  ancient,  who,  taking  to  the  rivers,  de- 
scended by  water,  and  aftenrard  coasted  and  crossed 
narrow  seas.  Of  the  Arabian  spedes  two  very  diitinct 
races  are  noticed;  tiiose  of  stronger  fnune  but  slower 
pace  used  to  can)'  burdens  varying  fknm  600  to  TOO 
weight,  and  ir^ivelling  Utllo  more  than  twenty-four 
miles  pii  day ;  and  those  of  lighter  fonn,  bred  for  the 
saddle  with  single  riders,  the  fleetest  b< 
vey  intetiiience,  etc.,  and  travelling  at  the  mte  rrf  100 
miles  in  twenty-four  hours.  They  arc  deaignaled  by 
Baclrtau  Uamcl  aaveial  agqielliitions,  such  aa  Deloid,  the  best  ci 

of  Central  Aula,  where  even  now  wild  individuals  m  . 
The  species  extends  through  China,  Tar- 
tory,  and  Russia,  and  is  principally  imparted  acroaa 
the  monntains  into  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Persia. 
II  is  seldom  seen  at  Aleppo  (Russel,  ff.  ft.  Ahppo,  il, 
170).  Oneappeorsfijureilln  theproceesionsofthean- 
clent  Persian  satrdpies  amon^  the  bas-rellefb  of  Cbebel 
Mlnar,  where  the  Arabian  species  Is  not  seen.  It  ia 
is  species  which,  according  tu  the  researches  of 
lardt,  constitutes  the  brown  Taons  variety  of 
single-hunched  Turkish  or  Turkt  c 
seen  at  Constantinople,  tliere  being 

long  breeders,  not,  it  appeon,  attended  with 
citirpsting  with  a  knife  the  foremost  bunch 
of  the  animal  soon  after  birth,  thorcliT  procuring  more 
space  for  the  pack-saddle  and  toad,  it  seems  thst  this 
mode  of  render! h.l;  the  Bactrian  cross-breed  simitar  to 
the  Arabian  camel  or  iiromedary  (for  Burckhardt  rais- 
opplies  the  last  name)  i*  one  of  tha  principal  causes 

of  the  confusion  and  contradictions  which  occur  in  the   from  Oman,  m  „.    . 

descriptions  of  tho  two  species,  and  that  the  various  |  also  lltjin  by  the  Turks,  and  still  other  names  (e.  i;. 
other  iulermiEtures  of  races  In  Asia  Minor  and  Sjiia,  |  AAaary,  Mahmy.  AsMn,  Badttt  at  Heial,  Rawahel, 
having  for  their  object  either  to  create  greater  powers  '  and  Racsmbet)  in  India,  all  names  more  or  less  imply- 
ofenduranceofcold  orDrheat,of  Liodj-to  carry  weik'ht,  ,  ing  swiftness,  the  same  as  ipciiit,  ivift;  the  diSta-- 
or  to  mijvc  with  speed,  have  still  more  perplexed  the  j  "nee  between  them  and  a  common  camel  being  n* 
question.  From  these  causes  a  variety  of  names  has  ,  fneat  as  that  between  a  high-l>red  Artb  mare  and  an 
arisen,  which,  when  added  to  the  Arabian  distinctions  !  English  cart-horse  (Layatd,  Natvrli  and  Bab.  p.  Z92). 
fbr  each  sex,  and  fur  the  young  during  every  year  of  '  Caravans  of  loaded  camels  have  always  sconts  and 
its  growth,  and  even  far  the  camels  nursing  horse-  flankers  monnled  on  tbcM  light  animals,  and  in  earlier 
foals,  has  made  the  appellatives  exceedingly  numer- 1  ages  Cyrus  and  others  employed  them  in  the  line  of 
oui.     We  notice  onl.v—  !  liattle,  each  carrying  two  archers.     The  Romans  of 

!-  The  Arabian  camel  or  inmedaTy  (aune/u  drrmi-  <  the  third  and  foarth  centuries  of  our  era,  as  appear* 
rdnrioM  or  AnOiinii  at  nataraUsls,  13:i,  bt'ktr;  and  '"""'  '''■  "W^io,"  maintained  in  Egypt  and  Pale^ 
fomaleandyonngnn=B,HtmV, both  "dromedary,"  «"»  "'"^^"'"^  '^'"'^n"..'"T'!i.wf"'"!^" 
loa.  Ix,  6:  Jer.  it  li)  ,  ^^r\y  the  specie,  having  'f"  i  P?f-''1-T  t^"  "»"  1^","^"**  ,""  1"^' 
n.»,™ii»  V  .  VI.       J  -J    "H^"-""  ""'"IK    em  Africans  bod  shown  their  importance  in  protect- 

naturally  but  one  hunch,  and  considered  aa  of  West-  ,„„  ,i.  „  ■  „_  x„,i  j  „„  ,^  ,  „_  .„,|,  _„ 
•n,  A.U11.  „  01  AM,»n  rtp",  .J.bo..h  .,  U.d  ot  ^f  ^S^^ri^^Z^^^l^S^ 
■r'ii'?'"!'  T.^^'  »<•""""(  ■'  ^1^  ("""»• '  .f  J.d.h,  ..1  th™  Mbm  I.  lb.Tl,.b.l.  (™»p.l  S™. 
™i«'  '"'  r  i  t  T  ".!"■,  r"  "»"  »»».  ")■  Bo-P.".  Ibmrf  .  .lmU.r«.^  .»a  1« 
ancient  tnnilj  Iren.alh  tba  pyrjmid  of  G  leh,  wblch    i>„„„.„_  >.„    ,n„.,    i.„ 

.how,herdsnienbringingthei7eattleanddome;ticted  "^"T  r^,  .iL!ir^-,^«-*«.  ^^^  ■  ■ 
animahitol-e  numbered beforeaitawardandhiascrilH.,  ;  "  ^  I'""'?  **"  ""^  B-S^ni^nS,  oc*<«*(cr™™ 
and  in  which  we  see  oxen,  goats,  sheep,  osKe,  geese,  '  (^"i-  ""'t  10,  H),  rendered  "  cameI^■■  more  proper, 
and  ducks,  but  neither  bones  nor  camels  That  they  'y  signlAea  miilit  (being  explained  by  the  addition 
ware  not  indiienous  in  the  esrh- history' of  Egypt  ia  "•"■"  of  mares,"  mistranslated  "young  dromoda- 
roonlenanced  by  the  mythical  tale  of  the  prieata  de-  ''»*").  "^  Implies  the  swift  postage  or  conveyance  of 
scritung  "  the  flight  of  Typhon,  seven  days'  Joomey  ""iers,  the  whole  verse  showing  that  all  the  means  of 
nponanass."  We  find,' however,  camels  mentioned  'lispatch  wore  set  In  motion  at  the  dispcaal  of  govern- 
in  Geneiis  xil ;  but  being  pUcodlastamong  the  cattle  ment  (see  the  dissertation  on  this  word  by  Schelhoni, 
given  by  Pharaoh  to  Abraham,  the  fact  seems  to  show  , '"?  'he  Miie.  Lip$.  x,  231-44).  On  the  other  band, 
that  they  were  not  considered  aa  the  meet  important !  "^rHi  t'ttA  (translated  "mules"  in  the  above  [ia» 


CAMEL 


&1 


CAMEL 


■(c,  *Dd  Tcndand  " dromciUry"  in  1  Kingi  iv,  !8}  l  verj'  nutrillvi  cooling  drink  (ArlaUtt.  HM.  AiJm.  v\, 
■•wiftbMBt"  in  Uic.l,ia),  ■■  take  to  U  ooa  of  ths  8&,  1 ;  PUny,  A',  if.  ii,41i  xxTiit,9),  and  when  tun)- 
unj  nainaa  Ibr  niiming  ewnsk  (aa  abov*),  uvd  to  ed  it  beconm  lotoxicatiDg  (ancb,  acoording  to  tlu 
carry  ucpnua  ;  or  postrhonaa,  anciently  AiiauM  ta  Rabtiiue  [Roacnmallar,  Nat,  ad  Hitrot.  I,  ID],  was  th« 
Aam^  DOW  Chipper  or  Ctufpne,  which,  according  drink  ofi'crcd  [Jndg.  iv,  1E>]  Uy  Jael  to  Siaera  [comp. 
te  XeDOptmn,  tziatod  in  Penis  in  the  time  of  Cynu,  Joaepbur,  Anl.  r,  b,  4]).  Their  dung  luppliea  fnel  in 
asd  am  aUU  In  nae  under  different  appellatiana  orer  i  tba  deaert  and  in  undy  regionn  wliere  wood  it  acnce ; 
all  Alia.  The  tirkaroA'  (nilSir,  rendend  "awift  *nd  occaaianally  it  is  a  kind  of  lesonrce  for  horan 
htaata")  of  lia.  Iivi  SO,  were  p^baWy  alao  a  kind  of  """■"  "">•.'  f«>d,  ^  wanting  in  the  wildorae.a.  Their 
----  ^    ^  "^  ^  Beah,  particnlBrly  the  hunch,  i>  In  reqnett  amcng  th* 

Aniba  (camp.  Proap.  Alp.  //.  ff.  Ag.  i.  226),  although 
Ibrhidden  to  the  HebMwr,  more  |«thapa  from  ino- 
tivea  of  economy,  and  to  keep  the  people  from  again 
becoming  wanderert,  than  from  any  real  unclean' 
neas.  Camela  were  eaily  a  fourco  of  richei  to  the 
pBlrlsrclu,  and  from  that  periid  beaune  an  increaa- 
ing  object  of  rural  importance  to  tbe  aeveral  tribea 
of  Uraei,  »ho  inhabited  the  gniing  and  LordfT  die- 
tricti,  but  (till  they  never  equalled  the  numbera  poa- 
eesaed  fay  the  Araba  of  tbe  desert.  In  what  manner 
the  Hebnira  derived  the  vatnable  remunentiont  ob- 
tainable fVoni  them  doee  not  direetly  appear,  but  It 
may  be  aurmiMd  that  by  moin*  of  their  camels  the} 
were  la  poaaeHion  of  tbe  whole  trade  that  parted  by 
land  tttaa  Aaia  Himr  and  SjTia  to  tbe  Red  Sea  anil 
Egypt,  and  lYnm  the  Red  Sea  and  Arabia  toward  th* 
north  and  to  the  Iluxniclan  aea-porta.  On  eiilA 
Camel  tat  Bupie.  dromedaries  the  trotting  motion  ii  eo  hatd  that  to  en- 

dure it  the  rider  requirea  a  nevere  apprenticeihip  \  Lot 
All  eamela,  fhun  their  very  birth,  are  tanght  to  riding  upon  alow  camels  la  not  diaatireeable,  on  ac- 
besd  Uwlr  limbs  end  lie  down  to  receive  a  load  or  a  |  count  of  the  measured  step  of  their  walk  ;  Iidies  and 
Til.  Tbey  are  often  placed  circularly  in  a  recum-  j  women  in  gener&I  are  conveyed  upon  them  in  a  kind 
taot  poatnre,  and,  together  with  their  Joadf,  form  a  I  of  wicker-work  sedan,  known  as  tbe  lakht-ravan  nf 
•aOdait  rampart  of  defence  against  robben  on  horae-  India  and  Penia.  In  some  caaei  this  piece  offemalr 
laek.     Tbe  milk  of  ahe-camals  is  atill  considered  a  |  equipage  preeenti  almost  n  formidable  appearance- 


A  Bhammar  Lad;r  on  a  Carnd. 

Tbe  camels  which  carried  the  king's  eervanta  or  guests,  |  without  food 

acBnlinft  to  Philostratna,  wen  always  diatingnisbed  |  Their  well-ki 

In-  a  gilded  boas  on  the  fc^ehead.     The  camel,  being    to  receive  tt 

a  Mtln  of  Aalk,  fknm  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present    merely  the  n 

tey  haa  baen  the  chief  means  of  commanlcatlon  be-  i  tation  of  tti 

tveen  the  different  reiciona  of  the  East  and  ttaia  its    This  is  their 

nadeifDl  powera  of  endurance  in  the  desert  has  on-    too,  by  the  c 

lUed  rentes  to  be  opened  which  would  otherwise  have  i  etpecially  by  that  upon  the  breast.    Hardly  less  won- 

Heen  Impndicable.     "Their  home  la  thadesprt;  and    derful  is  the  adaptation  of  their  broad  cnabionrd  feci 

Ikry  were  made.  In  the  wisdom  of  the  Cnstnr,  to  be  '  to  the  arid  sanda  and  gravelly  eoD  which  it  i)  their 

the  carriers  of  the  desort.     The  coarse  and  |>rickly    lot  cbiefly  to  traverse As  the  carrien  of  the 

■braba  of  Iha  wastot  are  to  them  the  mnst  delicious  I  East,  the  'ships  of  the  desert,'  mother  importont 
taai.  and  ersn  of  then  they  eat  bat  little.  So  Urn  quality  of  tbe  camel  is  their  ■urc-footedness"  (itoliln- 
anAswontaofthelloaluR,  that  their  power  of  going  |  Inson,  A-seorcifa,  ii,  OSI-CSi).    The  present  geograph. 


,  as  well  as  without  water,  is  wonderful, 
lown  habit  of  lying  down  upon  the  breast 
eir  burdens  it  not,  at  Is  often  supposed, 
isult  of  training;  It  is  an  admirable  adap- 
)ir  nature  to  their  destiny  as  carriers. 
natarai  position  of  repose,  as  is  shown, 
of  the  legs,  and 


CAMEL  S 

Iwl  dlitribodoii  of  the  cunsi  extendi  onr  Antda, 
Sjria,  Ana  Utuor  to  the  foot  of  the  Csucisiis,  Hie  ■ontfa 
of  Tutuy,  *Dd  part  of  Indu.  In  Afriu  it  i>  Ibood 
tn  the  coontries  extending  from  the  Medlteimnean  to 
the  Senegal,  and  ftuni  Egypt  and  AbjHlnia  toAlgien 
and  Morocco.  A  number  o[  Ga4nelt  have  latelj  been 
imported  into  the  United  State*,  dui;ned  for  trana- 
portatlon  In  the  arid  plaina  of  the  extnina  Mathweat- 
cm  tarritorlea ;  but  the  reeolt  of  the  experiment  ia 
;et  doubtful  (Manh,  Tht  Camel,  etc.  Boat.  1S66).  (For 
■  farther  view  of  the  natunl  hiatory  of  the  camel,  lee 
the  PaiKj/  C^/eiepadia,  >,  v.)     See  Dhohedart. 

The  camel  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. It  was  nsed  not  only  la  Piileatlne,  bat  alao  In 
Arabia  (Jud.  vil,  12).  in  Esypt  (Esod.  in,  B),  In  8yri» 
(t  Kings  viii,  S),  and  in  Auyria,  ■*  appeira  from  the 


i  CAMEL 

a  irife  for  laaic  portray*  the  bablta  of  ■  nomad  paople, 
porhap  moat  of  all  wban  Rebekah,  like  an  Anb  dam- 
ael,  li)(hta  off  her  camel  to  meet  laaac  (ixlv).  Jaoob, 
like  Abraham,  had  camela  (xzx,  48):  wlien  he  left 
Padan-anm  he  •'  aet  hii  aona  and  hU  wlvea  npon  cam- 
ela"  (axxi,  17);  In  the  preaenCba  made  to  Eaan  there 
were  "thirty  milch  camel*  with  their  colta"  (xxiii, 
15).  In  Paleatine,  aflor  hta  ntam,  be  aeema  oo  1hi){ct 
M  have  kept  them.  When  hi*  *on*  went  down  to 
Egypt  to  bay  com,  they-took  aaae*.  Joaeph  aent  wag. 
ona  for  hla  father  and  'the  women  and  children  of  hi* 
home  (xlv,  19,  ST;  ilvi,  6).  After  the  eonqnen  of 
Canaan,  thla  be**t  aeem*  to  have  been  but  little  uacd 
by  the  laraellles,  and  It  was  probably  kept  only  by 
the  tribes  bordering  on  the  deaert.     It  i*  noticeable 


that  an  lahmaellte  w 


imped  Lanul 


•colptare*  of  Nlnevvh  (aee  Layvd,  Ifumth  and  Bab. 
p.  68!).  It  was  used  at  an  early  date  both  sa  a  riding 
animal  and  a*  ■  beast  of  harden  (Gen.  kkIv,  64- 
xxxvU,  36).  It  waa  Ukewiae  used  in  war  (1  Sam. 
XXX,  17j  laa.  iiJ,  7,-  comp.  Pliny,  ff.  H.  viii,  18; 
Xanoph.  Cyrop.  vU,  1,  87 ;  Herod,  i,  80 ;  vil,  B6 ;  Llvy, 
XKXvil,  41)).  Of  ita  hair  coarse  garmenta  were  nun- 
Dfactured  (MatL  Hi,  4 ;  Hark  I,  %).  The  Jew*  went 
not  (llowed  to  eat  ita  fleah  (l.ev.  xi,  4  ;  Dent,  xiv,  7). 
The  prophet  Isaiah  foretella  the  greit  Increaae  and 
flourishing  aUte  of  the  Ueiaiah'a  Itlngdom,  by 
conversion  and  acraasion  of  the  Gentile  nationa,  by 
comparing  the  happy  and  glorioua  concourse  to  a  t«»i 
aiwmblage  of  camels  (Ix,  S).  He  also  predlcti  the 
march  of  the  army  of  Cyrua  to  the  conquest  and  de- 
fltfuction  of  Babylon  by  an  allnoion  to  a  chariot  of 
camels  (xxl,  T);  and  the  folly  and  presumption  of 
those  is  remarlied  upon  (axx,  6)  who,  in  the  time  of 
their  trouble,  carried  tnasiues  on  camels  into  E,;ypt 
to  purchase  the  aaaiitanee  of  that  people,  and  acknowl- 
ed^  not  the  Lord  theit  God,  who  ^one  could  save 

In  the  history  of  the  Ilebrewe,  however,  tha  camel 
was  used  only  by  nomad  tribes.  Thia  Is  becanse  the 
deaert  la  the  home  of  the  Arabian  species,  and  it  can- 
not thrive  in  even  so  flne  a  climate  as  that  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile  in  E^ypt.  The  Hebrews  in  the  patri- 
archal age  had  cameU  aa  late  as  Jacob's  journey  from 
Padan-aram,  until  which  time  they  mainly  led  a  very 
wandering  life.  With  Jacob's  sojourn  in  Palestine, 
and,  Blill  more,  hia  aettlement  In  Egi-pt,  they  became 
■  fixed  population,  and  thenceforward  their  beast  of 
bnrden  was  the  ass  rather  than  the  cimel.    The  camel 

tellof  Abraham'a  wealth  (Grn.  xli,  16,  aa  x^iv,  8fi).to 
which  Pharaoh  dnnbtless  added,  than  to  recount  the 
kins[-9  gifla.  If  the  meaning,  however,  is  that  Pha- 
rJoh  gave  camels,  it  must  l.e  remembered  that  this 
king  was  probably  one  of  the  shepherds  who  partly  I 
livedatAvitjs,  the  Zoan  of  Scripture;  so  that  the  pas- 
siga  would  not  prove  that  the  Egyptians  thon  kept ; 
camels,  nor  that  they  were  kept  bf^yond  a  tiact,  at 
this  time,  and  lonj  after,  Inhabited  by  strangers.  The 
narrative  of  the  journey  of  Abraham's  servant  to  fetch  I 


of  David'a 

(IChron.  xxrii,90).  On 
the  return  from  Babylon 
the  people  hod  camel*, 
periiapa  pnichased  for 
the  journey  to  Palestine, 
bat  a  far  greater  num- 
ber of  aae«  (  Eira  li,  67 ; 
Neh.  vil,  S9).  There  is 
one  distinct  nolico  of 
the  camel  being  kept  in 
E^ypt  It  shoaM  b«  ob- 
served, that  when  we  read 
of  Joseph's  baying  tho 
cattle  of  Egypt,  tbongli 
hr  rse*.  Bocks,  herds,  and 
B.i.ea  are  spoken  of  (G«a. 
xlvii,  17),  camel*  do  not 
occnr;  they  aro  mentioned  aa  held  by  the  Pharaoh  dt 
the  exodo*  (Exod.  Ix,  8).  but  this  may  only  have  been  in 
the  moat  eastern  part  of  Lower  E£i^  for  the  wondera 
were  wrought  in  the  Held  of  Zoan,  at  which  city  this 
king  then  doubtless  dwelt.  It  is  in  the  notices  of  the 
marandingnomadtrilwa  that  wandered  to  the  east  and 
south  of  Palestine  that  we  chiefly  read  of  the  camel  in 
Scripture.  In  the  time  of  Jacob  there  seems  to  have 
been  a  regular  traffic  between  Paleetlne,  and  perhaps 
!  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  by  camel  caravans,  like  that  of 
'  the  Itfamaelitaa  or  Uidianitea  who  bought  Joseph 
IGen.  xxxvil.  S6,  38).  In  the  terrible  inread  of  the 
Midianitea,  the  Amaleklles,  and  the  Bene-Kedem.  or 
children  of  the  East,  '*  both  they  and  their  camels  were 
without  nnmber;  and  they  entered  into  the  land  to 
destroy  it"  (Judg,  vi,6;  comp.  vii.  It).  When  Gid- 
eon slew  Zebab  and  Zalmuntu,  klnga  of  Midian,  be 
>'  took  away  the  omamenta  [or  "  little  moona"]  that 
[were]  on  their  camela'  necks"  (viii,  !]),  afterword 
mentioned,  with  neck-chalna  (see  Kitto,  Wjrj.  //u*.  of 
PrJ.  p.  S91 ;  comp.  Stat.  Tktbaid,  ix.  6ST),  both  prob- 
ably  of  g-ild  (ver.  26).      We  also  find  other  notices  of 


>f  the  AmaUkllee  (1  Sam.  xv,  8 ;  ixx,  17), 
and  of  them  and  other  and  probably  kiiHtred  peo]des 
of  the  same  region  (xxvU,  8,  S).  In  the  acconnt  of 
the  conquest  by  the  Reubcnites,  the  Gidltas,  and  the 
half  uVt  of  Manasseh,  of  the  Hagarites  beyond  Jor- 
dan, we  read  th:it  fifty  thousand  camels  were  taken 
(1  Chron.  V,  18  -iS).  It  is  not  surprising  that  Job. 
whose  life  resembles  that  of  an  Arab  of  the  desert, 
though  the  modern  Arab  is  not  to  be  taken  as  Ibe  in- 
heritor of  his  chsracler,  should  have  had  a  great  nun>- 
ber  of  camels  (Job  1,»;  xiii,  12;  comp.  Arimt.  HUl. 
AwM.  lx,S7,  6).  The  Ar.iliUn  Queen  of  Sheba  came 
with  a  caravan  of  camel*  bearing  the  precious  thing- 
ofhernativeland(lKingsx,2;  3Chron.ii,  1).  Wo 
resd  also  of  Benhadad's  sending  a  present  to  Elisha 
"of  every  good  thing  of  Damaacas,' forty  camels'  hor- 
den"  (2  Kin  a  viii.  !>),  Dam-itcoa.  be  it  rememhered, 
ia  close  to  the  dpsert.  In  the  prophets,  likewlpe.  tbe 
few  mentions  of  the  camel  seem  to  refer  wholly  to  for- 
eign nations,  excepting  where  la^h  speaks  of  their 
use,  with  asses,  in  a  caravan  bearing  prsesQt*  flrom 
the  Israelites  to  tbe  Egyptians  (xxx,  G).     He  altades 


CAMEL 


5.1 


CAMERARITS 


to  tb*  omeli  of  Wdian,  Eph^,  and  Sheha,  u  in  the 
fBtne  to  bring  we^th  t»  Zion  (Is,  S).  The  "chmiiot 
ofeuneU"  mrnj  bo  iymbolie«l  (xxi,  7),  or  it  may  reftr 
to  tba  nixed  ii>tnr«  o(  the  Penian  army.  Jeremiah 
■utm  Dwiition  of  the  camela  of  Kedar,  UoEOt,  and  the 
Beus-Kedem  (lUx,  28-33).  Eiekiel  prophesiea  ttwt 
the  BenB-Kcdem  tbonid  take  the  hind  oT  the  Ammtm- 
it«,  aod  Rablah  itaeif  aliouid  bs  "  a  r«Ming-|ilico  for 
caiHli'  (xxT,  1-6;  mi  Baekingbain,  Trav.  p.  839), 

SeeCAHATAH. 

Tba  camel  !•  claaaed  b}'  Hoiea  among  nnclean  an- 
imal* (Ler.  xi,  4),  "  becanMi  he  cheveth  the  end,  but 
diTidnti  not  tha  hoof."  Hichaelii  joatly  remarlu,  that 
in  the  caM  of  certain  qnailrDpeda  a  donbt  may  ariw 
whether  tbay  do  Ailly  dirlda  the  tioaf  or  mminate. 
"  Id  rath  caaea,"  be  aaya.  "  to  prevent  difflcultin,  a 
lagiaiator  moat  aothoriUtiTely  decide;  by  which  I  do 
BOt  mean  that  he  nhonld  prescribe  to  naCuriliita  what 
Obt  belief  ahonld  be,  bat  only  to  delennlne,  for  the 
■ks  of  eiponnden  or  Judgei  of  the  law,  what  animali 
are  to  be  regarded  a*  raminating  or  parting  the  boof." 
Thii  donbt  ariaei  in  the  caKoftbe  camel,  which  doea 

i*,  the  foot  la  divided  into  two  toes,  which  are  vary 


diatiiictly  narked  abore,  but  be 
iled  la  the  anterior  portion  of  the  toot,  the  toea  being 
eaahionai  upon  and  eonllned  by  the  elattlc  pad  upon 
which  the  cunel  goea.  Tbi*  pecnliir  conformation  of 
■be  fbotrendere  the  ^*iaion  inoomplfte,  and  MoM^  for 
the  paipoaM  of  (be  law,  therefore  decidee  that  ' 
Tidw  not  the  booT.  Perhaps  in  this  nicely  bab 
qoaetlon  the  detciminalioa  aj^net  the  uae  of  tbe 
•j  far  food  wa«  made  with  the  view  of  keeping  tl: 
raditc*  distinct  from  the  other  deacendants  of  J 
ham,  with  whom  thdr  coonection  and  cidncidenca  in 
r""""*  were  otherwiae  »  doae-  The  intenliction  of 
the  camel,  and,  of  course,  ita  Tnllk,  waa  well  calculated 
to  prVTUt  Ibom  fkmn  eDlertainiog  any  desire  to  COI 
tinoe  in  Arabia,  or  from  again  devoting  themtelrea  I 
tlM  (avorite  oocopation  of  oainade  henlamen,  t*ot 
which  it  waa  obvioBsly  the  iotenCion  of  many  of  tbe 
lawa  to  wean  tlien.  In  Arabia  a  peoplf 
a  rer7  oncomlbrtable  condition  who  oonld  neither  eat 
camel'a  Oaab  nor  drink  lla  milk.  Of  tbe  constant  UM 
af  tti  milk  by  tbe  Arab*  travellers  frequently  speak: 
■nd  if  wn  wanted  a  medical  leason  for  its  interdlc- 
tina,  it  might  be  found  in  tbe  faa  that 

tknj  ot  tbe  Momach,  wbich  form  one  of  Ibi 
nwn  cDm[JiinU  of  the  Arabs.     They  do  not  kill  tbe 
cuBel,  or  any  other  sninuil,  Ibr  ordinary  food; 
when  a  cauiFl  happens  to  be  lamed  in  a  caiBvan, 
killed,  a^  ■  general  feaat  is  made  on  ita  Besh.     C 
I  great  festical  occasions, 


s  slsoa 


itblesi 


]  if  he  obtain  thia 
far  inatanca,  if  hia  mare  brings  forth  a  female  i  and 
that  case  he  tlau^tcrs  tbe  animal,  and  ' 
(nenda  on  the  flesh.    Barckbardt  (Aiyo  oa  (A<  firAwnf} 

a  rather  reniarkshle  bet  that  the  Arabs 

udy  a^init  the  Uirea 


to  which  catnela  are  subject ;  but  they  belier 
that  the  Jews  in  tbeir  sacred  books  have  remedies 

tntioned,  which  they  withhold  tbrongb  hatred  and 

ilice.  The  fleah  of  the  camel  is  coarse  grained,  bat 
ia  rather  juicy  and  pslatable  when  the  animal  ia  ynung 
~  '  not  poorly  fed.  It  is  inferior  to  good  beef,  al- 
igh  at  first  it  might  readily  he  miiitaken  for  Iwef ; 
bnt  it  is  at  least  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  horse-flesh 
(Kitto,  Pid.  Bible,  note  in  loc.). 

To  post  a  catHtl  lltrougli  Ikt  tj/t  of  a  itetdle  waa  a 
proverbial  expreaainn  which  our  Lord  employed  in  hia 
uise  to  the  disciples  to  show  bow  extremely  difi- 
t  is  for  a  rich  man  to  forsake  all  for  bis  cause  and 
obtain  tbe  blesaingi  of  BsiTstian  (Matt  xis,S4  J  Hark 
X,  26;  Luke  xviil,  26;  see  the  treatises  on  this  paaaage, 
in  Latin,  of  Clodiaa  [Viteb.  1666],  FfeifTer  [Rcglom. 
1679],  Fetalen  [Vitali.  1678]).  Many  exposilore  are 
of  opinion  that  tlie  oilusiDn  is  not  to  tbe  camel,  bnt  to 
the  cable  by  which  an  anchor  is  made  fast  to  the  ahip, 
cbangiug  cofiqloc,  a  cand,  to  ciifiiXoc,  a  ailr ;  bnt 
for  this  ttiare  is  no  critical  foundation;  and  Light- 
foot  and  others  have  shown  that  to  speak  of  a  camel, 
or  any  other  lai^  animal,  as  I'oing  through  the  eye 
of  a  needle  was  a  proverliiai  expression,  much  used  in 
the  Jewish  schools,  (o  denote  a  thing  ver}'  unuFual  or 
very  difficult.  There  is  a  similar  expretaion  in  the 
Koran:  "The  impious,  who,  in  his  arrogancy,  abalt 
accuse  our  doctrine  of  falsity,  aball  And  tbe  gates  of 
heaven  shut;  nor  shall  he  enter  there  till  a  camel 
shall  pass  tbrongh  the  eye  of  a  needle.  It  is  thoi  that 
we  shall  recompense  the  wicked."  Rolwrts  mentions 
a  parallel  proverb  used  in  India  to  show  the  difficulty 
of  accomplishing  any  thing:  "Just  as  soon  will  tlio 
elephant  pas*  tbrongh  tbe  spout  of  a  ketUe." 

Another  proverbial  expression  occurs  in  Hatt  xxiii, 
24 :  >'  Strain  at  (JivXt^w)  a  gnat  and  swallow  a  camel." 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke  proves  that  "at"  has  leen  subsU. 
tuted  for  "  out,"  by  a  typographical  error  in  the  edi- 
tion nf  1611,  in  our  version,  "  oat"  occurring  In  Arch- 
Ushop  Parker's  of  1668.  The  reft-nnce  is  to  a  cue. 
torn  the  Jews  had  of  filtering  their  wine,  far  fear  of 
swallowing  any  insect  fbrtudden  l.y  the  law  as  un- 
clean. The  expression  is,  therefore,  to  be  taken  by. 
perbolically,  and,  to  make  the  antithesis  as  strong  aa 
posaible,  two  things  are  selected,  tbe  smallest  insect 
■nd  the  largest  animal.  The  proverb  is  applied  to 
those  who  are  superstitionsly  anxious  to  avoid  email 
faults,  and  yet  do  not  scruple  to  commit  the  greateat 

Cavbls'  Hair  (rpi'yic  cofi^Xoi'),  a  material  ef 
clothing.  Jobn  the  Baptist  wss  habited  in  rsiment 
of  camels'  hair  (Matt  iii,  4 ;  Mark  i,  6),  and  Cbardln 
states  that  guch  garments  ore  worn  by  tbe  modem 
dervishes.  There  is  a  coarse  cloth  made  of  camels' 
hair  in  tbe  East,  which  is  used  for  manufacturing  the 
coats  of  sbepherda  and  camel-drivers,  and  also  for  tba 
covering  of  tents  (Harmar,  Ob».  ii,  4^ ;  comp.  ^lian, 
iVof.  //iMl.  ivii,  34).  It  was  doubtless  thia  coarse  kind 
which  was  adopted  by  Jobn.  By  this  he  waa  diatin- 
gulihed  fiom  tbore  residents  in  royal  palaces  who 
wore  snrt  raiment  Elijah  is  said  in  the  English  Bible 
to  have  been  "a  hsio"  man"  (!  Kings  i,  fl);  but  it 

baJr.  In  Zech.  xiii,  4,  "a  rough  garment"— that  l^ 
a  garment  of  a  halcy  manufacture — is  characteristic 
of  a  prophet  (See  Maaii/aehira  o/Ihe  AncietiU,  N.  T. 
1848,  p.  S12  sq. ;  Hackett's  lUutra.  of  Script,  p.  98.) 

Cameleon.     See  CaAUBLEox. 

CamvrajlilM,  Joachiu,  one  of  the  moat  scholar- 
ly men  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  bom  at  Bam- 
berg. April  12, 1G00.  Tbe  original  name  of  his  fami- 
ly was  liebhard,  which  waa  changed  into  the  Latin 
Camerarins  (Chamberlain)  became  hia  ancefton  had 
lieen  chamberlains  at  the  court  of  the  bishope  ct 
Bamberg.  He  was  sent  to  tbe  Uni»er»ity  of  Leip. 
xic,  where  he  studied  Greek  under  Ricbard  Croke 


CAMEKO  S 

and  Paler  HoMlUnD*.  He  evinced  «n  extnuird1au7 
pUBJon  for  thit  Isnguags,  and  in  16S4  put  fortb  his 
fint  work,  ■  Latin  tmnilaljon  of  nan  ol  the  Ontloni 
of  Demosthenes.  He  wis  U  that  period  at  Witten- 
hai,  whicbft  ha  had  been  drawn  by  th«  fjms  of  Lu- 
tber  and  Melanctbon.  In  152a  he  went  into  Prua- 
lia,  and  in  the  year  following  mu  nominated  by 
HsUncthon  to  fill  the  office  of  Greek  and  Ijtin  pro- 
feaaor  In  the  new  collega  at  NtirembBrg.  Tho  senate 
of  Nuremberg  deputed  bim.  In  l&ttO,  to  attend  the  diet 
of  Aii£sbarg,  where  he  aided  Helanethoa  Id  the  dis- 
pules,  and  Id  preparing  the  material  afterward  used 
In  the  Apologia  Om/tuianii.  See  Co:<rEaaioirB.  In 
ItSo  the  Duke  of  WQrtemberi;  gave  him  the  ditectloo 
of  the  new  University  of  TQhingen.  In  IMl  he  was 
cbargsd  bj  Henry  of  Saxony  with  rafarmlng  the  Dni- 
vendty  of  Lelpxic,  of  which  he  wu  afterward  appoint- 
ed rector.  Here  he  Uboured  lealoueiy  for  the  Ref- 
onnitlon,  and  at  the  aame  time  was  one  of  the  most 
labarioiiB  claselcai  and  theological  teacbira  of  the  af^. 
With  his  friend  Melanctbon  he  look  an  actire  part  in 
the  negotiiitions  coaceroing  the  Interim,  and  for  his 
willingnefls  to  make  concessions  wju  aBverely  ceneared 
by  the  oppooente  of  tte  Interim.  In  1564  he  waa  a 
deputj-  to  the  Diet  of  Nanmburg,  and  In  1355  to  the 
Diet  of  Aagaburg,  from  where  be  went  to  Nuremberg 
to  aid  in  adjusting  the  Osiandrian  controveny.  In 
16tia  the  Empsror  Maximilian,  who  bad  called  him 

alTaiij,  wished  to  retun  him  aa  hia  ooundllor,  but 
Camararlai  declined  the  offer  on  account  of  his  inRmi- 
itiee.  He  died  at  Leipzic  in  April,  li71.  Cameraiius 
was  grave  and  reserved  even  toward  bis  own  chil- 
dren. He  hated  nothing  so  mach  as  nntruthfulness, 
and  did  not  even  tolerate  i[  in  jeata.  The  extent  of 
bis  knowledj^e,  the  parity  of  his  morals,  the  energy 
of  his  character,  hia  aweet  and  persuaaive  eloquence, 
obtained  for  him  the  esteem  of  all  those  who  knew 
bbn.  He  left  Are  aona,  all  of  whom  distinguished  them- 
aalvea  aa  achotars  or  lo  other  iii^h  positlona.  A  list  of 
bis  nnmeroas  writings  wDI  be  foand  In  Nlceron,  JIK- 
moira,  t.  xjz.  Amon^  his  works  in  theology  and  ex- 
egeiis  are,  1.  Sifnodica,  i.  e.  de  Nicana  Bgitodo  (Leipa. 
IM3,4to): — 2.  Ditpvlatio  de  pat  ft  eathn&Mi  alij.  orAo- 
doiit  ;)ranhH  et  iiaacatioiabia  Nuamit  D'ami  (Ar- 
gentor.  1560,  8to):  — S.  Cknmologia  tecumdum  Graot- 
ntm  PotunKn.  tanpDr^nu  eiponfu,  anion  Niapioro 
Arekirp,  ContlaiUmo,  comtna  m  ^nguam  Lot,  (Basle, 
IGSI,  fol. :  Leipi.  1574  and  16BS,  llo):— 1.  HiueHa  de 
Jen  Chriid  ad  norten  pro  gentre  kuraano  aaMtiom, 
etc  (Leipa.  1M3) :— 6.  JVorra*.  di  P.  iftlaaalumu  or- 
(N,  Vila,  etc.,  wbich  contains  an  entire  birtory  of  the 
Reformation  (IbW;  best  ed.  by  Strotwl,  Halle,  1777, 
Svo) :— 6.  Ifalalio^fyararim  lermonit  m  i*  librii  F.wm- 
gilivnai,  etc. :  Nolatio  w  Apulolieu  icriptit  ti  ia  iSirvm 
AeUmni  ft  ApoerJypsaa  (these  two  works  were  pob. 
liehed  together  at  Cambridge  in  1612,  under  the  title 
Comntealariat  in  iVuvun  Fadui:  and  at  Frankfort  In 
1712,  with  the  title  finyeii  !fmi.  Tnl.) :— 7.  //omiftc 
(LeipE.  lS73):-~8.  IlUloriea  tt^rraiio  de  Fralram  nr- 
liodfoonaa  ecdettit  in  Bi-iemii,  Moravia  ft  PatHiia 
(Heldelb.  1605,  Svo).  Ha  alao  publiabed  a  collection 
of  tho  letters  of  Melanctbon  (Leipi.  Io60),  which  con- 
tjln  much  valuable  information  of  the  times  of  the 
Rofomiation.— Hoefer,  Kom.  Bing.  Crnenxle,  viii,  319  ; 
Laadon,  Ecd.  D't^mary,  ii,  506. 

Camero,  or  Camaron,  John,  one  of  the  greatest 
Protealant  divines  of  Prance  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  founder  of  the  "moderate"  Khnnl  nf  Cal- 
vinism, was  bom  In  Glasgow  1ST9  or  15B0,  Before  he 
waa  twenty  he  began  to  lectnre  in  Greek  at  the  Uni- ' 
varsity  of  Glaagow;  in  1600  he  went  to  Prance;  and  | 
in  1602  he  waa  made  pmfetanr  of  philosophy  at  Sedan. ' 
The  Church  of  Bordeauxdefrayedhisexpensea  for  four! 
years  in  atndying  theolf^  at  Paris,  Geneva,  and  Hei- 
delberg. In  1608  he  became  paator  at  Bordeaux, 
where  he  preached  with  great  anccese  until  1G1(I,  wben  I 


I  CAMERON 

he  became  profeesor  of  theology  at  Sanmur;  but  on 

the  dispersion  of  the  University  In  lOSl  by  the  civil 
wars  he  returned  to  Glasgow,  where  he  tiaght  a  ahon 
time,  and  in  163-1  waa  chosen  profesaor  of  theology  at 
Hontauban,  Prance,  where  he  waa  killed,  in  a  political 
tumult,  in  IC26. 

Camera's  theology  waa  modifled  Calviniam.  He 
opposed  "the  imputation  of  tbe  active  rigbtaoosneH 
of  Christ,"  and  ''the  non-eonenrTenoe  of  the  hnraan 
will  with  Ihe  grace  of  God  in  maa'a  converaion." 
He  "adapted  fmm  Arininios  the  doctrine  of  aoivei^ 
aal  redemption,  and  the  duty  of  presenting  the  offer 
of  aalvation,  without  restriction,  to  all  men."  Hi* 
vlewa  wen  adopted  and  developed  ly  Amsranl,  PU- 
caua,  and  Cappelius  (q.  v,),  especLilly  the  view  tbat 
God  does  not  "move  the  will  physically,  but  only 
morjUy,  in  virtue  of  Its  relatione  to  the  Judjfment  and 
intellect."  His  doctrine,  however.  Is  f.r  removed 
tnia  Annlnlaniim,  as  la  ahown  by  hia  cnlh>qay  witli 
Tilenua— ^auco  Collalio  de  Gratia  H  V<jimt.  Hamatm 
c^wsTH  (Leyden,  1621}  [see  TiLSHua]— and  also  by 
his  Dffenno  de  Gralit  el  Libera  Arbiirio  (Saamnr, 
1624,  Svo).  His  doctrine  of  nniveraai  grace  may  be 
thus  Bummed  up ;  (I)  "  that  God  deiins  the  happUuua 
of  all  msn,  and  that  no  mortal  is  excluded  by  amg 
divine  decree  tiom  tho  benefits  that  are  procured  by 
tho  death,  BufTeringti,  and  gospel  of  Cbriat;  (S)  that, 
however,  none  can  lie  made  a  partaker  of  the  blees- 
inga  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  eternal  salvation,  nnlean 
he  beUtct  in  Jesna  Christ;  (3)  that  snch,  indeed,  b 
the  immense  and  nniveraai  goodneas  of  the  Supremo 
Bein^  tliat  He  refbsea  to  nme  tho  power  of  believing, 
though  be  does  not  gnnt  unto  <dl  His  assistance  and 
succor,  that  they  may  wisely  improve  Ihia  power  to 
(he  attainment  of  everlaptlng  salvation  ;  and  that,  in 
consequence  of  this,  multitudes  perish  through  their 
own  fjult,  and  not  from  any  want  of  goodneai  In  Goil." 
Those  who  embraced  this  doctrine  were  called  Um- 
veitaUttt,  beciusB  they  represented  Ood  as  willing  tn 
ahow  mercy  to  oB  mankind  ;  and  llj/poAelieal  Umver- 
tatilt,  because  the  coniilirM  of  faith  In  Christ  was  ner- 
eesary  to  render  them  the  objects  of  this  mercy.  See 
Amtbadt.  His  writings  are  collected  and«  the  ^tlc 
Operu,  jiiirliiB  oft  Que*.  erfilT,  part'm  part  ej.  <Ht.mIgalH 
(Genev.  1648,  fol.).— Calder.  lA/e  o/ EpiKopitt,  456; 
Hook,  Ertl.  Biog.  II.  407  ;  Nichol^  Calvimem  and  Ar- 
•HN'snuni,  i,  ZOS  sq. ;  Watson,  Tlienl.  /«(.  Ii,  31&,  4tl ; 
Smith's  Hagenbach,  Bin.  ofDoetrime,  itii.a. 

Cameron,  Arolilbald.  a  Presbyterian  mlnlBtcr, 
was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1771  or  177!.  When  young,  he 
migratedwithhisparentsloAmerka.  Little  is  known 
of  his  early  yean  bnt  that  he  spent  some  time  at  the 
Transylvania  Univerdty  (Kentucky),  and  completcil 
bla  atadie*  at  Bardstown,  whan  he  connected  himself 
with  the  PiebyterianChnreh,  In  17»5  he  waa  licensed. 
and,  as  amieeionarv.  dletrihulsd  his  talwTi  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Nelson,  Shel'bv.and  Jefferson.  He  was  insUllcil 
in  1796  over  the  churx^hes  of  Akron  and  Fox  Ron,  Shel- 
by, and  Bi3  Spring  in  Nelson,  and  for  several  years 
tha  field  of  hi*  labors  embraced  a  oiicnlt  of  tnm  thir- 
ty to  forty  miles.  Seven  cburches  were  organiaedb^- 
hla  Inatrumentality,  and  he  waa  often  obliged  to  swim 
the  swollen  atreimstodo  biadnty.  During  a  revival 
in  182!)  large  additions  wan  made  to  bia  churches,  and 
from  this  time  he  supplied  the  congngationa  of  Shel- 
bi'viUe  and  Mulberry.  He  died  December  4,  I8S6. 
lio  pahll<rhed  The  FaiAfal  Steward  (1806)  -.—Tlu  Men- 
itor,  m  RrtigUiut  IJbtrlg,  etc.  (1806)  -.-^A  ■  Afipeii  to  One 
Sn^tturei.  elc.  (1811):— :4  Dftamrte  betnten  He  Cat. 
faaon  of  FailA  of  tie  Prfbtterian  CSurdi  and  a 
P/vocScr  uho  kntdj  Ike  Doctrine  of  at  Inde^nilt  and 
llmertol  AloKmeid  (1S14);— .4  C-/nic«  of  On  Doe- 
Innri  of  Graee  (a  series  of  Lettara,  1316)  \—A  Sepfy 
to  Qaeainnt  on  Predntiiation,  etc.  (ie2S).'-SpragQe, 
AnnaU,  iv,  168. 

CameTOn,  Rlohard,  founder  of  the  "  CameronU 
ana"  or  "Covenanters."  was  bom  at  Falkland,  In  tlu- 


CAMERONIANS 


55 


CAMP 


tuaoty  of  Ftfr.  Hs  Gnt  kcqnlrad  notice  bji  bit  bald 
tppoulion  ta  the  meainni  of  Cbarlea  II  for  anforeing  ' 
t)M  Episcopal  form  of  nonhlp  on  the  Sccttiih  people. 
The  msuam  adopted  by  the  goTemneat  muted  the 
people.  And  among  thoee  who  ([ht«  fnlleit  exprcMion 
W  tb«  papaUr  tentinitnta  WM  Kkhard  Cameron.  He 
tdonged  to  the  extreme  party,  Hho  held  bj  the  per. 
petailly  liinding  obll|^tioneof  the  Solemn  Leagneand 
L'oTeaant  [»»e  Covrnabt*],  which  were  eet  aside  at 
themtorationorChirleill.  Along  with  KimeoChen, 
he  RrenuDiulj  reuited  tbe  meaiuieB  that  rclnltated 
the  Epixvpal  Church  in  3eoCUnd,  and  that  pmrcribed 
the  meetint^  for  public  vonhip  of  unauthoriiK)  n- 
li^H  bodi«s.  Contrary  10  law,  be  pereiitedln  preach- 
ing in  the  fields,  and  becjime  obnoxious  to  ^ventment, 
to  whicb,  indeed,  he  flnalty  uaumod  an  attitude  of 
(bflance.  Not  only  were  bb  doctrine*  obnoxiooa  to 
the  goTcmmeat,  but  mauy  ufhia  brethren  of  the  cler- 
gy dreaded  hia  leal,  which  they  eontidered  extrrnie, 
and  at  a  meeting  held  in  Edinborgh  In  16T7  they  for- 
nuOy  nproved  him.  He  ntired  to  Holland,  but  K>an 
ntnmed ;  and  on  tbe  iSd  of  June,  1680,  in  company  { 
whli  aboat  twenty  other  pemona,  he  entered  the  town  | 
of  Sanquhar  in  Dumrrierabire,  and  at  the  market-! 
eniH  proclaimed  that  Charles  Sluart  had,  by  hii  per- 
}Dris,  hi*  tjraiiniesi  (loTernment,  and  hi*  nsurpition. 
fcrftiled  all  rigfat  and  title  to  the  crown.  The  party 
kept  together  in  arms  for  a  month ;  bat  on  the  lOtli 
af  Jnly.  wbDe  lying  at  Ainbmof*  in  Kyle,  thrj-  were 
nirpiised  by  a  lar^  body  of  horee  and  foot,  and  in  the 
•kimiah  which  followed  Cameron  waa  killed,  end  his 
fbUowcTs  weni  dipprned  or  tuken  pHioners.  A  neat 
Donnment  hu  been  recently  placed  on  the  fpol  whero 
Cameron  fell,  repliclUK  an  iild  and  plainer  I'tructnre. 
—Englitk  Cyrlopintia ;  CbimlHETi'  EwytiopaAi ;  Heth- 
erington.  Hit.  '■/Chirek  of  ^cotianil,  ii,  106  aq. ;  Bi«g.  \ 
fVe(J;rrerM>i<i(Kdlnb.I86A,vol.i).    SeeCovEMAKTERR.  | 

Cameroniasa  (1.),  the  mitlsated  CalTiniais,  who  | 
Wtowed  the  opinions  of  John  Canuro  (q.  v.).  <.!.) 
Tbe  anti-preUtical  ptvty  in  Scotland,  so  called  from 
Bkhaid  Cameron  (q.  v.).     See  CuTBMAliTBRa. 

CamaroDista.    See  Camedohiahb. 

Cwnlaarda  (from  the  French  conw,  a  peapint't 
^ket),  ■  sect  of  fanatics  (mads  anch  by  oppresiloD) 
io  France  toward  tbe  end  of  tbe  seventeenth  centory. 
The  predidiona  of  Bronsson  (q.T.)  and  Jurien,  as  to 
the  coming  downfall  of  the  papacy  *nd  the  end  of  the  ' 
world  seem  to  have  given  a  bent  to  tbe  mind*  nf  the 
Prolotaots  of  Daaphini  sad  Vivirais.  "InlCBSfive 
or  a-x  bnndred  Protestanta  of  both  sexes  gare  them- 
•elTei  ont  to  be  propbet><,  and  inspired  of  the  Holy 
Ghort.  They  had  iitrange  fits,  which  came  upon  tbem 
with  faintingii,  u  In  a  swoon,  which  made  them  stretch 
out  their  arma  and  leg*,  and  staler.  They  atruck 
IbemseWes  with  their  hands;  they  fell  on  theh-backr, 
dint  their  eye*,  and  heaved  their  breast*.  The  tymp- 
lam*  answer  t«  those  produced  by  Inspiring  nitrous 
exide,  and,  were  the  fiirt  then  discovered,  we  shoold 
bavc  been  tempted  to  suspect  ImpoKnre.  They  re- 
Okaiued  a  white  in  trances,  and,  coming  out  of  them, 
dHrlarrd  that  they  saw  the  heaven*  open,  the  angels, 
ptrsdlae,  and  bell.  Tboee  who  were  jott  on  tbe  point 
of  receiving  the  spirit  of  prophecy  dropped  down,  not 
■■ly  In  tbe  aMcmbliw,  but  in  the  Aelda,  and  in  their 
own  booses,  crying  oat  Merry,  The  least  of  their  as- 
•rmliUe*  made  up  four  or  five  hundred,  and  some  of 
tbem  amounted  10  even  three  or  four  thousand.  The 
hub  resounded  with  their  loud  cries  for  mercy,  and 
with  imprerations  against  the  priests,  the  pope,  and 
bk  anti-CfartMbn  dominion,  with  predlctlnna  of  the 
g  &11  of  popery.  AU  they  said  at  these 
*  heard  and  received  with  reverence  and 
awe."  The  govemnnit  finally  Interftred  with  a  vi- 
oleoee  which  natniaDy  increased  the  disorder.  In 
ITO!  a  Dsabn  of  the  Camlsarda  went  put  to  death 
n^h  lEttare.    A  war  aroee,  in  wbicb  Cavalier,  a  young 


baker,  became  prominent  as  an  able  leader.  lIuiMsr- 
ibal  de  Montrevel  was  sent  by  the  court  to  quell  these 
listarbancea,  and,  after  him.  Marshal  Vitlan;  anil, 
after  a  long  aeries  of  the  most  barbarons  massacres 
and  perfidlou*  cruelties,  these  wretched  people  were 
Anally,  In  170fi,  pat  down.  Cavalier  aubmitted,  and 
afterward  went  to  England.  Ravance,  Catinat,  and 
Frnnc^z^  three  of  their  leaders,  were  borned  alive, 
and  Vilas  and  Jonquet,  also  commanders  of  their  forces, 
together  with  two  merchsnta  vho  SFaisted  them,  bro- 
ken on  tbe  wheel.  Muny  of  these  Camlsards  lied  to 
England.  See  Smedley,  RrformrdJliligiiin  in  Fraitrr, 
vol.  iii,  ch.  XXV;  Tktatrt  SaaliJtt  Ovinia  (Londciii, 
1707.  by  Max  UlsKin,  the  chief  eource  of  information); 
r<le  ITori  n/rAe  rereiHvs  wi.lcr  CmufKr  (Dublin,  17!G} ; 
Schuls,  OttrAldur  tfrr  Cajmtardrn  (Weimar,  ITOOj; 
Court,  JIul.  it  IrouUfi  dti  Ctemin  (ViUefrsnche, 
ITflD):  tliUcin  df  Camuardt  (I.ond.  1744);  Peyrat, 
Uitl.  da  PoMt-vrt  da  Daeri  (Parlf,  1842);  Hoffmann, 
Cetat.rfr(^M/iiilrtnif<itCcwH<ii(NdrdlingeD,U8;). 
See  Fbem'ii  rni>rnBTa. 

CuninetlioC  iotm  Fkederick.  one  of  the  Arst 
bishops  of  the  Horaiian  Cbnrcb  in  America,  waa  born 
near  Magdeburg,  Germany,  July  28. 1721.  Entering 
the  Uonvian  mlnlatry,  he  waa  sent  to  America  as  as- 
aiatant  to  the  pretiding  bli-hop,  and  arrived  at  a  time 
when  tbe  Church  at  Bethlehrm  was  a  centre  of  nUs- 

»li  the  miaaion  atations  in  Pennrylvauia  and  Kew  York 
Cemmtrbof  waa  active,  proclaiming  the  crucifltd  une 
with  great  power  to  the  wild  warriorf,  and  through 
the  igenc}-  of  faithful  interpreters,  among  whom  was 
die  lamou*  missiDnary  David  Zeitberger.  invitlnK 
them  In  eloquent  appeals  to  look  np  and  fee  their  sal- 
vation finished."  He  won  tbe  conlidence  of  the  In. 
:  diana,  especially  of  tbe  Delawarea  and  the  Six  Ka- 
\  tlons,  and  in  1748  he  was  formally  adopted  by  tbe 
'  Oneida*  as  a  nicinler  of  their  trite.  In  I'M)  he  at- 
tended  an  Iroquois  council  at  Onondago,  K.  Y.,  trav- 
elling by  canoes  u]i  the  Susquehanna  for  13  days,  and 
thence  on  foot  throu^  tbe  wild  mountain  regions  of 
Southern  New  York  a  fortnight  more.  The  Jnumey 
broke  down  bis  coDstitiittnn,  and  he  died  at  Bethle- 
hem, April  28,  Wii—The  Mamvimi,  Sept.  SG,  ItSl. 

Ca'mon  (Heb.  Kamm',  ^19|?,  perbapa  J\iU  of 
itaiti  or  gnin ;  Sept.  Kapiy  v.  r.  \apv<iv),  the  place 
in  which  Jair  (q.  v.)  the  Jadt:e  wsa  buried  (Jndg.  x. 
5).    Aa  the  pcriptiiral  notices  of  him  all  ivfer  to  the 


.  of  Jod 


cepting  the  statement  of  Joeephu*  (JM.  v,  7, 6)  tbst 
Camon  (Kofiuv)  was  a  city  ofGIIead.  In  support  of 
this  Is  lbs  mention  Ly  Polyblus  (v,  70, 12)  of  a  Ci- 
iiHu  (Knfiovf,  Ibr  Kapooi')  In  company  with  Pella 
and  other  trans-Jordsnlc  gJace*  taken  bv  Anllochus 
(Relsnd,  Pnhm.  p.  67D ;  Hitter,  Erdk.  xv,'  1(126).  Eu. 
sehius  snd  Jerome  {Onoma^.  s.  v.  VLaymi:  Camon) 
evidently  confound  It  with  the  Qnnm  (Judith  vil,  S) 
In  the  plain  of  Esdtaeloa;  and  tills  has  milled  Scbwan 
(Pulat.  p.  238).  It  Ja  possil>ly  tbe  modem  llrimm 
(comp.  tbe  Sept.  reading  liKamm),  four  and  a  half 
miles  west-north-west  of  Jonish  or  Gcrata  (Van  de 
Velde's  Mirp). 

Camp  (niri'p,  mncktmrh',  an  rnnnapmenf,  wheth- 
er of  troops  or  nomades,  especially  of  the  Israclilea 
in  the  dosert ;  hence  also  put  for  InHfH  or  a  amijKmii 
itself;  once  piinp,  nacbaiuCA',  conps,  1.  e.  place  of 
encampment,  S  Kings  vi,8;  mip,;i/3oXij,  Heb.  xlii,  11, 
IB;  Itev.  XX,  9;  elsewhere  "caatle").  Of  the  Jew- 
ish system  of  encampment  tbe  Mosaic  books  have  left 
a  detailed  description.  From  the  period  of  the  fo- 
journ  in  the  wilderness  to  the  crossing  of  tbe  Jordan 
the  twelve  tribes  were  formed  into  four  great  armies, 
encampinc  In  as  many  ftrontP,  or  forming  a  rqusre, 
lere  the  tabemsrla 
trliwr  of 


CAMPANAIUUM 


E«T.-F™»r  Divi.10 

M— C*1CP  or  JUDUt:  1M,«W. 

i 

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f 

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85 

s 

i 
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j^ 

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« 

■oos'» 

S' 

(K 

I-eol  -.Minasim 

"":!— •""-a  """X-  « 

« 

niacnin  oT  Ih*  Ouip  of  llw  linwKta  dnrlog  Uie  Eiod*. 
1^v[  and  th«  bodies  of  cirrien,  etc..  by  tfae  ilalli  of  i 
the  cittle  and  Che  baggage;  the  fonr  fronte  fued  the  j 
i^ardiaal  points  while  the  march  wan  eastward,  bat,  a* 
■ludab  continued  to  lead  the  van,  It  followa  that,  when 
the  Jordan  ww>  to  be  crossed,  the  direction  became 
weitward,  and  therefore  the  goneral  arraDgeinent,  ao 
f.&r  an  the  cardinal  paints  were  concerned,  waa  re-  I 
rased.  It  doea  not  appear  that,  daring  ihii  time,  | 
Israel  ever  had  lines  of  defence  thrown  up;  but  in 
after  agea,  when  onl;  single  annies  came  into  the  , 
Held,  tt  is  probable  thst  the  caslral  diipodtion  was  not : 
iiiT*rtsb1j  quadrangular;  and,  from  tbe  many  po- 
lilioiia  indicated  on  the  crests  of  steep  mountains,! 
the  fronts  were  clearly  adapted  to  the  ground  andi 
Id  tho  space  which  it  was  necassTj  to  occupy.  Thej 
rear  of  auch  poeiiioni,  or  the  square  camps  in  the 
plain,  appear  from  the  marginal  reading  of  I  Sam.  I 
xvil,  30,  and  sxvi,  G,  to  hare  been  enclosed  with  al 
line  of  carta  or  chaiiola,  which,  from  the  remotest' 
period,  was  a  practice  among  all  the  nomade  na- 
tions of  tha  north.  (D'Aquine,  /.t  Camp  da  lira*- 
Ufa,  Par.  Iflia,  16S1.)  For  a  more  general  treatment 
of  the  subject,  fioic  a  military  point  of  Tiew,  aee  En*  I 

CuDptmailiull  or  Canpanilg  (Lat.  campma, 
bell),  a  bell-tower.  The  moit  striking  campanilea  aro  I 
found  in  Italy,  and  they  arc  those  genenlly  detached 
from  tfae  church,  e.  g.  those  of  Florence,  Cremona,  Bo- 
logna, and  Pisa.  That  of  Florence,  built  by  Giotto 
(liM\  ia  a  aquare  45  feet  on  each  side  and  367  fbet . 
high,  in  Itilian  Gothic,  simple  in  design,  but  richly 
ornamented.  In  some  instances  these  towers,  on  ac. 
count  of  their  great  elevation  and  the  narrowness  <d  I 
their  baae,  have  coiuiderably  deviated  ^m  the  orig.  I 
inal  perpendicular.  The  Campanile  of  I^ta,  called  I 
Tom  Pendenir  ("the  leaning  tower"),  is  the  most  | 
remarkable  of  tbcM,  having  a  deTiation  of  nearly  13 ' 
ftet  in  a  height  of  150  feel.     See  Bell.  I 

CunpMielIa.THOMA>i.wasbam  In  Calabria  ISBB,  | 
and  entered  the  Dominican  order  ISM.  He  applied  ; 
hlmielr  chiefly  to  metaphysics,  and  followed  his  conn-  ] 
tryman  Telesio,  who  died  in  1588  at  Coaenia,  in  his 
oppoaitioo  to  what  was  then  taught  in  tbe  schools  on-  ! 
der  the  name  of  Ari'tolelian  philosophy.  Campanel- ' 
la  published  his  Hmt  work  at  Naples  in  1G9I,  entitled 
Pkilotnpllia  Styuihia  dem-milrala.  The  schoolmen,  and 
the  monks  especially,  r4iaed  such  a  storm  audnst 
CampanelU  that  he  left  his  native  cooolry.  He  was  , 
accused  of  eorcery,  at  being  an  adept  of  Raymond 
Lullua  and  of  some  cahaiiatic  rabbins.     His  works 


I  CAMPANUS 

were  aaiaod  and  anhmitted  to  the  Inqnlaltian  at  Boox^ 
which,  however,  gave  him  little  ttoable;  bat  wmu 
time  aflarwatd  (in  I(>9S),  lieing  at  Naples,  he  Incsn- 
tiously  spoke  against  the  government  of  the  Span- 
lards,  and,  (Ming  thrown  into  prison,  was  put  to  the 
rack,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  confinement.  In 
1626  Pope  Urban  VIII  obtained  for  bjm  hit  liberty, 
whereupon  be  repaired  to  Rome,  and  continued  there 
some  jttn ;  but  finding  that,  the  Spaniards  were  pre- 
paring fresh  troubles  for  him,  be  fied  into  Francr,  and 
landed  at  Harselilea  in  1634.  He  passed  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  in  the  Dominican  monaaterj  at  Paris, 
and  died  March  21, 1639.  The  number  of  hit  works 
is  immente.  Echard  haa  given  several  catalogues, 
one  of  which  contains  eighty-two  distinct  work*. 
Campanella  was  a  man  in  whom  every  thing  seems 
to  have  been  oitraordinary :  his  conduct,  adventures, 
genius,  habits  of  thought,  style  of  writing,  every  thing 
WM  out  of  the  titoal  track  J  hence  he  has  been  extrav- 
agantly praised,  and  as  eatravagantly  abuaed  and 
fotind  bolt  with.  In  hit  moral  character  he  wsa  al- 
together twyond  reproach ;  in  his  literary  pursuits  he 
was  nnweuied,  excesslTely  cnrlous,  and  greedy  of 
kuowledgo.  He  kft  many  USS.  Among  thoee  that 
,  have  tieen  pabllshed,  the  followlog  are  deserving  of 
I  notice :  Pndnmiia  PkiiaiyKia  /MtorOHJn,  ten  A 
I  AofKru  ffenm  (Frankf.  1617);— Ai  Srma  Jimm  rt 
*ajiaZ^i/r(Frflnkf.  1620.)  This  work  was  com- 
posed, aa  well  as  several  others,  liy  Cimptnella  dur- 
ing his  Neapolitan  captivity,  and  waa  pubiisfaed  In 
Germany  by  Adami,  but  the  author  poblished  a  second 
edition  of  it  at  Paris  in  16S6,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Richelieu.  Father  Hersenne  wrote  to  refnle  tho  liook 
aa  heretical,  and  Atlianaaiua  of  Constantinople  wrotn 
against  it  in  his  Anti-CampantUa  (Psrla,  leoG)  \—RatI. 
it  PUIotopkia  EpUoguUm  Parla  IV  (Fnnkf.  1620): 
—The  CitUai  Salit,  often  reprinted  aepsrately,  and 
translated  into  various  langnagea  -.—Apoiiffia  pro  Gn- 
lilto  (Frankf.  1C6!):  — />s  Pnrdtlinatiime,  LV  -' 
Rrpnbatamr,  tt  imxiln  Dlma  GnOia,  Cf*!  T, 


a  (Paris,  1636).     The  m 


e  oftl 


Thomaa  Aquinaa,  and  supports  those  of 
6rigen:—Uit  tmalit  PliaatOfkia,  Lihri  XVIII  (Ptit, 
1638).  The  following  works  of  Campanella  were  pnb- 
lished  after  his  death,  namely;  De  Lffiru  propriit  tt 
recta  Jtatime  Studnuii  (Paris,  1643,  in  which  the  an- 
thor  speaks  nf  himself,  his  stndies,  and  his  works.  It 
was  edited  by  Naud«,  who  knew  Campanella,  and  who 
speaks  of  him  and  Ua  imprironnient  In  hit  OmckUra- 
rioni  PoUliguu  nr  la  Cou.pt  d'ElaU)  :—Dt  Uomrckii 
Hiipatiica  Ditemrnu  (Amtterd.  I64U).  Tills,  perhape 
the  most  remarkable  work  of  Campanella,  was  writ- 
ten by  him  during  hit  confinement  at  Naplfst,  It 
la  an  able  sketch  of  the  political  wcrld  of  that  time 
(translated,  A  l>iteoitrt»  tauchmg  Ikt  SpaniM  Momar. 
(Jy,  Lond.  16M).— Tennemann,  Hon,  liiil.  PIhI.  {  817- 


eifl. 


1   Socinii 


ect  in  Hangary,  s 


Campamltw,  a 
named  from  Johannes  Campanns  (q,  v.). 

Campamu,  JoHANnca,  an  anti-TrlnitarUn  theolo- 
gian of  the  16th  century.  He  was  a  native  of  the  duchy 
of  Julicb.  and  in  1528  was  appointed  lecturer  on  theolo- 
gy atthe  University  of  Wittenberg.  Here  he  seenuto 
have  Imbibed  Arian  opinions,  which  ho  afterward  de- 
veloped opentv.  Ho  avowed  faia  opposition  to  Luther, 
and  left  Saxony  for  Julich.  The  Roman  Catholic  u- 
thorities  imprisoned  him  at  Clevw  on  a  charge  of 
having  excited  the  peaaantrj-  by  hia  preaching  that 
tho  world  was  aoon  coming  to  an  end,  about  laSS,  and 
he  is  said  to  have  nmained  in  prison  S6  year*,  and  ta 
have  died  iwtween  I.'i7fi  and  liSO,  out  nf  his  mf  nd.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  hooka,  among  which  are  ITUrr  aBe 
ll'r&  met  dr*  ilpncrb,  in  which  his  peculiar  view*  an 
Bet  forth ;  reprodnced  in  hi*  GSfficke  and  Heil.  atkriJU 


CAMPBELL 


57 


CAMPBELL 


B*  njeetod  tbs  diTinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  snd  tanght '  ttiABj  of  the  gntt  qaalitiei  of  »  nfonner,  uid  1100118 
that  the  Son  of  God  U  of  ths  wme  >ulj6l«nce  wUb  the  them  were  jiBraonn)  energy  and  pugnacitr.  Hit  c»- 
Iklbw,  Uil  not  coetern*].  See  Scbelhorn,  Dia,  de  J,  :  reer  led  liiiii  frequently  into  public  "deb»t«,"  tbe 
CoKfoao.  in  hitAvKtnii.  lAlleranm.  t.  ai,  1 ;  Mosheira,  '  most  imporUnt  of  which  were  as  foUom  ■  "  With  tha 
'^"^f"^:.""-  "^^  §  '".  Pt-  ".  =''■  "■ :  Haraog,  fifut  Rev.  John  W.llier,  a  miniater  of  the  SeceMion.Ptwiby. 
te"un  church  in  tbe  State  of  Ohio,  held  at  Mt.  Plea»- 
>nt  in  the  year  1820.  Thi«  debate  created  a  (treat 
local  interest  throughout  all  that  eectioa  of  country, 
and  woa  aUanded  by  a  va.t  concounw  nf  people.  Next 
followed  his  debate  with  the  Kev.  WillUui  McCtlU,  on 
""""'""■"     Baptifoi.'held  in  Wajhinglon,  Ky.,  in  the 


,i,l«;  Uoma.PernMo/Ckntt, 

Campbell.  Alazander,  founder  of  the  Camp- 
bdlitH,  or  Uisciplea  of  Christ  (q.  v.),  waa  bom  in  the 
eocmiy  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  about  the  year  I788,and  was 
ediuMd,  4B  waa  bia  father  before  bim,  at  the  Uni- 
Tttrily  of  Glasgow,  ScotknJ— both  of  tbem  as  Ptbb- 
bnerian  clerip-men.  Thomaa  Campbell,  the  poet,  was 
>  nUtive  and  clasnnate  of  bis  tither.  On  the  one 
aide  his  anceatiy  was  of  Scotch  origin,  and  on  tile  other 
Qngnenot  French.  He  emigrated  to  America  in  IBOO, 
tao  yean  after  his  father,  and  settled  at  first  in  Wifb~ 
ingtoo  county,  Peon.,  near  the  spot  in  West  Virginia 
to  "hich  be  aoon  afterward  removed,  and  on  which  be 
lind  during  the  renuinder  of  bialife.  That  aput,  now 
tbc  village  of  Bethany,  waa  then  a  wild  and  secluded 
localjly  amid  the  hilhi.  He  was  at  first  a  minister  of 
tic  "Seceasion"  branch  of  Presliylerians,  but  wai 
mtIt  led  to  ths  belief  that  "Christian  union  can  result 
from  nothing  short  of  the  deitmction  of  creeds  and 
onfemoai  of  iaith,  inasmuch  aa  human  creeds  and 
anfeHiona  have  destroyed  Christian  union;"  and 
"that  nothing  ought  to  be  received  into  the  faith  or 
vonbip  of  the  Church,  or  be  made  a  term  of  commu-  i 
nion  among  Christians,  that  is  not  as  old  as  tbe  New  ' 
TFttameot.  Nor  ought  anything  to  be  admitted  aa  of 
ifiriie  obligation  in  tbe  Church  constitution  or  mao- 
agenwnt  save  what  is  enjoined  by  the  authority  of  oor 
Lord  Jesoa  Cbrist  and  his  apostlea  upon  tbe  New  Tea. 
tamtnt  Church,  either  in  express  terms  or  by  approved 
psHtdent."  The  promulgation  of  these  opinions  caus- 
ins  disturbance  in  the  Ftcsbyterian  Cburch,  be  and 


year  1823 ;  next  bl>  debate  with 
cinnati,  in  the  year  1B28,  on  the  Truth  of  Chri 
debate,  in  the  same  city,  in  the  )-i 


knity; 


with  Archbisbop  Purcell,  on  tbe  infallibility  of  the 
Church  of  Rome ;  and  finally.  In  the  year  1848,  bla  de- 
bate with  the  Kev.  Dr.  K.  L.  Kice,  held  in  tbe  city  of 
Lcibigton,  Ky.,  the  specific  poinls  of  which  v.tn  '  the 
action,  subject,  design,  and  adminUtration  of  Chris, 
lian  baptism;'  also,  the  'chararter  of  spiritual  influ- 
ence in  conversion  and  sanclifl cation,'  and  the  'expe- 
diency and  tendency  of  ecclesijstical  creeds  u  terms 
of  union  and  communion.'"  Dr.  Campljell  was  high- 
ly  endowed  as  an  orator;  a  nolle  presence,  and  a  so- 
norous and  powerful  voice,  gave  effect  to  his  vi)[oroUB 
thought,  and  fluent,  energetic  speech.  Vast  audiences 
gathered  to  hear  him  in  faia  Joumevs  through  the 
WeJt.  He  wrote  Urgelr,  chiefly  In'his  I/arfnnptr; 
ililished  also  a  summary  of  Ibeology  called  the 
Si/iien  (often  reprinted) ;  a  treotwc  on  Rrmii. 
tim  0/  Sin  (3d  od.  1816) ;  JUtmoiri  0/  Th-miu  Oimp. 
bdl  (CincinnalT,  1861,  8vo).  Sea  also  the  article  Via- 
cii-lebofChkist.— Afcfiodii((N.Y.),  No.  SSB;  jlnwr. 
Chriit.  ffec.  12  sq. ;  Ciaci'nnafi  Cos.  JIarch,  1B6G ;  L«n- 
dls,7{(iMaA  T.ikK{ti.  Y,  18J4,  8vo);  Richardson,  ^^rm, 
ofA.CampUmXhW.  1868).  See  Cakpbeli,  THoKjia. 
Campball,  Alaxander  Aagiutiu,  ■  Presbj. 
terian  minister,  was  bom  In  Amherst  county,  Va,,  Dec. 


St  Brush  Bun,  Penn.  In  1812  he  became  con-  ,  '■^"\-^»"l  ,  .  i^J" "T-  '^TF'Z^'  .■ 
a  that  Lmmersk,n  is  the  proper  form  of  baptism,  ^,iitf  n"'.*^?!?,,^^  ,"^.""^i"''- ■,•""  '"  '^."  f"^ 
»  and  hi.  congregation  wVre  immer«d.  irconl  r^,  ^'^^  "'  P^il^lelph.a.  A  violent  attack  of  y.l- 
«  with  hia  f^^.  the  Rev.  Thonu«  Campbell,  I  ^*./""  J"  'S?  mexn,  of  his  ce»ver„cn,  .nd  he 
rmed  seiTrrri  congregations,  which  united  wiH,  the    P!  "P  *^*  ^^'"'  ''f,.""^"'"'  "^  a, .plied  himself 


hefhrmedseveralconitregations, which  united  wimine    ;    .v     1  '  n  1.  .  ."."."";, — 

Bedstwie  BaDliM  Aasoiiialion.  but  nrotesled  aioinsl  all '  '    ""'"'"By-      "«  *'"  ""''"^  l"  presch  by  the  Pre*- 

.Zra.^;Se  of  &i^  and  Vactt^^lLing  ei  i  ?.'  '"  ■^''".'^"''.  ^E""  »•  '*««■ .  "'  «"  "  «"'  - 

rinded  fnmi  the  fellowship  of  the  Baptist  churches  i 

1N7,  his  fbllovers  began  to  organiie  into  a  separate  i  , 

body,  which  bas  since  spmadin  all  parts  of  the  United  1 

^^  •^f*^'^?"  Virginia.  Tennessee,  and   K™- ',„  Haywood  ceunti,  WeatTen 


lucky.     The  number  of  disciples  was  estimated 


ii*ur    ui    uiscjpiea    was    lisuiiiaieu   in     n-pj,,.!,, 

IKialutgelfaer,  at  about  S50,D00  members,  of  whom    t™  y 
OBly  a  small  number  belonged  to  Great  Britain.     See  I 
Discirun  or  Chkist.     In  1823  Mr,  Campbell  began 
the  pabllcatioii      -."'■•■■•        -     .•  .      - 


I  itinerant,  then  for  four  years,  from  1881,  paator  m. 
;  TuBcumbis  and  Rnssellaville,  Ala.  j  declining  a  call 
I  tbe  CbuTth  of  Florence,  Ala.,  he  however  re- 
I  mained  there  two  years  with  great  success,  removing 
•    -0 Haywood  county,  WestTenn.,  in  1829  EO,  where  be 


Having  received  a 

from  the  Choroh  in  Jackfon,  Tenn.,  he  was  installed 

Oct.  3,  183S;  there  he  preached,  lectured,  edit- 


sort^Haiar.     in  !";»  mr.  vsmpoeii  negan  :  '  j  . : ._.     _  .•     i         ..  ,  .     ,     „ 

»lk«  .f  n.  ClrUi^  B,^f.  .r»r.«d    :'■  ■  "rT?''  ;■''  P""'™!  "»''*'.  |.r....p.llr 

.t     .j-M_   -In.-  ,     t.  1  i  ■  among  the  Cherokee  and  Creek  missionaries,  at  the 

a  the  Millfnmal  Barb.tmr.  of  which  he  re- ,  . •*,.    .    ,...^„„  ,.,.t.f..u..  :,  ..■.  j...'..    .,™ 


ime,  laboring  faithfully  until  his  death.  May 
""       "     Campbell  published  a  treatise  on 

(ICM).— Spra^'ue,  ^n«i/j,iv,6il. 


Belbanv  College,  and  he  was  its  president  to  the  day  1  o'  "'L/1!Z 

of  his  death.      He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Con-    """P^" 

■tiWtioaal  Convention  of  1829  SO.     It  was  in  that  l>Ddy        Campbell,  the  HoH.  Arohlbkld,  >  bishop  of  the 

that  he  gave  prophetic  notice  of  what  would  ultimately    Scottish  Episcopal  Church,  consecrated  in  I7I1  at  Dnn- 

Ix  the  conne  of  Western  Virginia,  and  of  what  he    dee.      On  account  of  difficulties  with  bis  clergy  as  to 

lived  to  see  accomplished.     In  184T  he  visited  Europe,     "usages,"  ho  left  Scotland  in  1724  and  returned  to 

ncdnng  marked  atlentionethim  many  of  the  political '  London,  where  be  spent  most  at  the  remainder  of  his 


'  sad  religioBB  leaders.     On  the  slavery  conflict  he  was    life 
"eonaervative."    "  Mr.  Campbell  never  was  the  chai 
(aeaaf  American  slavery.    He  believed,  however,  tb 
Ike  relation  of  master  and  slave  had  existed  in  Biblic 
tnoes  nnder  the  divine  sanction,  or,  at  oil  events,  b 

:  and  while  be  did  not  desin  to  In  regarded  as    n  MiAItf  Stall 


cr  daVB  he  carried  his  n 


igpriu- 


n  slavery,  he  contended  tl; 
it  ibonld  not  be  a  teat  question  of  communion  in  t 
rtarcha*.     His  own  slaves  ha  had  emancipated  mai 


ip  without  any  sssisU 

Tbe  daU  of  his  death  is  unknown.     He  is  tbe 

of  several  theological  works,  which  are  strong- 

Among  them  are.  The  Doetrinrt  nf 

Dnitk  and  lit  /iuumclKm,  Of 


Prnymfor  iU  IJtnd.  etc,  (Lond.  1713.  fol.),  ai 
Xtcfv'Is'flleTttitHmiLani.  ];89,8vo).     In  his  work  > 
on  the  Middle  SUIe,  he  teaches  "that  there  is  an  in- 


His  life  was  full  of  labors,  well  supported  by  a  pbys-  in,  l-etween  death  and  the  resurrec'Cion,  far  diO'erent 
Uhame  of  athletic  vigor.  But  in  I8e[i  ha  Iwgan  tn  from  what  they  are  afterward  to  be  in  when  our  bless. 
U,  and  be  died  at  Bethany,  Bloreh  4,  IBM.     Us  had   edLordJesusCbrieteball  appear  at  his  second  coming; 


CAMPBELL 


58 


CAMPE 


tb>t  Uura  U  no  immediate  jndgincnt  aftar  dsath ; 
tiut  to  prey  and  oSbr  for,  and  to  cnminemonits  our 
daceaHd  brethren,  in  not  only  lawful  and  nsefal,  but 
alio  our  bounden  duty;  Ibat  tbe  tnUrmedUta  Hatu 
betirein  death  and  the  reaurrection  li  a  atate  of  pnri- 
Autlon  in  ita  lower,  aa  wall  aa  of  fixed  Joy  and  eujoy- 
mcDt  in  it«  higber  manajons;  and  that  the  full  per- 
ftctinn  of  purity  and  holineaa  la  not  ao  to  b«  atbiined 
naioD  of  Hadea,  blgber  ot  lower,  aa  that 


mttted  t< 


o  th( 


beatific  rislon.  Id  the  higbeat  beavena,  before  the  rea- 
qtrei^tion,  and  the  trial  by  Hre,  wblch  it  mait  then  ga 
through."— Ha»k,  Ecet.  B!<ytvpis,  ii,  Hi. 

Campbell,  a«orge,D.D.,  wa«  bam  M  Aberdeen, 
Dec.  a,  ITIU,  and  was  educated  at  the  Mariachal  Col- 
lege at  Aberdofn.  After  leaving  roliege  he  atudied 
law,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  vriter  to  the  Signet  at 
Edinburgh ;  but,  h«Ting  a  strong  bent  to  theology, 
he  obtained  a  release  trom  his  master,  and  studied 
tbeolo)iy  at  Edinburgh.  In  1748  he  waa  appoints' 
to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  parish  of  Banchory  Tei 
nan,  near  Atierdeen,  and  in  1766  be  obtained  a  parish 
In  Alierdoen.  In  175D  he  was  mads  principal  of  the 
Hariscbal  College.  In  17G3  he  published  his  Diarr. 
latim  «n  iliraclrt,  in  oppoaition  to  Home,  which  waa 
translated  Into  aevenl  Continentul  languagea  (new 
ed.  Edinl.,  lB23,8vo).  Thabook  h»d  an  Irai 
ceaa,  and  procured  fur  its  author  tbo  degrE 
After  bis  death  appeared  bia  tjctartt  on  KcdttiaiUcai 
Bttlory  (newed.  Lend.  1840, 8vo),  which  was  answered 
by  Skinner,  bishop  of  Aberdeen.  His  most  important 
worli  was  his  Traiuia&m  of  lie  Fuur  Goifilf,  vitk  a 
Commentary,  which  appeared  not  long  before  bis  death, 
aind  has  been  repeatedly  republished.  Tbe  beat  edi- 
tion hi  that  of  Aberdeen  (I8H,  4  vols.  B»o)i  but  there 
Is  a  very  good  and  cheap  Amerlcun  edition  (1837,  Z 
vols.).  He  wrote  aUo  I^avrn  m  Ike  Piittoral  Charae 
(Lond.  leil,  8vo);  Phi'atnphg  nf  Jthlorie  (1776,  8' 
nsmeroua  editlona) ;  Ltctgrti  on  Sgilemallc  Hieologii 
aid  Pulpit  Etoqmtux  (Lond.  1807,  Svo,  numerous  edi- 
tions). He  retired  from  his  college  duties  some  yean 
before  his  death,  and  receired  a  pension  of  £300  a  year 
from  George  III.  He  died  April  6^1796.  The  life 
of  Dt.  Campbell  has  been  written  by  the  Rev.  G,  S. 

Keith Darling,   Cgdap-r^a  Bibtiograplaca,  i,  5G7; 

Jamlaaon,  Ci/ctop.  nf  Mod.m  ReUgium  Biograply,  I, 
S9 ;  Jones,  ChruHan  BiograjAy,  a.  v. 

Campbell,  John,  LL.D.,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh, 
Karch  8, 1708.  Ilia  life  was  devoted  to  litersture,  and 
bis  publications  were  very  numerous.  He  edited  the 
"  Biographia  Brilannica,"  and  waa  one  of  tbe  writera 
of  the  "  Universal  History."  His  title  to  mention  in 
this  work  rests  on  tbe  publication  of  A  Ducmirte  on 
Fnmdaiai  (1748,  8d  ed.  Bvo) ;  TfiaughU  on  Morai  ani 
Keligiotu  Xob/KIt  (17J9,  8vo)i  A  nein  and  compUle 
Billory  ofihe  Jlolg  hibk  (1783.2  vols,  folio).— Cmmil 
Biog.  DtelioHary,  I,  110;  Darling,  CgchpmEa  Biblio- 
griqiltiea,  i,  681. 

Campbell,  John,  an  Indppcndent  minister,  waa 
bom  at  Edinburgh  In  March,  176G,  and  apprentired  to 
a  giddsmith.  About  1789,  at  which  time  he  was  ac- 
tively engaged  in  meaaurca  for  the  extenainn  of  Sun- 
day-achool-",  he  began  to  prepare  himself  for  the  Cliria- 
ti.in  minlttr}-.  Ho  lutisHiuently  visit«d  London  to 
iike  charge  of  twenty.four  young  nativea  of  Africa, 
win  were  brought  fh>m  Sierra  l.enne  to  be  instructed 
in  Christianity,  with  a  view  to  its  introduction  into 
tbeit  native  land ;  and  in  1804  ho  became  pastor  nf  the 
Independent  Church  in  EinK^land,  ■  charge  which  he 
retained  until  hii  death,  April  4th,  1840.  Mr.  Camp- 
bell t»oli  an  aotivo  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Btit- 
Isfa  and  Foreign  Bible  S<«iely,  and  several  other  im- 
portant religious  nasociationa.  In  181'2  he  made  a 
Jonmpy  to  the  stationa  of  the  I.onduD  tl  issinnsry  So- 
rioty  in  South  Africa,  from  which  he  retumr-t]  In  1814, 
Of  this  Journey  be  publlahed  an  account  (1815.  Hvo). 


Id  iei8-!l  he  revisited  Africa,  and  fbund  aoma  later, 
eating  ehangaa  produced  by  the  civllixatiaD  introduced 
by  the  miaiionarles.  The  Journal  of  hia  aecond  vlait 
appear«l  In  18!!  (9  vola.  Svo).  Hr.  Campbell  pub- 
lished DumeroUB  voika,  chiefly  for  the  Inatinctian  of 
youth,  and  be  was  tha  founder,  and  for  ^hteen  years 
the  editor  of  the  Youlk't  MagaiiKt.  a  religloua  period- 
ical of  great  utility. — Jamleeou,  KeSgioia  Biog.  p.  100. 
Campbell,  Thomita,  dim  of  the  foundera  of  the 
rellgiooa  denomination  generally  called  "  Diaciplea," 
was  bom  Feb.  1, 1763,  in  Ireland,  and  descended  from 
a  family— the  Campbells  of  Argyle— which  makes  a 
prominent  figure  in  Scottish  historj-.  In  1798  he  en. 
tersd  the  ministry  in  connection  with  that  branch  of 
the  Presliyterlau  Church  which  Is  known  aa  Seceders, 
or  Seceding  Preabyteriea.  See  pREaBrTERiA:<iSM. 
In  1807  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  waa 
received  at  Philadelphia  into  the  commnnion  of  tbe 
Associats  Synod  of  Kortb  America.  For  about  two 
yeara  he  aopplied  with  ministerial  labor  the  destitula 
churches  of  Uiia  connection  In  Weatem  Pennsylvania 
Shortly  after,  in  1800,  he  was  Joined  by  his  aon,  Alex- 
ander Campbell  (q.  v.).  Both  fjther  and  son  aom 
declared  against  the  nae  of  any  human  creed,  confbs- 
aiou  of  faitli,  or  formularies  of  doctrine  and  church 
government ;  and  when  their  views  were  rejected  Ly 
the  Seceders  as  a  body,  they  drew  up  a  "  declaretion 
and  address,"  in  which  the  pioua  of  all  the  deuomlua- 
tiona  In  the  vicinity  were  invited  to  form  a  union,  with 
tbe  word  of  the  Bible  aa  their  only  creed.  A  congre- 
gation on  the  basis  of  these  prindples  was  organiud 
at  Brush  Run.  See  CAHFbELL,  Ai.bXanDeR.  Thom- 
as Campbell  retained  at  first  infant  bsptism,  although 
his  son  Alexander  pressed  upon  hia  attention  "tbe  In- 
congruity of  demanding  an  express  precept  or  prece- 
dent for  any  positive  church  ordinance,  and  yet  prac- 
ticing infant  baptLam.  for  which  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other  could  be  produced."  Gradoolly  Thomas 
Campbell  changed  h^  views  on  the  question  of  bap- 
tism ;  and  on  June  IS,  1813,  both  he  and  his  son  Alex- 
ander, together  with  the  members  of  their  congrega- 
tion, were  immersed  l>y  Elder  Luse,  of  the  Baptist  com- 
munity. In  18IS  they  were  received  into  Redstone 
Baptist  Association,  atipnlating  In  writing  that  "no 
terms  of  union  or  commnnion  other  than  the  Holy 
Scriptures  should  be  required."  Hencsforih  Alexan- 
der Campbell  took,  instead  of  his  fatber  Thoma^  the 
laid  in  tbe  religious  movement  which  at  length  evont- 
uated  in  the  formation  ot  those  who  sympathiaed 
with  them  into  a  separate  dennminatkinal  connection. 
Thomas  CamplieU  labored  with  great  zeal,  as  an  itine- 
ritnt  minister,  lor  tbe  diMemination  of  his  views,  until 
1846,  when  old  age  compelled  him  to  rest.  He  spent 
tbe  remainder  of  his  life  at  Bethany  with  hia  son  Alex- 
ander. In  1850  he  was  deprived  of  his  sight,  l)Ut  hia 
intellect  retnaioed  unclouded.  He  died  January  4, 
IBM.  See  Alriander  Caropbeli,  Memoin  of  Htdrr 
Tkomai  CampbrB  (Cincinnati,  1661,  Hvo);  and  the  arti- 
cles CAUFnEi.t,  AleKAHDBRj  Disciples  ovCnnlsT. 

CampbeUiun.     See  DisctPLBa  or  Cusist. 

Campe,  Joachth  HEiXRicn,  a  German  clergy- 
man and  author,  was  bom  in  1746  at  Deensen,  in 
Brunswick:  became.  In  1778,  military  chaplain  at 
Potsdam ;  in  1776.  director  of  an  educational  institu- 
tion in  Dessau.  In  1777  he  est^iiahed  hia  uwn  edu- 
cational school  at  Trittow,  near  Hambarg,  which  bo 
sold  In  1783.  In  1787  he  was  appointed  achoal-cDnn- 
cillor  in  Brunswick,  and  in  1805,  cannn.  He  died  at 
Bmnswick  in  1818.  He  Is  one  of  tbe  most  famnua 
German  authors  of  Juvenile  works,  especially  works 
of  travel.  His  work  R.iiir-HM  der  Jui^r' (Kol>insuii 
tbe  Younger)  has  been  translated  into  all  European 
languages,  and  its  immense  popularity  in  Germany 
'  inferred  from  the  fact  that  a  60th  edition  of  it 
iiiished  In  1861.  His  writings,  prepared  in  a 
rationalistic  spirit,  contributed  largely  to  lead  away 


CAMUS 


n^uBed  Mrend  daji,  dwellinK  tn  tenU.  It  «u  a  | 
wihiful  oocwiDn.  Ssctariui  divi^klIl*  •ecmed  to 
bn  bflcn  (urgDtan  in  tha  gmerml  coacem  for  thv 
[nnkiiee  of  spjiitiul  r«li|rioD.  Tba  lervicu  neie  \ 
iMdnetBd  bj  PrMbvterian*,  Bjptlntr,  and  Hcthodiila.  I 
na  nault  vu  nnparalleled,  and  luggaited  another 
BaattDg  of  the  kind,  wfaich  vat  belil  on  tlia  Muddy 
Bireil  aDdilillBnotlier.OD  what  was  called  Che  Uidge, 
bodiof  hhich  wcra  attended  hy  immenae  Ihronga.  By 
a  (rodent  estimate,  it  •»>  reckoned  that  one  bundr^ 
nil  were  *  added  to  tbe  Lord*  at  tha  laat-named  mect- 
bg.  Fmin  thia  nnpremedtUitHl  brginning  tfaeae  meet- 
Kp  vers  extended,  increaFin^  in  powir  and  um- 
folBFai,  DEder  the  iipedal  direction  of  Prealiyteriana 
and  UMhodiala.  BecauM  of  thia  nnion  * 
dvir  aupport,  tbey  were  called  'general  camp-meet- 
ing' Jt  ia  aaid  tliat  the  roada  leading  to  the  ipuve 
where  thcj  were  held  were  titeraUy  crowded,  and 
entire  nf^borhaods  were  forsaken  of  their  inbabiC- 
lata.  A  Preahjterian  miniater  calculated  i 
wet*  at  least  twenty  thoosaad  penonn  prcacnt  at  one 
■BHlinK  held  in  KentDcliy.  At  lenglb,  howevei 
Pn«byt«riana  piadnally  letind  from  the  field; 
the  Hethodiita  carried  them  into  other  paita  o 
conBtry,  till  they  became  general  In  tlie  connef 

la  tbe  present  time,  not,  however,  without  oppn 
oD  tbe  part  of  some,  and  misfiivings  with  many  others 
hi  regard  to  their  expediency"  (fiiaoy 
»l^p.7-in. 

TIm  camp-meetings  were  introduced  into  England 
by  Rev.  LoTcnao  Dow  (q,  v.),  an  eamrat  Methodii 
preacbiT,  w*ia.  after  laboring  for  aome  time  In  Enj 
laid  *a  an  independent  itinerant,  and  finding,  in  ISO' 
a  gmenl  religioui  intemt  in  StiSbrdahire,  suggeat- 
(d  to  tbe  people  the  plan  of  camp-        "  _ 
peot>)a  immediately  adopted  it.     A  flag  waa  hoisted 
ao  Uow  Uill;  the  popnIatioD  gatbereil  to  it  f 
tke  aHrTDUDdinK  reniona,  and  the  firat  EnglisI 
Bceting  was  held.  WUIlam  Clowes  and  Huitb  I 
vba  were  azDong  the  moat  ualons  and  useful  laymen 
ia  tbe  nrivala  of  that  period,  took  an  active  part  ' 
tha  flrst  meetintn.    Bourne  Hndicated  tfaem  in  a  pi 
[Uat,  which  ea  I  led  forth  counter  publications  frtm  ' 
pceadien  of  Buralem  and  Uacclesfield  circnits. 
It  was  alleged  that  many  excesaes  attended  such  o 
dmir  servicea,  the  Wesleyan  Conference,  In  1807, 
dand,  "  It  Is  our  indgraeal  that,  even  supposing  a 
naatings  to  be  allowable  In  America,  tbey  are  highly 
impnifaer  in  England,  and  likely  to  be  |      '     '' 

(vUerable    miKhief,  and   we   diaclaiii 


61  CANA 

a  a{  ing  to  bring  tack  the  monka  and  nnna  to  a  ragolar 
life.  On  tha  kttei  point  be  was  rigid.  In  16Se  ho 
resigned  his  aee,  and  retired  into  the  abbey  of  Autnal, 
given  to  him  by  the  kin/  upon  bia  resignation  of  hia 
'lubopric.  He  afterward  entered  the  Horpital  of  !□- 
umbles  of  Paris,  where  he  dUd,  April  26, 1653.  The 
number  of  bis  writings  b  Immense ;  the  Abbi  Le  Clerc 

f  con  trovers  iul,  nioral,  and  devout  trralises, 

letters,  and  religious  noveb.     He  waa  a  bit- 

larcistlc  foe  of  the  Mendicant  orders. — Lan- 

don,  Erei.   Dictloiutry,   ii,    hiS;    Kictrcn,  M-moirtt, 

Kzvi,  92. 

Cana  (Kavo),  a  town  in  Galilee,  not  far  from  Ca- 


higber 


DUnd; 


the  scene  of  Chriffs  first  miracle  (John  il,  I-ll  s  Iv, 
4G),  as  well  £b  of  a  cobsrquent  >  ne  (iv,  {6-54).  and  also 
cs  the  native  place  of  the  apostle  Kaihaoael  (iiti,3). 
TUi  Cana  ia  nut  named  in  the  Old  Testamrnt,  but  is 
mentioned  by  Jestphos  lb  a  village  of  Galilee  (/.j;^. 
S  16.  64 ;  War,  1, 17,  6).  The  alte  hsa  nanally  been 
identified  with  the  present  Ktfr  Kama,  a  small  place 
about  four  mllea  mffth-east  tti  m  Kaureth,  on  cne  of 
tbe  roada  to  ULerias.  It  ia  o  neat  village,  pleasantly 
sitaaUd  on  (he  deacent  of  a  hill  looking  to  tbe  routh- 
weet,  and  surrounded  by  plantations  of  olive  and  other 
fruit-trees.  There  la  a  large  spring  in  the  neigblor- 
1  ood.  enclosfd  by  a  wall,  which,  if  this  be  the  Cana  of 
Ihc  New  Testament,  ia  douttlofa  that  frem  which  wa- 
ter waa  drtwn  at  tbe  time  of  onr  Lord'a  viKlt.  It  is 
also  observable  that  water-pots  of  ctmpact  limcstono 
aro  Btill  used  in  Ibis  nei>;h>'nrhaod,  and  some  old  ones 
are,  aa  might  be  expected,  ihown  aa  those  which  once 
contained  tbe  miracnlous  wine.  Here  are  alfo  tbe  re- 
mains of  a  Greek  cbnrcb,  said  to  stand  over  the  house 
in  which  the  miracle  waa  performed,  and — donbllesa 
much  older — the  fountain  tttm  which  tbe  water  lor 
the  miracle  waa  hrouRht  (Mislin,  iii,  US-iiS).  The 
'illage  arc  (ntirely  of  Ibe  Greek 


The  " 


!r-pots  . 


Ih  them. 


Theii 


nnedti 


HuRh  Bourne,  who  aroused  the  people  ol 
Laaeiflihiie,  Cheshire,  and  StalTardsbini  with  his  ox- 
hatations  and  piuyen,  was  expelled  in  1808  from  the 
emDection  bj'  the  Burelrm  Quarterly  Meeting;  and, 
twD  y«ars  later,  Clowes,  who  continued  to  attend  the 
eanp-««etingB,  was  slso  expelled.  Clowes  commenced 
aeearse  of  home-mlsaionar]' labors,  g^vbg  up  bis  I 
■ess  for  tho  p«ir|KaF.  In  1810  the  "  Primitive  > 
•Jbt"  denomination  waaoi^nized,  which  aancti 
tbs  habit  of  preaching  in  camp-meetings,  aa  well 
DitfkeC'places  and  on  the  bighwaya,  Sec  Me' 
wain,  I'mumvE.  Tbs  Wesleyan  Conference 
■evrr  taken  l-sck  itadiaapproTiil(^thecam|>meeti 
bM  tbe  WVloyana  in  Ireland  commenced  to  hold  ei 
■sCogaln  1860.  and  their  organ,  Tile /risk  £niBpi«if, 
teck  Ktound  in  faror  of  them.  Eee  An  Eitag  '■ 
Cam^^-etHtgi  (N.  Y.  1S49) ;  Stevens,  Hiit.  of  MtH-  i 
arfsai,  iii.  tU:  Banpi,  /Hilrrs  of  if.  E.  CAurcA,  ii,  | 
I'l:  Portrr,  Compt%dUm  of  Mellknd-'im.  p.  US,  468;' 
Pnrter,  C  .mp..Wrt:v>gt  (N.  Y.  !Jmo) ;  Mtlk.  Qaart.  Kt- 
ea.186l.p.58S.  , 

CamtiS.  -Tf-.iv  ricnnc.  Bishop  of  Belloy,  was  bom 
■  Paris  in  1582,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  Aug.  fl, 
MO*.  He  iterotBl  all  his  enerj-ies  (o  the  duties  of  his  1 
Cooaa,  eapeeially  in  reforming  abases,  and  endeavor- ! 


M.  Lamsrtiae,  thrngb  at  U'illihald'a  visit,  centuries 
I  erorc,Ihere  had  been  bat  cne  remaining  (Earls  Trav. 
r.  IB).  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  tbe  sixjtrs  wen 
LroDgbt  to  France,  where  one  of  them  ii  said  still  to 
exist  in  the  Mnrie  d'Angers  (see  M.  Dhlron'a  Essays, 
in  tbe -Imolrt  ^rcAm/o^^ei,  xi,  6;  xiil,  ^).  There 
is  also  shown  a  honie  said  to  be  that  of  Nathaniel. 
Kcft'  Kenna  baa  been  visited  and  described  by  most 
travtllera  in  Palestine.  Tbo  tradition  Idcntifyirg  this 
village  with  Cana  Is  certainly  of  com  iderable  age 
(see  Hegesippns.  p,  fi).  Il  existed  in  the  time  of  Wll- 
llhald  (the  latter  half  of  the  ebihlb  cfnlui^),  i\l:o  vis- 
ited it  in  pa»in(;  fh:m  Nazareth  toTalor;  and  again  In 
that  of  rhocaa  (twelfth  century ;  sco  Reland,  p.  CBIi). 
Saewuir,  who  visiletl  Palerline  in  A.D.  IK  2,  rays, 
"  Six  miles  to  the  N.E.  of  Nazareth,  on  a  hill,  la  Cana 
of  Gslilcc"  iEorIg  Trav.  in  Pal.  p.  47).  Klatinna  Sa- 
nutus,  in  the  fonrleenlli  century,  describee  Cana  as 
Iving  north  of  Sepphorin.  on  tbe  side  of  a  high  hill, 
with  a  broad  fertile  plain  In  IVont  (Gfla  Dri,  p.  £6S). 
QoaresmiuB  states  that  in  his  lime  (A.D.  16-^0)  two 
Canas  were  pointed  oat  (Elurid.  ii,  852).  See  Uttar. 
Slatemnl  of  "  PaL  Exptor.  Fond,"  April  1878,  p.  67. 

There  is  a  ruined  place  called  Tom  e/-/<Ji7,  about 
ci^bt  miles  N.  i  E.  from  Nazareth,  which  Dr.  Toblnson 
is  inclined  to  regard  as  tho  more  probable  site  of  Cana. 
Hia  r«ason^which  am  ceruinly  of  considerable  weight 
(especially  tho  strict  agreement  ofthenam->,"  Cana  of 
Galilee")!  may  ba  seen  In  LiiHtal  Uttareiin,  iii,  £04- 
toa.  Thev  am  combated  by  Do  Saulcy  {yrtm.Uvt. 
il,  820).  According  to  Thomson  (Land  and  Bool;  ii, 
m).  few  Moslems  of  tbe  vicinity  know  of  the  epithet 
el-Jelil  as  applied  to  the  place.  Dr.  Bobinion  aaya, 
'-  It  is  silQsted  en  Iho  left  aide  of  tbe  wady  coming 
down  from  Jefal,  just  wierc  Ihe  latter  cnlers  the  plain 
el-Butlanf,  on  the  aouthi  m  declivity  of  a  projecting 
tcll.andtvcrliwliloglbc  plain.     Tho  sitDStion  is  liBe. 


CANAAN  a 

It  w>*  ono  •  roiuMflTalilii  vllligs  oT well-built  bouim, 
now  deMrtad.  Hinr  of  the  dweliiDgi  are  in  rnini. 
Then  are  il>o  Mverul  archea  belonging  to  modem 
boBsec,  hut  we  could  diacoier  no  tnc«  of  «ntiqnily" 
(IMfT  Bib.  Rarwtiut,  p.  108). 

Tbe  Old  TeetiunanC  menlioRi  two  other  pUc»  l]_v  the 
Mme  name  (KahahX  one  on  the  boundary  between 
HiQSMeh  and  Ephralm  (Joah.  xri,  8 ;  ii-ll,  9, 10),  the 
other  in  tbe  tribe  of  Aiher  (J«h.  xii,  28).  Tbe  Syr- 
be  bae  Katni  for  the  Can*  of  the  Gospela:  and  thin 
compann  somewhat  with  tbe  /rtfiA-fapint  (q.  v.)  un  the 
border  of  Zebulon  (Joab.  xii,  IS},  whicb  appears  to 
hive  occupied  the  aite  of  the  piv«ent  Kefr  Kenna. 
Whether  tbe  Galilean  Tillage  Kamh  (n33)  mention- 
ed in  tbe  Talmud  (Yudiat.  ST)  ia  tbe  eune  witb  Cana 
of  Galilee,  ta  uncertain  (camp.  Olbo,  Ltr.  RiAb.  p.  115). 

There  an  treatiaat  on  varioo*  points  connected  with 
Christ's  Arst  mlTacle  at  Cana,  In  Latin,  by  Drendel 
{Isenb.nB5),  Baabnyaen  (Serv.l7S6),  Georgiiu  (Viteb. 
1714),  Hebenstrelt  (Jen.I693),  Hohelae]  (Uedan.  lT.a\ 
Mayer  (Grvpb.  17U3),  Oeder  (Onold.  1721),  Sommel 
(Lnnd,  177H),  Tabing  (Bnm.  IfiSi),  Vachner  (Helm. 
1640);  and  in  German  by  FlaU  (in  SOakind'a  tfofoi. 
Xir,  73  *q.) ;  DrQckner  ^n  BiU.  Stud.  It,  Berl.  18G7). 

Ga'Daan  (Heb.  AToh'Ai,  -jSJS,  perhaps  £»,-  Sept. 
and  K.  T.  \avaav ;  JoKiphua  Xnvdnfiic),  the  name  of 
■  man  and  of  ■  counlry  peopled  by  his  descendunte. 

1.  Tbe  (barth  son  of  Ham,  and  icnndaan  of  Noah 
(Ren.  X,  6 1  1  Chron.  i,  8 ;  comp.  Joaephua,  Am.  i.  G, 
<).  B.C.  post  !6t4.  Tbe  tranagreasian  of  hia  f^itber 
Ham  (Gen.  ix,  *8-!7),  to  which  some  suppoae  C.nain 
to  have  been  In  some  way  a  party,  (t»ve  occarion  to 
Noah  to  pronounce  that  doom  nn  tbe  descendants  of 
Canaan  which  was,  perhaps,  at  that  moment  nude 
known  to  him  by  one  of  those  extemporaneous  inspi- 
rations with  wblch  the  patriarchal  fathers  appear  In 
other  instances  to  have  Ijcen  favored.  See  Blbssino. 
That  there  la  no  just  ground  for  the  conclu.«ion  that 
the  descendants  of  Canaan  wen  cursed  as  an  immedi- 
ate eontrq.incr  of  the  Iransinesslon  of  Ham,  is  shown 
I'V  Profeaaor  Buab,  who,  In  his  Kola  on  Gtiiriii 
las  fairly  met  the  difficultica  of  the  inbjed-    See 


2  CANAAN 

7;  xllx,  30;  Nam.  xili,  S,  IT ;  miU,«),S]i  Joah. 
xtI,  £;  Jad^.  jtxi.  IS).  True,  tba  district  to  wbicb 
the  name  of  "low  land"  is  thui  applied  contaiuail 
many  very  elevated  spots:  Shecbem  (Gen.  xxziii, 
IS),  Hebron  (xsiii,  19),  Hethel  (xxKv,  6),  Betfalebeni 
(ilviii,  7).  Shiloli  (Joab.  xxl,  !;  Judg.  xsi,  II),  which 
are  all  suted  to  be  in  the  "land  of  Canaan."  Bat, 
hi|{h  as  the  level  of  mncb  of  tbe  co«Dtry  weat  of 
tba  Jordan  nndoubtedly  !*,  there  an  several  thinga 
which  moat  always  have  prevented  it  from  leaving  a 
marked  impression  of  general  elevation.  Tbese  arv, 
<!),  that  renvarkal.le,  wide,  maritime  plain  over  which 
the  eye  ranges  for  miles  from  tbe  central  hills,  ■  faa- 
tare  of  the  country  wblcb  cannot  be  overlooked  by  the 
most  casual  obaerver,  and  which  imprcasn  itself  moat 
Indelibly  on  the  recollecUon ;  (^\  the  still  deeper  and 
more  remarkatde  and  Impreaslve  hollow  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  a  view  into  which  may  be  rammaDdml 
fromalmost  any  of  tbe  height*  of  Uenlral  Palestiaa: 
and,  (.1),  there  is  the  almost  constunt  presence  of  the 
long  high  line  of  the  mountains  eust  of  the  Jordan, 
tbetrdinlance,  hi 


a  cliff  tl 


ountain  ranuo  — 


HU  eld- 

a'and  Phoenicians.  Ca- 
naan had  ten  other  sons,  who  were  falhen  of  as  many 
tribes,  dwelling  in  Pjleatine  and  STria(Gen.  x,  1&-I0; 
1  Chron.  I,  IB).  It  is  believed  that  Canaan  lived  and 
died  in  Palestine,  which  from  him  was  called  tbe  land 
of  Canaan.    See  CANAAnrrR. 

3.  The  simple  name  "Canaan"  ts  sometimes  em- 
ployed for  tlie  country  itself—  more  generally  atj-led 
"tbe  land  of  C."  Itisso  in  Zeph.  il,  6i  and  we  also 
find  "Language  of  C."  (In.  lix,  18)i  "Wars  of  C." 
(Judg.  Hi.  1)  i  "  Inhabltanla  of  C,"  (Exod.  xv,  16) ; 
"King  0fC."(Jadg.iv.B.  28,84;  v,  19);  "Daugh- 
lera  of  C."  (Gen.  ixviil,  1,  G,  8[  xxxvi,  S);  "  KinR- 
doms  of  C."  (Paa.  cxixv,  11).  [n  addition  to  the 
above,  tin  word  occun  in  several  psasagea  where  it  is 
concealed  in  the  Aoth.  Vers,  hy  beine  tranajated. 
These  are,  Isa.  xxlii,  8,  "  tralfickera,"  ami  xitii.  11. 
"the  merchant  city;"  Ho*,  xil,  2,  "He  is  a  mer- 
chaiHi*  Zeph.  i,  II,  " roerchaoi-jieiiple."    See  Com- 

Land  op  Canaan  CirJS  yyx.  according  to  some, 
tnta  its  being  W;  see  2  Chron  I  xxvlii.19;  Job  il. 
12,  among  other  passage*  in  which  the  verb  is  naed). 
a  name  denoting  tlie  coontry  west  of  the  Jordan  and  , 
Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xlii.  it;  Dent,  xi,  an),  and  Iwtween  ' 
tboee  walen  and  the  Mediterranean  ;  specially  opposed  , 
to  tbe  "laDdofGllead"— that  ia.  the  bi.h  Uble-land, 
nn  Uie  east  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xx\ii,  2G,  32 ;  xxxiii, 
61;  Josh.  xxil.aSj  sea  also  Gen.  xil,  6;  xxili,;,I9i! 
xxxt,]<<;  xx.xlii,  !8i  sx.tv,  0;  xxxvii,  t ;  xlvili,  4, 


broken  and  Isolated  hills  of  Canaan, 
and  fiimlsbln.<  a  constant  standard  of  height  before 
which  ever}-  thing  is  dwarfed,  1  hes*  conaiderntioDS 
are  lused  upon  Ibe  lupposltion  lliat  th*  name  was  de- 
rived from  tbe  natural  features  of  tbe  counlry.  But 
this  is  not  countenanced  by  Scripture.  Canaan  wa> 
tbe  son  of  Ham.  He  and  his  whole  family  coloniaod 
Western  Syria,  and  while  tbe  whole  region  took  bii 
nsme,  difn-rent  sections  of  it  were  called  after  his  *Mu 
(Gen.  X,  16-30).  Aram  was  a  son  of  Sbem,  and  hit 
descendants  coloniied  the  countrv  of  Arum  (Gen.  x 
21-31).  On  the  olber  hand,  Anni  cannot,  at  least  air 
solutcly,  be  termed  a  "highland  region."  tt  com- 
prised the  vast  plains  along  the  banks  of  the  KuphrateF, 
and  westWHTd  to  the  Oronles  and  Anti-Libanus.  Ca- 
naan, on  the  whole,  however.  Is  rather  a  hUly  country, 
with  scrips  of  plain  alone  the  coast.  In  one  paiaage 
It  Is  distinguished  from  ibt  low  valley  of  the  Jordan 
(Gen.  xili,  12).  Id  short,  tbe  terms  Aram  and  Ca- 
naan, if  bestowed  with  any  reference  to  the  compan- 
tive  elevation  of  tbe  respective  countries,  have  a  mere- 
ly relative  significance;  the  latter  lying  nearer  tbe 
sea-coast,  while  the  former— especially  that  part  of  it 
where  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  oriRlnatrd — is  sitnated 
toward  the  Interior  heid.waters  of  tbe  great  river  Ed- 
phralcs.     See  Abah. 

The  extent  and  boundaries  of  Canaan  an  ^ren 
witb  tolerable  exactness  tn  tbe  Bible.  On  tbe  west 
the  sea  was  its  border  ^m  SIdon  to  Gata  (Gen.  x, 
19).  On  the  soitth  It  wae  bounded  by  a  line  running 
:  from  Gaza  to  the  southern  end  of  tbe  Dead  Sea.  in- 
,  eluding  the  Judean  bills,  but  excluding  Ibe  countrv 
of  the  Amalekile*  (Gen.  x,  19;  Num.  xiii,  29).  The 
'  Jordan  was  the  eaalem  boundary ;  no  part  otCanaan 
lay  bevond  that  river  (Num.  xxxlii,  61;  Exod.  xvl, 
?6,  with  Josh.  V,  12;  xxii,  II.  See  ReUnd,  F<dixit, 
p.  3  sq.>.  On  the  north,  Canaan  extended  as  fjr  as 
Hamath,  whicb  was  also  the  utmost  boundary  of  the 
'■land  of  promise"  (Gen.  xvii,  8;  Num.  xxxlv.  8). 
The  coast  from  Sidon  northward  to  Arvad,  and  the 
ridge  of  Lebanon,  were  inhabited  by  Canaanitrs, 
Ifaough  they  do  not  appear  to  have  ticen  included  in 
Canann  preper  (Oen.  x,  15-19.  See  Bochart,  Ofp.  \, 
.108  sq. ;  Rrland,  Fatnl.  p.  3  sq.).  For  geographical 
and  other  details,  see  Pat.kstine. 

The  word  "Canaan,"  in  a  few  instances,  such  c> 
Zcpb.  li,  6,  and  Mstt.  xv,  !2,  was  applied  to  the  low 
maritime  plainsorPhilii>tiaBndPhcenicia  (comp.  Hark 
'il,  2G;  and  see  Gesenius  on  Isa.  xxiii,  11).  In  the 
ame  manner,  by  the  Crerks,  the  name  Xva  waa  used 
for  Phmnicio,  i.  e.  the  aea-side  plain  north  of  the  "Tyr. 
ladder"  (nee  the  extract  In  Reland,  Pnlinl.  p.  7, 
Gesenios,  Thetanr.  p.  (lOB),  and  hy  tbe  later  fow- 
nicians,  both  of  Pbonicla  proper  and  of  the  Punk  nl* 


i::!'i:p=^ji::^ 


llL:n«l7ph  of  CT^HUN. 

nnmtii  ai  w«ll  w  on  Pbcenldan  «dni  (Eekhel,  DoMr. 
.Vml  iv,  409),  ud  wu  not  even  unknown  to  Iha  Cai- 
tbaginiaiu  (UcmdIur,  Goth,  d.  H<b.  Spraei.  p.  16). 
The  Sapt.  ID  too  CMM,  in  tika  manner,  rendeni  the 
Habrcir  li]'  x^ipa  tmv  ^giritur  (Ei«l,  xvl,  85 ;  Josh. 
1.  It;  coDip.  V,  1),  as  tbey  da  "Canunitaa"  by 
•iM'vinc.  Again,  Is  Nam.  xiii,  29,  "Ths  Hittiten, 
and  the  JebiuitH,  and  the  Amoritca  dwell  in  the 
nuiintains ;  imd  Ht  Caaairmin  dmll  by  lit  tea,  and  by 
IV  conit  oflkt  Jordan."  In  2  Sam.  nxiv,  T,  the  Cjl- 
nautit«  are  distinKuiahed  from  tbe  Hiyiten,  thoagh 
thp  titter  were  daK»nded  rnnn  Canaan:  and  In  sev. 
ml  panai-.;r*  tba  Canaanitei  are  mentioned  with  the 
Hittitea,  Anutfitei,  Jebusitet,  etc,  as  if  they  consti- 
tuud  a  ipeciat  portion  of  the  population  (Exod.  ill,  8 ; 
Deot.  Tii,  1;  Jwb.  iil.  10).  The  moat  probable  ex- 
pUngtion  of  tbew  iimlled  applicjUona  of  the  nume  a, 
thit  ohile  Mme  of  the  trlbea  which  inhabited  Syria 
ntained  lor  their  territaritu  the  name  of  their 


tinctive  appelLitian,  the  ni 


I,  others  preferred  taking,  aa  a 


CANAAN,  Lakocaoe  of  (1»a  TB^,  (ip  of  Co- 
Kia»\  occon  laa.  lix,  IS,  where  it  andoabledly  des- 
Ignatea  Che  langoage  apoken  by  the  Jews  dwelling  in 
Pilertine.  That  the  langnagB  spoken  by  the  Canaan- 
ites  waa  aubstantially  identical  with  Hebrew  appears, 
1.  From  the  fact  that  tbe  proper  names  of  Canaanitiah 
persona  and  piacca  are  Hehrew,  and  can  be  accounted 
for  etymologically  from  the  Hebrew  as  readily  is  He- 
brew proper  names  tbemaelvea  (thus  we  have  AUm- 
elech,  Kirjath-Sapher,  etc.);  S.  Clotc  as  was  the  In- 
lenonrso  of  the  Hebrews  with  the  Canaanites,  there 
is  no  hint  of  tbelr  needing  any  interpreter  to  mediate 
hetwsen  them,  which  renders  it  probable  that  their 
reKpective  languages  were  so  nearly  allied  to  each 

of  the  Phnnicisn  language,  which  was  undoubtedly 
Canaanitiah,  bear  the  clostst  analogy  to  tbe  Helirew, 
and  are  beat  explained  ftom  it,  which  proves  Ihem  to 
be  sabBtintially  the  same  language  (Bochart,  Ceogr. 
I  Sacr.  ii,  col.  6U9  iq.,  ed.  168J). 

I  To  acconnt  tot  this,  some  have  aopposed  that  the 
I  Canaanites  and  the  Hebrews  were  of  the  same  original 
;  slock,  and  that  the  account  in  Genesis  of  their  Leing 
descended  from  different  bran chc a  of  the  Noachlc  fam- 
ily is  ■  Action  to  beput  to  the  account  of  national  big. 
otry  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Biitlhialaa  hjpothesii 
nttrrly  without  foundation,  and  which  carries  its  own 
ponfutDtlon  In  Itself ;  for,  had  national  bigotry  directed 
the  writer,  ho  would  have  excluded  the  Edomltes,  the 
Ammrnite*.  the  Moaliitos,  fhim  the  Shemillc  familr, 
aa  well  as  the  Canaanites ;  nay,  he  would  hsrdly  hare 
allowed  the  Conaanites  to  claim  descent  from  the  ri^'bt- 
eous  Noah.  The  list  v1  the  nations  in  Gen.  xi  is  ac- 
cepted by  srme  of  the  miwl  learned  and  unfettered 
scbolen  of  Germany  as  a  valuable  and  truftwotthy 
docanient  (Knobol,  VSlhcrlafrl drr  Gntah,  IPGO;  Ber- 
theao,  rntragr,  p.  174,  179).  See  ErHNooRArnT. 
But  if  these  were  different  races,  how  came  they  to 
have  tbe  same  language?  Knobel  thinks  that  the 
conndy  was  first  occupied  hy  s  She mitic  race,  the  de- 
scendants of  Lnd,  and  (hat  the  Hamiles  were  immi- 
gmnLS  who  adopted  the  language  of  the  country  into 
which  they  came  (p.  204  iq.).  On  Iha  other  hand, 
Grntlus,  Le  Clerr,  and  others,  areof  opir.ion  thatAliTa> 
bam  acquired  the  langaage  of  the  country  Into  wblrh 
he  came,  and  that  Hebrew  is  consequently  a  Hamitic 
and  not  a  Shemitic  language  (Grotius,  Dittri.  dt  I  ing. 
Ihb.,  prefixed  to  his  CminenlaTy  i  I.o  Clerc,  He  IJttg. 
Iltb.;  Beke,  On'',tw>  £tUK»,  p.  rO i  Wlnninir,  Utm- 
ual  '•fCompar.  PUUMgy.  p.  B"6)i  by  some  later  writ- 
ers Abroham's  native  tongue  is  supposed  to  have  bctn 


Indn-Gen 

malntail 

%-al  \, 


On  the  c 
lii  ed  the  u 


IgUHg 


ought  it 


:  of  ll 
II  to  Can 


contending  (hat.  had  he  borrowed  the  bnt^uage  of  the 

country  Into  which  ho  came,  tba  rcaiilt  Knuld  hai-e 

been  a  leu  pure  language  than  the  Hebrew,  ind  ts 
I  should  have  found  in  it  traces  of  ii<.ilBtTOus  notkma 
landnsagaa([llvemick,  AVn/fil.  lA'iE.  T.  r-lSS;  Pa- 
!  reao,  Int.  Intap.  p.  S5.  E.  T.  I,  27).     This  laat  U  the 

oldest  o[dninn,  and  there  is  much  to  be  urged  in  its 
,  favor.      It  leaves,  however,  the  close  sfflnitv  of  the 

language  of  Abraham  and  that  of  the  Canaanites  un- 
I  accounted  for.  The  hypotheaU  that  Abraham  cc- 
'  quired  the  langaage  of  the  Canaanltfs,  and  that  tbla 

remained  in  bia  hmilv,  if  admbsilile,  would  account 
I  not  only  for  the  rfSnlty  nf  the  Hebrrw  i  ni  rbcenician 

tonguea,  hnt  for  the  euse  with  which  Aliraham  and  hia 
j  son  made  themsrlras  understood  In  Ei^'i  t.  and  for  tbe 
I  affinity  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  and  several  modem 
I  AMcan  languages  with  the  Hebrvw.     (Spe  Bleek, 

Emlril.  nu  A.  T.  p.  Gl  "]■ :  J.  G.  Moller,  In  Berzag'a 
I  Beal-Enfyhhp.  vii,  340.)  -Kill* 


ogle 


CANAANITE  64  CANAANITE 

Ca'oaHnitv  (Hib.,  naailty  Id  the  sing.,  and  with  moat  pnciM  rtaCeiiiBnts  In  the  ■□clsnt  racordi  of  Scrip. 
aeut,A(iifc-A;Maaii>',''3»3n,i.f.iccDratcl7 accord-  ture— "Annlek  d«*ll>  in  the  lind  of  the  »ath ;  aiul 
log  to  Hebrew  oHge  [O^nlu,,  Hd>.  Gram.  %  107],  the  Hiltite,  and  th.  jBb«i|rit^  and  lb.  Am«ite  dweU 
"theCanaimitei"  but  in  the  Auth.  Vera.,  with  few  m  the  mounUini ;  and  the  Canjanite  dwe^  by  »• 
e3loeptio^^  «ndered  u  pluni,  >»d  therefore  India-   ««i,  and  by  the  «.le  of  Jordan    (Sum. -iL.29).    Th- 

.,      '     .        ._._    „      ,  .   .      ...LI        dewTibea  tbe  division  of  the  tountry  a  few  yew*  oniT 

tinguohabU  from  onnii,  Kenaimm  ,  wh^h  al«^  ^^^^  ^^  conqu.'.t.  But  then,  h^  been  littlo  or  no 
hnt  uofrequently,  occurs ;  Sept.  genenlly  X<tp»™ioc  j  v.riition  lor  centaries.  In  lbs  notice  which  purport* 
[orXoPiiKoiw];  but^uiwCExod.  vi.lo;  comp,  Joeh. ,  („  j^  the  earliest  of  all,  tho  Hata  of  the  Canaanila 
V.  1 :  Vulg.  CiaitamBM},  property  a  duignation  of  the  „ii,4_„  di«tLngui«hed  from  the  eiiter  tribea  ofZidoo. 
deacQndante  of  Canaan,  tho  son  of  Ham  and  grandwn  ^^^  Hittite.,  Amorite.,  and  the  other  descendanta  of 
of  Noih,  mhabluntd  of  the  land  of  Canaan  and  the  {;„,a„_„B  given  aa  on  the  aea-ahoro  from  Zidon  to 
adjominB  districts.     See  Camaah.  (j,^  ,„j  j„  o,^  jo^^n  yMty  to  Sodom,  Gomorrah, 

I.  CompanaU  Tribei.—i.  Theao  are  most  fre^juenl-  .n^  L„|,tt  (afterward  CalUirhoe),  on  the  shore  of  tho 
ly  enumerated  In  the  formula  used  in  tho  command,  pfcaent  Doud  Sea  (Gen,  i.ie-SU).  In  .Foah.  ni,  S,  at 
and  BUtemant  of  their  eitannlnatlon  by  the  Israel-  „  ^^^  «hen  the  Israelites  wer«  aotually  in  the  weat- 
ilea,  which,  however,  asaamea  the  following  different  ,„,  rountry,  this  is  expmaed  mo™  broadly.  "  The 
■bapes :  |  Canaanite  on  the  east  and  the  west"  is  carefully  dis- 

(1.)  Six  nations;  the  Canaanites,  tlittltes,  Amo-  <  ijnffui^hed  fmm  the  Amorite  who  held  "the  monn- 
ritea,  Periiiilea,  Hivites,  and  Jeboiites.  This  is  the  I  ujo"  [„  tho  centre  of  the  country.  In  Josh,  xiii,  2,  S, 
Usaal  form,  and,  with  some  variation  In  the  order  of  —^  „„,  told  with  more  detaU  that  "all  tho  'cinJea' 
the  names,  It  Is  tbnnd  in  Exod.  iii,  8,  17;  x'iii,  !8: ,  ,_'i..i..,   ...    n. .,.  .,  ,       ol     /-.^i   ir-  j 

xsxlil,  2 ;  i.«iv,  11 ;  Dent,  xx,  17 ;  joah.  Ix,  1  i  xii,  !  <^'^^>V  "'  ^'  P>"l"tl""  ■■•'"'"  Sihor  (?  th.  WaJ, 
B;  Judg.  iii,  6.  InEiod.xiii,  6,  the  aame  names  are  s'-^'t;^)  unto  EliPon  northward,  la  connled  to  tho  Ca- 
glven  with  the  omission  of  tba  Periidtes.  |  naanilo."     Later  still,  tho  Canaanites  are  still  dwell- 

(S.)  With  the  addition  of  the  Girgashitos,  making  ing  in  tho  upper  part  of  the  Jordan  Valley  — Beth- 
np  tba  mysHc  number  seven  (Daut.  vii,  1 ;  Josh  iii,  i  shcan ;  tho  plain  of  E«draclon— Tainach,  Ibloam,  and 
lU:  xxir.in.  The  Girgashltoaare  retained  and  tho,  Mcgiddo;  the  plain  of  Sharon— Dor ;  andalaoontho 
Hlvitei  omitted  In  Neb.  Ix,  8  (comp.  Eir.  ix,  1).  '  plain  of  Phctnicii- Accho  and  Zidon.    Here  wero  col- 

(8,)  In  E^od.  Kiiii,  28,  wo  And  the  Canaanite,  tho  lected  the  charlota  which  fi  rmod  ■  prominent  pMt  of 
HitUle,  and  tho  llivite.  ,  their  armies  (Judg.  i,  19 ;  Iv,  8 ;  Josh,  xvii,  lli).  and 

(4.)  The  list  often  nations  in  Gen.  xv,  19  M  (whsre    which  could  indeed  l»  driven  nowhere  hnt  in  theae 
tba  Kenites,  tho  Keniiiites,  and  the  Kadmonit^  are    lo«l  lowlinds  (Stanley,  Saai  <ia.l  FaleH.  p.  184). 
added),  includes  some  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  and  prob- {      The  plains  which  thus  appear  to  have  1»en  in  pos- 
ttbly  nme  on  the  south  of  Palostino.  aossionoftho  Canaanites,  spcciaily  so  called,  wero  not 

(n.)  In  1  Kinga  U,  SO,  the  Canaanitea  arc  omittwl  only  of  great  e.itent ;  Ihey  Hero  also  the  richest  and 
(ro:u  the  list.  I  most  important  parta  of  tho  country,  ami  it  is  not  on. 

!.  Besides  these  there  were  several  tribes  of  tho  likely  that  this  was  one  of  the  reasons  why— 
C^naanilea  who  lived  beyond  the  borders  of  the  Prom-  j.  The  name  "Csnaanito"  Is  also  applied  as  a  gen- 
ised  Land  northward.  These  wero  the  Arkilee,  Si-  eralname  fat  the  non-lsraelllolnhaUtants  of  tbeland, 
nile^  Arvaditea,  Zemarilas,  and  Hamalhilos  (Gen,  x,  u  «e  have  already  seen  was  the  case  with  "Canaan." 
17,  IS),  with  whom,  of  conree,  the  Israelites  had  no'  Instances  of  thLi  aro  Gen.  111,0;  Num.  1x1,8,  whero 
concsrn.  There  were  also  other  trilies  of  Cansanitisb  '  the  name  is  applied  to  dwellers  in  tho  south,  who  In 
origin  (or  poisibly  other  names  given  to  some  of  those  I  jtiii,  29,  are  called  AmalekilPB;  Jadg,  i,  10,  with  which 
already  mentioned),  who  were  dispossessed  by  tho  is- !  comp.  Gen.  xiv,  13,  and  xlli,  IS,  and  Josh,  x,  S,  where 
raalites.  The  cbiefof  thase  wore  tbo  Anulekiles,  tho'  Hebron,  the  highest  land  In  Palestine,  la  slated  to  bo 
AnakiteB,and  theRephaim  (or  "giants,"  as  they  are' Amoritei  and  Gen.  xiii,  13,  where  tho  "land  of  Ca. 
(taqvently  called  in  our  translation).  See  each  of  naan"  is  dlstingnisbed  from  the  very  Jordan  Valley  il- 
thesa,  ai  well  ai  the  fore^ng,  in  their  alpbabotlcal :  self.  See  also  Gen.  xxiv,  8,  ST;  comp.  xxviil.  2,  G; 
place.  I  Exod.  xiii,  11 :  comp.  6.     Dot  In  many  of  lla  oecnr- 

II.  GmgrapAScal  Dulribulion In  this  tespecl  tho    rencesit  is  difficult  lo  know  in  which  cutegory  to  plnoe 

term  "  Canaanite"  is  used  In  two  senses,  a  limited  ,  the  word.  Thus,  in  Gen.  1,  II :  if  the  floor  of  Atad 
and  a  wide  application.  i  was  at  Bethbogla,  close  to  the  west  side  of  (he  Jordan, 

1.  For  the  tribe  of  "the  Canaanites"  only— tho  '  "the  Canaanites"  must  bo  intended  in  the  narrower 
dwellors  in  the  lowland,  i.  e.  "  who  dwelt  by  the  sea  and  stricter  aanS3 ;  but  the  expreaeion  "  inhaUlanLs 
and  by  the  coasts  of  Jordan"  (I4um.  xiii,  29).  The  of  tho  l&nd"  appears  as  if  intended  to  be  more  (reneiml. 
whole  of  the  country  west  of  Jordan  might,  as  we  have  Again,  In  Gen,  x,  18, 19,  where  soma  iMlievetbo  trllio 
seen,  be  in  some  sense  called  a  "lowland"  as  compared  to  be  intended,  Gcsenius  takes  it  to  apply  to  the  whole 
with  the  loftier  and  mora  extended  tracts  on  the  east;  of  tho  Canaanile  nations.  But  In  these  and  oth«r  aim- 
bnt  there  was  a  part  of  this  western  country  which  ilar  instances,  allowance  must  Barely  bo  made  foe  tho 
was  still  more  emphatically  a  "  lowland."  (a.)  There  different  dates  at  which  the  various  recorda  tho.*  com- 
were  the  plaina  lyiny  between  the  fhore  of  the  Medi-  pared  wero  composed;  and,  besides  this,  It  ia  diffirnlt 
terranean  and  the  fooCof  the  hills  of  Benjamin.  Judah,  to  estimate  how  acrurata  a  knowledge  the  Israelite! 
and  Kphraim— the  Shephelah,  or  plain  of  Philistia,  on  may  hovo  possessed  of  a  set  of  petty  nations,  from 
the  south;  that  of  Sharon,  between  Jaffa  and  (^armel;,  whom  they  had  been  entirely  removed  for  four  hundred 
the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  in  tho  rear  of  tho  bey  years,  and  with  whom  they  were  now  agwn  brooght 
of  Akka;  and,  lully,  the  plain  of  Pbcenicia,  contain-  into  contact  only  that  they  might  exterminate  them 
ing  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  all  Iho  other  cities  of  that  nation,  as  soon  as  possible.  Again,  before  we  can  solve  such 
(S.)  But  sepsratsd  entirely  from  these  was  tba  still  questions,  wo  ought  also  to  know  more  than  we  do  of 
lower  region  of  Iho  Jordan  Valley,  or  Arabah  (i^.  v.),  tho  usages  and  eircoroslances  of  people  who  differed 
tho  modern  Gh'ir.  a  region  whicli  extended  in  Icngtii  not  only  from  ourselves,  hut  also  possibly  In  a  mats. 
(Mm  the  sea  of  Cinneroth  (GenncsareCh)  to  tho  south  rlHl  degree  from  tho  Orientals  of  the  pre«nt  day.  The 
of  the  Dead  Sea  about  12D  mile?,  with  a  width  of  from  trilw  who  possessed  the  ancient  city  of  Hebron,  he- 
8  to  14.  The  climate  of  these  sunken  re.'ions,  espe. '  sides  being,  ai  «hown  above,  called  Interchangeably 
ctallyortbOTalleyortha  Jordan,  is  so  peculiar,  that  it  Canaanites  and  A  monies,  are  in  a  third  passage  (Gen. 
is  natural  to  find  them  the  ipecial  possession  of  one  '  ixili)  called  the  children  of  Heth,  or  Hittilos  (cam|i^ 
bibe.      "Amalek"— M>  rana  one  of  the  earlicat  and  '  also  xxvii.  40,  with  xxviii,  1,  6).      Tba  Canaanitea 


CANAANITE  S 

■ko  wnc  dKilliag  in  the  land  of  the  MDtb  when  the 
ImditaB  mAde  their  ittdck  on  it  miy  hAT«  been  driven 
tB  Ibeu  higbCT  mnd  mora  barren  grounds  by  aome 
itba  tribes,  poeaibly  by  the  Philiitiuea  who  displiced 
tb>  AHte«,  elm  dxellFn  in  the  low  country  (DeuL 
D.  tS).  See  Kurtz,  /I!M.  of  Ou  Old  Cutiavmt,  vul.  i, 
1*6. 

III.  Bidorj  of  Ok  Cotvumful  Am,— The  Iirul- 
JM  vera  delivered  ft«m  Egypt  under  Moe«*.  in  order 
tLittbey  might  take  posMUiDD  of  the  lud  which  God 
hid  promijed  to  their  fnthen.  Thifl  country  wu  then 
nhthitcd  by  the  descendants  of  Canaan,  as  detcribed 
■toTL  TheH  nations,  and  enpecially  the  lix  or  seven 
n  fret|Qentlv  mentioned  1>v  name,  the  Israelites  were 
flnumsnded  to  disposeeM  and  utterly  to  destruy  (Eiod. 
uiii.  38;  Num.  Ixxiii,  S3;  Dent.  XX,  16,  17).  The 
dotnclioa,  however,  vss  not  to  lie  accomplished  at 
once.  The  promise  on  tiie  part  of  God  was  that  he 
would  '■  put  out  those  nitions  by  little  and  little,' '  and 
Cm  cMamaiid  to  the  [sraellles  corresponded  with  it; 
Ihereaaeii  given  being  "lest  the  bessta  of  the  Held  in- 
CTMse  tipoB  thee"  (Exod.  xxlil,  S9 ;  Dent,  vii,  22). 

The  deaOoctive  war  commenced  with  an  attack  on 
tha  Inaelitea  by  Arad,  king  of  the  Canaanites,  which 
iMHd  in  the  destruction  of  several  cities  in  the  eX' 
treme  ■oath  of  Palestine,  to  which  the  name  of  Hor- 
Bsh  was  given  (Num.  xii,  1-6).  The  Isnelltes,  how- 
tver,  did  not  follow  up  this  vktory.  which  was  simply 
tha  cousequence  of  an  unprovoked  assault  on  them ; 
bnt  tarning  back,  and  compassing  the  land  of  Edom, 
they  (ttemplfd  to  pass  throngh  the  country  on  the 
otker  side  of  the  Jordj<n,  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  the 
Amoritea.  Their  pissage  being  refiised,  and  an  at- 
tack made  on  them  I'y  Hihon,  king  of  the  Amorites, 
(hev  not  only  fiirced  their  way  throuKb  bb  land,  but 
Jfliujed  its  lnhabllant<,  and,  proceeding  onward  to- 
ward the  adjoining  kin^^dom  of  Bashan,  they  In  like 
BABoer  destroyed  the  inbabitants  of  tbit  district,  and 
>Iaw  Og,  tfaeir'kinx,  who  was  the  last  of  the  Rephalin, 
or  gianU  (Dent,  i]i.  11).  The  tract  of  which  Ihey  thus 
bMante  possensed  was  subsequentlr  allotted  to  the 
tribe*  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Ha- 
aasaeh.     See  Exodk. 

Alter  the  death  of  Moses, the  Israelites  crossed  the 
Jordan,  and.  onder  Ihe  conduct  of  Joshua,  took  pos- 
aasion  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Promised  Land,  and 
dMtroyed  its  inhabitants.  Several  cities,  however. 
Mill  held  oat.  puUcolarly  Jebus,  afteiward  .Ternsalem, 
which  was  not  taken  till  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam. 
V,  6),  and  Sidon,  which  seems  never  to  have  yieldsd  to 
tb«  tribe  of  Asher,  to  whom  it  was  nominally  allotted 

I  Jod^.  i,  31).      Scattered  partlona  also  of  the  Canaan- 

enoogb  lo  harass,  though  not  to  dispossess,  the  Israel- 
■IM.  The  inhabitants  of  Gitnon,  a  tribe  of  the  Ht- 
vitea,  XDide  peace  by  strjtagem,  and  thus  escaped  the 
iiatrnctioo  of  their  ftllow-countrynien.  Individuals 
ftam  anoD  I  the  Canaaniln  seem,  in  later  times,  t 
have  united  themselves,  In  soma  way,  to  the  Isrse 
itaa,  and  not  only  to  have  lived  in  peace,  bat  to  bat 
hc«o  capable  of  holding  places  of  honor  and  powei 
ibn  Driah,  one  of  David's  captalnn,  was  a  Hlttite 

II  Cfan>a.  xi,  41).  In  the  time  of  Solomon,  when  thi 
kiDgdiiiD  had  attained  its  highest  glory  and  i^ates 
power,  an  tha  remnants  of  these  nations  were  mad. 

<1  KioKB  ix.  W).  The  GirKaahites  seem  lo  have  been 
cither  wholly  destroyed  or  absorbed  In  oUnr  tribei 
We  find  no  mention  of  thpm  subsequent  to  the  hook 
if  Joshua;  and  the  opinion  that  the  Ge^eseni 
Gadarenea,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  were  the! 
taadants,  has  llltle  evidenc",  except  the  «imilBrily 
•f  tume>,  to  support  it  (ItosenmOllrr,  Sckolii  m  " 
Vl«;  Reland.Bi(.Fj/iaa,i,!7,p.inX).  TbeAnakltes 
irn  completely  destroyed  bv  Joshoa  except  in  three 
rIttea,Gais,Gath.  and  Ashd^  (Josh,  xi.tl-iri;  and 
ihe  powerfiJ  oatioD  of  the  Anwiekites,  many  times  de- 
1 1.-5 


s  CANAANITE 

feated  and  continually  haraselng  the  JiTaelites,  were 
at  last  totally  destroyed  i>y  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (1 
Chmn.  Iv,  *'i).  Even  after  tbe  return  of  the  Jews 
hom  the  Babylonian  captivity  there  were  survlvora 
of  live  of  the  Canaan itish  nations,  with  whom  alliances 
had  been  made  by  the  Jews,  contrary  to  the  conimindi 
which  had  been  given  them.  Some  of  Ihe  Cannunites. 
acmrdlDg  to  ancient  tradition  (see  D'Herbelot,  Bib- 
Hotli.  Oriait.  t.  V.  FaUsthin),  left  the  l.nd  of  Canai-D 
on  the  approach  of  Joibiu,  and  emigrated  to  the  cai,rt 
of  Africa  (to  Armenia,  according  to  Kittcr,  KnUc.  vii, 
6SB).  Procopius  {De  BtO)  yamialica,  il,  ID)  relates 
that  there  were  In  Numidia,  at  Tigisls  (r.'iijw),  two 
columns,  on  which  were  inscribed,  in  Pbcenh^n  char- 
acters, "Wears  those  who  fled  f^m  the  face  of  Joshoa, 
the  robber,  the  son  of  Nane."  (See  Bochart,  FA-iVff, 
'    "  ofUoia,  art.  Bl,  vol  i,  p. 


1,  34:  Micbaelis, 
176.  S        ■ 


c,  I,  i 


1  sq.i  UicI 


eyond  their  chariola  (tf 


IV.  Ckaraettrittia 
above)  we  have  no  clew  tt 
of  the  Canaanites.     Uke           '  ^„^^* 
tie  Phtonicians,  they  were   ^^  nt-t.  Jfc  1    *** 
probably   given    to   com-  ^-  -^^        

doubtless  became  In  later 
times  an  occasional  syno- 
nym for  a  merchant  (Job 
xll,  6;  Prov.  xixl,  24  j 
comp.  Isa.  xxni,  8,  11; 
Hos.  xU,  !(  Zepb.  i,  11. 
Se«  Eenrick,  nrmfia,  p. 
iS2).  Cnder  the  name 
Kan  :ma  they  appear  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments, 
distinguished  by  a  coat  of 
mail  and  helmet,  and  the 
use  of  spears,  javelins,  and 
a  battle-axe  similar  to  . 
that  of  Egypt  (Wilkinson, 
i,40.1,abridgm.). 

Of  the  language  of  the  Canaanites  little  ct 
On  the  one  hand,  bcine — if  the  genealogy  o 
l>e  rightly  understood' — Hamites,  there  could  ne  no  ar- 
flnity  between  their  language  andtbilof  tbelsraelitei 
who  were  descendants  of  Shcm.  On  the  other  is  Ihe 
fact  that 


p  I  E7ptlani. 


>f  Gen.  X 


id  Jacob,  shortly  after  their  e 
I  able  t    '    ' • 


lb  them, 


and  ^so  that  the  names  of  Csnaanite  j 
places  which  we  posseps  pre  tranelatabte  into  Hebrew. 
Such  are  Melchizedek,  Hamar,  Shecbem,  Siscra,  Eph- 
rath,  and  also  *  great  number  of  the  names  of  places. 
(For  an  examination  of  this  interesting  but  obscure 
subject,  see  Gesenins,  ffrbr.  Spr.  p,  !33-!So,)  See 
Cawaan,  Lasohaor  or. 

The  "Nelhinim,"  or  servant*  of  the  Temple,  seem 
to  have  originated  in  Ihe  dedication  of  captives  taken 
in  war  ficm  the  petty  states  surrounding  iha  Israel- 
ites. See  Nethinim.  If  this  was  the  case,  and  If 
they  were  maintained  in  numliet  from  similsr  source*, 
there  most  lie  many  non-Israelite  names  in  the  list* 
of  their  f,imili?*  which  we  possess  in  Ezra  il,  43-S4; 
Keh.  vii,  4G  S6.  Several  of  the  names  in  these  cata- 
logue*, such  a*  Sisera.  Nebunim,  Kephushim,  are  the 
sanio  as  those  which  we  know  to  be  foreign,  and  doubt- 
less others  would  be  (bund  on  axaminadDu.  The  Gib. 
ennilcii  especially  were  native  Canaanites,  who.'al- 
though  reduced  to  a  state  of  serfdom,  wen 


imong  tl 


aelite 


0/  CaiM'in.— The  arbitrary  and  forci- 
ble inwion  DT  the  land  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites, 

ants  by  tbem,  and  the  appropristion  of  their  property 
— alKive  all,  the  avowed  purpose  and  actual  warfare 
of  utter  extarminatinn  on  their  part  respecting  Iho^e 
who  had  never  misaced  Ihcm,  againEt  whom  tbey 


CANAANITE  6 

OOtdd  nriUMT  aihlblt  nor  pntind  to  any  *Qch  claim 
M  b  acknowledged  >b  ft  csuu  of  faostillty  or  ri|;lit  to 
tba  loil  amoD){  civiliied  nitloai,  lu>  „'  „ 
(enc«  to  modem  rationilisti,  and  occuioned  no  little 
difficulty  to  pioui  believers  in  tlia  econamy  of  ttaa  Old 
Testament.  Tbe  example  hoi  even  been  pleaded  ' 
Jiutiflcatlon  of  tfaa  shameful  oulrages  committed  by 
Christians  upon  tin  NorCb- American  Indi 
nros  by  the  Spaniards  in  their  eavoge  campaigns 
■gainst  the  peaceful  and  hi^^hly  c  '  ' 
and  Peruvians ;  nor  can  It  be  doubted  that  the  relent- 
less fplrit  evinced  in  the  aauguiuory  history  of  the 
Ezoda  was  Urt(e1y  reflected  in  the  <lai 
leal  of  Cromwell  and  the  Puritans, 
tempting  lo  vindicate  all  tbe  deUils  of  (he  war  under 
Joshua,  which  in  some  instances  (e,  g.  in  the  circam- 
itancei  attending  the  punishment  of  Acban  [q.  v.], 
who,  by  reUDD  of  his  complicity  with  the  CanoanltM 
in  reipect  to  tbe  ban  against  them,  was  r 
traitor,  and  dealt  with  aammarily,  as  by 
tlal,  or  rather  hy  "Ijnch-law")  appears  to  have  tran- 
■cended  even  the  rigorous  progratnme  contemplated 
in  lis  inception,  allboa>ih  it  probably  went  no  farthi 
in  seTeritj  than  the  rude  jndtcment  of  those  charged 
withorengaged  in  the  execution  of  the  scheme  deenf 
ed  needful  for  the  ends  in  view,  we  are  yet  called 
npon  tn  investigate  the  grounda  up 
nn.  as  a  whole,  has  been  defende 
fled ;  and  this  is  the  more  imperotii 
warfare  and  occupation  themselves  wore  not  simply 
tuffertd  while  in  progreos,  or  passed  over  as  nnavold- 
able  after  their  occurrence,  but  positively,  repeatedly, 
and  strictly  enjoined,  with  nil  their  essential  featarea 
of  lo-called  atrocity  or  injustice,  by  special  dlvl 
command,  accompanied  by  the  moat  awful  sanctions 
direct  from  heaven  itaelf.  The  question  properly  i«- 
latei  to  two  somewhat  distinct  paints:  1.  Tho  right 
ofthe  Israelites  to  the  territory  itself,  and,  9.  The  n 
rality  of  warfare  in  which  no  qaarter  was  to  be  give 
and  no  property  of  the  enemy  to  be  spared ;  the  cc 
ilderation  of  thesr,  however,  is  so  connected,  both 
the  similarity  of  the  objections  and  the  common  ground 
of  vindication,  that  we  may  most  conveniently 
tliem  together. 

"Uany  have  asserted.  In  order  to  alleviate  tba  Ht- 
flcnlty,  that  an  allotment  of  tht         "  '    \ 

Noah  to  his  thme  sons,  and  that  hy  this  allotment  the 
Land  of  Promise  fell  to  the  share  of  Shem ;  that  the 
descendants  of  Ham  were  therefore  usurpers  and  in- 
terlopers, and  that,  on  tills  ground,  the  Isnelitea, 
the  descendants  of  Shem,  had  the  rii;ht  to  dispoew 
them.  This  explanation  is  as  old  as  Epiphanius,  who 
thos  answered  the  objection  of  the  Msnichieaas.  0th- 
en  Justify  the  war  on  the  ground  that  the  Canaanitei 
were  the  first  aggressori — a  justiHcation  which  ap- 
plies only  to  the  territory  on  the  other  side  of  thi 
Jordan.  Uichaelis,  to  wham  we  must  refer  for  ■ 
lengthened  investigation  of  the  subject  {IjBaofMa- 
to,  %  29,  vol.  I,  p.  111-179,  Smith'*  trarsl.),  dissatis- 
fled  with  tbeso  and  other  attempted  apologies,  assert) 
that  tbe  Israelites  had  a  ri);ht  to  the  land  of  Cam 


'e-Und  ol 


aequenca  of  the  andistorbed  posseani 
tion  of  it  from  tbe  time  of  Abraham  till  tho  departure 
of  Jacob  into  Ejjypt}  that  this  claim  had  never  been 
relinquiabed,  and  was  well  known  to  the  Canwiiiites, 
and  that  therefota  the  Israelites  only  took  posseuion 
of  that  which  belonged  to  them.  Tho  same  hypotb- 
■ils  it  maintained  by  Jahn  (IMirta  CmnmonwtallA, 
cb.  il,  S  X,  Stowe'e  transl.).  In  the  Fragments  at- 
tached to  Taylor's  edition  of  Calmet's  Ciefionary  (iv, 
95,  9G)  another  ground  of  justiflcation  is  sought  in  the 
■apposed  identity  of  raco  of  the  E^-yptian  dynasty 
under  which  the  Israelites  were  apprensed  with  the 
tribes  that  overran  Canaan,  so  (hat  the  destruction 
of  the  latler  was  merely  on  act  of  retributive  justice 
for  the  injuries  which  their  compatriots  in  Ejypt  had 


CANAANITE 

th*  Irraelite*.  To  all  theM  and  simitar 
attempts  to  Justify,  on  the  gronnd  of  bgal  riglU,  the 
^npatioD  of  the  land  by  the  Israelites,  and 
'  ■  'east  to  a  great  extent)  of  the 
existing  occupants,  it  is  to  be  objected  that  no  aoch 
reason  as  any  of  these  is  hinted  at  In  the  sacred  reo- 
Old.  The  right  to  carry  on  a  war  of  extermination  Is 
there  rented  simply  on  the  divine  command  to  do  ao. 
That  the  Israelites  were  InstrumeDt*  In  God's  hand  ia 
a  lesson  not  only  continually  impnta-od  on  their  minda 
by  tbe  teaching  of  Moeea,  but  enfurced  by  their  de- 
feat whenever  they  relied  on  their  own  strength. 
That  there  eujihave  been  grounds  of  justification,  on 
the  plea  of  humsn  or  legal  right,  ought  not,  indeed, 
to  be  denied ;  but  it  is,  we  imagine,  quite  clear,  from 
the  nnmerons  attempta  to  find  what  these  grounds 
were,  that  they  are  not  sUted  In  tiie  Old  Testament ; 
and  to  seek  tai  them  as  thoogh  they  were  neces*ary 
to  tbe  justlScatian  of  the  Israelites,  seen-.i  (o  be  an 
abandonment  of  tbe  high  ground  on  which  alone  their 
JusUflcation  can  be  safely  rested — the  express  csm- 
mond  of  God. 

"  It  may  be  said  that  thii  is  only  shifting  the  diffi- 
cnlty,  and  that  Just  in  proportion  as  we  exculpate  (he 
Israelites  from  the  charges  of  robbery  and  murder,  in 
their  making  war  without  Irgat  ground,  we  lower  th« 
character  of  the  Being  whose  commands  they  obeyed, 
and  throw  doubt  on  those  commands  being  really 
given  by  God.  This  has  indeed  been  a  favorite  ob- 
jection of  InRdels  to  the  divine  authority  of  the  OU 
Testament.  Such  objectors  would  do  well  to  consider 
whether  God  has  not  an  absolute  right  to  dispose  of 
men  as  he  sees  lit,  and  whether  an  extermina(ing  war, 
from  which  there  was  at  least  an  opportunity  of  es- 
cape by  flight,  is  at  all  more  opposed  ts  onr  notiona 
of  justice  than  a  destroying  flood,  or  earthquake,  oi 
pestilence.  Again,  whether  the  fact  of  making  a 
chosen  nation  of  //u  worshippers  the  instrument  of 
punishing  those  whose  wickedness  was  notoriantlr 
great,  did  not  much  mors  impresslvelv  vindicate  hia 
character  as  the  only  God,  who  '  will  not  give  hia 
glory  to  another,  nor  his  praise  to  graven  images,' 
than  If  the  poniihment  had  been  Ijrouulit  about  by 
uatDral  causes.  Such  considerations  as  these  must, 
va  apprehend,  silence  those  who  complain  of  Injustice 
done  to  the  Conaanitet.  But  then  It  ia  ohjerted  fur- 
ther that  such  an  arrangement  I*  fraught  with  evil  to 
those  who  are  made  the  JnstramenU  of  punishment, 
and,  aa  an  example,  la  peculiarly  liable  to  be  alnued 
by  all  who  have  the  power  to  peisecuU.  As  la  tbe 
fl'rst  of  these  objections,  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  conduct  of  the  war  was  never  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  Israelites ;  that  they  were  continually  remind- 
ed that  it  was  for  tbe  wickedness  of  thoae  nations  tliat 
they  wen  driven  out;  and,  above  all,  that  they  them- 
selves would  be  exposed  (o  simitar  punishment  if  they 
were  seduced  into  idolatry,  an  evil  to  which  they  were 
especiilly  prone.  As  to  Uie  example,  it  can  apply  to 
'here  there  is  not  an  equally  dear  expreasioa 
of  God's  will.  A  person  without  such  a  commission 
has  no  more  right  to  plead  the  example  of  tho  Irroel- 
ites  in  Justirication  of  hia  extenninaUng  or  even  har- 
assing those  whom  he  imagines  to  be  liod's  enemiea, 
than  to  plead  tlie  example  of  Hoses  In  JustiticBtion  of 
bis  promulgating  a  new  law  purporting  to  come  from 
God.  In  B  word,  the  justification  of  tbe  Israelites,  as 
it  appears  to  us,  ia  to  bo  sought  in  this  alone,  that  they 
wero  clearly  commiasinned  hy  Gud  to  accomplish  thia 
work  of  judgment,  thus  at  once  giving  public  testl- 
many  to,  and  receiving  an  awful  impression  of  Hia 
power  and  authority,  so  aa  In  aome  measure  to  check 
the  outrageous  IdoUtrj-  into  which  almost  the  whole 
world  bad  sunk." 

See  Eitlo.  PM.  Iliil.  of  lU  Jevt.  1,  33S  sq.;  also 
Diilg  Bibh  llbmr.  ii,  235  sq. ;  Bp.  Sherlock,  Iforis,  v ; 
Drew,  .Script.  Sludiri.  p.  1S2  sq. ;  Paley,  Sernwnt,  p. 
429;  UUI,£eniu>iu(l»i3),  p.ll7i  Simeon,  K'orti,  i^ 


CANAANITE 


67 


CANDACE 


at;  Scott,  The  EittrfaKon  of  Ot  CanatmUtt  (Ser.  I 
*«,  t,21U>(i.):  Pitnati,  Datnidiim  n/ ae  Canaan- * 
lla  (Ssbr  Strm.  i,  481  »q.) ;  Bp.  UanU,  ErUnmma- ' 
Ut  iif  lit  CamaaiulTi(Serwt»u,  Hi,  J86  f^.);  BeDJain, 
Vadmlam.  etc.  (Loud.  1797);  Stiebriti,  De  jattitia 
bU  adt.  Camamitai  (llal.  17fi9);  Kobort,  Catua  belli 
ImtLlici  wfe.  CwKaaai  (Mart).  1778);  Nonae,  £>> 
kd<iKt  armom  JirarBlamm  adv.  Cawmaoa  (Brem. 
i;i3):  3cbubFrt,n>!ju<t(MiirUMCcu'Wi»t(Greifi<r, 
lIC);  HanpKeDlMrg,  AiMauicilg  o/ lie  PaUalaich, 

CAXAANITE.  or  rather  CamasitS  (RecoiTed 
Tell  [vitli  the  Codf  X  Siniitleui],  u  Kavai'injc ;  Co-  ' 
itx  X,  Kava»i>i|i ;  Lacfam.  with  B  C,  u  Kavavoroc : 
D.  Xnrnimroc ;  VuIk-  f^ifWHau),  tba  deaiKnallan  of 
A«  apMtle  SiHoM,  othvwiM  known  B>  "Simon  Z«- 
lots."  It  ocean  in  Hatl.  t,  4 ;  Mark  ill,  IS.  This 
mri  doe*  not  il^lly  a  dncandant  of  Canaan,  that 
bchg  in  the  Gnek  both  of  the  Sept.  and  the  N.  T. 
TLamaiot  =  '■IwlS  (comp.  HatU  it,  22  with  Hark 
Tii.  16).  Kor  doca  it  alitnif;,  aa  hu  bem  inifgnted, 
a  aitire  i^  Kana,  aince  that  would  probahl;'  be  Ka- 
nrfC-  Bat  it  cornea  from  the  Ileb.  V-V^,  iaima', 
B^Ht,  or  lather  bom  the  Chaldea  ^X3p,  Kanan',  or 
Syriac  Kataiffi,  bj  which  the  Jewiah  aect  or  fac- 
■JoB  of  "tba  Z«ilata" — ao  prominent  In  the  laat  days 
el  Jcna>lem~wu  deeignatad  (see  Buxlorf,  Ler. 
TJm.  csL  SOfiO).  Thla  Sj-rlae  wold  ia  the  nadhig  of 
(In  EWhito  Teralon.  The  Greek  equivalent  ia  Zir- 
XvriH'.  ZtlaUi,  and  thta  Luke  (vi,  16  ■,  Acta  1,  13)  haa 
nmrtly  praaerved-  Matthew  and  Uark,  on  the  otb- 
tr  hand,  han  literally  tranafeTred  the  Syriac  word, 
ai  Eba  SepL  did  frequentlj  befon  them.  Then  ia  no 
B«f*>ll3>  ta  (uppoee,  aa  llr.  Cuieton  does  (Altrinn 
Jbc.  IxxxTiiX  Ifart  the;  mlMook  the  word  Ua  Kena'- 

Caaaan.  Th«  EvaDgellata  could  bardlj  commit  «nch 
as  (mir.  whalsver  aubaeqnent  tranaciibcn  of  their 
w«k)  nay  have  done.  Bat  that  thia  meaning  waa 
aftcmid  attached  to  the  word  i>  plain  from  tha  nad- 
■19  gf  the  Codex  Bbib  (D)  and  the  Vulgate  sliove. 
The  apelliag  of  tba  A.  t.  biu  doubtUu  led  many  to 
tba  aame  eimclnaian ;  and  it  would  be  well  if  it  were 
•Itoed  la  "Kananite,"  or  eome  other  form  (u  was 
4na  in  the  late  rerleion  by  the  Am.  Bib.  Society, 
wheat  "atasdard"  text  had  "Cananite")  dlitinmiih- 
td  from  iIm  wdl-known  ooe  In  which  it  now  atanda. 
SmZelotu. 

CanoeUaril  (CRA)(CKi.tj>iis,  lat),  one  of  the  lo- 
fcnw  riaaarn  of  terranti  of  the  ancient  Church  and 
cia^.  Tbepreciae  nature  of  (heir  dntiea  la  doubtful. 
Bin^un  anppceea  them  to  have  had  aome  anch  afBce 
n  the  Church  a*  tboee  of  the  name  name  in  the  Mate, 
and  (hat  thej  Bctod  aa  gnarda  oftbejudffe'aconaiitory. 
'*hcn  aappoae  them  to  hare  been  identical  with  the 
•pt^n  at  Jrjaiiam,  Khoae  duty  it  was  to  watch  over 
the  righta  of  the  Church,  to  act  a>  ■uperintendent*  of 
ek  of^tm,  and  to  aae  that  all  clerka  attended  the  «ls- 
toatfaaefcDOTning  and  evening  aerv Ice  in  the  Church," 
-Bhgham.  Orig.  £etltt.  M.  Ui,  cb.  zi,  S  6 :  Farrar, 
Eai.  Diit.  a.  r. 

CUtoelll,  K  lattice  or  batutrade ;  the  rail  leparu- 
liait  dn  akar  fMm  the  nave.  In  ancient  churches,  waa 
callad  oatrBL     See  Chanctu 

Cmoelltis,  a  word  ocfstionally  nied  hi  the  mean- 
Of  of  pulpil-  M  the  alxe  of  churchea  increased, 
peaihiBK  in  tiw  chancel  became  Tary  dUBcult,  and  It 
lOan  happened  that  the  officiating  biahop  cr  preihy- 
lar  wu  insodilile  on  account  of  hii  great  distance  fktim 
t^  r™^-  Hence  a  custom  was  introdiu^  of  plac- 
ing 1  Mg^esCiDK,  or  pulpit,  from  which  the  preacher  de- 
tivand  tbe  aermon,  in  A«nt  of  the  partition  which  di- 
tidii  tbe  chancel  from  the  nave.  It  waa  therefore 
caihd,  in  conseioeneo  of  its  positio!!,  ametUui. — Fut- 
nr,  Ctd.  Did.  a.  t. 


Can'dooft  (yiaviacj:  Hlller  compares  Iba  Ethlo> 

pic  ^Ip,  ht  ndrd,  and  pn,  a  Am,  aa  the  EthtopiaD 
kings  are  still  in  Oriental  phrase  styled  "prince  of 
servants"  [Slmoois,  Oium.  N.  T.  p.  S8] ;  bat  tbe  name 
itself  ii  written  ^S'^in,  clumdaki,  in  Ethioinc ;  comp. 
Ludolf,  niil.  ^Jk.  lii,  2,  7),  waa  tbe  name  of  that 
queen  of  the  Ethiopians  (if  paaiXinea  Ai'Suin-wv) 
whose  high  treasurer  (tirvoi')^,  "eunneh,"  i.e. 
chamberlain)  was  eonverted  to  Christianity  nndei  the 
preaching  of  Philip  the  Evangelist  (Acts  viii,  7I\ 
A.D.  SO.  Tba  country  over  which  she  ruled  waa  not, 
as  some  wrilara  alleiie.  wfaat  ia  known  to  oa  aa  Aby>- 
ainla;  it  was  that  region  in  Upper  Nubia  which  was 
cjlled  by  tbe  Greeks  Mini,  and  is  supposed  to  corre- 
spond to  the  present  provlnca  of  Athtra.  l}'ing  between 
13°  and  1S°  north  latitude.  From  the  circumstance 
of  its  being  nearly  enclosed  l>y  the  Atbara  (Atlabona 
or  Tacaxie)  on  the  right,  and  tha  Bahr  el-Ablsd,  or 
Wbite  River,  and  tha  Nile  on  the  left,  it  was  soms^ 
times  designated  the  "islaod"  of  Uerofi;  bnt  the  an- 
cient kingdom  appears  to  have  extended  at  one  period 
to  the  north  of  tbe  isUnd  aa  far  as  Mount  Beikal. 
I  Tbe  city  of  Hoot  stood  near  the  present  Aaaonr, 
I  about  twenty  miles  north  of  Sbandy )  and  the  exten- 
sive and  magniHcent  ruins  found  not  only  there,  but 
along  the  upper  valley  of  the  Nile,  attest  the  art  and 
civiliution  of  tbe  andent  Ethiopians.  These  ruins, 
seen  only  at  a  distance  by  Bmce  and  Bnrckhardt, 
hare  smce  been  minolely  examined  and  accurately 
described  by  Cailllaud  (_Fogoge  a  Umi),  ROppel  (Ka- 
(oin  Niibitn.  etc.),  and  other  travellers.  UenC,  from 
being  long  the  centre  of  commercial  intercourse  bo- 
tween  Africa  and  the  south  oTAsia,  became  one  of  the 
i  richest  coontries  upon  earlb  r  tbe  *'  merchandise"  and 
I  wealth  of  Ethiopia  (laa.  xlv,  14)  waa  the  theme  of  the 
poets  both  of  Palestine  and  Greece ;  and,  since  much 
ofthat  aBlarnca  would  find  ita  way  Into  the  royal  cof- 
fers, the  circumFtance  pivea  emphasis  to  the  phrase 
irrioiic  rnc  ynltc.  "bU  the  treasure"  of  Queen  Tan- 
dace.  It  is  ftirthpr  interesting  to  know,  tmm  the  tes- 
timonies of  various  autbon  (comp.  the  "Queen  of 
Sheba,"  wbo  visited  Solomon,  snd  see  Josepbos,  Anl. 
viii,  e,  b),  that  for  some  time  both  before  and  after  tha 
Christian  en,  EthiopiA  Profor  was  under  the  rule  of 
female  •nverrlgns,  who  all  bore  the  appellation  of 
not  so  much  a  proper  name  aa 


like  "  Pbaimoh"  '  and  "  Ptolemy' '  to  thp  kings  of 
E  -ypt,  and  "  Ciesar"  to  tbe  emperors  nf  Hump.  Tbni 
Pliny  (///si.  Xm.  vi,  »)  says  that  tba  cmturiona 
whom  Nero  aent  to  explore  the  country  reported 
"  that  a  woman  reii;ned  over  Ueioj  called  Caadatt,  a 
name  which  bad  descended  to  tbe  queena  for  many 
yesrs."  Stnbo  aho  (p.  8^0,  ed.  Casaub.)  Fpeakstif  a 
warrior-queen  ofEthioiuB  called  Cani^ace,  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  the  same  whom  Dion  Cawlus  (llv,  b)  de- 
scribes as  qneen  of  the  "Ediiopians  living  above  (I'lrip) 
Esypt."  In  B.C.  22  the  had  invaded  EL-vpt.  and  mon 
afterward  insulted  Ibe  Komsns  on  the  Ethiopian  fron- 
tier of  Egypt.  CaiuB  Petmniu^  (he  governor  of  the 
tatter  province,  marched  airainft  the  Elliiopians,  and, 
having  defeated  them  in  the  Rv\d,  took  Pseica,  and 
then  crossing  the  sands  which  bad  long  before  proved 
fatal  to  Cambjses,  advanced  to  Preranis,  a  Ftrong  po- 
sition. He  next  attacked  Kspata,  the  capitAl  of  Queen 
Candace,  took  and  destroyed  it;  but  then  retired  to 
Premnia,  where  he  left  a  garrison,  whom  the  warlike 
qneen  aasaUed,  bnt  they  were  relieved  ly  Petronins. 
She  was  still  later  treated  favorably  i>v  AuRUStua. 
She  ia  said  to  have  lost  one  eye  (see  Smith's  /)kl.  of 
Clna.  Bios.  '■  v.)-  This  NapaU,  by  Dion  called  Te. 
nape,  is  supposed  to  have  stood  near  Moonl  Beckal, 
and  to  have  lieon  a  hind  of  second  Metvi ;  and  Uiere  is 
still  in  that  net.;hboihood  (where  there  are  likewise 
I  many  splendid  ruins)  »  village  which  Iwars  the  very 
I  simiiur  name  of  ifrraic^,    Euaebius,  who  flouliihedin 


CANDACE  6 

tbe  Ibiirth  cental^,  ttyt  that  in  his  da^  thii  queens  of 
Elhiopw  coDtinued  to  be  called  Candacc  (Hut,  Eccl. 
ii,  1, 10).  A  curiooi  caofirnuition  of  the  bet  of  feniale 
aorereigptf  luTlag  prevallsd  in  Ethiopia  haa  been  re- 
iBarkad  on  the  eiialing  mimaiiisnta  of  the  couniij. 


Andenl  Elhioidan  Quhq  Irl 

Thna,  on  the  Ijr^esI  ■spnlchral  pyramid  near  Aaaonr, 
the  ancient  UeroE  (aee  Cailliand,  plate  ilvi),  a  female 
wairiur,  with  the  royal  enaiKna  on  her  head,  dragi  foi^ 
ward  a  number  of  captive*  aa  nfferinf^  to  the  goda ; 
on  another  compartment  the  la  in  a  wutike  habit, 
about  to  deitroj'  the  same  groap,  Heeren,  after  de- 
(criblng  the  monnmenU  at  Naaa,  or  ^laha,  sontheast 
of  Shend}-,  aaya,  "  It  is  evident  that  tbeaa  repreaenta- 
tiona  poweas  roan.r  pscultarillea,  and  that  they  are  not 
pare  G^ptlan.  The  moat  remarkalile  difference  ap- 
paara  in  tlie  persona  offaring.  The  queena  appear  with 
tbe  Itin  A ;  and  not  merely  as  preaentinK  offeringa,  bnt 
u  hsroinea  and  Fonqueron.  Nothing  of  this  kind  hat 
yet  been  diseofered  on  tbe  Egyptian  rellefa,  either  in 
Egypt  or  Mubia.  It  may  therefore  with  certainty  be 
CDDcluded  that  they  are  aubjecls  peculiar  to  F.tbiopia. 
Among  the  Ethiopiana.  e»y»  Strabo  (p.  1177),  the  wom- 
en also  are  armsd.  Heradotoi  (ii,  lOD)  mentiona  a 
Nltocrii  amon^  the  anclentqueena  of  Ethiopia.  Upon 
the  reliaf  [on  the  monnment  at  Kalabah6]  representing 
tbe  conquest  of  Ethiopia  by  SeaoctrLv  there  la  a  queen, 
with  her  Boni^  who  appeara  before  him  as  a  captive" 
(Heeren,  On  (Ai/Cntwwo/^/ripi.ii,  899).  The  name 
Candace,  or  KaidafnA,  appeara  on  the  E^^yptjan  mon- 


nmenta  on  ■  royal  cartoache,  followed  by  the  deter- 
minative aign  for  a  woman.  It  ia  aingular  enough, 
that  when  Bruce  was  at  Shendy,  the  government  of 
tile  district  was  in  tbe  hsnda  of  a  female  called  SiOina, 
i.  e.  the  lady  or  miitreas.  He  soyn,  "There  ia  a  tra- 
dition there  that  a  woman,  whose  name  was  Hcnda- 
qu^  once  governed  all  that  country,  whence  we  might 
imagine  tbat  Ihia  waa  part  of  the  kin--dom  of  Can- 
'  dace;  for,  writing  this  name  in  Greek  letten,  it  will 
oome  In  he  DO  other  than  HendaquA,  tlie  native  or 
miatress  of  Chendi  or  Chandi"  {Trnvfh  to  ducortr  the 
Some*  Kfihe  Nik,  iv,  bj9;  comp.  i,  n05).  It  ia  true 
that,  the  name  Kandaki  Iwing  foreign  (o  the  Jews,  it 
Is  in  vain  to  Mck  with  Calmet  for  its  etymology  in 
Hebrew,  but  tbe  conjectural  derivation  proposed  by 
Bruce  ia  wholly  inadmissiblej  nor  is  the  attempt  (ace  ■ 
above)  of  Hiller  to  trace  its  meaning  in  the  E^hioplc 


i  CANDLE 

language  mnch  more  aatiafiictor]-.  De  Dlen  aoerts, 
on  the  authority  of  eccieaiasticai  tradiliun,  that  the 
proper  name  of  the  queen  mentioned  in  the  Acta  waa 
'  taua,  and  that  of  her  chamberlain  Jiidict.  It  is  not 
illkely  tbat  some  form  of  Judaiam  waa  at  this  period 
profesaed  to  a  certain  extent  in  Ethiopia,  ua  well  a*  in 
the  neighboring  country  of  Abvisinia.  Irenxus  (iii,  12) 
and  EusebiuB  {Uitl.  Ecd.  U,  1)  ascribe  (o  Candace'a 
minister  her  own  conversion  to  Cbrisljanijj',  and  tbe 
promulgatiun  of  the  Gospel  thronghout  her  kingdom; 
and  with  this  agrees  the  Abyssinian  tradition  that  ha 
WM  likewise  the  apostle  of  Tigri,  that  part  of  Abrs- 
nnia  which  lay  nearest  to  Meroi ;  it  ia  added  that  be 
mfterwaid  preached  the  Gospel  in  Arabia  Kelix,  and 
also  in  the  island  of  Ceylmi,  where  be  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom. (See  Titlemon't,  Mm.  HiM.  Eect.  tom.  iL; 
Baniagt,  Etenilali.  a«ti-Bar<m.  p.  US;  Lodoir,  Con- 
nou;  ad  Hill,  ^ikinp.  p.  89;  Wolf,  Cum,  ii,  113; 
^suricon  FiiJi.  Btciew,  April,  1865.)    See  Ethiopia.^ 

EUHUCH. 

Candldna,  an  Atian  writer,  who  flonrished  aboot 
£64,  and  ia  the  author  of  a  booh  addressed  tu  Harin* 
Victotinua.  (fe  Gentratione  JHenti,  which,  together  with 
the  answer  of  Victorinus,  is  exUnt.  It  will  be  found 
in  Zeigler'a  Commentary  on  Genesia(Baale,lM8,fol.). 
A  fhigment  of  an  epistle  of  Candidna  to  Victorians  i> 
preaerved  by  Mabiilon,  AiiaUcIa,  iv,  166.— Care,  Biit. 
BrUmpUv™,  Ul.,  Anna  8&i;  Landon,  £re/.  flirt.s.  v. 

Candle,  ^3,  ner,  a  iomp,  as  elsewhere  rendered; 
>u;(ivc,  a  I'ffit/,  as  elsewhere. 

I.  Honsea  in  the  East  were,  from  the  earliest  times, 
lighted  up  with  lamps,  and  those  of  tbe  Hebrews  prob- 
ably reaembled  such  as  we  And  deleted  in  the  Umba 
at  Thebea.  Job,  describing  tbe  destmction  of  a  family 
■moDg  tbe  Arabs,  and  the  rendering  one  of  their  habl- 
~  loiate,  says,  "The  light  shall  be  dark  in  hU 
tabernacle,  and  his  candle  shall  be  put  out  with  him" 
(xvlii,  Si  x:ii,  17).  On  the  other  band,  when  God 
promises  to  give  David  a  lamp  aiwaya  in  Jeroaalera,  it 
is  an  assurance  that  his  bouae  ahouid  never  become 
In  tbe  language  of  Jeremiah,  to  extinguish 
the  light  in  an  apartment  ia  a  convertible  phraae  for 
loUl  destruction  (Job  xxv,  10}.  A  burning  lamp  is, 
on  tbe  other  hand,  a  symbol  of  prosprrity  (Job  xiii, 
B).  Mailkt,  in  his  ietfnw  iE-jgpU,  aays,  "  Tbe  houses 
n  Egypt  are  never  without  lights;  tbey  hum  lamps 
ill  the  night  lonk{,  and  in  every  occupied  apartment. 
to  requisite  Ui  the  comfort  of  a  bmily  ia  this  ca«tom 
reckoned,  that  the  poorest  people  would  rather  retrench 
part  of  their  food  than  neglect  it,"  Roberts,  in  lllua- 
tration  of  the  passage,  "  I  will  search  Jemsalem  with 
candlea"  (Zeph.  i,ia),  remark",  "  Does  a  man  declan 
his  innocence  of  any  crime,  tbe  accusers  uy,  'We  will 
search  thee  with  lamps;'  'Yes,  yea,  I  will  look  into 
that  affair  with  lamps;'  'What,  have  yonr  lamps  gons 
out?     You  see  I  am  not  guilty.'"     See  Law  r. 

There  are  monographa  bearing  on  this  anb}ect  as  Ibl- 
Iowa ;  D.  W.  Mniier,  De  perrmibiu  vet.  luanit  (Altorf, 
1705):  J.  J.  Mailer,  De  eel.  A«:(wiM.(i  (Jen.  1661)  ; 
Schiinfleisch,  Z)i/uiRiniAius<H:rit(inhis  CoiUror.xxv): 
StocbiiBUEcn,  Oe  calta  tt  ma  lamnsin  antiqao  (Tr.  mA 
Rh.  172fi).     See  C*:tDLK9TicK. 

U.  CandUt  in  ChriitianWorikip.—'i.  Soman  Cktmh. 
—The  practice  waa  probably  derived  from  heathen  and 
Jewish  worship.  Some  Roman  wrilen  ascribe  its  ori- 
gin to  the  early  Christiana,  who,  prevented  by  permt. 
cution  ftom  worshipping  in  dayilgbt,  held  their  meet- 
inifs  under  jn^iund.  where  artificial  light  was  needed 
(Claude  de  Vert.  E-pliaUum  del  C^fmaniti  dt  Tf^f.'sp). 
Others  (c.  g.  Bert-ier.  Dicl.  de  Thnlogir,  a.  v.)  quota 
the  book   of  BevelDt-on,  wherein    mention  is    msde 

of  the  usage,  and  also  the  Apotloticni  Canons  (Can.  4). 
where  mention  ia  made  of  "oil  for  the  holy  lump." 
Bcrgler  also  cites  Jerome  (cnnfni  Viiiilotitiam,  c.  H)  in 
support  of  the  use  of  lights  in  worship ;  but  the  po^ 


CANDLE  e 

nf)  citd  duply  tpukf  of  ■  owge  In  the  Eulam 
Cbsrcii  of  lightiaK  candles  when  tha  Gcxpcli  were 
iwd  u  a  fiymlw]  of  joy  u  nctlvloi;  the  ligbU  Je- 
HMnc  ezpiwly  wys  tbe  ougc  did  not  exist  in  the 
Wwt,  though  ba  letuu  to  JasUTj  the  Ugbting  of  ud- 
dle*  and  UmiM  before  the  lombi  of  the  mtutjTe.  See 
Luipm.  The  lUe  of  csndleB  in  the  vuiship  of  the  Ro- 
Du  Cbonrb  ii  defended  on  the  ground  tlut  they  sym- 
b^aa  Christ  u  the  "true  licbt,"  and  ilao  ot  the  in- 
JiKtion  of  Chrirt  to  his  foUowen  to  be  "  tbs  li|{bt>  of 
■en"  (M.tt.  V,  H,  IB). 

Tba  principal  Miemnitiu  in  the  Boman  Cbnrcb  at 
■bkh  candlea  are  uied  an  the  maw,  Ibe  admiDiitia- 
tioaa  of  the  aactamenls,  the  benedlctiona  and  proces- 
BBi.     They  an  alio  frequently  employed  before  the 

at  their  private  devotiono,  eapecially  while  praying  for 
the  dead.  Nnmemui  lltorgical  prewriptioiu  re|{ulata 
Ihlil  <ue.  They  muat  be,  except  in  caiel  of  emer- 
gmcy,  of  wax,  and  their  color  la  generally  wbite  or 
TetkiiT.baC  imrely  red.  The  PaitAal  eaadh  a  ■  large 
cabdle  U>  which  five  graina  of  iacense  are  attached  in 
tha  Ibnn  of  a  crDM  i  in  moat  Roman  Catholic  chnrch- 
a  it  la  lighted  with  a  newly-made  Gre  oa  Euter  eve. 
Alfaan  Bntler  eayi  that  "  Ennodius,  blthop  of  PaTi.i 
(Bth  ecdtnry),  has  left  ua  two  forma  of  paj-er  for  tha 
tJaauBg  of  thii  candle.  From  him  we  lesm  tbatdrop- 
piap  or  particles  of  the  wax  thereof,  after  Low  Sun- 
day, were  dlttribnted  among  tba  people,  who  burnt 
tbeo  in  their  hoDjiea  against  the  influence  of  evil 
afirita.  In  which  tfaera  wbb  no  aapentltioa  If  the  ef- 
fect waa  not  certainly  expected,  becauae  it  was  hoped 
far  and  aaked  of  God  through  Uie  public  prayers  and 
hle<aiDg>ortheCbnrch,ditectedfDrthatend(!)  The 
paaebal  candle  la  en  emblem  of  Chriat  risinR  from  tba 
dead,  the  light  of  the  world,  and  i*  a  sl^  which  an- 
Bouncee  to  na  the  )oy  and  glory  of  faia  rcaurrection. 
Tk«  S*e  grains  of  ftanklncense  flied  in  it  symboUcat- 
ly  tepneent  bis  five  precious  wODnds,  and  the  embalm' 
big  of  hia  body  at  hla  burial,  and  again  in  the  grave, 
by  the  devout  persons  who  brought  splcea  to  his 
■Hmnmcnt.  Thb  gnat  candle  anciently  gare  light 
daring  the  watching  in  the  church  on  Easter-eve  in 
the  nigbL  The  triple  eaidlt  arising  from  one  stock 
d«nifiea  the  Trinity  of  personi  in  ooe  God,  or  the  li>.'ht 
ef  the  Trinne  God  shining  to  the  world  tbrough  Christ. 
This  only  bums  during  the  office  of  holy  Saturday 
nniDg;  after  which  it  is  taken  away,  and  no  moro 
■•da  oae  of.  not  even  on  Easter-day."— Butler,  FcaiU 
srf  FaUt  (Tresit.  vi,  ch.  viii). 

1. /■  (rlf  PmtMfml  Ctumtrs.— Tha  Lutheran  Church, 
after  the  Befonnation,  retained  the  use  of  lights  on  tlic 
altar;  Ibe  Befbrmed  chorchea  abolished  it.  In  tlio 
aercb  of  England,  the"  InjuDctiona  of  Edward  Vj" 
{1M;>  forbade  the  use  of  lights,  "except  of  two  lights 
■pon  tba  bi^h  altar  before  the  sacrament,  which,  for 
the  rigoUication  that  Chriat  is  the  ver}-  true  llxht  of 
the  world,  they  shall  suffer  to  remain  still."  In  ca- 
Ibedisl  churches  these  twt-  lighbi  were  generally  kept 
en  the  altar, hut  not  lighted;  and  the  great  wrirers 
aad  leaden  of  the  Church  of  England  wrote  Baiiin!>t 
the  n«ofIii:hUae  tending  to  idolatry.  So  the  Hom- 
ily "On  tbc  Prril  of  Idolatry"  quotes  Lactantios  es 
Kinows:  "Seemelh  he  lo  be  In  his  riglit  mind  who 
aSbretb  up  to  the  Gii-er  of  all  light  the  light  of  a  wax 
candle  for  a  gift?  He  requireth  anrther  light  of  its, 
which  is  not  smoky,  bat  bright  and  clear,  even  the 
ligbt  of  tbe  mind  and  anderstanding.  Their  (tbe 
Ittatben)  gnds,  tiecauae  they  be  earthly,  have  need  of 
Gght,  lest  they  remain  in  darkness;  whose  worshlp- 
|ar*,  becauH  tbey  nndentand  no  heavenly  thing,  do 
draw  rvlieion,  whidi  tbey  n*e,  down  to  tbe  earth," 
Tbe  Homily  adds:  "Thus  fkr  LactnntiDB.  and  muc 
on.tnolong  here  lowrite,ofcanr]lB-lighllng  in  ten 
f4ea  Itefora  images  and  Idols  for  relik.don;  whereby  a| 
peaitth  both  the  foolishness  thereoF.  and  also  that  i 


CANDLEMAS 

religion  with  the  Gentile  idolaters."  The  Bomily 
in  to  show  that  this  candle  worship  la  closely  con- 
i  with  superstition  and  idolatry.  Jeremy  Tay- 
lor says  of  the  Papiata :  "  Thia  is  plain  by  their  public 
ind  authorized  treatment  of  their  images;  they  conse- 
crate them ;  they  hope  in  them ;  they  expect  gifts  and 
graces  from  them ;  they  clutbe  them  end  crown  them ; 
■  ly  erect  altars  and  temples  to  them;  they  kiaatbimi 
ly  bow  their  head  Lnd  knee  lefore  them;  thrg  Kghl 
lapcri  and  lampt  lo  Ihrni,  vkieh  it  a  dirtcl  eimivinp' 
e  acrifict;  they  do  lo  their  images  as  the  heathen 
to  (heirs;  these  are  the  words  of  Irennur,  by  which 
he  reproves  the  fglly  of  Fome  that  bsd  got  the  pictures 
of  Christ  and  Pythagoras,  and  other  eminent  pertena." 
In  the  so-called  "Ttactarian"  revival  of  Fcniish 
uBBgEB  in  I83S  and  tbe  following  years,  the  practice 
of  putting  candles  on  "  the  altar,"  and  lighting  them 
on  certain  festival  days,  was  retumed.  In  the  recent 
" Bituallatic"  revival  {U6S)  the  practice  has  l.ecome 
quite  etmmon  in  the  hands  irpecially  ofynnngcuntea 
of  a  Konisnizing  turn.  They  defend  the  lepslit}- of  the 
practice  on  the  ground  that  the  rvbric  preceding  tba 
"order  for  ncoming  and  evening  prayer  throngbont 
the  year"  admits  the  ure  of  "all  omsmenta  of  the 
church  that  were  In  thIa  Church  of  England  l<y  the 
authority  of  Parliament  in  the  recond  year  ot  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI;"  while  the  Injunction,  cited  alove, 
allows  IKO  lights  to  be  kept  on  the  altar.  On  the 
other  side  it  Is  argued  (1)  that  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land there  la  properly  no  altar,  1>ut  only  a  con'.munion 
table ;  (!)  that,  in  fact,  the  two  lights  spoken  of  vera 
never  lighted  In  the  early  days  after  the  BeformsUon, 
even  In  the  cathedrals  in  whh;h  they  were  retained; 
and  (3)  that  the  use  of  candles  is  only  a  part  of  an 
idolatrous  ryrtcm  ot  worship.     SeeLaHFS;  Casdle- 

III.  For  the  popish  ceremony  of  "cuning  with  liell,  -, 
liook,  «nd  candle,"  see  Bell.— Bo)f>onnet,lXi(i'[BiiairB 
d'j  CrrimonUM,  t,  v.  CVriyr,  Ciandtiier ;  MHrtlgny,  7)rVf. 
d't  AnIijaiUi  CkriAnnrt.  a.  v.  Grrgr;  BIrgham,Wrj. 
Ectlci.  bk.  xiv,  ch.  lil,  %  II ;  Goede,  Cmmimiat  r/ikt 
Ckurtk  itfEngUmA,  §  9;  Hook,  Ckurch  tAcdonars  (de- 
fends candles),  a.  v.  /Jghtton  At  Altar. 

CandleniBa,  in  tbe  Homsn  Chnrch,  the  feift  of 
the  purification  of  tbe  Virgin  Mary,  held  on  the  !d  of 
February,  the  fortieth  after  Chri>lmaa,and  therefore 
celebrated  ns  that  on  which  tbe  purlflotinn  of  the  Vir- 
pin  look  place  (Luke  ii,  M).  The  Greek  Church  caU- 
cd  it  iirnitavTn.J'nlnni  otmtia,  the  tfcaat  of  the  meet- 
ing (aee  Luke )i, SB);  aUo/rilsmpTTfiitntiiiiiuHmimii 


«;fi«^ 


r;thef 


m  and  Anna,  or  aimply  ot  Simeon.  The  name 
f'llum  caadrUtrvn  or  htmiiam,  the  feast  of  li):ht*  (or 
Candicmaa),  came  into  use  at  a  later  period,  after  ^a 
introdactinn  of  candles  Into  the  service  of  tbe  [reces- 
sions in  honor  of  the  Virgin.  On  this  day  the  Ro. 
msnists  conserrato  all  the  cardies  and  tapera  which 
they  use  In  their  chnrches  during  the  whole  year.  At 
Bome  the  pnpe  performs  that  ceremon.v  hhnself.  and 
distributes  wax  candles  to  the  catdinals  and  othrti, 
who  carry  them  in  procession  thronjih  the  great  hall 
ot  the  pope's  pelace.  Luther  reteined  the  feflival  as 
"  a  festival  of  our  Lflrd  Jeaua  Christ,  who  on  this  day 
mnnifeated  himself  when  he  was  bome  toito  tbe  Tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem  and  presented  to  the  Lord."  In 
many  Lutheran  churches  it  is  still  celebrated.  In  the 
Church  of  England  the  festival  wa*  abandoned  In  the 
second  year  of  Edward  VI. 

The  ceremonies  observed  on  this  festival  are  proba- 
bly derived  from  the  Pehroao  or  puriAcatory  rites  of 
pagini'm,  which  occumd  on  the  same  dav,  and  v  hich 
are  briefly  described  by  Ovid  (Fail.  ii).  Pope  Sergins 
(A.D.  C41)  has  the  credit  ot  transferring  this  "  false 
maumetry  and  antrue  lielief,"  as  it  is  styled  bv  Becon, 
in  his  IMiqan  rf  ftmar,  to  "God's  worship."  This 
pontiff  hallowed  thefeast "  thorowe  all  Cbri-lendome ; 
and  eveiy  Christian  man  and  woman  of  covenabia  age 


CANDLESTICK 


70 


CANDLBSTICK 


b  boond  to  come  to  church  and  afTer  up  their  undies, 
u  thoogh  tbev  were  bodily  witb  our  Liil;e ;  bo[Hng 
for  thii  rsvenuc*  ind  worahip  th*t  they  do  to  our 
l^ye  to  hmrs  m  great  reward  in  heaven."  The  fol- 
lowing explanation  ifl  given  by  Pope  Innocent  HI: 
"Wb]>  do  we  cairy  lighted  candle*  at  thii  festival? 
The  Boiwei  nuy  be  derived  from  tbe  book  of  Witdom, 
where  it  ii  aaid  Cch.  liv,  23)  that  tbe  heathen  oObred 
»*crifloe>  at  night  (»oen>ij  obtcw).  The  Gontilei, 
indsed,  had  devoted  the  month  of  Kehruary  to  the  in- 
fernal dallies,  becaiue,  as  they  ignonintl;  believed,  It 
was  at  the  beginning  of  thli  month  Uiat  Hnto  had  rav- 
iahed  Proserpine.  Ceres,  her  mother,  had,  according 
to  thur  belief,  soUKht  her  through  Sicily  for  a  i  ' 
Digbt  by  the  tight  or  torches  kindled  at  the  Sam 
>Etna.  In  commemoration  of  thia,  the;  every  year, 
atthebeginning  of  February,  travelled  Che  city  daring 
the  night  bearing  lighted  torches,  whence  thia  feitival 
was  called  amiurtiaie.  Bat  the  holy  lathen,  being  un 
able  to  abolish  this  castom,  decided  that  lighlod  can 
dies  Bhouli]  be  carried  in  honor  of  tbe  blesaad  Virgi[ 
Maiyi  and  tbua  what  was  formerly  done  for  Ceres  is 
done  to-dsy  in  honor  of  the  Vii^n,  and  what  was  done 
fbrmerly  for  Proseri^na  is  now  done  in  the  praise  of 
Hary"  (InnoceDt  III.  Ojpera,  "Serm.  I.  in  fiigt.  pnrif. 
Marin,"  fol.  xlrii,  col.  !,  ed.  Coloniie,  libi). 

The  following  are  tbe  prajers  for  the  hallowing  of 
candles  upon  Candlemas-day,  copied  bma  "  The  Doc- 
trine of  the  Hsss-book,"  15&1.  The  asterisks  indicate 
cRiasin^:  "O  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  *  bless  thou 
creature  of  a  viuen  (o^r  at  oar  humble  supplication, 
and  hy  Che  vlrtae  of  the  holy  cross  poor  than  into  it 
an  boavenly  benediction;  that  as  Chon  hasC  granted  It 
unto  man's  use  for  the  expelling  of  darknete,  il 
receive  such  a  ntrength  and  bles'ing,  through  the 
of  thy  holy  cross,  that  in  what  places  soever  It  be  light- 
ed or  set.  the  DevU  may  avoid  out  of  those  habitations, 
and  tremble  fur  fear,  and  By  away  diacooraged,  and 
presume  no  more  to  unqaieCtbem  that  serve  thee,whi 
with  God,"  etc.  Then  fbliow  other  prayers,  in  one 
of  which  occnr  these  passages :  "We  humbly  lieaeech 
thee  that  thou  wilt  vouohsan>  to  *  blosi  and  aanctUy 
these  cjndlei  prepired  unto  the  nsea  of  men,  and 
health  of  bodies  and  souls,  as  well  on  the  land  u  the 
wsten."  "Vonchufe  •  Co  bless  and  ■  sanctifr. 
with  the  cuidle  of  heavenly  benediction  to  lighCen 
tlieaa  tapers ;  which  we  thy  servants  taking  in  the 
honor  of  thy  name  (when  they  are  lighted),  deaiie  to 
hear,"  etc.  "  Here  let  the  candles  be  sprinklod  with 
holy  water."  The  service  concludes  with  this  Kuhric: 
"Wlien  the  hallowing  of  the  candle  is  done,  let  the 
candles  bo  lighted  and  distributed." 

"The  iiiBtival  of  St.  Agatha,  which  commenc 
Candlemas-day  In  Sicily,  strongly  resembles  th 
bruan  ritea.     lJ,{hted  tapera   furm   a  disdngnishiox 
and  the  memory  of  Proserpii 


iCill  cl 


.ngbu 


another  snperst 
IT  the  very  spot  t 


by  kindlinga  blaiing  fine  torch 
which  the  mythologtcal  legend  i 
Fluto's  smoraua  farce.  An  Recount  of  tbts  festival 
will  be  Ibund  in  Slant's  Vatiya  a/  Andml  Maimeri 
tn  /Ca'y."— Bingham,  OHg.  Eccla.  bk.  xx,  c.  vlii,  §  4 ; 
AuguKti,  DaJacardlgitltm,  ThI.  Ui,  p.  79;  Slegel,  AU 
unhumtr,  iii,  p.  820;  Eadie,  Eaift.  JXaamirj.  a.  v. ; 
Chunitn.  Book  of  Dag,,  I,  313  aq. ;  Bttad,  Pajmlar 
jmiqiUiei,  i,  W  sq. 

Candlestick  (rnisp.nnwrtiil',-  Chald.rniiti^a], 

aelinuAtak';  Sept.  and  N.  T.  Xvxt'ia,  properly  a  lamp- 
ttiwd,  as  in  Matt,  v,  IG),  the  candelabrum  which  Ho- 
aes  was  commanded  to  make  for  (he  tabernacle,  after 
the  model  shown  him  in  the  mount.  Its  form  la  chief- 
ly known  to  us  by  the  paasaj^es  in  Exod.  xxr,  8I-.tO ; 
xaxvil,  17-34;  on  which  some  additional  light  is 
thrown  by  the  Jewinh  writers,  and  by  the  rcpresBnti- 
tiunoftbe  spoils  ofthe  Temple  on  the  arch  (.|.  v.l  nf 
TiCua  at  Rome,  tho  only  vriilable  monument  extant 


Tlloi. 


r  sippcoJS  on  Ihe  Arch  of 


oftheklad(Prideanx,t%wsec«>i»,i,1Ge).  It  is  called 
in  Lev.  siiv,  4,  "the  pure,"  and  in  Eccina.  axrl,  19, 
"the  holy  candlestick."  So  DiodoniB  Sicalus  de- 
scribes it  (x,  100,  ed.  Bip.)  as  "  tbe  so-callBd  immortal 
light  peipetaally  bnmiiig  in  the  fane"  (ri  adavoroc — 
Xiyiiuvoc  Xiijivoc  cai  jcatofuvoc  utiaKiimit  Iv  r<^ 
vaifi. 

The  material  of  which  it  was  made  was  line  (^'<na, 
"pure")  gold,  of  which  an  entire  talent  wes  ejtpended 
on  the  candela1>rum  Itself  and  its  sppenda::m.  Tbe 
mode  In  which  the  metal  was  to  lie  worked  is  de- 
acribed  by  a  terra  (fTSJ^P,  "beaten  [rather  turned] 
work,"  Sept.  ropiiir^,  ^'ulg.  duelUf)  which  a^ieara  to 
mean  vrtm^U  with  Che  hammer,  as  oppoeed  to  cost  by 
fuaion.  Josepbua,  however,  Raj's  {AM.  iii,  G,  7)  that 
it  waa  of  cad  gold  (ct^ui'ii'/itvii),  and  hollow.  Tbe 
structore  of  the  candelabrum,  as  far  as  it  is  dcliaed 
in  the  passages  referred  to,  consisted  of  a  base  Oi^^, 
Joseph,  ^anc;  according  to  Uaimonldee,  tliree  Ibet 
high);  of  a  abaft  (".?];,  "«',  t- e.  stem)  riling  out  of 
Vi;  of  six  arms,  which  came  out  hy  thmts  from  two 
opporite  aldea  of  the  ahaft;  of  seven  lamjv,  which  were 
aupported  on  the  summits  of  the  central  shaft  and  the 

[?].  standing  parallel  to  one  another,  one  by  one,  in 
imitation  of  the  planets  (Whiatnn'a  Jmrpitu,  1.  c); 
and  of  three  dilTennt  kini^  of  omamenta  belonging  to 
Che  ahaft  and  arms.  These  ornaments  are  called  bv 
names  which  mean  etipt,  firr/ii*,  and  hlmorn:  "four 
bowls  made  like  onto  olmonda,  with  their  knops  and 
their  flowers."  The  cups  CD''7^3^  Sept.  xparljpit. 
Vulg.  iq/phi)  receive.  In  verse  3-1,  the  epithet  ofnoMt- 
Aapfd  (it  lieing  uncertain  whether  the  reaemblancs 
was  to  Ibe/Tof  or  to  thojewfrs).  Three  each  cups 
are  aitoCted  to  every  arm.  btit  fonr  to  the  shaft:  two. 
and-twenly  in  all,  Seo  Bowu  Of  the  lour  on  the 
shaft,  three  are  menUoned  as  If  set  sevcnliy  nnder 
Cha  spots  where  the  three  pairs  of  arma  set  ont  from 
the  shad.  Tho  place  of  tho  fourth  Is  not  assigned ; 
but  we  may  conceive  it  to  have  been  either  between 
the  base  and  the  cup  below  the  lowest  tier  of  arms, 
or,  as  Bohr  prefers,  to  have  been  near  the  summit  of 
the  shaft.  As  for  the  name  of  the  second  («nament, 
the  circlets  (D^nnGI),  tbe  word  only  occur*  tn  two 
otherplscpB  In  tbe  Old  Testament  (Am.  ii,  1 ;  ZepL.ii, 
14).  in  which  it  appears  to  mesn  the  copilaf  of  a  col- 
nmn :  but  the  Jewish  writers  generally  (cited  in  Dgo- 
lini  TheKtur.  xi,  917)  concur  in  considering  it  to  mean 
tjj^tft  in  this  place.     Jowpbua,  ss  he  ennm prate* ,/cHir 

most  be  considered  identical,  may  be  euppoeed  to  bav« 
understood  globti,  or  pomtgranatti  (a^ipia,  poIonH, 


CANDLESTICK  7 

Atiq.  ni,  «).     But  u  tbe  tefin  bci*  UMd  is  not  tbi 

to  maDW  that  it  denote*  bodln  of  ■  ipbeiical  ohApe, 
ud  to  lekve  tbe  predss  kind  undedned.  Uilir, 
bewergr,  'a  in  hvor  of  appla  {^•nboliii,  i,  414). 
S«  Kkof.  TIm  um>  of  tha  tbird  ornament  ^ 
(CIV'S,  i^va,  HSa)  mttoa  UoMoia,  bad;  bnt  it  , 
k  H  genBnl  ■  Urm  tbftt  it  iniy  apply  to  any 
bvH.  Tba  Sept.,  Vnlg.,  JoMphus,  and  Mu- 
■mudB*  Dndcntand  it  of  the  lilj,  and  Blhr  pre- 
fenthe  flowarofthe  almond,  it  now  remaiiu 
U  eooaider  the  manner  in  wliicli  thew  tbree 
inanienta  were  attacked  to  tlie  candelabrnm. 
Tbe  obeenrity  ot  vena  SB,  whidi  orden  tbat 
that  *hall  b«  "ttiree  almond^ahaped  cupa  on 
one  arm,  i^lobe  and  bloBom,  and  three  almond- 
■btpcd  cDpe  on  the  other  arm,  globe  and  bloe- 
■HB,  and  eo  on  all  the  areu  which  come  oot  of 
tbe  ahaft,"  haa  led  some  to  enppOH  that  there 
•nt  ae.\j  one  globe  end  bloHom  to  every  three 
npe.  Uovever,  tha  fact  that,  nccording  to 
(tne  34,  the  ihaft  (ikhich,  a>  being  tbe  princi- 
))b1  put  of  the  whole,  ia  here  called  the  ninilr- 
hhim  itaelf),  which  had  only  four  CD|»,  it 
ordered  to  have  globea  and  bioaeoma  (in  the 
tlanl).  is  a  (DSclent  proof  to  the  contrary. 


I  CANDLESTICK 

of  time.  The  whole  weight  of  the  candleatlck  wa«  100 
mine  (lee  Lamy,  De  Tab.  Fvd.).  It  haa  bean  cilcu< 
laCed  to  have  been  worth  t2&,MI),  excluaive  of  Motk- 
maoahip.    Sae  TASBatrACLE. 


t,  the  0 


imenU  on  tha 
mber,  and  thii 


renre  for  that  number,  would  read- 
ily coincide ;  but  it  seenu  difficult,  from  the  de- 
foiption  in  Exodur,  to  CDnGrm  the  f  tatement. 
It  ii  to  be  oleeiTed  that  tiie  original  Mxt  doei 
not  define  the  helglit  and  breadth  of  any  part  of  the  can- 
drblinun ;  nor  whether  the  ihaft  and  anna  were  of 
equal  height;  nor  whether  the  arma  were  curved  round 
tbe  efaaft,  or  left  It  at  *  right  angle,  and  then  ran  par- 
allel with  iL  The  Jewish  authorities  maintain  that 
tbe  beii;ht  of  tbe  candelabnun  was  eighteen  palmf,  or 
aboBi  five  feet :  and  that  tbe  distance  between  the  anUr 
lanrpi  on  euh  aids  waa  about  RJ  feet  (Jahn,  Bibl.  Arch. 
{  S29).  Bihr,  however,  on  the  ground  of  hannouical 
iroportion  with  the  altar  of  incenaa  and  Cable  of  ahew- 
bread,  tbe  dimeneiont  of  which  ere  ualimed.  oonjec- 
tnrea  that  tbe  candelaiirum  wae  only  an  ell  and  a  half 
U^  and  broad.  Tbe  Jswiab  tradition  nniformly  aup- 
poitethe  opinion  that  the  uina  and  abaft  were  of  eqnal 
height,  aa  do  also  JoMphos  and  Philo  ((.  c .-  Quu  Aer. 
Sir.  UtT.  %  14),  a>  weil  ai  the  reprvaentation  on  the 
Anh  of  Titua.  Scaccbiua  baa,  however,  maintained 
that  they  formrd  a  pt-ramid,  of  which  the  nhaft  waa  the 
apex.  Tbe  lampa  themaelvei  were  doubtleae  limply 
let  npon  ttke  lommita  of  the  shafts,  and  removed  for 
the  pDrpOH  of  cleaning.  As  the  deacription  given  in 
Eiodna  b  not  ver}-  clear,  we  abhreviata  Lliihtfoot'a 
e<(pbaatkn  of  it  "Tha  foot  of  it  was  gold,  th>m 
which  went  np  a  shaft  straight,  which  was  Iho  middle 
li^t.  Near  tha  foot  was  a  golden  diih  wrought  *l- 
■BOdwise,  and  a  little  above  that  a  golden  knop,  and 
above  tbat  a  golden  flower.  Then  two  branchea,  one 
DB  ewh  sMe,  boKed,  


loal  KpneeatatioD  of  Ih* 


shaft. 


h  of  tt 


rnp*  placed  atmondwise  on  sharp,  scailop-ahell  bshlon 
above  which  was  a  golden  knap,  a  gclden  flower,  an< 
the  socket.  Above  the  lininches  on  the  middle  shal 
w»B  a  gidden  boss,  above  which  rose  two  shafts  more 
abcFTT  the  fnming  out  of  these  waa  another  bnH,  am 
two  more  ihafU,  and  then  on  the  shaft  upward  wer 
three  irolden  scallop-cupe,  a  knnp.  and  a  flower,  s 
that  tbe  heads  of  the  branches  stood  an  e(|nal  height' 
IITirfa,  ii,  397,  ed.  Pitman).  Calmet  remarks  that 
"tlw  rramherT  might  remind  them oftheSalihath:"  we 
Lave  M«Dthat  Joeephns  gireait  a  somewhat  Esyptiun 
rrfncnce  tn  tbe  number  of  the  planets,  but  eisewhcre 
( Wv.  vii.  S,  5)  ho  assigns  to  the  7  I  ranches  a  merely 
(BDeral  rehrence  to  tbs  Jewiah  hebdomadal  diviaion 


This  candelabrnm  was  placed  in  the  Holy  TUce,  on 
the  eonli  side  (i.  e.  to  the  \tp  of  a  person  entering  the 
tabemai'le).  opposite  the  table  of  shew-brrad  (Exod. 
Tivi,  35).  Its  lamps,  ikhich  were  supplied  with  wick 
(P  of  cotton)  and  half  a  log  (al.oui  two  wlne-gUasea) 
of  pure  olive  oil  only,  were  lighted  every  evening, 
and  eitiD^aiahed  (as  It  seems)  ererv  morning  (Exod. 
Tixvii,!!:  XXX,  7,  S;  Lev.  xxiv,  S';  I  Sam.  iii,  8;  8 
Chron.  xiti,  II).  Although  the  tabernacle  bad  no 
windows  (Exud.  XXX,  8;  Mace.  Iv,  bO^,  there  ia  no 
good  ground  for  believing  thj;t  the  lamps  burnt  by  day 
in  it,  whatever  may  have  l*en  the  usage  of  the  second 
Temple,  ll  has  alw  l.ern  much  disputed  whether  the 
candelabrum  stood  lengthwise  or  diagonally  as  re- 
gards the  tabernacle ;  bnt  no  condnsive  argument  can 
be  adduced  for  either  view.  According  to  .'nfephas, 
It  waa  placed  in  an  oblique  position  (XcfcTr),  so  that 
tbe  Ismpe  looked  to  the  east  and  soutb  (^lU.  iii,  6.  7 ; 
Exod.  XXV,  Hi).  AetheUmp  on  the  central  ihnftwas 
by  the  Jewinb  writers  called  the  mttm,  or  ernn'aj 
lamp,  rome  maintain  tbat  the  former  name  conld  not 
l>e  applicable  unleaa  the  candelabrum  stand  serosa  the 
tabernacle,  a*  then  only  wimld  the  central  lamp  pohit 
to  the  wesL     Others,  again,  adhere  to  the  latter  slgni- 

^vening,  tbe  other  six 
by  day  (Briand,  Anlij.  i.,  B,  8). 
moniing  trimmed  the  lampa  with 


,  and  build  01 
nmt  from 


The  prieat  in  tbe 


CANE 


72 


and  curisd  vntj  the  inalTin  golden  diibes  (mnn^;  | 
trvoSifuira  ;  acerra,  Eiod.  xxv,  SB).  Wbtn  carried 
■bout,  tha  candleitick  «u  covered  with  ■  olotfa  of 
Uue,  and  put  with  Its  mppeudogM  <n  bsdger^kin  bigs, 
wblrh  were  eopported  on  it  bar  (Num.  Iv,  9). 

In  Sabmon'i  Temple,  ln>te*d  of  thU  single  undeU- 
brum  (nr  beslilea  it,  u  the  RibUiu  ay,  but  what  be- 
came of  It  la  notknonn;  see  KeO,  Tmpti  &A.  p.  109). 
there  were  tan  of  pnro  gold  (who»  structure  is  not 
described,  *t thoagb /dubts  are  menCioDed  :  I  Kinga 
vii,  49;  2  Cbron.  Ir,  7),  one  h*lf  of  which  stood     " 


them 


le  other  on  the  ■■ 


:h  aide  < 


>e  Hol.i 


Tbose  are  »ld  to  have  fonned  a  wrt  of  rail- 
ing before  the  vail,  and  to  have  been  connected  bj 
golden  chains,  lutder  which,  on  the  day  of  atonement, 
the  high  priest  crept.  The;  were  carried  &way  to 
Babylon  (Jer.  lli,  19).  In  the  Templa  of  Zerubbabel 
tbere  appears  lo  have  been  only  one  cmdeUbrum 
again  (1  Mace,  i,  31 ;  iv,  M,  60).  It  ia  probable  that 
it  ftlM  had  only  aeven  lamp^  At  leiet,  that  was  the 
ease  in  the  candeiabram  of  the  Herodian  tample,  ac- 
corJing  to  the  description  of  Josepbus  (IFur,  vii,  6). 
This  candelabrum  la  the  one  which,  after  the  deatruc- 
tioQ  of  Jerusalem,  was  oanied  with  other  spoils  to 
Rome,  where,  after  the  triumph  of  Titus,  it  waa  depos- 
ited in  the  Temple  of  Peace,  and,  according 
atory.  fell  into  the  Tiber  from  the  Milvian  brid 
ing  the  flight  of  Maxentiut  tnm  Constanliae,  Oct.  SB, 
312  A.D.;  butitprobably,  in  A.D.ia5,bacai 
of  the  plunder  which  Qenserlc  traaeported  to  Carthago 
(Gibbon,  lil,  291).  It  was,  however,  again,  about  A.D. 
S33,  recaptured  from  the  VandiiU  by  B^lis: 
carried  to  Constantinople,  and  wm  tbence  smt  off  to 
Jerusalem  {ib.  iv,  SIX  ^m  which  time  It  has  disappear- 
ed altogether.  Itia  to  thii  candelabrum  that  the  rcp- 
reientation  on  the  Aich  of  Titui  at  Rome  (nee  Fleck, 
WitieoMiliiJU.  Reitf,  I,  I,  pi.  I)  waa  intended  to  apply 
and  although  the  exlatance  of  the  llgnres  o!  cagli 
and  marina  monsters  on  the  pediment  of  that  lamp 
tends,  with  other  minur  objactioi 
curiicy  of  that  copy  questionable  (aa  it  U  unlikely  that 
the  Jswa  should  have  admitted  any  sach  graven  im- 
ages into  their  temple),  yet  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  in  othsr  points  it  may  be  relied  upon  as  a  reason- 
ably correct  representation  of  the  Herodian  candela. 
brum.  Keiind  has  almost  devoted  a  valuable  liulo 
work  to  this  subject,  Dt  Spolui  Ttmpli  lUenualgm.  in 
Area  Tltiaio  (2d  ed.  by  Schnlie,  1775),  p.  82  sq.  See 
also  Sbillminn,  De  caiddabro  anno  (Brem.  1700); 
Schlichler,  De  LyehmAo  lacra  (Kal.  IT-JO);  DMer- 
lain,  Di  Candiiabrlt  Judsmm  mcrii  (Vitab.  1711); 
U^ino,  Dt  CanMabm  {Tkrtaur.  xi).  See  Camdi,e. 
Pmm  the  fjct  that  the  golden  candelabrum  waa  ex 
presalr  made  "  after  the  pattern  shown  in  the  mount," 
many  have  endeavored  to  And  a  symbolical 
in  all  iU  ornaments,  especially  Meyer  and  Buhr  (_Sgnt- 
M.i,  416,  aq.).  Generjlty  it  was  "a  typo  of  preach- 
ing" (tSoilwyn'a  Hfoiei  oaJ  Aaron,  ii.  I),  or  of  "the 
li^ht  of  the  law"  (Li,:btr<>ot,  1.  c).  Similarly  candle- 
■ticks  are  elsewhere  made  typea  of  the  Spirit,  of  th> 
Ciiuruh,  of  witnesses  (Zech.  iv  [see  Scholie,  De  l.frh- 
tvaho,  Altona,  1741]  ;  Rer.  il.  6;  xl,  4;  comp.W 
invsa.  Clav.  ^b  J.  s.  v.).  When  oar  Lord  cried  " 
am  the  li<ht  of  the  World"  (John  vlii,  12),  the  all 
won  wja  pmliably  suificcsted  by  the  two  large  |Cold< 
chandeliers,  lighted  in  the  court  of  the  women  durir 
the  Fea»t  of  Tabernacles,  which  illnminated  all  Jeru- 
salem (Wetetein,  ad  lof.),  or  perhapa  to  the  lighting 
of  this  colossal  ciindleKtick,  "  the  more  remarkable  In 
the  profound  darknexs  of  an  Oriental  town"  (Stanley, 
JSiaai  <iad  Paltit.  p.  420).     The  flsure  i.r  Liuirr,  hiiw 

I-  (I-a 


from  which,  indeed,  the  modem  term  (Chald.,  Syr.,  and 
Arab,  etaentially  the  aame ;  Gr.  idivir,  Let.  en— a)  a[>- 
to  have  been  derived,  signifying  properly  a  rttA 
(aa  Dsually  trsuslatad),  i.  t.  the  tall  sedgy  plut  with 
a  hoUow  stem  (^m  ns^,  to  tncf),  growing  in  moist 
places  (1  Kings  ilv,  16 ;  Job  zl,  31 ;  Isa.  xii,  6 ;  Kxxr, 
~  ■  ■  ■  BI,  bta^  of  the  mdi  [A.  V,  "  multi- 
tude of  spearmen, "],  i.  e.  the  crocodile);  alM>  the  sweet- 
flag  (Ewk.  xxvil,  19 ;  Cant,  Iv,  14 ;  fully  Elod.  «s, 
23);  also  the  coltivated  reed  uaed  aa  a  staff  (Eiek. 
'  I,  6;  Isa.  ixxvi,  6);  hence  a  meainring  reed  or 
n]<f(Eiek.  xl,  S,6;  xUi,  16-19);  ilto  a  simple  (biU  of 
grun  (Gen.  xli,6,  SS);  likewise  the  upper  &««  of  the 
m  (Job  xxxi,  S2) ;  the  nd  ta  beam  of  a  baliince, 
pnt  for  the  bahince  itself  (Isa.  xlvi,  6) ;  the  shaft  or 
'  the   sacred   candelabrum   (Exod.  xxx,  31  ; 


xvil,  17),  a. 


well  ai 


nchea  or  tuba  (Exod. 


3a,  ee,  etc.).     As  the  name  of  a  plant,  the 
word  deslgnitea  In  Scripture  three  kinds  of  (he  genus 
info,  of  which  we  aocordingly  give  here  a  deLaileil 
description. 

I.  Coaaaon  Caw.— In  most  of  the  pasaages  of  the 
Old  Testament  the  nurd  iamh  seems  to  be  applied 
;rictly  to  reeda  of  diflferent  kinds  growing  in  water— 
lat  is,lo  the  hollow  stems  or  culma  of  greases,  which 
re  usaally  weak,  easily  shaken  about  by  wind  or  by 
water,  fragile,  and  breaking  into  sharp-pointed  splin- 
ters. Thus,  in  1  Kinin  xiv.  15,  "  Aa  a  retd  ia  shaken 
in  the  water;"  Jobxl,  SI,  "llellethln  the  covert  of 
(he  rted;"  Isa.  xii,6,  "  And  they  shall  turn  the  riv- 
ers far  away  ;.and  the  reedi  and  flags  shall  wither." 
Also  hi  ch.  XXXV,  7 ;  while  in  2  Kings  xvlii,  SI ;  Is^ 
xixvi,  6 ;  and  Elek.  xxii,  7,  there  is  reference  (o  the 
weak  and  fragile  natare  of  the  reed :  "  Lo,  thou  (nut- 
ent  in  the  stiff  ot  this  broken  rrrd,  on  E^iypt,  whereon 
if  a  ni:in  lean,  it  will  go  Into  hts  hand,  and  pierce  it." 

The  Greek  word  jtnXnpoc  appears  lo  have  been  oon- 
aldered  the  proper  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew  taMk, 
Iwing  tlie  term  used  by  Matthew  (xii,  SO)  when  qnot- 
ini^lhe  words  of  I*.,iab(xrii,  0),  "A  bruised  reeJ  shall 
ho  not  brck."  The  Greek  word  Latinized  ia  well 
known  In  the  forms  of  ca'amuj  and  oJmw.  BoLhseem 
been  derived  fTom  the  Arabic  kaim,  aignlfy- 


nga 


'  and  fu 


i(fa  the  letter  signification,  in  the  lanimages 
of  the  Eist.  It  also  denotes  a  weaver's  reed,  and 
even  cuttings  of  trees  for  planting  or  grafting.  Or 
they  may  all  be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  katm,  hav. 
ing'  tha  same  ^gnificatien.  The  German  ibifna,  and 
the  En);1ish  tuufm,  nsnally  applied  to  the  straw  or 
stems  ofgrarses,  would  seem  to  have  the  same  origin. 
The  Greek  naXa/io^  and  the  Latin  ealamu  were  naed 
Kith  as  wide  a  signification  as  the  Oriental  tofn,  and 
denoted  a  reed,  tlie  stalk  or  stem  of  com,  or  any  thin; 
made  therefrom,  as  a  pen,  an  armw,  a  reed  pipe.  Kri- 
Xa/iiS  is  also  applied  to  any  plant  which  Is  neither 
shrub,  bush  (iXij),  nor  tree  {l^vlpov)  (see  liddell  and 
Scott's  Great  Lr.y  So  calamai  meana  any  twig, 
sprig,  or  scion  (Pliny,  xvi,  U,  24).  The  t*rm  iciiXo- 
/idf  occnrs  very  frequently  in  the  New  Teatamcnl, 
and  apparently  with  the  same  lacJtade  of  meanm^: 
thus,  in  the  sense  of  a  reed  or  culm  of  a  grass,  MaU, 
xi,  7  ;  Luke  vii,  S4,  "  A  rerd  shaken  by  the  wind ;"  of 
a  pen  in  3  John  13,  "Bnt  I  will  n.  "   ' 

write  unto  thee ;"  Matt,  xsvii,  Sn, 
right  hand;"  ver.  SO,  " Took  the  r*«i  and  smoto  him 
on  the  head ;"  and  in  Mark  xv,  19,  it  rosy  mean  a 
reedor  twiiofany  kind.  So  al«n  in  MstLxxvii,  46, 
and  Mark  xv,  36,  where  it  ia  said  that  they  filled  a 
sponge  with  vinegar,  and  pnt  it  on  a  ned,  while  in  tho 
parallel  passage,  John  xix,  S9,  it  is  said  that  they 
filled  a  uponje  with  vjnegir,  and  put  it  upon  hga^p, 
and  pnt  it  to  his  mouth ;  from  which  II  is  prohabin 
tbnt  the  term  jcriXnpoc  was  applied  by  both  the  Evan- 
gelifita  (n  (he  Bteni  of  the  plant  named  hyssop,  what- 
ever tliii  may  have  been,  in  like  manner  aa  Pliny 


td  in  lus 


CANE 


73 


CANISiUS 


(Hi'',  U.  TS)  applies  the  tern  calamui  to  tha  M«d  of 
4tnablr. 

la  iMer  times  the  term  cans  hu  been  applied  more 
lutkalariy  to  the  etenu  of  the  Caiinniu  roiang,  and 
•Cher  epecie*  of  nUjx  canet,  wblcb  we  have  good 
p^naadi  far  belicTing  were  unknown  to  tbe  incieols, 
HtvitbalaDdini;  the  ophiion  of  Sprengel  (i//i(.  Rri 
Hat.  i,  171),  "L'teaiaa  nukes  two  klndi  of  'calamDr,' 
Uv  Ml*  without  pith,  tbe  femalo  wllb  It,  the  Utter 
■tthiHit  dnabt  tbe  Calamiii  rvOmg,  tbe  other  oar  Sam- 
ian,  M  Pliny  rotates  (xri,  36)."     See  KlaO. 

t  (Vinierf  Cne.—Ot  this  Dioewrldes  deacribea 
Ikdiferent  kinds  in  hi)  chapter  npi  <ca\aiiov  (i,  114). 
I.  KiiXa>u*f  u  naaro^,  or  tbs  Anntdojartta,  of  whirh 
unnri  u«  made  (Anmdo  armaria  f).  3.  The  femalE', 
■f  which  tv«d  pipes  were  Dude  ^A,  donaxf).    S.  Hol- 


Exod.  jtix,  88),  or  Kaxbh'  hat-Tod'  (aian  Itl^, 
good  or  fra^p'i.nt  rttd,  Jer.  vi.  20).  It  is  probably  in- 
tended also  Uy  kantk  ("  rged")  siniplj  in  Cant,  iv,  14 ; 
Isa.  xliil,  2i ;  and  Eiek.  ixvji,  IT,  a«  it  is  enameraled 
with  other  fragrant  and  smmatic  tubatances.  Finally, 
it  was  Lrought  from  a  ft.r  ooonlry  (Jer.  vi,  SO;  Exek. 
zxvii,  IS) :  Dun  also,  and  Javan,  gaiiig  to  and  fro,  car- 
ried brij;ht  iron,  cassia,  and  cslatnus  to  the  maikets  of 
Tyre, 

Tbe  beat  description  by  ancient  writers  of  this  plunt 
ia  tbit  of  Dloscoridea  (i,  17),  who  cells  it  the  anmuHc 
ntd  (raXdfiac  opaiiiaTu^iii).  and  immediately  after  aa 
a  nuk  (irxDivoi).  lie  >uiea  it  to  be  a  produce  of  In- 
■■       '    -  '  '  Jointed,  breaking  in- 

.  and  havinif  tlie  boUc  '"    '     '  ' 

tbe  w 


It  knots,  fitted  for  writins,  probably 
Iwws.  4.  Thii'k  and  hollow,  grow- 
«  B  rircr*,  wbkb  la  called  domai,  and  also  Cjprla 
IhmIi  domax).  b.  Pkragnatn  (Antiido  phragmita), 
tuiet,  lighUcokiTed,  and  well  known.  I!.  Tbe  reed 
lOed  Pi>ot  I A  rmdo  laaf^adaavM  CgriU-i).  (^Ffora 
a^.  I.  xil.)  These  are  all  described  0-  c.)  immc- 
islety  befbrv  the  papyraa,  while  KiXmio^  ripoiftancof 
'  Tibad  in  a  dilTerent  part  of  the  book,  namely.  In 
aluBg  with  apices  and  perfumer.  The  Arabs 
H  Ibe  dilTertnt  kinds  or  reed  under  the  heait  nf 
ar  Kutmh,  nf  wblcb  thay  give  KiJaimu  as  the 

FroB  the  context  nrscreral  of  tfao  above  passages 
lfcri|itore  in  which  kauh  is  mentioned,  it  ia  evl- 
M  tlist  it  wia  a  pLint  gmwing  in  water ;  end  we 
re  (era,  from  the  mauiing  of  the  word  in  other  lan- 
)Ctii,that  h  muFl  hare  bean  applied  to  one  of  the 
■  ned*,  as,  for  insUnce,  Anmda  .,€g<fjiliaca  (pi-r- 
p  only  a  variety  of  A.  dimor),  growing  on  the 
aka  af  tbe  Nile.  !□  tbs  Kew  Testament  jniXnfiix; 
■a  to  be  applied  chiefly  to  plants  growing  in  dry 
i  ma  faamn  sitnatlona,  aa  in  Luke  vli,  !4,  >*  Whet 
«  re  into  Ibe  wildemeaa  to  •<«— a  reed  ahnken  by 
•  aiad  t~  To  attcb  pasaages,  aome  of  tbe  speciea  of 
a,  with  slender  rtama  and  light  flvccu- 
y  referred  to  Saceluinm,  but 
genera,  ate  well  suited.   See 

— Thl*   la   deaignated   In    Ileb.  by 
(ti05    n:p,  ned  of  frasmnc. 


3  of  a 


;  tbe  boUow  atcm  fllted  with  pi 
nixed  V 


I  like 


and  funiigationa  on  account  of  Us  ad»r.  Hip- 
pocrates waa  acquainted  wirh  apparently  tbe  aame  auh- 
stance  (rnXo/ioc  luu^qc  ind  a\iiivot  (voa/ioc),  which 
Tbeophroataa,  Polybius  (v,  4Q,  and  Strabo  (xvi,  !) 
describe  as  growinic  la  Co'le-Syrla.  where  modem  trav- 
elers, however,  bai'e  olserved  only  common  or  scent- 
leas  flags.  Bocbart,  indeed,  doubts  whether  the  Scrip- 
tural plant  could  have  been  brought  f^om  India  (Hit- 
ra.  pt.  ii,  1.  v,  c.  6)  ;  but  Dr.  Vincent  maintains  that 
this  trade  was  then  fully  open  (Periplvt  n/  the  Ery- 
IkntOH  Sra,  ii,  366).  Henca  Dr.  Royle  (_IUiulr.  of  Hi- 
atal. Bataay,  p.  42&)  IdentiSea  the  "sweet  cane"  of 
Scripture  with  the  Andrcfgim  tabtHOU  {arcmaliaa),  a 


m  CaUoHta  A  romatieut. 


extracted  (Royle,  Emy  on  Hindoo  Mrddnt,  p.  38,  i42 ; 
Hackelt,Oa  lAeSpaTMrrfo/««.4>i.i(B(i,p.  84i  CtU- 
ml  I  ilrd.  Trant.  i,  867).      See  Calaiivb. 

Cange,  Dn.     See  DtrcAnoE. 

CaniBloB,  Henrloaa,  or  de  Ih  ndt,  nephew  of  Pe- 
irua,  was  bom  et  Nimeguen,  studied  st  l/mvalo,  and 
taught  the  cannn  law  in  the  Cniveralty  of  Ingolr<tadl, 
where  he  died  in  1610.  Tbe  work  by  which  he  ia  beat 
known  la  hia  AnAtpa  leeliamf  (tCOl,  1602,  1603,  6 
vols.),  republiahed  by  Baanage  in  ITS6  ('  vols.),  with 
notes,  snd  with  the  Greek  text  in  addition  to  the  Lstln 
versinn,  which  Caniaina  hsd  given  alone.  Canirius 
also  pol.liahed  Svnima  Jm'-im  Caiunir-ii  Comntf«Mriam 
in  R'gulai  Jurii ;  Prrrierti  nrt  acadtmicir ;  I>r  dninr't 
primUiit,  ft  unrii:  Dt  rpiunli'mii  rl  mairimnmio:  all 
collected  snd  published  by  Bouvet  in  his  (^Km  Co- 


amiea  Oawti  (Lonrdn,  19*9).  — Bioy.  Umr.  tU,  I!; 
UndoD,  Ecd.  Didiomary,  ii,  &U. 

CAnlalna,  Pstma,  of  Nuncgnan,  ■  Jeioit,  born 
Hay  8,  IBH.  unlarad  thi  ordsr  of  tha  JunlU  in  lUB, 
bflttma  profeuor  (iid  nctor  at  the  Uoivanltj  of  In- 
(nlatadt  in  1M9,  «Dd  nctor  of  the  eall«K«  uf  tba  Ju- 
ulU  in  Vieana  in  ]6&I.  Ha  bhI  hli  influeDcs  with  the 
empeior  Ferdluund  1  (brtho  lupprsuioD  of  Prolutant- 
lam.  A>  the  Bnt  German  *'  proviacLil"  of  the  jMdita, 
ha  sitabluhed  colleges  of  the  <aiti  at  Prague,  Angs- 
hnrg,  Dilllngen,  and  Fribonrg  (In  Soltmland),  at 
which  latter  place  he  died,  Dec.  SI,  lfi97.  CaniiiDa 
was  on*  of  tha  most  pramioent  oj^nanC*  of  tha  Ref- 
ormitlon  la  Germany,  and  tha  arnat  of  the  reforma- 
tory movement  in  Aoatru  and  Bavaria  ti  for  a  largo 
part  owlnj;  to  hit  labors  and  hii  infloence.  In  order 
to  connteract  the  Inflnence  of  tha  catachlam*  of  Lu- 
ther, and  other  works  of  tha  founden  of  Protestant- 
lam,  fa*  wrote  hia  Yunnan  Dartrimm  Ciruliana  (1SB4; 
witli  a  commentary  by  P.  Bosaui^  Cologne,  ISM,  and 
Augsburg,  IS33  sq.  4  volt. ;  new  edition,  I^ndshut, 
1B42),  which  waa  truiulated  Into  nearly  alt  laoguana 
(Qreek,  Prague,  161S;  Greek-Latin,  Augsbart;,  1C13), 
and  ■  aborUr  catechism,  enCUled  Imdlnlumti  CkriH. 
piaaUt  (US6), which,  until  tba  middle  of  the  I8th  cen- 
tury, served  as  the  basis  of  popular  Instruction  in  the 
Cithollc  schoola  of  Oemumy,  and  has,  even  In  modem 
times,  again  come  Into  use  (new  editions  i  Landnbut, 
183>:  Mains,  1S40).  See  Catccuuh;  aleo  Thtnl. 
QiVBt  dnJtnJt,  1S63,  Heft  8,  p.  446.  Canluas  also  «)■ 
lt3<l  the  letters  of  Jerome,  Leo  the  Gnat,  and  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  and  compiled  a  Catholic  Prayer-book 
(ifaauaU  CatMlcum,  Antwtrjifina') ;  Angsbarg,  18tl ; 
GsTtnan,  8th  edit.  Landshut,  1B29).  The  Pntealanta 
called  him  "tha  Austrian  Dog,"  while  tha  JeauiU 
praised  him  aa  the  second  apoatle  of  Oermaoy,  and 
even  endearored  to  obtain  his  IvatificBlion.  Thrlr 
elTurta,  for  a  long  time  unfruitful,  were  at  Irngth 
rronmed  with  succens  during  the  pontiHcals  of  Pius 
IX,  who  placed  Canisius  on  (he  tint  of  tho  "  BeatL" 
BioRraphiea  of  Canisiua  were  publlshiHl  In  Latin  by 
Hadnrus  and  Sacchiql  (Munich,  1623);  In  French  by 
Dorigny  (Paris,  1708) ;  in  Italian  by  Langore  and  Foli- 
gatti ;  la  Garman  by  Werfer  (In  LAen  oai^encAaenr 
CaiiaiiJm,  Schaffhausen,  ISSS,  2  vola.). 

Canker  (ya-rypaiva),  a  gimgrme  (3  Tim.  ii,  17), 
•iortijfctiftoB :  o  disease  which  spreads  by  dattreea  over 


lebody. 


looftfa. 


a  of  Hymo- 


Canlier-wonn  (p^7,  y^lA,  fteHiij,  Joel  1, 4 ;  II, 
85;  " laterpUUr,"  Paa.  c*,  84;  Jar.  11, 14,  ST;  Sept 
Ahi'XoCi  *■  '•  locust-gmb;  tint  UKppi,  locust.  In  Jer. ; 
Oiald.  °tn7S,  winged  locust;  Syr.  creeinng  locust) 
la  generally  referred  to  some  haity  or  calerpjllar.like 
»p3cieB  lit  locust  (Jer.  11,  !7,  l-O^,  hruOg,  Aath.  Ver. 
V  rough").  Possibly  it  merely  describes  the  IdcuC  In 
a  certain  t)tage  of  ita  growth,  viz.  just  when  it  emerges 
ftom  the  caterp"''^  tlmtB  and  obtains  the  nse  of  ils 
win,^  j  see  Kah.  iil,  16,  "lit  eaditr-Korm  kai  UmuK 
"J  C^t}.  A.  V.  ipoilah)  Its  scales  [or  "expanded  lU 
win^'"]  andjlnffl  amy;"  tbni  corresponding  to  the 
detcription  by  Jerome  (in  loc  Nah.)  of  the  ailett^ 
(irrJAnjiai),  or  "wingless  locaat"  (Crednw,  Jbrf,  p. 
805 ;  S05  Bocbarl,  IK  rat.  U,  443).     Sec  LoctST. 

Cauna,  Joh:«.  a  Baptist  minister,  was  ho™  in  En- 
pUtid  about  the  year  l.WO  or  1600.  In  eirty  Ufa  he 
was  a  minister  in  the  EnUhlishrd  Church,  but  Joined 
th3  Baptiita  not  far  ftom  1610.  He  was  for  some  time 
pastor  of  the  church  io  Southwark,  l^oodon.  being  suc- 
cessor to  Mr,  Hubbard,  its  Urst  pastor.  Ho  was  ban- 
ished to  Holland,  where  (not  considering  baptii-m  a 
prareqauite  to  communion)  he  succeeded  Ainaworth 
(q.  v.)  as  pastor  of  his  church  in  Amsterdam,  and  was 


*  CANON 

daservadly  popniai.    WhDa  In  baniahateat  in  16H, 

he  published  a  work  on  the  Srctmig  of  SapiB'atiim 
from  At  CItvxIt  ofE»glamd.  In  1640  be  retamed  on 
a  visit  to  Englsnd,  and  founded  the  Bsptist  Church  in 
Broadmead,  BristoL  Mr.  Canne  was  equally  eminent 
for  learning,  ^tj,  knowledge  of  the  Scriptar«a,  and 
seal  for  reformaUon.  Canne'a  moat  importapt  labor 
is  hit  selection  of  marginal  nferencee  to  the  Bible. 
He  was  the  author  of  (Ath  sals  of  noten,  which  accom- 
panied three  edidona  of  the  Bible.  His  great  aabi- 
"'on  was  "to  make  tho  Bible  its  own  tnteipreter." — 

rlmey,  EngliA  BaptitUi  Jamlraoo.  (^Klop.  of  Bkf- 

!phs,  105  i  Meal,  aitlory  a/Ot  ftritaiu. 
Gan'iieh  (Heb.  KamiuA',  ms,  one  codes    fkiUy 
rahs ;    Sept.  Xavaa,  v.  r.  Xa'ydav ;  Vulg.  Cifme), 
doutitlesa  a  contracted  form  (Esek.  xxvli.  23)  for  the 
earlier  Calhbh  (q.  v.)  of  Gen.  x,  10. 

Cwiuoa  James  S.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister  of 
tha  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  was  bom  in  Cnra^va, 
Jan.  S8, 17TB,  and  was  educated  under  Dr.  Peter  Wil- 
son  and  Rev.  Alex.  Miller  at  Hsckenaack,  N.  J.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1796  by  the  Clasais  of 
Hackensack,  and  shortly  after  became  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  Millstone  and  Six-mBe 
Ruii.flastly  devoting  his  whole  aerrice  to  the  latter 
church.  His  pastoral  Induitri'  was  remarkable,  yet 
he  wrote  and  committed  to  memory  all  bit  aermoiis. 
Darin;;  part  of  his  paatorsl  work  be  bad  to  pr«ach  one 
sermon  in  Dutch  and  one  in  English  every  Sunday. 
In  1886  he  was  chosen  Professor  of  Pastoral  Theology 
and  Ecclraiastical  liistoiy  in  the  Seminary  at  New 
Brunswick,  and  here  he  spent  the  remainder  of  bb 
lift,  a  laborious  student,  and  a  faithful  and  socc«eifal 
teacher.  "Hit  views  of  truth  were  more  dittin^iahed 
by  exactness  and  solidity  than  by  any  far-reaching 
power;  and  yet,  when  he  had  discBssnl  a  subject, 
there  was  little  left  to  be  taid."  A  large  number  of 
ministers  were  trained  by  Dr.  Cannon.  He  died  in 
great  peace,  Jul)'  !5, 1851.  After  his  death,  the  aub- 
Btince  of  his  course  of  instruction  was  published  under 
the  title  Lwlura  m  Paitorai  Thtologg  (New  York,  186S, 
8vo).  "The  BubJecU  embraced  in  the  lecttirea  are: 
'The  qnsiidcatious  for  the  pastoral  office,'  'pastoral 
duties,'  'the  administration  of  the  sacraments,'  'cat- 
echetical instruction,'  'visitation  of  the  tick,'  'pas- 
toral visitation,'  'religions  declension,'  'extenakm  of 
the  Church,'  'instructiaoby  example.'  Dr.  Cannon's 
discussion  of  the  sncraoients  it  pinlcularij  able,  clear, 
and  conclusive." — iV..SmiiK>ci  Rtv'.ar,  May,  IBM,  p. 
104)  SiUwti«Yi.Sacni,Apri1, 18M,p.4£a 

Canon  or  Scripture,  as  the  phiase  is  nsnally  I 
employed,  may  be  defined  as  "tlie  AuthoritatiTe  | 
Stindard  of  Raiii^n  and  Morals,  composed  of  tbone 


GodU 


whicl 


•rthis, 


Irequentiy  given  of  the 
Canon  is,  that  it  is  "the  Cstal»trua  of  the  .Sacred 
Bogk»i"  while  Semier  (Mm  Fnicr  Vnltr«Kk<i»gtm 
da  C-inmi),  Doederioin  {liuliatio  Tkfel.  C*ri*.  i.  88), 
and  others,  deRne  it  aa  "the  Ljst  of  the  Books  public. 
ly  read  in  the  meetin\:s  of  the  early  Christisiu ; "  both 
these,  however,  arj  defective,  and  the  latter  it  not  only 
hitlorlcally  incorrect,  but  omits  the  essentisi  idea  trf' 
the  divine  authority  of  ibeee  Scriptures.  We  twre 
give  a  copious  account  of  Ibe  subject  in  general,  refer- 
ring uur  resden  to  special  sriicles  for  more  details  on 
die  seversi  books  of  the  Kbie. 

[.  Origin  and  taei  o/Ae  term  "  ChaoB."— 1.  In  dat- 
liai'  Greek,  the  word  (Knvwv,  akin  to  Hl^,  a"  reed." 
[comp.  Gewn.  Tin.  s.  v.]  miini.  niiva,  eiauta  [ama- 
lii,  ol/mnfJ],  CANE,  connoa)  signiAes,  (1)  Pnperiy,  k 
itraigAt  rnd,  aa  the  rod  of  a  thicid,  or  that  mtri  m 
weaving  (rcialonuni),  or  a  carpenter's  rale.  (!)Hct' 
aphorically,  a  featiitg  nde  in  ethics  (comp.  Arittnt  E/k. 
JVic.  lii,4,  fi).  or  inart(theCawmof  Po)ycle(ua;Lnc. 
de  Salt.  p.  946  B),  or  In  language  (the  Onow  of 


CANON  1 

GmnnMr).  Tlig  gift  of  tonnes  (AoU  U,  T)  wu  t»- 
prded  u  tbo  "euHm"  or  teM  whicb  dctBrmincd  tha 
fraction  of  tha  Ubon  of  tbe  Hvcral  ipoatlei  (Sevcrloa. 
f.  Cram.  Cat.  ia  Ad.  U,  T).  Chronologicai  Ubleg 
wmallad  "canon*  of  time"  (Flut.  £at.  X;)i  and  ths 
moaiMry  at  a  book  vu  callad  laruir,  u  giving  tha 
"rale,"  aa  it  ware,  of  tU  compo«ltlaii.  The  Alczan- 
driaa  gramnaiiuii  applied  tha  word  in  this  koh  to 
lbs  KiBat  "daulcal"  writBra,  who  were  ityled  "the 
nila"  (li  KawvX  or  the  perfect  oiodel  of  etyte  and 
hagaage.  (S)  But,  ia-adduion  to  theie  active  niean- 
liiga,  the  word  «a*  alio  u»d  patslvely  tor  a  meaaured 
tpace  (at  Olympia),  and,  in  later  timaa,  for  a  fixed  tax 
(Da  Canga,  a.  v.). 


■  in 


Stft.  ID  its  Utecal  MDM  (JuL 
Aqoila  (Job  xxxvili,  b).  la  the  N.  t.  It  ii  fonad  la 
m  plaeea  in  ranl'a  epiatlea  (GjI.  vi,  16;  S  Cor.  i, 
U-IS),  and  Id  the  Mcood  place  the  tranaltlan  Ih>ni  an 
■etira  to  a  paa^vo  Benie  is  worthy  of  notice.  In  pa- 
bntie  wrfthiga  the  word  ia  commonly  nsed  both  u  > 
rule  ui  the  widest  aenis,  aod  eapecIaUy  in  the  phraaaa 
"the  rata  of  the  Charch,"  "the  nile 'of  faith,"  "the 
nla  of  truth."  In  tha  rnurth  century,  when  the  prac- 
tin  of  tbe  Church  waa  (aHher  ayitematiied,  the 
riona  of  aynoda  were  atyled  "Canoni,"  and  tha  dia- 
dplioe  liy  vbich  minlatera  were  bound  *a*  technically 
"tlie  Rule,"  and  thoae  who  were  thui  bound  were 
«Tkd  Cjimiti  ("Canona").  In  the  pbraaa  "the 
cioon  (L  e.  dxed  part)  of  the  maaa,"  from  which  the 
popalar  aeBao  of  "caaoniza"  li  deiived,  the  paaiii 
aeoaa  again  prevaOad.     (See  below.) 

I.  Aa  applied  to  Sentpttrv,  tbe  dcrirstiTea  of  tavt 
■n  naed  long  befbca  the  almple  word.  The  Lat 
Miaalation  oT  Origen  apeaha  of  Scr'plimt  CanoKiem 
(dt  Prime,  iv,  SS),  Mri  rtg^ara  {Caam.  n  Malt.  %  I  IT), 
and  Ebri  eaucmtali  (Id.  %  38).  la  another  place  the 
pbraaa  k(iitti  !»  Ctaaiui  (Pn/.  iV  CcaU.  a.  f.)  occurs, 
bat  probably  only  aa  a  tianalation  of  ravoviZiaOai, 
which  l^  nu^inthia  and  cognate  aenaea  in  Athanaaiua 
(fp.  /«<.),  tha  Laodieene  Canona  iasavivmra.  Can. 

'Hi),  and  later  writers  (hid.  Pelua.  Ep.  exiv;  comp. 
Alg.  de  donr.  Or.  tv,  9  [<i] ;  and  as  a  contrart,  Anon, 
ar.  Eo»b.  //.  £.  T,  W). 

Tbo  flrat  direct  application  of  tha  term  aaniv  to  tbe 
Eaiptuiea  aeemi  to  be  by  Aniphilocbtua  (cir.  SSO),  m 
Ua  CatalogBB  of  tha  Saiptnrea,  where  the  word  Indi. 
caMa  tba  rule  by  which  the  contents  of  the  Bible  mntit 
be  detennioed,  aod  thna  aecondarily  an  index  of  the 
cooatitaent  booka.  Among  Latin  wrlten  the  word  ia 
comnvmly  found  from  the  lluie  of  Jerome  QPrvL  Gal.) 
■ad  AngutiDe  (At  Cbr.  xvii,  H;  xviii,  SB),  am'  ' 
aa«a  of  the  word,  which  is  wider  than  that  of  Graek 
wiltara,  la  the  aource  of  ita  modern  acceptation. 

Tbe  Dncanonioil  boohi  wore  deacribed  ilmply  aa 
"Iboae  witbonl,"  or  "thoae  nncanonited"  (atavam- 
cn,  Qmc,  Ijnd.  tix).  The  apocryphal  books,  which 
woe  aappoaed  to  occupy  in  intennediate  position, 
■en  call«d  "bonka  read"  ^ivaYlY^al^t6^llra,  Athan. 
/>.  FrM.),  or  "eccleaiastical"  (ecrUrinitici,  Kulin.  in 
agmi.  Apptl.  5  SR>,  though  the  Utter  title  was  alao  ap- 
plvd  to  the  canonical  Scripture*,  which  (LeonL  de  Srct. 
S)  were  also  called  "  Looks  of  the  Teatament"  (Mm- 
^m  PifiXia),  and  Jerome  styled  Ifai  whole  cnljection 
by  tbe  striking  name  of  "the  holy  library"  (BSiSo- 
(kem  aoarte),  which  happily  expresses  the  unity  snif 
variety  of  the  Bllile  (Credner,  Zur  Gtfh.  d.  Km.  %  1 
\rwitaM,tlul.a/CiBKm''/y.  T*.  App.D). 

II.  The  JmM  Camm.—l.  According  to  the  com 
■aad  or  Uoaea,  the  "  book  of  Ibc  law"  was  "  pat  in 
tbe  side  of  tba  ark"  (Deiit.  xxxl,  ;6  Hq.).  hi 
(1K>nmvili,g;  comp,  JiwejA.-la'.  iii,  1,  7j  v,  1,17); 
and  tbas.  in  tba  reion  of  Joaiah,  Hilkiah  la  said  to  bavi 
"loand  tba  book  oftheltwin  the  house  of  the  Lord' 
(I  Kings  xxH,  8 ;  conp.  3  Chron.  xxxlv,  14).  Thi 
"hook  of  tbe  law,"  which,  in  addition  to  tbe  direct 
pacapla  (Exod.  xxlv,  7),  c«otaiMd  general  exborta' 


6  CAN0I4 

tiona  (Dent  xxviii,  61)  and  hietoikal  nairaUra*  (Exod. 
xvli,  14),  was  farther  Increased  by  the  raccids  of 
Joshua  (Josh,  xiiv,  36),  and  other  writings  (1  Sam. 
X,  SA).  Prom  these  aacredly  guarded  autographs 
copies  were  taken  and  clrculslad  among  the  people  (1 
Chron.  ivii,  9).  At  a  aubsequent  time  collections  of 
proverba  were  made  (Prov.  xxv,  1),  and  the  later 
prophets  (espedally  Jeremiah ;  comp.  Kaeper,  Jtrm. 
iMtnr.  u,  Merp.  tl  niiutrx,  Beral.  16S7)  were  familiar 
with  tbe  writiDgB  of  their  predeceasors,  a  ciicumatanca 
which  may  naturally  be  connected  with  tbe  training 
of  "  tbe  prophetic  soboolf."  It  perhaps  marka  a  far- 
ther step  in  ths  fotmstion  of  the  Canon  wbcn  "the 
book  of  the  Lord"  It  mentioned  by  laaiah  as  a  general 
collection  of  sacicd  teaching  (xxxiv,  16  [whwe  It  is 
implied  that  his  own  writings  were  to  be  sdded  to 
thoae  prevlonaly  regarded  as  sacred;  sea  Geseniup, 
(^mniaU.  in  locj;  comp.  xxix,  IB)  at  once  familiar 
and  authoritative ;  but  It  la  unlikely  that  sny  deflnile 
collection  either  of  "tbo  Psalma"  or  of  "  the  Propheta" 
exiated  before  tbe  Captivity.  At  that  time  Zechariah 
spaaka  of  "the  law"  and  "the  former  prcphits"  aa  in 
some  measure  co-ordinate  (Zech.  vii,  12) ;  and  Daniel 
refers  to  "the  bonW  (Dan.  ix,  !)  in  a  manner  which 
seems  to  mark  the  prophetic  writings  aa  already  col- 
lected  into  a  whole.  Shortly  after  tbe  return  from 
DabyluD,  the  Levitea  read  and  f  xpound^  the  word  of 
the  Lord  to  the  people  (Neb.  vlii,  I-S ;  ix,  I  8). 

2.  Popular  belief  Bssi)^d  to  Exra  and  "the  great 
synagctue''  tbe  tiak  of  collecting  and  f  mmulgating 
the  Scrlptores  as  pirt  of  their  work  in  DrgBnising  tha 
Jewiah  Church.  DoubEa  have  been  thrown  upon  tbia 
belief  (Ran,  De  Sjmng.  mag*d,  1736 ;  comp.  Enald, 
Geirli.  d.  V.  Itr.  iv,  191  [see  below]) ;  but  the  BUt«> 
ment  is  in  every  wsy  canustent  with  tbe  history  of 
Judaum,  and  with  the  internal  evidence  of  the  hooka 
themselves.  The  Istcr  embellishmenta  of  the  tradU 
tion,  which  represent  Kara  aa  the  second  author  of  ail 
the  booka  (i  Eadrai-),  or  define  more  exactly  the  na- 
ture of  his  work,  can  only  be  accepted  as  signs  of  the 
universal  belief  In  hia  labors,  and  ongbt  not  to  caat 
dlscndit  opon  tbe  timple  tlict  that  the  foundation  of 
the  present  Canon  ia  due  to  bim,  Kor  can  it  be  sn|^ 
posed  that  the  work  waa  completed  at  once;  so  that 
the  account  (3  Mace,  ti,  13)  which  assiims  a  collection 
of  books  to  Kohembh  is  In  itself  a  oonflnnotion  of  thf 
general  truth  of  tbe  gndusi  formation  of  the  Canon 
daring  the  Perrian  period.  *The  work  of  Nphemiab  ia 
not  described  as  initiatory  or  final.  The  traditian 
omits  all  mention  of  the  law,  which  may  be  aappoaed 
to  have  asaumed  ita  final  shape  under  Exra,  hut  says 
that  Nehemlah  "gathered  together  tlie  [irritingBl 
concerning  the  kings  and  propheta,  and  the  [writlnga] 
of  David,  and  letters  of  kings  concerning  ofiferlngs," 
while  "founding  a  librsry"  (2  Hacc.l.c).  The  va- 
riona  claasea  of  books  were  thus  completed  in  sncces- 
sion ;  snd  Ihla  view  harmonisea  with  what  mDFt  have 
been  the  natural  development  of  the  Jewish  faith  after 
the  Return.  Tho  constitution  of  the  Church  and  the 
formation  of  the  Canon  wore  both,  ttom  their  nature, 
gradual  and  mutually  dependent.  The  construction 
of  an  eccleaiastical  polity  involved  the  practical  de- 
termination of  the  divine  rule  of  truth,  tbou^  as  In 
the  pamllel  case  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  open  per. 
seculion  first  gave  a  clear  and  distinct  exprraslon  to 
the  implicit  Ihith. 

The  foregoing  tradition  occurs  io  one  of  the  oldatt 
books  of  the  Talmud,  the  Pirbi  Abotk;  and  it  ia  re- 
peated, with  greatfr  minuteneas.  In  the  Babylonian 
Oemara  (Bakn  Batkra,  fol.  18,  3.  See  the  passsges  in 
Buxtorf's  Tibrriui,  liii.  i,  e.  10;  corop.Wacbner,  Aniig. 
ntit.  i,  IS).  The  sabctance  of  it  is  that,  after  Hoecs 
and  the  elders,  the  sacred  books  were  wstched  over  by 
the  prophets,  and  that  the  Canon  was  completed  by 
Ezrii,  Nehemlah,  and  the  men  of  tbe  Great  Synagogue. 
1  he  earliest  fbrm  in  which  this  appears  Is  In  the  fourth 
book  of  Eadraa,  a  work  dating  fkvm  the  end  of  tha  flnt 


CANON 


t« 


CANON 


vrbe^Dhigoftlie  Mcond  c«ntuT}'4ftarCbriil.  Hon 
k  ii  UMrMd  tb(t  Eirk,  by  divion  commind  ■nd  bj  di- 
vine lid,  oawd  to  be  compoMd  94  boalu  by  tbree  men 
(Valji:.  S04  bookn  by  Bre  men)  la  forty  iteyr,  70  of 
Hhkb,  wherein  "i«  a  vein  o( underatinding.  a  fonii- 
lain  of  wisdom,  and  ■  stnam  of  knowledge,"  ware  to 
i>o  ^Ten  to  tbe  wUa  of  the  peopla,  whiie  Ehs  n»E  were 
tr>  bt  nude  public,  that  "both  the  wonby  and  the  an- 
wortby  might  read  them"  (xiv,  42-47).  Thsw  twon- 
ty-four  thui  made  paUia  are  doubtleu  the  canonical 
liooki-  The  atalenient  is  very  vague ;  but  thai  thia 
1*  its  refereaee  ie  rendered  proliabie  by  the  appearance 
in  the  wiitlni^  of  lome  of  tbe  Chriitian  fathen  of  a 
tradition  that  the  aacred  writing*,  which  had  been  loet 
during  ihe  exile,  were  restored  by  Ezra  in  the  time 
of  Artaserxea  by  loapiration  (Qemena  Alex.,  Slrtm. 
I,  23,  pi  410;  Totter;  Tertullian, /)«  cufoi /m.  1,  8  j 
IrenBM,  adt.  Har.  lil.  SI  [M],  etc.).  A^net  thia 
tradition  it  baa  bean  objectAd  that  it  provce  too  much, 
for  it  «»ys  that  the  men  of  tbe  Great  Syna^oruo  tmnte 
the  Liter  t>oaki>,  (ach  as  ttio  twelve  minor  prophets,  etc. 
But  tbat  by  vritimff  i>  here  meant,  not  the  original  com- 
posing nf  these  books,  bnt  tbe  oKr^'on  (ttie  cn-vriting) 
of  them  lo  the  sacred  Canon,  may  be  inferred,  partly 
(ram  the  circumitance  that,  in  the  same  tradition,  the 
men  of  Heiekiah  are  said  to  have  wrifm  tbe  Prorerbs, 
wbich  can  only  mean  that  they  cDpvd  them  (aes  Prov. 
SUV,  1)  for  the  purpoaa  of  inserting  them  in  tbe  Can- 
on, and  partly  trora  the  fact  tlut  tbe  word  here  u«ed 
(pns)  is  used  by  the  Taignmist  on  Prov.  xxv,  1  as 
equivalent  to  the  Heb.  pns,  lo  traaicriit.  Ai 
t^mpt  has  alio  been  made  to  discredit  Ibis  tradition 
by  adducing  the  circumstance  that  Simon  tbe  Just, 
vrho  lived  long  after  Etra,  is  said,  in  tbe  Firtt  AMh, 
to  have  been  one  of  the  members  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue ;  but  to  this  much  weight  cannot  Im  allowed, 
pirtiy  became  Simvn  la,  in  the  passage  referred  to. 
said  to  have  bean  one  of  the  mniumfa  of  (he  Great 
Synagogue,  which  indicates  his  liaving  ooUived  It, 
and  principally  becanse  the  same  body  of  tradition 
which  slates  this  opinion  makes  him  the  imeeeitor  of 
Kira;  so  that  either  tbe  whole  is  a  mistjka,  orth:  Si- 
m->n  referred  lo  mnst  hare  been  a  dllTercnt  peiwin  Itam 
the  Simon  who  is  commonly  known  by  the  title  of 
"Just"  (comp.  Othonis  />m.  Jiabbin.  Pfaliii.  p.  804, 
Oen.  1675 ;  Hlvemick'*  Einlt-timg  in  daiA.T.  Th.  i. 
Abt.  1, 1,  48).  Or  wa  mwy  adopt  the  opinion  of  Hsrt- 
m».Tia  (JH:  oi3t  VtrHmdumg  ia  Aa.  TM.mit  d.  Ntvm, 
p.  127)  that  tbe  college  of  men  learned  In  the  law, 
which  tnthored  round  Kara  and  Nehemiah,  and  which 
properly  was  the  Synagogno,  continued  to  receive  ac- 
cnssiona  for  manv  years  after  their  death,  by  means 
of  which  it  existed  «!i  tbi  time  of  the  MBccabee^ 
without  our  being  required  to  euppnee  that  what  is  af- 
lirmed  concerning  \Xa  doings  in  the  time  of  Eira  is 
meant  to  refer  to  it  daring  tbe  eatire  period  of  its  ex- 
intence.  Suspicions  have  also  been  cast  upon  this  tra- 
dition from  tbs  multitude  of  extravagant  wonders  nar- 
rated by  the  Jews  respecCiag  the  Great  Synagogue. 
Butaocharefoundinalmost  every  tradltiou'ary  record 
attaching  to  penon*  ac  bodies  which  poesesa  a  nation- 
ally heroic  cluuactar;  and  it  ie  surely  anrassflnitble, 
h-^canse  a  chronicler  tells  one  or  two  things  which  are 
ini:rediUle,  tbat  we  should  disbelieve  ill  besides  that 
h;  recarda.  however  possihlo  or  even  probable  it  may 
he.  To  this  it  may  be  added  that  there  are  some 
things,  such  as  the  order  of  daily  prayer,  the  settling 
of  tbe  text  of  thf  Old  Testament,  the  establishment  of 
the  tr.iditionil  interjiretation  of  Scripture,  etc.,  which 
must  be  assigned  to  the  period  immedistely  after  the 
Captivity,  and  which  preauppose  the  existence  of  some 
iiisliluto  anch  as  the  Great  8vna«o7ue,  whether  this 
lie  regarded  as  formally  constituted  by  Eara  or  ss  a 
voluntary  association  of  prieats  and  scribes  (Zuni, 
Die  GottudimiliiAtn  Vorir.  rf.  Judia.  p.  83).  More- 
orer  there  aresoiiiepasaa.^afScriptun(e.  g.  I  Chron. 


Ill,  is,  S4)  which  belong  to  a  period  somewhat  later 
than  any  of  the  canonical  writcra.     Sea  Ezba. 

This  tradition,  again,  is  conllrmed  by  the  fbUow- 
log  circumstances :  (a.)  Tbe  tinu  In  qneation  waa 
tbe  latest  at  which  this  could  be  done.     As  the  da^ 

be  performed  waa  not  merely  that  of  detennin- 
ing  the  genuineness  of  certain  books,  but  of  point- 
ing out  tliose  which  bad  been  divinely  ordained  aa  a 
rule  of  faith  and  morals  to  the  Church,  it  was  one 
which  none  but  a  prophet  could  discharge.  Now  In 
the  days  of  Nehemisb  and  Eira  [here  warn  aeverml 
pivphets  living,  among  whom  wo  know  the  names  of 
Haggal,  Zechariah.  and  Malschi;  bat  with  that  age 
expired  the  line  of  prophets  which  God  iiad  appointed 
"to  comfort  Jacob,  and  deliver  them  by  assured  hope" 
(Eccius.  xlix,  ID).  On  this  point  the  evidence  of  Jo- 
sephua,  the  apOCr}-phal  Inoks,  and  Jewish  tradition,  la 
harmonious  (comp.  JosrtA.  tait.  Apiim,  I,  8  ;  1  Uaec. 
Iv,  46;  ii,  37 1  xiv,  41;  Jerome,  ad  Ja.  xlii,  «; 
Vitrlnga,  Obt.  Sat.  lib.  vi,  cap.  6,  7;  Htvemick.  Eat- 
Int.  1,1,  27)  Hengnteabcrg,0n(r^^Eiir£Maf.  MI.4. 
T.  i,  245).  As  tbe  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  were 
thus  the  last  of  tbe  prophets,  if  the  Canon  waa  itot 
fixed  by  them,  the  time  waa  pured  Hhen  it  coald  be 
Bxed  at  all.  (6.)  That  it  was  fixed  at  tbat  time  ap- 
pears fh>m  tbe  fact  that  all  n&MfiwU  references  to  tbe 
sacred  writings  presuppose  the  existence  of  the  com- 
plete Canon,  as  well  as  ftvm  the  fact  that  of  no  one 
among  the  apocrj'phal  books  is  it  so  much  as  hinted, 
either  by  the  author  or  by  any  other  Jewish  writer, 
tbat  it  was  worthy  of  a  place  among  the  sacred  books, 
though  of  some  of  them  the  prelensioni  an  in  other 
respects  solBciently  high  (e.  g-  Ecclns.  xxxiii,  16-lS; 
I,  !8).  Josephus,  indeed,  distinctly  afHrms  (ami.  Ap. 
1.  c.)  that,  during  the  long  period  that  had  elapeed  be- 
no  one  bad  dared  either  to  add  to,  or  to  take  &om.  or 
to  alter  any  thing  in  the  sacred  hooks.  This  pisiuly 
shows  that  about  the  time  of  Art■xerxe^  to  wbicb  Jo- 
«e|Aaa  refkre,  and  which  was  the  age  of  Eira  and  Ne- 
hemiah, thi  collection  of  the  sacred  books  waa  com- 
pleted 1  y  an  authority  which  ttienceforward  eeaaed  lo 
exist.     See  STNAonacp,  Great. 

8.  The  persecution  of  Antlochus  (B.C.  168)  was  fiw 
the  Old  Testament  what  the  persecution  of  Diocletian 
waa  for  the  N^,  the  final  crisis  which  stamped  the 
sacred  writings  with  their  peculiar  character.  Ibe 
king  sought  out  "the  books  of  the  law"  (rd  ^i/lAin 
rou  yi/iou,  I  Hacc.  i,  56)  and  burnt  tbem ;  and  tbe 
possession  of  a  "  book  of  the  covenant"  (jii0\iov  tui- 
Sllini  )  was  a  capital  crime  (Joseph.  Amt.  xil,  6,  4). 
But  this  proscHption  of  "the  law"  naturally  acrved 
only  to  direct  Iha  attention  of  the  people  more  closely 
to  these  sacred  hooks  themselves.  After  the  Hacca- 
bttan  persecution  the  history  of  the  formalian  of  the 
Canon  is  merged  In  the  history  of  its  contents.  Tbe 
Bible  appears  from  that  time  ss  a  whole,  tbough  it  waa 

an  eqaal  footing,  nor  regarded  univemally  and  In  ev- 
rrv  respect  with  equal  reverence  (comp.  Zanx,  D. 
Goliad.  Vorir.  d.  Jad.  p.  14,  !6,  etc.). 

But  while  the  combined  evidence  <f  tradition  and 
of  the  general  coanw  of  Jewish  history  leads  to  Ibe 
conclusion  thst  the  Canon  In  its  prei«nt  shape  waa 
formed  gridaally  during  a  lengthened  interval,  1e- 
g>nnln)(  with  Ezn  and  extending  through  a  put  or 
even  the  whole  (N'eh.  xii,  11,  83)  of  the  Persian  period 
(B.C.  4514-8331.  when  the  cessation  of  ^e  pTopbellc 
gift  pointed  out  the  necessity  snd  deHned  tbe  limits 
of  the  collection,  it  is  of  the  utmoat  importance  lo  nn- 

tbat  tbe  collection  was  peculiar  in  character  arH 
circumsrrilied  in  contents.     All  the  evidence  which 

he  nhtiined  tends  to  show  that  it  is  false,  both  in 

ry  and  fict.  to  describe  the  0.  T.  aa  "all  tbe  rel. 

if  the  Hebran.^hslduc  literature  up  to  a  certain 
epoch"  (Dfl  Welte,  /W.  S  8),  if  the  phrase  b  in 
* — 'cr  to  the  time  when  tba  Canon  «      ~~  ~ 


CANON 


77 


CANON 


1  tq.)  apeiki  of  «a  I  vU.,  "the  olker  writinga,"  u  dutiDgqubcd  from  tbc 
a  Uaching  uf  Win-  i  Ljtw  and  the  Prophet!  (comp.  the  expreision  ra  dXAo 
of  the  flmh"  U  de-    *J.^X/o,  u»Bd  by  the  Son  of  Sirach,  fiorim.  Prol) ;  and 

■rnbnd  aa  tbe  Teanlt  oTths  Mody  butowed  upon  it.  [that  in  procefi  of  tima  it  wu  alibreviaMd  into  ''Ihc 

Itu  Impotnble  that  the»  "manj'  nrritlngi"  can  have  |  writia)ia."     This  part  is  commonl]'  cited  under  tha 

pcikhfd  in  the  Interval  between  tbe  compoaitiDn  of  j  Utle  Bagiograpka  (q.  v.). 

Erdeaiutes  and  tbe  Greek  Invasion,  and  the  Apocr]'.        5.  The  O.-'t'.  Canon,  as  eatabliahed  io  tbo  time  ef 

libaiDdndea  aeveraKVagmentswhich  muitbe  referred    KtrA,  bu   remained    i.aa1Ured    to   Ibe   ptcaeat  duv. 

tatbe  Persian  period  (BuxUirf.Tf&entu.c.llIrq.;  Hot-    Some,  indeed,  have  sappoaed  that,becauM  tbe  Sept. 

tiagar,  IV».  PIdl. ;  Hengstenberg,  Be^trd^,  I ;  lUvur-    veraion  contnina  aome  booka  not  in  tbe  Hebrew,  there 

■ick,  EiiJ.  -      -  -■  ~  -    -    -  ■ 


md.A.T.  in  Htame'a 

i.  The  diiiiioo  of  the  O.-T.  Canon  into  three  parta, 
"the  L»w,"  "the  Propbela."  and  "the  Writins*" 
p*a'n3«  0^X*3i  rninX  i*  t^T  ancient;  4l  ap- 
pHU  in  the  prologue  to  Eccleeiaaticaa,  in  Ihc  New 
Teaianient,  In  Philo,  in  Joaepfaua,  and  in  tbe  Talmud 
(Soienhniii  Bif).  KnraXX.  p. 49).  Reapecting the pnn- 
rifU  on  whlcli  tbe  dlviiion  has  been  made,  there  ja 
Rntiderable  difference  of  opinion.  All  are  agreed 
(kit  tbe  lint  part,  the  Law,  which  embraces  the  Pen- 
(iMKb,  wax  ao  named  from  ita  containing  Uie  nationol 
la*a  and  reguUliona.  The  ifcomd  embracea  tbe  rest 
af  tbe  hutoiical  booka,  with  the  exception  of  Ruth, 
blber,  Ezra,  Nehcuiah,  and  the  Chranideai  and  rbe 
wiitlDgB  of  the  prophets,  encept  Daniel  and  Iismenta- 
tioBs.  It  ia  probable  that  it  received  its  narae  a  parte 
fHiari,  the  majority  of  the  books  it  containa  being  the 
pndoction  of  men  wbo  were  prfftuLnaHy  prophets. 
That  tbia  criterion,  bowever,  dttrrm^ntd  the  omiaaion 
or  innrtion  of  a  boolt  In  this  accond  division,  as  as- 
■ertn]  by  Hcngitrnberg  (^Authntt.  da  Damr'l,  p.  27), 
and  by  Havemick  {Ki<d.  I,  tec.  II),  cannot  be  admit- 
ted; for,  on  the  one  bond,  we  find  inacrted  in  this  di- 
vUon  the  book  of  Amos,  wbo  was  "neither  a  prophet 
■or  a  prophet's  eon ;"  and  on  the  other,  there  i>  omit- 
ted from  it  the  Book  of  Lamentation  a,  which  was  un- 
qaeitiDnably  the  prodoction  of  a  prophet.  Tho  inwN 
tionof  this  book  in  the  last  rather  than  in  tho  tecand 
divliian  lia*  its  aource  probably  in  some  litBrgical 
RfHin,  in  order  that  it  might  stand  heitde  tho  Psalms 
and  Dttier  lyric  poetry  of  the  sacred  book^.  It  is  mon 
diBcuit  to  accDOnt  fur  the  inacrtion  of  the  Icok  of 
Daniri  in  tbe  third  rather  than  in  tho  second  division ; 

an  aOiiTding  evidence  unfavorable  to  the  canonical 
lUna  of  this  book.  But  it  is  not  cerUin  that  this 
took  alanjK  occupied  Ita  present  position.  Is  it  not 
posrible  thkt  for  some  reiMin  of  ■  mystical  or  contro- 
Tcnial  kind,  to  both  of  which  aonrces  of  influence  the 
Jewsdnrin;  the  esrly  ages  of  Chrislianity  were  much 
eipoeed,  tbej  ma^-  have  ailered  tbe  position  nrDsnlel 
bam  tbe  second  to  the  third  division  ?  What  reodera 
tbii  [nbabia  ia,  that  the  Talmudists  stand  ulone  in 
tl^  arrangement.  Joaephua,  Sirmcides,  Fbilo,  the 
Kew  Testament,  all  refer  to  the  Hagiographa  in  soch 
a  ny  u  to  induce  tho  belief  that  It  comprised  only 
tbe^oerinW  portions  of  tbe  Old  TeatomenC— the  psnlm?, 
brmn*,  and  songa ;  while  in  all  the  cataiogoes  of  tho 
OU-Testauient  wiitort  given  1y  the  rariy  Rilhcra,  up 
to  tbe  time  of  Jerome,  Daniel  is  ranked  amonu  tho 
rnpbeis,  genemlly  in  the  position  he  occnpii 


been  a  douUle  Canon,  a 
Egyptian  (Semler,  Aj/paral.  ad  UbrntUttrtn  V.  T.  h-Ur- 
p'tt.  §  D,  10;  Corrodl,  BtUtcAtmg  der  CiiA.  da  JH- 
d  tck.  u.  CiTutikk.  KoKom,  \i.  156-184 ;  Augaati,  KinUl. 
im.  A.T.  p.  79) ;  but  this  notion  has  been  coDiplet*- 
ly  disproved  by  Eichbom  {Hiaiia.  i,  iS),  Hftvemiik 
(fnJ.  1,  g  16),  and  ochera.  All  (lUnt  evidence  is 
against  it.  The  Son  of  fcirsch,  and  Philo,  both  Alei- 
iindrian  Jews,  make  do  allusion  to  it;  and  Jotephus, 
who  evidently  oaed  the  Greik  versicn,  eiprestly  de- 
clares against  it  in  the  ps»BagciboveiilVrredlo(/l)).  i. 
8).  Tbe  earlier  DoticeeoftheCanonaimptv designate  it 
t.y  the  thieefuld  division  already  conaidei«d.  Ihe  Son 
of  Sirach  mentions  "the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  tbe 
other  booksof  the  fathoiBi"  and  again,  "the  Law,  the 
Propheciea,  and  the  riat  of  the  looks;"  expressions 
which  clearly  indicato  that  in  his  day  tbe  Canon  was 
fixed.  In  the  New  Teat,  our  Lord  freqaenlly  refers 
to  the  Old  Teat,  under  the  title  of  "Ihe  Scriptures," 
or  of  "The  Law"  (Matt.  \xi,ii;  XKii,  S9;  John  x, 
1,0,  etc.);  and  in  one  place  he  apeaks  of  "the  Law 
of  Moees,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms"  (Luke  xxiv, 
4.|) ;  by  the  third  of  there  titles  intending,  doubtless, 
to  deaignata  the  Hagiographa,  either  after  the  Jewish 
cDstom  of  denoting  a  collection  of  books  by  Ihe  title 
of  that  with  uliicb  it  cimmenced,  or,  as  Hivenjlck 
[Uggects,  using  the  term  ^iiX/iai  as  a  general  derigna- 
tiun  of  these  hiH:ks,  because  of  the  larger  compsratlve 
I  monut  of  Ivric  poetiy  contained  in  them  (/.»/.  %  14). 
Paul  appUea  to  the  OU  Test  the  appellations  "the 
■  "•  I  "  the  Sa- 
.  I,  I5X  and 
tho  Old  Covenant"  (ij  raXaia  ItaOqai.  8  Cor.  iii, 
14).  Both  our  Lord  and  bis  apoatlea  ascribe  divine  ao- 
Ibority  to  tbe  ancient  Canon  (UatL  xv,  S;  John  x, 
1H-S«;  S  Tim.  iii,  IG;  S  Peter  i,  I9-H,  etc.);  and  in 
the  course  of  Ihe  New  Teat,  quotations  are  nii.de  fnm 
all  the  books  of  the  Old  except  Ruth,  Eira.  Nehemiab, 
Eather,  Canticles,  Lamentations,  and  Ezekie),  the 
omisfion  of  «hi(h  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  rimple 
princi[de  that  the  writers  had  no  occasiDn  to  quote 
tnm  them.  CoincidencrB  of  language  show  that  the 
I  postlea  were  familiar  with  several  <rf  the  aiocrvphal 
I  oaks  (Bleeh,  Ciitr  d.  SItUuig  d.  AjuAr.  in  tbr'Sliid. 
u.  Aril.  186.1,  p.  !G7  sq.),  but  thty  do  not  contain  one 
tuthoritative  or  dirrct  quotatinn  from  them,  whilr, 
with  Ihe  exception  of  Judges,  Eccles.,  Cant.,  Either, 
Eira,  and  Nebemiab,  evrry  other  book  In  the  Hebrew 
Canon  is  ured  either  for  illustration  or  proof.  Pbilo 
attetto  the  existence  in  his  time  of  tbe  i(^  ypiffi/iora. 
descrilies  ihem  as  o.mprising  laws,  oracles  uttered  l>y 
the  prophets,  hymns,  and  the  other  books  by  which 
knowledge  end  godlineaa  may  be  Increased  and  per- 
nnnmon  version.  In  the  vetslan  of  the  Sept.,  also,  he  '  fected  (/^  lVraO'n<m;)/af.  in  6fj>.  11,376,  rd  Mangey); 
ia  ranked  with  the  prophets  next  In  EieUel.  Nor  >  and  quotaliooa  from  or  referencea  to  the  most  of  the 
does  Jemme  agree  with  the  Talmud  in  all  respecti.,  i  hooka  are  ecattrred  Ihrongh  his  writings.  The  evi- 
■er  dnra  one  claaa  of  Jewish  nbbis  a^ree  with  an-  dence  of  Joaephus  is  very  important ;  for,  besides  Ecn- 
oArr  in  tbe  amogemrnt  of  the  sacred  boohs.  All  era!  reference  a  to  tho  sacred  hooks,  he  givea  a  fonral 
tUs  shows  tbat  no  such  fixed  and  onslterable  ar-  account  of  the  Canon  as  it  was  scknowledged  in  his 
taBgement  of  the  sacred  l>ook>,  as  that  which  is  com-  |  day,  ascribing  Are  books,  containing  laws  and  an  ac- 
Boniy  asanmed,  existed  anterior  to  tbe  fifth  century  '  count  of  the  origin  of  man,  to  Hoses,  thirteen  to  the 
rftbe  Christian  sra,  and  proves  very  distinctly  that  Pmphel>,  and  (bar,  containing  songs  of  praise  to  God 
tbe  pLice  then  assigned  10  Daniel  by  Ihe  Tslmndisis  and  elhic.il  precepts  for  men,  to  different  writeir,  and 
was  <ul  Ihe  pisce  he  had  during  the  preceding  period, '  affirming  that  the  fklth  of  Ihe  Jews  in  these  books  is 
■r  miidnally  occoided.  See  DxiftKL,  Book  or.  As  such  that  for  them  thry  would  suffer  all  tortures  and 
respect*  the  name  given  to  tbe  iiini  division,  the  moat  death  itself  (ronf.  Apu-n.  i,  7,  8 ;  Eicbhom,  KMtit.  i, 
anbaUe  iccoont  of  It  !*,  that  at  fin>t  it  was  fuller—    %  60 ;  Jahn,  liOndiKtu),  p.  60).     Tbe  popolar  belief 


CANON  7 

that  tb«  Skddooeei  Teoahred  only  tbe  books  of  Hom* 
(TerUa.  Dtprmcr.kMret.*ii  Jtnan,  U  Ifaak.  xxii, 
81,  p.  181 ;  Ori^oi,  e.  CdM.  i,  4«),  n*U  on  no  (ufficiant 
■Dthorit]' ;  and  If  they  had  ilcMia  ao,  JoMphoi  could 
not  bara  bjled  to  notice  ttM  bet  in  hli  uxount  of  the 
diRennt  Mda.  Sea  Sadducbe*.  In  the  tntdldeni 
of  tbe  Talmud,  on  tb«  ottaar  band,  Gamaliel  li  repra- 
aented  ai  Dginti  p-uugu  from  the  PraphMj  and  tba 
Uaglagnpha  In  Ui  coatrowelea  with  tbem,  and  the]' 
Tvply  vitb  quotatloiu  tnm  tha  lame  aoorcai  witboot 
acnipla  oi  ol^faettoD.  (9ea  Eichborn,  EM.  g  86; 
IJgbtibot,  Hora  Htbr.  tl  Talm.  U,  SIG ;  Schmld,  Bnarr. 
SfnL  ft  JonjiU  d>  LitrU  V.  T.  1777 ;  Qtildanapfel. 
Duirl.  Joirpki  de  Said.  dm.  SaU.  ecUiew,  1804.) 
In  tba  Taimadie  Tract  entitled  Baba  Balkra,  a  cata- 
logna  of  lite  booka  of  tbe  wered  Canon  ii  given,  wbicb 
axaclly  corrwpondi  with  tliat  now  found  to  tiia  Ue- 
brew  raUe  (Buxtorf;  T'lberuti,  c.  ll). 

III.  TIaCirufMsCteimo/UlgOUradnuiK.— He- 
lito,  blriiop  of  Sardii  in  tba  ■acond  centnij  of  tha 
Chriatian  an,  gives,  a*  the  raaalt  of  carefDl  buf^xy, 
the  aune  boolu  in  tha  Old-Teatameat  Canoa  as  va 
hava  nav,  with  the  aicaption  of  Nehemiali,  Eatber, 
and  l^mentationa ;  tha  first  twt>  of  wMch,  howeTar, 
he  probiblj  incladed  In  Ein,  and  the  l»t  in  Jare- 
miah  (Eowb.  HUL  Ecdri.  i<,  !6 ;  Elchhorn,  E'mt.  i, 
I  Bi).  Tha  cataloEoea  of  Orlgen  (EoHb.  HiM.  Ecdf. 
Ti,  8,  6),  of  Jerome  (/Vol.  GaUal.  in  0pp.  iii),  and  of 
Dtlien  of  the  fitbara,  giva  inlMtantially  the  uma  Ijat 
(Elchbom,  1.  c. ;  Angaell,  EM.  $  M ;  Codns,  Seiclaf 
tical  aUl.  of  At  Cimn,  ch.  Ui,  vl  i  Hendanon,  On  Jn- 
ipiraAiit,  p.  449). 

Tha  general  nsa  of  the  Saptnagint  (enlarged  bj 
apocryphal  additions)  produced  affecti  wlilch  are  plain- 
ly visible  in  tba  history  of  the  O.-T.  Canon  among  tlie 
•arly  Christian  writers.  In  proportion  as  tbe  fathers 
were  more  or  less  absolutely  dependent  on  that  ver. , 
rion  for  tbeir  knowledge  of  the  Old-Testament  Scrip- 1 
tBres,  they  gradnitly  toet  In  common  practice  the  saneo 
Df  the  difference  between  the  books  of  the  Hebrew 
Caoon  and  the  Apocrypha.  The  custom  of  indiTidoals  I 
grew  Into  tlie  custom  of  tbe  Church  i  and  tbe  public 
•so  of  tbe  apocryphal  books  obliterated  in  popular  re.  \ 
gard  tiM  characteristic  mirks  of  their  origin  and  value,  { 
whicb  could  only  be  discovered  by  the  scholar.  But 
tha  custom  of  tbe  Charcb  WHS  not  filed  in  an  absolute! 
judgment.  He  same  remark  applies  to  tbe  details . 
of  patriidc  evidence  on  the  contents  of  tbe  Canon. ' 
Their  habit  most  be  distinguished  from  their  jodgmenL 
1.  Pram  what  has  been  said,  it  Is  evident  that  tha 
bistory  of  the  Christian  Canon  is  to  be  «)ai;ht.  in  the 
first  instance,  IVom  definite  catalogues  rather  than 
from  isolated  quotations.  But  even  this  evidence  is 
incomplete  and  unsatisfactory.  (See  tbe  Tablet  1. 
and  Ii.)  During  the  first  ftint  centuriai  this  Hebrew 
Canon  is  the  only  one  which  Is  distinctly  recognised. 
and  it  Is  supported  by  the  comUaed  authority  of  thnae 
fathers  whose  ciitlcai  judifment  is  entitled  to  tbe  great- 
est weight  Tba  real  diveri^nce  as  to  tbe  contents 
of  the  Old-Testament  Canon  is  to  be  traced  to  Xv-nan- 
Une,  who  ennmerites  tha  books  contained  in  "tha 
whole  Canon  of  Scriptore,"  including  tbe  Apocrypha, 
without  any  tpecial  mark  of  distinction,  although  it 
may  be  reasonalily  doubted  whether  he  differed  Inten- 
tionatly  from  .lerome  eicapt  in  language  (,Dt  DxHr. 
fAWy.  ii,  8  [18] ;  comp.ftrCTe.  ariii,  36;  Cin«(.  i,  88). 
The  enlarged  Canon  of  Augustine,  though  wholly  un- 
supported by  any  Qreak  authorilv,  was  adopted  at  the 
Council  of  Carthage  (A.D.  367  ?').  though  with  a  res- 
ervation (Can.  17,  "(to  coiiSrmaiiiii  uln  Canone  tnmt- 
nun'ni  ecdaia  onuulatur"),  and  sfterwitrd  publbbed  In 
tbe  decretals  which  bear  tba  name  of  Innocent,  Dama- 
sus,  and  Gelaslus  (oorop.  Credner,  Zb-  Gach.  d.  Kan. 
p.  IBl  sq.) ;  and  it  recurs  In  many  later  writers.  But, 
nevertbeiess,  ■  continuous  ancceaslan  ofthe  more  ieani- 
•d  bthan  In  the  West  maintained  tba  distinctive  an. 
(bority  of  tba  Hebrew  Canon  op  to  tba  period  of  tba 


CANON 


In  tbe  <th  century  PrImaaiDa  (Camm, 
M  Apoe.  It,  Coain,  {  n  F),  In  tba  Jtb  Giagoy  tba 
Graut  (iforal.  xiz,  SI,  p.  612),  in  the  8th  Uede'(/* 
Apoc  iv  ?),  in  tbe  »tb  Alcahi  (op.  Body,  p.  G&J  ;  vet 
see  Oarm.  vl,  vij),  in  the  lOtb  Kadulphua  FUv.  '(/■ 
Ltvil,  xlv,  Hody,  p.  656),  in  tbe  12th  Peter  of  Clacnl 
{fy.  c.  Ptir.  Uody,  1.  c),  Hugo  de  S.Victore(ile  A>^. 
6),  and  John  of  Salisbury  (Hody,  p.  ftU;  Co^,  $  180), 
in  the  lSthUagDCardinalis(Hody,  p.666),  in  thelMb 
Micholas  Llranua  (Hody,  p.  667;  C»4n,  j  146),  Wic- 
Uf  (?  oomp.  Hody,  p.  668),  and  Occam  (Hodv,  p.  G6T ; 
Cosin,  S  147),  in  the  16tb  Thomaa  AnglJcns  (Corin, 
S  160),  and  Thomas  de  Wslden  (Id.  1 151),  in  tho  Ifitb 
Card.  Ximenes  (£i.  Compl.  Pnf.).  Slxtus  tkncnaa 
(S^MiMA.  i,  1).  and  Card.CaleUn  (Hody,  p.  6GJ;  Co- 
sin,  i  ITS),  repeat  with  approval  tba  decision  of  Je- 
rome, and  draw  a  clear  line  between  Ihn  canonical  and 
apocryphal  books  (Coein,  Sckalailical  Hittory  of  At 
Ctmoa  s  Eeuii,  Dit  Guek.  d.  luilifm  Sehi/lam  d.  ff.  T. 
•d.i,SS!8). 

TABLE  L— CIIRiailAN  CATALOGUBS  OF  TIIE  BOOKS 
OF  THK  OLD  TEffTAHKNT. 

a  buk mv!kiE»UKci>I I'll uU^r •■«»•»< 


[Innmnlluq 


Coat  Laod.  Ctaa. 

Ha. 
(;ii«Oaidac.ilI, 


Bp.  em,  \,  TO, 


Cndnar,  Zar  G*m. 
<l£an.p.1tlsq. 


(Oallaidl, 


CoWta.    p.   I3S 

nvC  (11  fVr.  IB. 

"ml.  RalnU.  Ii, 
p.  MT  MI.,  ed. 
MI(Da. 

^|u.  Symtk  CT 

'  J.  189."  "*■ 
<CtaIlaDdt,  vtfl, 
tX/astft/MkHn 


CANON  10  CANON 

TABLE  n.— QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  APOGBYPHA  Ail  BCKIITDRE. 


'•'w" 

B....  i-s:- 

WM»      1          t^lL         1        JwlUb. 

''^■K- 

*^^^ 

Lf^timfn. 

't.,-'-- 

.... 

"'ii.f^- 

P»HJ*» 

.... 

■r.f~- 

[«..«.  ei 

J|f>.'W.T, 

"AMr-'' 

Adv.     I^or. 

Cw.  Aux... 

IStnuuL' 

Pad.  i,  10; 

Smim.UiA 

SlnwHit.  )v, 

sn™-U,W; 

S(™il.U,T. 

1*.) 

",8- 

•^ 

W;  .1.  n, 

VI,  18. 

L 

0mm 

I*>/Vter.U. 

M,  (a  At. 

C^».».«i. 

B>.  ad  Af. 

[H#m.H.in 

Ep.MAf. 

^■d  A/. 

Mi    »,  M; 

ne.  18. 

JBd.l.] 

ria. 

>it«r 

xttU.M. 

H«..»pe. 

0>Oml.lL 

DiOrat.14. 

II>.  AnSeh. 

ftOwtPnL 

[Jo  Dm  PL 

Srf.  *»  Je'. 

nvitaDm. 

«.) 

i. 

nr,     eS. 

*«■.,., 

ll™«™.... 

eta«.TlH,J.' 

0«.,« 

c™-.    1,    B 

HlBK-l 

[Cnmil,!.] 

•d.UlgM. 

e.  Jriin.  i, 

.rsu..!. 

1    ^rtXLU. 

..  Arbm.  1, 

^  Arim.  HI, 

«e. 

ISB. 

ail. 

m. 

S80. 

^™"» 

D.i».  rr.  »]. 

/^-p-^l. 

c™uH«<« 

CiK."il,W 

"!;.-,"* 

CtaLl«,l 

CM.  II,  «, 

Gtmot-Ka.. 

Oral.uiTl, 

Adr.     Ktm. 

4diLBtM«ni 

I'.W. 

T,». 

^^oTl't. 

" 

(Go(nt.>18, 

A««.    IJ, 

Oamemm... 

D.^L«.^ 

'"?-•■"■ 

Tbhiuiu..., 

RB.HB. 

"^.^ 

41 

^WIBOJ, 

TWtei.tl,l. 

Tta«m.ll.1 

nuc  a  14 

D*     Oromr. 

D(    Orufiir. 

4. 

fiiAroruu 

ift 

ft™.  8. 

/i.ft.i«m, 

rt  PfcUri, 

/nTVeiTUi 

Inl^ezxlx, 

TnFi.<atr. 

In  Pv.  Ill, 

•.He. 

t. 

»,««. 

£>  7Hfl.  Iv, 

HI 

tumomn.... 

Jn/VnTllt, 

D,        bont 

c  ^.  a  Ul. 

Lib.  St  IV 

'W'"' 

18.1. 

lB,l«0,.lc. 

Mo,  L 

'""■■' 

.... 

Ofatr.  «« 

Ivan* 

Aenmpm. 

fto    Allan. 

ni>    ^Uon. 

^-ar- 

Pre  A  Mm. 

ZX5cA.i>ini. 

l,8TL 

U,8M-t 

Ul,>. 

IMS. 

I>.rVr.«BI, 

In  /*.  IKTII, 

Atf'.eKilai. 

U. 

8.M^.      ■ 

It  one  of  the  Bnt  Ubon  of  th«t 

which  the  groorth  of  liter- 
ttatn  Momd  to  render  peiilou.  1  ha  decree  of  the 
CooMil  "on  the  Canoninl  Scripture*."  nbich  ou 
xtAt  at  Um  4th  eeuion  (April  8th.  1646),  at  ithich 
■boat  U  TepreoentitiTe*  vera  preHiit,  pronounced  the 
enlarged  Canon,  inclnding  the  >pocr;phAl  l>oakn,to  tie 
dMerriDg  in  all  iti  part*  of  "  equal  veneration"  (pari 
piotatia  alTectD),  and  added  a  liM  of  booka  "  to  prevent 
the  poeriliititj'  of  doabt"  (ne  cbI  dahltatki  aahorlH  pcia- 
■it).  Tfaii  haatj  and  peremplor;  decree,  nnlika  in  it> 
Kna  to  anj  eatatoKae  befbre  publidied,  yit»  cloMd  by 


allvr 


Duld  " 


«  bookii.  vilh  all  their  parts,  n  ucred 
~  quia  intern  libro*  ipeoa  inteRros 
ii  partlbn*.  prout  in  eccleniB  catbollcs 
it  et  in  veteri  Tnleala  LaCJna  editions 

la  MtA,  Come,  Trid.  S'U.  iv).  Thlt  decree  wst 
aet,  tHnrew,  puaed  wltbout  oppnellinn  (Sarpi,  p.  ir9 
•q.  ed.  IGKh,  thootdl  Pallavaclno  denies  thif) : 


of  proto-eanonieil  and  detttero-canonical  bookB,  at- 
tribntliig  to  the  firat  a  duRmatic,  and  to  the  aecond 
onlj  an  ethical  anthorlt,?.  But  anch  a  claulfication, 
however  true  it  ma;  be,  is  obvionalj  at  variance  with 
the  termi  of  tlie  Tridentiae  decialoD,  and  liaa  found 
eompirativelf  little  farar  among  Romiah  wiitera 
(comp.  [Herbet]  Welle,  £iaJ.ii,l  •<[.).    See  Deutebo- 


S.  The  reformed  chorchea  tuunimoiulf  a«r>«l  in 
confirming  the  Helirew  Canon  of  Jrrome,  and  refand 
to  allow  an/  dogmatic  nnthority  to  the  apocryphal 
booka,  but  the  Ibrm  in  which  thia  Judgment  was  ex- 
preaied  varied  conridenUy  in  the  dUhrent  confei. 
slona.  The  Lutheran  formularies  contain  no  dcAnite 
article  on  the  aubject,  but  the  note  which  Lutlier  placed 
in  the  ffont  of  hla  German  trantlation  of  the  Apociypha 
(ed.  I&S4)  i>  an  adequate  declaration  of  the  later  judg- 
ment of  the  Communion:  "Apocrypha,  tbit  if,  l,orka 
which  are  not  placed  on  an  equal  footinx  (nieAl  gli'eh 
!/tltallm)  with  Holy  Scripture,  and  yet  are  profital  le 
[  and  good  for  raa^ng."     Thia  general  view  was  fur- 


■liita  of  the  abaoluta  lerma  In  which  it  ia  expreaaed.  I  ther  expanded  in  the  apecial  prefaced  tc 
later  SomaniMa  have  aoiuhttn  find  a  method  ofeacap- 1  bonka,  in  which  Luther  freely  criticiaed  their  individ- 
vgfhmtba  deHnite  eqaaliialinn  of  the  twociaiwea  of  1  ual  worth,  and  wholly  rejected  3  and  4  Esdna  aa  un. 
•aend  writinga  by  a  forced  Interpretation  of  tbeeub-  worthy  of  tranalatlon.  At  an  earlier  period  Carlttadt 
ridtaiy  clauae*.     Dn  Tin  (Z>taKri(.j>ratiai,  1, 1),  Luny  |  (lUO)puhlidied  a  ciillcaleiaay,  iJacowiiDni  Mv^pteru 


CANON  8 

£&db«  (reptintad  in  CrBdnw,  Ziir  Geick.  d.  Kan.  p. 
391  M).).  >n  wblcb  be  follamed  the  Hebrew  diriiLon  of 
the  unODical  book*  into  three  nnk>,  and  added  Wild., 
Ecclus.,  Judith, Tobit,  land!  Uac<:.,u  HaKiogcapba, 
thoDijh  not  included  In  the  Hebrew  collection,  while 
he  rejected  the  remainder  of  the  Apocrypha,  with  con- 
eiderdble  parta  of  Daniel,  as  "utterly  apocryphal" 
(jt'oMapacrypU;  Creda.  p.389,  410  *q.). 

4.  The  CalviniaUc  churchea  Kenerallj-  treated  the 
qui^ttian  with  more  preciiion,  and  introdpced  into  their 
■ymbolic  documenta  a  distinction  between  Ibe  "  canon- 
ical" and  "apocryphal,"  or  "eccleilaatical"  books. 
Th3  Gallican  ConfeMion  (1561),  after  an  enumeration 
of  the  Hieronyniiui  Canon  (An.  S),  adda  (Art.  4) 
"  that  the  otbet  ecclealaaltcai  books  are  useful,  yet  not 
Huch  that  any  article  of  faith  could  be  estaUlahed  oat 
of  them"  (quo  [ac  Spirila  Stnclo]  nggeraile  docfmar, 
iUos  [ac.  iArot  Canoaieiw}  ah  aiat  tArit  ectJeritulicis  dU- 
ceDtere,  qui,  ut  mt  slilti,  nun  naU  Iwnen  tjutmodi,  ut  rx 
iit  oHulitui  pnaait  aHqidi  fdei  articaba).  The  Belgic 
ConfeMion  (1^61  0  cgntalna  ■  aimilar  enumeration  of 
the  canonical  books  (Art  4),  and  altowa  their  public 
"     n  all  independent 


irity  in  i 


raofr.il 


.  (Art,  6).     The  1 


!tHel 


vetic  Con'&iasion  (1662,  BuUinger)  notices  th( 
tlon  beEweenthe  canonical  and  apociyphal  books,  with- 
out pronouncing  any  Judgment  on  the  question  {Nie- 
nieyer,  ii6r.  Symb.  Kcdr*.  Rrf.  p.  468).  The  Wt 
minster  Confession  (Art.  3)  places  the  apocrjpbal  books 
OD  a  level  with  otber  hnnun  wrltinie,  and  concedes 
to  them  no  other  authority  iu  the  Church. 

B.  The  English  Church  (An.  G)  appeals  directly  to 
the  opinion  of  St.  Jerome,  and  concedes  to  the  apocry- 
phal book!  (Including  [1571]  4  Esdras  and  the  Prayer 
of  Manaasea)  a  use  "for  example  of  lifo  and  iDotruc- 
tion  of  manners,"  but  not  for  Hie  establisbmeDt  of  doc- 
trine; and  a  aimilar  deciaion  is  given  In  the  Irish  Arti- 
cles of  16IS  (Hatdwick,  iif  n7>.  p.  S41  aq.).  The  origi- 
nal Engliah  Article!  of  Ibb'i  contained  no  catalogue 
(Art  &)  of  the  contenta  of  "  Holy  Scripture,"  and  no 
mention  of  the  Apocrypha,  although  the  Tridentine  de- 
cree (1646)  might  Mem  to  have  rendered  this  neceaaary. 
The  example  of  foreign  churches  may  have  led  to  the 
adilition  upon  the  later  revision.  The  Methodist  Epis- 
cnp^l  Church  baa  adopted  the  aame  Canon  of  Scrip- 
ture, but  entirely  omits  the  Apocrypha  {UiiiipHnr.  p). 
i,  ch.  1,  §  a.  Art.  5);  and  those  bonks,  as  they  KUnd  in 
the  Hebrew  Canon  and  Greek  TeFtmcnl,  are  alone 
received  by  the  evangelical  churches  of  America. 

S.  The  ezpresaed  oiunion  of  the  later  Greeli  Church 
Vm  the  Canon  of  Scripture  has  been  modified  in  some 
caaes  by  the  drcamstancea  under  which  the  declara- 
lion  waa  made.  The  "Confession"  of  Cyril  Lucar, 
who  wia  most  bvorably  dlapoaed  toward  the  ProUat- 
ant  churches,  confirma  the  Laodicene  CAEa]D;;ae,  and 
marks  the  apocryphal  boaka  as  not  possessing  the 
Buna  divine  autbority  as  those  whose  csnonicity  la 
unquestioned  (Ebnmel,  Man.  Fid.  Kcda.  Or.  i.  43). 
in  this  judfcmenl  Cyril  Lucar  was  follawed  by  his 
friend  Metrophane*  Critopulus,  In  whose  conti^eFlaD  a 
complete  list  ot  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  Canoi 
given  (KImmel,  ii,  105  aq.),  while  some  value  ia  ai- 
oigned  to  the  apocryphal  booka  In  conaideratinn  of 
their  ethical  value ;  and  the  detailed  deci'ion  of  Me- 
trophanes  ia  quoted  with  approvnl  in  the  "  Orthodox 
Teaching"  of  PUlon,  Metropolitan  of  Moncow  (ed. 
Athena,  1836,  p.  69).  The  "Onhndnx  Confession" 
Kimplv  refers  the  subject  of  Scripture  to  the  Church 
(Kimmel,  p.  159  ;  comp.  p.  123).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Synod  at  Jerusalem,  held  in  1ST!,  "Bgalnnt  the 
Calviniats,"  which  ia  commonly  said  to  have  been  led 
by  Romleh  Influence  (yet  comp.  KImmel.  p.  Ixxxviii), 
pronounced  that  the  books  which  Cyril  Lacar  "igno- 
rantly  or  malicioualy  called  apDcrj-phal"  are  "canon- 
ical and  Holy  Scripture,"  on  the  authority  of  (be  tee- 
Hmony  of  the  ancient  Church  ([Kimmel,]  Weiasen- 
tMin,  DoiUi.  Coi^tu.  p.  467  aq.).     The  Conalantino- 


)  CANON 

polltan  Synod,  which  was  held  in  the  aame  year,  no- 
ticea  the  diflerenca  existing  between  the  Apottiilic 
Laodicene,  and  Carthaginian  Catalogues,  and  appears 
to  diatinguiah  the  apocryphal  tiooka  as  not  wholly  In 
be  rejected.  The  authuriied  Russian  Calecblam  (7%e 
Dottrut  o/tlu  Ruaiat  Churdt,  etc.,  by  Bev.W.  Black- 
more,  Aberd.  1845,  p.  87  sq.)  distinctly  quolea  and  dc- 
fenda  the  Hebrew  Canon  on  the  authcniEy  of  the  Greek 
fathers,  and  repeata  the  Jud^anent  of  Athanasioa  on 
the  usefnlnees  of  the  spocrj-phal  booka  aa  a  prepara- 
tory study  in  the  Bible;  and  there  can  be  no  doabi 
that  the  current  of  Greek  opinion,  in  accordance  with 
the  ononimoua  agreement  of  the  andent  Greek  Cat*- 
logues,  colncidca  with  tbia  Judgment. 

7.  The  hietory  of  the  Syrian  Canon  of  the  0.  T.  ia 
iUTOlved  in  groat  obscuri^  ^m  the  scantinesa  of  the 
evidence  which  can  be  brouiibt  to  bear  npon  it  The 
Psahito  was  made.  In  the  first  inBtancc,  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  consequently  adhered  to  the  Hebrew- 
Canon  ;  but  aa  the  Sept.  waa  used  afterward  in  revis- 
ing the  version,  many  of  the  apocryphal  boohs  were 
translated  from  the  Greek  at  on  early  period,  and  add- 
ed to  the  original  collection  (Aasemanl,  Bibl.  Or.  I,  71). 
Yet  this  change  waa  only  made  gradually.  In  the 
time  of  Ephrem  (cir.  A.D.  870)  the  apocrj-phal  addi- 
tions to  Daniel  wero  yet  wanting,  and  his  commenta- 
ries were  confined  to  the  books  of  the  Hebrew  Canon, 
though  he  was  acquainted  with  the  Apocrj-pha  (Lanl- 
ner,  Crtditif,'^,  iv,  4!T  sq. ;  see  Lengerke,  Dmd,  p. 
cxii).  The  later  Syrian  writers  do  not  throw  much 
tight  upon  the  qnealion.  Gregory  Bar  Hebrsua,  in 
bb  short  comments  ry  on  Scripture,  treats  of  the  books 
in  the  fblUiwIng  order  (AssemanI,  BibL  Onenl.  II,  !Si} : 
the  PenUteuch,  Josh.,  Judg.,  1  and  3  Sam.,  Pea.,  1  and 
S  Kings,  Ptov.,  fJxluM.,  Ecct.,  Cant,  Witd.,  Rath,  Hil. 
Sai.,  Job,  Isa.,  12  Proph.,  Jer.,  Lam.,  Eieh..  Dan.,  Bfl, 
4  Qosp.,  Acta  ...  14  Epbt.  of  Paul ;  omitting  1  and  3 
Cbron.,  Ezra,  Neh.,  Either,  Tabil,  1  and  2  J/ncc.,  Ju- 
dith, (Banich  f),  .ipotalyptt,  Epist  Jama,  1  Pet,  1 
John. 

In  the  Scriptural  Vocabulary  of  Jacob  of  Edessa 
(Assemani,  li,1S9),  the  order  and  number  of  the  books 
commented  upon  Is  somewhat  different :  Pent,  Joah., 
Judg.,  Job,  1  and  2  Sam.,  Darid  (i.  e.  Paa.),  1  and  S 
Kings,  Ita.,  12  Proph,,  Jer.,  Lam.,  Baruci,  Ecek., 
Dan.,  Prov.,  Witd.,  Cant.,  Ruth,  Esth..  JkKU,  EctIki.. 
Acts,  Epist.  Jama,  1  Pet.,  I  John,  14  Epist.  of  Paul,  4 
Goap. ;  omitting  1  and  i  Chroo.,  Ezra,  Neh.,  Ecrl., 
Tobit,  1  and  2  Mace.,  Apoc.  (comp.  Aaaemani,  BibJ. 
Oriint.  ill,  4,  note). 

The  Catalogue  of  Ehed-Jesu  (Assemani,  BiU.  Orlmi. 
Hi,  5  eq.)  Is  rather  a  general  survey  of  all  tlie  Hebrew 
and  Cbiistiin  literature  with  which  he  was  acquainted 
(Catalogus  librornm  omnium  Ecclesiasticorum)  than  a 
CsnoQ  of  Scripture.  After  enumerating  the  bonks  of 
the  Hebrew  Canon,  together  with  Eceba.,  Witd.,  Jv- 
£lk,  add.  to  Dot,,  and  BarvcX,  he  adds,  without  anv 
break,  "the  traditions  of  the  Elders"  (Mishnn),  the 
works  ofjosephns,  including  the  Fablea  of  ^sop  which 
were  pnpalarly  ascribed  to  him.  and  at  the  end  i.  en- 
lions  the  "  book  of  T<Aiiu  and  TMV  In  like  man- 
ner, after  pnnmeratlne  tbe  4  Goap.,  Acts,  S  Cath. 
Epist  and  14  Epist.  of  Paul,  he  pasns  at  once  to  tbe 
Diatessaron  of  Tatlan,  and  the  writings  of  "the  dis- 
ciples of  the  apostles."  Little  dependence,  however, 
can  be  placed  an  these  lists,  as  they  rest  on  no  critioil 

varieties  of  opininn  on  the  subject  of  the  Canon  exist- 
ed in  tbe  Syrian  Church  (Assemani,  BibL  Orinu.  iii,  6, 
not*). 

One  testimony,  however,  which  derives  Ita  origin 
f^m  the  Syrian'Chnrch,  is  special]/  worthy  nf  notice. 
Janilius,  an  African  bishop  of  tbe  6th  centnry,  has 
preaerved  a  full  'nd  IntereetinK  account  of  the  teach- 
ing* of  Paolua,  a  Persian,  on  Holy  Scripture,  who  was 
edacatolat  Nifibla,  where  "the  Divine  Idwwas  regu- 
larly explained  by  public  masters"  as  a  brwcb  sf 


CANON 


Bl 


iai3nm\.t>tpaTt.kg.Pr<tf:).  Ho  dU 
iA*  the  bookfl  of  (he  BiblB  into  two  cliUKa,  tboM  of 
-perfwt"uui  those  of '■man"  kathorily.  The  fint 
,'lui  inclDdei  alltbo  booki  of  th«  Habnw  Canon  with 
Itit  eiception  of  1  and  !  Cbron.,  Job,  Canticle),  and 
Eitber,  liid  witb  the  addition  of  KccUiiaitiaa.  The 
HcuDd  dan  ooiuiat*  of  ChronicloB  (1),  Job,  Eadraa  (0, 
JtM,  Eatber,  and  Maceabea  (S),  which  are  added  \iy 
"my  many"  (pliiriWi)  to  the  canoaiotl  booki.  The 
nouunipg  boolu  an  pronDiinced  lo  be  of  no  Hathorit]', 
ud  gf  tbeae  Canticles  and  Wisdom  are  aaid  lo  lie  add- 
H]b<">»me"(fHiiJa«i)  to  the  Canon.  The  claaaiBca- 
lioa  H  it  alanda  ii  not  without  dlfflcnltie9,but  it  de- 
■rret  man  attention  than  it  baa  received  (comp. 
Hsdj,  p.  E53;  Gallandi  SUUnk.  xll,  79  Bq.  Tbe  re- 
print in  Wordaworth,  On  At  Caaat,  App.  A,  p.  12  iq., 
k  raj  hnperfiKt). 

S.  The  Armenian  Canon,  aa  far  aa  it  can  he  ascer- 
LiiMd  from  editioiui,  follow*  that  of  the  Sept.,  but  it 
ii  of  no  critical  authoritf ;  and  a  limilar  remark  ap- 
plin  to  the  bhioplc  Canon,  though  U  ia  more  ea.<<7 
io  tbia  cue  to  trace  the  cbanges  through  which  it  haa 
)UKd  (DUImann,  ITibtr  d.  Aeti.  Kan.,  In  Ewald'a 
Jairimek,  IBfiS,  p.  144  aq.). 

See,  on  thla  branch  of  the  subject,  in  addition  to  tbe 
mrki  abare,  Schmid,  Hiil.  ant.  rl  VKtdic.  Can.  S.  Vet.  el 
.Vst,  Tcrf.  (Upa.  17TI>);  [H.  Carn>di],Fenucik(iKr  Be- 
larklmg.  .  .  d.  £01.  Kanom  {Htilt,  ITS!);  Hovers, 
£«  faiJiM  Bin.  Can.  V.  T.  ilbmrati  (Bi»laa,  IMS). 
The  great  work  of  Hody  (fti  UbOiir.  lot.  Oion.  1706) 
tmtaina  a  rich  itore  of  materials,  thongh  even  this  is 
ml  fnt  trom  minor  eirora.  Stuart's  CHticai  Hittorg 
mi  Drffnee  oftiK  Old-ToL  Camm  ia  rmtber  an  apology 
tiaa  a  history.     See  Afocbtpha. 

IV.  Tht  Canon  ofOm  Nob  TeMantenl The  history 

aftln  N.-T.Canon  presents  a  remarkable  analogy  to 
tbat  of  tba  Canon  of  the  U.  T.     The  beginninga  of 

vUch  tbe;  arose ;  both  grew  silently  under  the  gaid- 
unof  an  inward  instinct  rather  than  by  the  force  of 
(ilanial  anthority;  both  were  omnected  with  other 
rAgiona  liMratnr*  by  a  series  of  books  which  claimed 
Ipjrtial  and  qoeMlonablB  aatbority ;  both  gained  dff- 
initcBoaa  in  timea  of  persecQtiDn.  Tha  chief  diffference 
lieiinthe  general  consent  with  which  alt  the  churchen 
<f  tbe  West  have  ji^ned  in  IMi^ing  ono  Canon  of  the 
N.  T.,  while  they  are  divided  aa  to  the  position  of  tbe 
0.-T.  Apocrypha. 

I.  Ad  •cclsaiaeUcil  tradition  (Photlns,  BiH.  CW.  p. 
IM)  ascribe*  to  tbe  apostle  John  the  work  of  collect- 
iag  and  UDctioning  the  writings  which  were  worthy 
tt  *  place  in  the  Canon ;  but  this  tradition  is  too 
kta,  too  uasnppoited  by  collateral  evidence,  and  too 
iBDch  opposed  by  certain  facta,  inch  as  the  exist- 
■■ee  of  doabt  In  some  of  the  early  charches  as  to 
dM  canoaicity  of  certain  books,  the  different  airange- 
aitm  of  tbe  books  apparent  in  catalogues  of  tbe  Can- 
•m  ttia  extant,  etc.,  for  any  weight  to  be  allowed  lo 
it.    A  modi  more  probablt  '  "  ' 

aeuly  all  the  modsn  wri 

the  daims  of  tbe  Canon  are  agreea,  is,  tiiat  eacn  at 
Iht  original  churches,  tapeclall}'  thoM  of  lar^r  site 
tad  greater  ability,  collected  for  Itself  a  complete  set 
•f  those  writings  which  could  be  proved,  by  competent 
MMinany,  to  be  tba  prodacUon  of  inspired  men,  and 
t>  have  bMB  commnnlcalcd  by  them  to  any  of  the 
(iarcbes  as  part  of  the  written  word  of  God :  so  that 
ia  thia  war  a  great  many  complete  collections  of  tha 
S.-T.  gcripturea  came  to  be  extant,  tbe  accordance  nf 
vkirh  with  each  other,  as  to  the  books  admitted,  far- 
■iifaes  imf^agable  evidence  of  the  correctnesa  of  the 
<^Bon  aa  we  now  have  It.  This  opinion,  which  in  11- 
•df  ia  highly  probable,  is  rendered  still  more  so  when 
■t  eenddcr  the  scnipnlou*  care  which  tha  early 
rknchaa  look  to  diKrimloale  spurious  compositions 
haa  iBck  as  were  anthentic— the  existence,  among 
~   g  oertain  of  the  K-T.  boiAa, 


's  who  are  fhvnrable  I 


CANON 

indicating  tbat  each  Church  claimed  the  right  of  (atiF- 
fying  itself  in  this  matter—their  high  vener.tii.n  fur 
the  genuine  apostolic  writin^p — their  anxious  regard 
fur  each  other's  prosperity  leading  to  the  free  commu- 
nication from  one  to  another  of  whatever  could  pro- 
mote thia,  and,  of  coarse,  amonx  i.tber  lhing>,  of  those 
writings  which  bad  been  intrusted  to  any  une  of  tbcm, 
and  by  which,  mora  Ihjn  b}-  any  other  means,  the 
spiritual  welbre  of  the  whole  would  be  [jrooioted — the 
practice  of  the  fathers  ofarguinj;  the  canon  icity  of  any 
book,  from  its  reception  by  tbe  cburcbis,  bs  a  snfficient 
proof  of  this — and  the  reason  assigned  by  Eusebiug 
laitl.  Ecclet.  Hi,  !S)  for  dividing  the  books  of  the  N.  T. 
J/uXoyoi'fUi'ai  and  airrAiyiiuyoi,  via.  that  the 
T  class  was  composed  of  those  which  tbe  univer- 
sal tradition  of  the  churches  authenticated,  while  the 
latter  contained  such  as  bad  been  received  by  the  ma- 
jority, hut  not  by  all  (Slorch,  Conmtnl.  But.  Oil.  tie 
/.iM.;V.ru(aaHM(iCunMie,elc.p.llSsq.;  Olshansen's 
EdUAiil  der  IV.  Etmg.  p.  IBS).  In  this  way  we  may 
readily  believe  that,  without  the  intervention  of  any 
antlioritative  decision,  either  from  an  individual  or  a 
council,  but  by  the  natural  procefS  of  each  body  of 
Christians  seeking  to  procure  for  themsrlres  and  to 
convey  to  tbdr  brethren  authentic  copies  of  writings 
in  wliicb  all  were  deeply  interested,  the  Canon  of  tbe 
New  TesUment  was  formed. 

!.  The  first  certain  notice  which  we  have  of  the  ex- 
istence of  any  of  the  New-Testament  writings  in  a 
collected  form  occura  in  !  Pet.  iii,  16,  where  the  writer 
speaks  of  the  epistles  cf  Paul  in  such  away  aa  to  lead 
na  to  infer  that  at  that  tbno  the  whole  or  the  greater 
part  of  these  were  collected  tugclher,  were  known 
omong  the  churches  genemlly  (Ibr  Peter  is  not  ad- 
dressing any  particular  church),  and  were  regarded 
as  on  a  par  with  "Ihe  other  Scriptures,"  l.y  which  tat- 
ter expression  Peter  plainly  means  tbe  sacred  writings 
Loth  of  tho  Old  and  the  New  TesUment,  as  far  as  then 
extant— That  Jdbn  must  have  had  1>efon  him  copies 
of  the  other  evangcllsia  is  probable  from  the  nppU- 
tnenlary  character  of  his  own  gof  pel. — In  the  anony- 
mous Epistle  to  Diognrtus,  which  is,  on  good  greonds, 
rupposed  to  be  one  of  the  cariiect  of  the  uninspired 
Christian  writings,  the  writer  rpesks  of  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  the  Gospels,  and  tho  Aportles  (§  xi.  ed.  Ilc- 
fele).— Ignstlus  speaks  of  "belaking  himself  to  Ihe 
Gospel  as  Ihe  fiesh  of  Jesus,  and  to  the  spostles  as  the 
presbytery  of  the  Church,"  and  adds,  "  the  prophets 
nlso  we  love,"  thus  showing  that  it  was  to  the  Scrip- 
lures  he  was  referring  (,Fp.  ad  Flahdelpinuii,  }  t,  cd. 
Ilefele).— Theophitus  of  Antioch  ppeaks  frequently  of 
tbe  New-Testament  writings  under  the  appellation  of 
ni  iiftai  ypn^ai,  or  u  fdoc  Xiiyoc,  and  in  one  place 
mentions  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Goipels  as 
alike  divinely  Inspired  (orf.  Autol.  iii,  11).— Clement 
of  Alexandria  frequently  refers  to  the  books  of  tlio 
New  Testament,  and  distinguishrB  them  into  "the 
Gospels  and  Apostolic  Discourses"  {Quit  Diert  .WrVif 
props  fin. :  Slnmat.  sEpi»ime).— Tertuliian  distinctly 
intimsles  the  existence  of  the  New-Testampnt  Canon 
in  a  complete  form  in  his  d«}'  by  culling  it  "  Evangel- 
Icum  Instrumentum"  (adv.  Marc,  tv,  2),  by  describing 


Testamenti"  (ads.  Prai.  c.  SO),  and  by  distinguishing 
between  the  "  Scriptura  Vetns"  and  the  "Novum  Tes- 
tament um"  (/Ud.  c.  13). — I rensus  repeatedly  calls  the 
writings  of  the  NewTestament"  the  Holy  Scriptures," 
"ths  Orstles  of  God"  (nrfe. //orr.  ii,  K;  i,  8,  etc.), 
and  in  one  place  he  puts  tbe  evangelical  and  spostol- 
ical  writings  on  a  par  with  the  Ijiw  and  the  Prophets 
(Hid.  i,  S,  §  6).  From  these  allusions  we  may  Justly 
infer  that  befbre  the  middle  of  the  third  centurj'  the 
New-Testament  Scriptures  were  iienaraily  known  bv 
the  Christians  in  a  rolleded  form,  and  reverenced  as 
the  word  of  God.  That  the  boohs  they  received  were 
the  same  aa  those  now  possessed  by  us  is  evident  trom 
the  quotations  tnm  them  famished  by  the  eariy  fn- 


CANON 


CANON 


TABLE  IIL— THK  CHIEF 


Apntoilo  (Oonc 


UyrtI  «(■   " 


CtUTKMtom 

Cul.Clanm 

AngntUae  ...... 

/(a'!). 
Oin.  Murat. 


i 


m 


m 


Uiera,  and  which  hive  Wn  to  cirafully  aillscUd  1  ^  [  8.  Tha  histoty  of  tbs  M.-T.  Canon  ntay  !>•  codtici 
tha  lajinad  and  latwrfau*  Ludnsr  in  hit  CreMUilg  0/  imtlj  dirlded  iuto  thraa  perlodr.  The  flnt  axtemia  tu 
tlu  Ga^al  Hiilory.  Tiie  uma  thing  ■ppur>  frjni  tlie  the  time  of  Hegoipjiiu  (c.  A.D.  170 1,  and  inclndes  tha 
nieucbes  ofOrigsn  and  EaHebliu,  botli  oFwhuni  ctro-  >n  of  tha  *ep.inta  clrcnlatlan  and  Btadiial  collectioii 
fullj  inquired,  and  luve  hxurately  recorded  what  ottbs  apottolic  wriEln((a.  The  second  is  cloaed  I17  tha 
hooka  were  recsired  as  canuaicai  by  tha  tradition  of  perMcntion  at  Diecletiaii  (A.D.  808),  and  nurka  ths 
the  ohurche*  or  the  church  writan  (trrXtjoiaoTir^  ra-  eeparatioa  of  the  eacfed  writinga  from  the  rBOiaioing 
piJo<ii[1,  and  both  of  whom  enunifrate  the  Hme  booki  eccieiiaitical  literature.  The  third  may  Iw  defined  bj 
u  are  in  our  preHnt  CanuD,  though  tome  of  them,  the  third  Council  of  CartbuKe  (A.D.  BUT),  in  which  a 
euchaatheEpiftlHof  James  and  Jude,  the  SdEp.  of  caUlogne  ortbe  Loolu  of  Sciipture  wu  formally  rati- 
Petar,  the  Sd  andBd  of  John.and  the  Apocalypae,  they  fled  I17  conciliir  autliority.  The  fint  ia  characteria- 
menCion  that  though  received  by  the  uiajiirity,  they  tieally  a  period  of  tradition,  the  aecond  of  (peculation, 
were  doubted  by  aome  (Euteb.  M.  E.  lil,  'lb  \  vi,  M).  the  third  of  authcvity  ;  and  it  would  not  ba  difficult  to 
Beaidei  these  aource*  of  infiinnatlnn,  we  h..ve  no  few-  trace  tha  faaturea  of  the  tuceauivc  a;ea  in  tlw  ooona 
er  than  t«n  ancient  catilogues  of  the  New-Taatameut  of  the  history  of  the  Canon.  For  thta,  however,  wa 
boolu  atill  extant.  Of  these,  tix  accord  exactly  with  hare  not  room  in  detail,  tint  must  refer  to  tha  fiiTB- 
oor  present  Canon,  nhile  of  the  rest  rAro;  omit  only  the  going  etatamenta  in  aupport  of  thia  ramarlE,  the  truth 
Apocalypse,  and  <>«  omiu,  with  this,  the  Epistle  to  the  of  which  1*  4>TtI>er  ■ustaioed  by  the  biitory  of  the 
Hebrews(LArdner'a  IWi*,  vol.  lvandv,8vo;  llome'a    tiniaa. 

AWrMbcttvH,  i,  70,  Sth  edition).  The  panecutlon  of  Dlociedan  wai  directed  in   a 

great  measure  againittha  Chriatioa  writings  (Ldct. 
OF  fmrNRW  ■mrAjiksT."  '   ''"^-  '■  *'  *  "«"■  J™^-  l^)-     The  iDfloanca  of 

«liiBni>«Ui4,«Mi>liuo«<<iiuHd«n>ncoob^  Scriptnrea  was  already  so  uraat  and  so  notori- 

iiirii»tiJ«.  Tilt  ijiiMj.  m  umi  m  u  TtM»  L  ous  that  Ihe  SDrest  method  of  destroying  tha  filth 

•eamed  to  be  tha  deatrnction  of  the  records  on  which 
Itwas  supported.  Tha  plan  of  the  emperor  was  in 
part  suecasatDL  Soma  were  found  who  obtained 
protection  by  tha  sntreDder  of  the  sacred  books, 
snd  at  a  Utar  time  the  question  of  the  randniisalon 
of  these  "triiton"  (frad-tora),  as  tbey  were  em- 
phatically called,  created  a  schism  In  Ihe  Chorch. 
The  Donatists,  who  maintained  the  stemat  Judg- 
ment on  their  crime,  may  ba  regarded  as  maintain- 
ing in  ita  strictest  lategriBy  the  popular  Judgment 
in  Africa  on  tha  contents  of  the  Canon  of  Ser4p- 
tnra  which  was  the  occaalon  of  the  dissension ;  and 
Augustine  allows  that  the}-  held,  in  common  with 
the  Catholic*,  the  same  "csnonlcal  Scriptures," 
and  were  alike  "  bound  ly  the  authority  of  botli 
Testaments' '  (August,  e.  C-tpe.  i,  81,  67 ;  Ep.  139,  8), 
The  only  dnuht  wblch  can  be  raised  as  to  the  la> 
ta^ty  of  the  Donatist  Cannn  arises  from  the  nncer. 
tain  language  that  Aufcustine  himeclf  uses  as  to  tha 
Epistle  to  tha  Hebrews,  which  the  Donatists  may 
abo  have  countenanced.  Bat,  however  this  may 
have  been,  tha  complota  Canon  of  the  N.  T.,  as  com- 
monly received  at  present,  was  ratified  at  the  third 
CoDudl  of  Carthage  (A.D.  E97),  and  from  that  time 
was  accepted  tbroughoat  the  Latin  Church  (Jerome, 
Innocent,  Ruflnus,  Phllastrius),  though  occaaional 
doubts  as  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  still  re- 
mained (laid.  Hisp.  Pnem.  S  86  109).  It  wiU  be 
perceived  tliat  thara  wsa  no  dispute  as  to  the  aa- 
thenlic  and  Inspired  character  of  most  of  tlw  liooka, 
and  as  to  the  remainder  there  exist  very  respectable 
teatimonles  even  in  this  early  age  (saa  Table  IV). 
See  AKTti.Btini(Bi(A. 

4.  At  tha  era  of  the  BefonnBtian  the  qnegition  of 
the  N.-T.  Canon  again  assumed  iiraat  importanea. 
The  hasty  decree  of  tha  Conncii  of  Treat,  which 
affirmed  the  authority  of  all  the  books  commonly 
received,  called  out  the  nppositbu  of  controverrial- 
lats,  who  quoted  and  enforced  the  early  donbts. 
Erasmus,  with  characteristic  moderation,  denied  the 
apostolic  orii^n  of  the  EpMt  U  lit  Hebniai,  %  Peter, 
and  the  Apntxiijg^,  but  left  their  canonical  antbor- 
ity  unquectioned  (Aw/,  ad  AMSrgom.).  Lather, 
an  the  other  hand,  with  bold  setf-nltanca,  created 
a  purely  subjective  standard  for  the  canonidty  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  character  of  their  "teaching 
of  Christ."  snd  while  he  placed  the  Gospel  and 
llrst  Epistle  of  John,  the  Epittles  of  Paul  to  the 
Romans,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  tha  Aral  Epistle 
of  Pater,  In  the  first  rank  as  contuning  the  "  kernel 
of  Cbristisnily,"  he  set  aside  the  fjnilk  to  lie  Be. 
bnwt,  Jude,  Jama,  and  the  Apoealgpte  at  the  end 
of  hia  vet^n,  and  spoke  of  them  and  tha  lamaln- 


tt     X     Q 

I 

i  I  •; 


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rj?er  K^K' 


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4 


^1 


?3P    f-.5 


85" 


tb5  33-  e 


N«v  THlimenta"  u  ■  vbole,  wilhont  fartheT  difc 
BlficitioTi  or  detail.  1  he  doaLtn  ■■  to  the  Antllegom. 
ena  of  tho  N.  T.  were  not  mnflned  to  the  Luthenns. 
C«rl»Udt,  »ho  *u  ori^niUr  ■  friend  of  r.uther  md 
■rterwin]  profauar  at  Zurich,  endeavorrd  to  bring  tuck 
.1. .:._  ._  .  (^u„i  dincnMion  of  evideuco,  and 


iDgADtaesnnciu  vilh  Tiryldfc  d*gn«  orcXnrapecl, 

ttooRb  be  dM  not  Mpanta  I  Ptier  and  3,  8  Jolm  from 

(b>  oiber  Epinlei  (romp.  Landsrer,  art.  Kamm   In 

Hitng'a  EiKflhp.  p.  99G  aq.).     The  doBbti  wblch 

IjrtluT  realed  mainly  on  internal  evidence  were  ra- 

rioolj  exinided  by  pome  of  h<«  followen  (MeUnc- 

tbon,  OmW.  MagM,,  Flaeinn,  Garhird ;  comp.  Renat,  [  placed  the  AntilaKDmena  in  a  third 

t  DM);  and  eiqMclallj  with  a  polemical  aim  against '  of  the  contrOTprrf  as  (o  the  booha,  or  rather  (at  rertiaa 

*•  Romiah  Chorch  by  Cbemntti  (£nm.  Cmc.  TrU.  '.  toqaar)  aa  to  their  authan"<i)<  Cim.  ^cr^.  p.  410-1!, 

■.Tl).     Brt  while  the  tendency  of  the  Lnlheran  writ- '  rd  Credn.).     Calvin,  while  he  denied  (he  rialina  au' 

m  waa  to  plaea  the  AntUegomena  on  a  lower  atiee   tfannhlpaf  tha^iu<&  ('iMftfi^rww,  and  atlrait  qoaa- 

&' aollMctty.  (Mr  *i«wa  reorived  ua  direct  nnction    tinned  the  Buthentlcityor2/'Bf«r,  did  not  eetaaide  their 

h  aay  of  tbe  Lnthmaa  ajnihoUe  hooka  which  admit  |  canonidtyC/Vir/nif /Mr.,- iidS/VA-.);  BndheDoticn 

"~ qraatolk  wlitlnga  of  the  Old  and  l  the  doabia  aa  to /mui  and  Jufe  only  lodiimiaa  them. 


CANON  84  CANON 

5.  Ths  laoguige  of  the  Articlea  of  the  Chtinb  of  I  wllhout  ciplnniilun,  ind  the  oHipoal  reUtiooi  tai  nr- 
Englanil  with  Ttgtti  to  thcN.  T.  ia  remirkibla.     In    ganic  unity  af  tbe  N.  T.  were  diiregaided. 

the  Article!  of  1552  do  lint  of  tbe  liooki  of  Scripture  U  S.  Id  oHer  to  ntadlish  the  Canoa  of  Scripture,  it  ia 
fClTen;  but  in  (he  EliuUethan  Articles  (I6C!,  1571)  a]  neceswir  to  Bhowllut  ailtbelMaka  of  wbichitiicom. 
deHuition  of  Holy  Scripture  is  given  ai  "  the  canonical '  poaed  are  of  divine  authorKy ;  that  thej  aiB  entire  and 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Teitunient,  ofuAiitt  avAo'^  incoitnpt  \  that,  having  them,  it  ia  complete  wlcbont 
ilg  mu  nrver  taH/  doM  in  At  Ckarch"  (Art  vi).  Thla  any  addition  (lom  any  otber  murce ;  and  that  it  e«n- 
detlnitian  b  follaved  by  an  enumeration  of  tbe  hooka  ,  priiea  the  whole  of  thou  books  for  which  divine  ao- 
of  the  O.  T.  and  of  the  Apocripba ;  and  Ehsn  It  li  Mid  i  thivity  oan  t«  proved.  It  la  obviou*  that,  if  any  of 
eummarily,  without  a  detailed  catalognD,  "all  ths  theie  four  partieulan  be  not  irue,  Sciiptura  cannot  bn 
booki  irfthe  U.  T.,a)  they  are  commonly  received,  we  Ihi  tole  toid  n^rtnu  alandard  of  rellgiona  truth  ami 
do  receive  and  account  them  for  canonical"  (pro  ca-  duly.  If  any  of  the  booki  of  which  it  b  compoMd  be 
IKmlcia  habemut).  A  diitinction  thus  remaini  between  |  not  of  divine  authority,  then  part  of  it  we  are  not 
the  "  canoniciil  booka"  and  anch  "  canonical  l>ooka  u  :  bound  to  aubmlt  to,  and  conaaquently,  m  a  t/intb,  it  is 
hare  never  been  doubted  in  the  Church  ;"  anditHwins  not  the  ttandard  of  truth  and  niorala.  If  Iti  aepiralA 
impMaiblo  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  tbe  framera  of  i  ptrta  be  not  in  the  stale  In  which  tbey  left  the  hand* 
the  Articlea  intended  to  leave  a  freedom  of  judgment  oflheirautbon,  bat  have  been  mutilated,  Interpolatod, 
on  a  pinnt  on  which  the  greatsat  of  the  Continental  re-  or  altered,  then  it  can  form  no  safe  utandaid;  tor,  iu 
foriiien,  and  even  of  Romlah  scholars  (Siitna  Sen.  appealing  to  it,  one  cannot  be  sure  thst  the  appeal  it 
BibHok.  5. 1, 1;  CtjeUn,  Prof,  ad  Hfp.  ad  ffrbr.,  Jac,,  not  made  to  what  is  apnrious,  and  what,  conseqaently, 
2,  a  Joka,  Jad.)  were  divided.  The  oiniasion  cannot  may  bo  erroneous.  If  it  require  or  admit  of  supple- 
hjve  arisen  solely  from  (be  fjct  that  the  Article  in  '  mentary  nvelatious  flom  God,  whether  preaerved  by 
quntinn  was  framed  with  reference  to  the  Church  of  \  tradition  or  communicated  from  time  to  time  to  the 
Home,  with  which  (be  Churfh  of  England  was  agreed  :  Church,  It  obviously  would  be  a  men  contradiction  in 
on  the  N.-T.  Cannn.for  all  tbe  other  Protestant  con-  \  terms  to  call  it  cosspfett,  aa  a  atandard  of  tbe  divine 
fessions  which  contain  any  list  ori>ookB  give  a  list  of  '  will.  Andif  any  other  books  were  extant,  having  an 
tha  book*  of  tbe  New  aa  well  as  of  tbe  Old  Testament ;  equal  claim,  with  the  books  of  which  it  Is  composed, 
(pmf.Beig.i;Canf.GM.H:  Cmf.Firt.l).  But,  If  this  to  be  regarded  as  of  dlvfaie  authorl(y.  It  would  lie  at>- 
Ikcose  1)  rightly  cnncedsd  by  the  Anglican  Articles, '  surd  to  call  it  the  tale  standard  of  truth,  for  In  thie 
the  great  writers  of  tbe  Church  of  England  have  not ,  case  the  one  claaa  of  bonks  would  be  quite  aa  dsserv- 
avalled  themselves  of  it.  The  eirly  commentators  on  '  ing  of  our  reverence  as  the  other. 
the  Articles  Like  little  (Burnet)  or  no  notice  (Bever-  I  3.  HespecEIng  the  rvidaim  by  vrhicb  the  Canon  is 
Idgo)  of  tbe  doubts  as  to  the  Antllegomena ;  and  the  \  thua  to  be  otitilished,  there  exists  considerable  dlflfer- 
chief  controvtr>iJli*ts  of  the  Reformation  accepted  the  ence  of  opinion  among  Cfariitians.  Some  contend, 
full  Canon  with  emphatic  avowal  (Whitdker,  Ditp.  m  \  with  the  Uomanlsta,  that  the  authorilative  decision  of 
iScr^i^Hre,  cxiv,  p.  lUi ;  Fulke's  D'/ntcf  of  Eny.  Tram,  the  Cbnrchisalonc  competent  to  determine  thcCanon; 
p.  8;  Jewel,  D-finix  ^Apo'.'A,  D,  1).  \  others  appeal  to  the  concurrent  (astltnouy  of  the  Jew- 

6.  The  judgment  of  tbe  Greek  Church  In  the  case  I  iah  and  early  Chrbtlan  writers ;  and  others  rest  thdr 
of  the  O.  T.  waa  aean  to  be  little  more  than  a  reflcc-'  strongest  reliance  on  the  Internal  evidence  furniabod 
Uon  of  tbe  o|dnlona  of  the  West.  The  difference  bo-'  by  the  books  of  Scriptur;?  themselves.  We  cannot  say 
twesn  die  Roman  and  Reformed  churches  on  the  N.T.  that  we  are  aatisHed  with  any  of  these  sources  of  ovl- 
were  leaa  marked;  and  the  two  conflicting  Greek  con-  denes  exclusively.  As  Micbselb  remark',  tbe  lint  i< 
fbi^ns  conflrm.  In  genflral  terms,  without  snydittinct  one  to  which  no  consistent  ProtosLint  can  appeal,  for 
enumeration  of  Inoka,  the  populjr  Cinon  of  the  N.  T. '  tbe  matter  to  be  deUrmined  is  of  such  a  kind  that, 
(Cyr.  Luc.  Conf.  i,  p.  4^:  Doaith.  Om/^m.  f,  p.  467),  '■  unless  we  grant  the  Church  to  be  inlalliblp,  it  is  quite 
The  Confesalon  of  Metrophanes  gives  a  complete  Hat '  possible  that  she  may,  at  any  given  period  uf  her  ex- 
of  the  books,  and  compares  their  number— thirty-three  ■  btence,  determine  erroneously ;  and  one  sees  not  why 
— with  the  yeirs  of  the  Savior's  life,  that  "not  even  the  question  nwy  not  be  aa  successfully  investigated 
the  namber  of  tbe  sacred  books  might  be  devoid  of  a  i  by  a  private  individual  as  by  ■  Church.  The  concur- 
dlvine  mystery"  (Uelroph.  Critop.  Coh/.  11,  lOG,  ed. '  rent  testimony  of  tbe  ancient  wItneiHss  Is  invaluable 
Kiuim,  et  Wdsaenh.).  At  preaent,  aa  was  already  the  as  far  as  it  goea ;  but  It  m  ly  be  doubted  if  It  be  auffl. 
case  at  the  close  of  the  IT th  century  (Leo  Allatina,  ap.  cient  of  itself  to  settfa  this  qnestinn,  for  the  question  Is 
Fabric.  B'M.  Grae.  v,  App.  p.  38),  the  Antllegomena  not  ailirely  one  of  fiicts,  and  testimony  Is  giiod  proof 
are  reckoned  by  the  Greek  Church  as  equal  in  canon-  '  only  tot  JiicU,  As  forthe  Internal  evidence,  one  needs 
ical  authority  in  all  respects  with  the  remaining  books  only  to  look  at  the  havoc  which  Semlcr  and  bia  acbool 
(^Caltchitn,  at  sup.).  I  have  made  of  the  Canon,  to  be  satisfied  that  where 

V.  AuAirily  nf  Iht  praaU  CaiUM  of  Scriplurr.—l.  I  do,{nulical  considerations  are  allowed  ti  determine 
Ths  aaaaalts  which  have  been  made,  especially  during  exclusively  euih  questions,  each  man  will  astend  or 
tbe  preaent  century,  upon  the  authenticity  of  the  Sep-  curtail  tbe  Cunon  so  as  to  adjust  It  to  his  own  precon- 
uate  books  of  the  0.  and  N.  Test.,  are  noticed  under  eeived  notions.  As  the  question  Is  one  partly  of  fjct 
the  special  articles.  The  general  course  which  they  and  partly  of  opiaioo,  the  appropriate  grounds  of  de- 
have  taken  ia  simple  and  nalnral.    Semler  lUntenudl.  [  cbion  will  be  best  secured  by  a  combination  of  authen- 

(l.A:<m.l77I-6)Hrst1od  the  way  toward  the  later  nub-    tic  taetimony  w 

yctive  criticinn,  than  A  he  R<,'htly  connected  the  form-  I  themselves.  V 
Btion  of  the  Canon  with  the  formition  of  the  Catholic  really  written  by  the  persona  whoee  names  they  bear ; 
Church,  bntwltbout  any  clear  recognition  oFthepmvi-  we  want  to  be  sstigAed  that  these  persona  were  com- 
dential  power  which  wrought  in  both.  Next  followed  a  monly  rvputed  and  held  by  their  contemporaries  to  be 
•nieeofapedalea^ajra,  in  which  the  sevrral  books  were  aaaisEcd  by  the  Divine  S|drit  in  what  they  wrote;  and 
discussed  indirhlnally,  with  little  regjrd  to  tbe  place  we  want  to  be  sure  that  care  waa  tAen  by  those  to 
which  they  occupy  in  the  whole  collecUon  (Schleier-  whom  their  writinga  were  first  addressMl,  that  these 
macher,  I)re(Khnelder,  De  Wetd-,  ttr.).  At  last  an  should  l«  preserved  entire  and  uncormpt.  For  all 
ideal  view  of  the  early  hlatoty  of  Chri.tianity  waa  naed  this  we  must  appeal  to  the  testimony  of  eompe(ent  wit- 
aa  the  standard  by  which  the  books  were  to  be  tried, '  nesses  as  the  only  suitable  evidence  for  snch  mattSTK. 
■nd  the  books  were  regarded  as  results  of  typical  forms  But,  after  wo  have  ascertained  these  points  afBrmstive- 
of  doctrine,  and  not  the  aonrcea  of  them  ( F.  C.  Banr,  ly.  we  still  require  to  be  satbflad  that  the  bnoks  them- 
Schwegler,  Zeller).  All  true  aense  of  historic  evidence  telvee  contiin  nothing  obviously  Ineomp.kiible  with  tbe 
was  Ihua  lost.    The  frowth  of  the  Cborch  was  left   ascription  to  tbtirauthonof  tbe  dlviiM  ai  '  ' 


CANON  8 

•a  tb*  COnHirj-,  *ra  in  *U  respects  fkvonbla  to  this 
Mippoiitioa.  Wc  wtmt  to  ne  thtt  tbey  are  In  hir- 
■uonj  witb  each  other ;  thkt  the  atateinsiitg  thsj  con- 

inliib,  immarB),  or  Klf-cantr*dictorj ;  that  theii  *u- 
tbors  rcallj  uanmed  to  be  under  the  divine  direction 
in  wbat  thej-  wrote,  *nd  alfbrded  competent  proob  of 
tbii  to  tboM  uound  them;  and  tbat  all  the  circuin- 
•tUKci  oftbe  cur,  BUch  ai  the  atyle  of  the  Trritera, 


are  in  keeping  nith  tbe  coBclnuon  to  which  the  ex- 
triHiil  evidence  has  aiready  led.  In  thil  way  we  ad- 
vaaog  to  a  complete  moral  proof  or  the  divine  author- 
ity and  canonical  clalmi  oftbe  aacrad  writings.  See 
RViDB:<CBa. 

(1.)  The  external  avidence  of  the  Mveral  booki,  in 
tarn,  lalatra  to  three  principal  points :  (n.)  Their  ^«i' 
Bmnti;  io  other  wc«da,  the  bet  that  wa  liave  the 
Bctaal  worts  which  have  lientofure  been  known  hy 

hUerpolatioD.  Tbit  Is  tbe  province  of  criticism  (q.  T.) 
to  show,  as  has  been  done  by  an  itTefragable  chain  of 
docnmealary  testimony.  (4.)  Their  mUAmiici'^  (q,  v.), 
•r  tbat  they  are  tbe  productlnni  of  tbe  respective  au- 
Ibore  aiMited  or  believed,  which  is  a  question  wholly 
of  historical  investigation,  aided  hy  grammatical  com- 
pariaaD ;  and  tbi*  has  bean  shown  retpecUng  the  moat 
ortbem  in  as  positive  a  manner  as  in  the  case  otanj' 
MImt  equally  ancient  writings,  (c.)  Their  iBjpiroltiM 
(q.  V.) ;  the  matt  essential  pcdnt  of  the  three  is  this  re- 
litian,  an  element  which,  althoui^h  conleesedlj-  ob- 
•eore  and  dlSenlt  to  adjust  In  every  respect  with  their 
buman  features,  especially  in  the  absence  of  any  sim- 
ilar fxperience  in  modem  times,  is  yet  capable  of  tw 
fnld  proof:  1st,  from  stitements  and  implication  i 
revelation  contained  in  tbe  books  themielveis  showii 
that  Ihey  are  a  drrine  communication  ;  and,  3dl)-.  fro 
tbe  concuiTtnt  voice  of  the  ancient  as  well  as  modem 
body  of  believers.  This  laat  argnment  la  undoubtedly 
the  chief  one,  of  an  external  character,  that  must  be 
rvlied  upon  in  defence  of  the  anthority  of  the  Holy 
ScripCnrea,  and  it  may  well  be  clsimed  as  a  sufflcient 
aatiafkction  to  all  rightly  constitnted  minds,  [1]  tbat 
these  books,  both  singly  and  ai  a  whole,  were  so  gen- 
erally and  early  recognised  as  of  divine  authority  by 
tbo*e  who  had  the  bast  opportunity  to  Judge  of  ttaeir 
claims,  by  teiaon  of  proximity  in  timo  and  pisce  to 
tbeir  origin  and  intimacy  wltb  their  authors,  while,  at 
the  tsUM  time,  they  exhibited  their  caution  and  tree- 
don  tttnn  prejudice  by  rejecting  many  other  mote  pre- 
tentions  ones  as  unwonhy  their  acceptance;  and  [3] 
that  tbe  oniversal  Church,  with  few  and  unimportant 
EKceptioQs,  hat  ever  since  not  only  cordially  acqui- 
racvil,  tmt  firmly  retained,  in  the  face  of  almost  every 
roaceivable  efTort  iliat  the  in  lenoity  or  force  of  those 
of  an  opposite  opinion  could  brin^  to  bear  upon  the 
qaeation,  the  same  traditionary  persuasion ;  nor  [8] 
haa  any  really  onanswerable  difficulty  yet  been  alleged 
■a  the  way  of  such  >  belief. 

(3.)  With  the  eitcmsl  evidance  furnished  above  li 
faror  of  the  sacred  Canon,  the  internal  fully  accordi 
!■  the  Old  TesURicnt  all  la  in  keeping  with  the  as 
samptton  tbat  its  Loolu  were  written  by  Jewa,  sostaio- 
■ai(  tbe  chiiarter,  snrreunded  by  tbe  circumstances, 
and  living  at  tbe  time  astrllied  to  their  authors ; 
any  appannt  discrepancies  have  been  found  in  ai 
then),  tbey  are  of  sucb  a  kind  as  farther  inquiry  has 
•erved  to  explain  and  reconcile.  Tbe  literary  pecul- 
iarities of  tbe  New  Teatament,  It*  language,  its'  Idioms, 
ita  style,  its  allnskm*,  all  are  accordant  with  the  hy- 
pothesis that  its  authMB  were  exactly  what  thpy  pro- 
ttaa  to  have  been  —  Jews  converted  tn  Cbriitianltj, 
a^  living  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 
(K  both  Teataments  the  theological  and  ethical  sys- 
tems are  tn  hairiKmy,  while  all  that  they  contain 
leods  to  MM  grand  result  —  the  manifestation  of  the 
power  aoj  petfsc^n  of  Deity,  and  the  restoration  of 


CANON 

the  image,  service,  and  love  of  his  Creator, 
iclusionfnim  the  whole  fscts  of  the  case  ran  be 
her  than  that  the  Bible  ia  entitled  to  that  im- 
nd  undivided  reverence  which  it  demands  as 
y  divinely  appointed  Canon  of  religiona  truth 
and  duty. 

Tl.  litrralart.—Yiyt  the  later  period  oftbe  birtory 

the  N.-T.  Canon,  from  the  close  of  the  second  ce n- 
tory,  the  great  work  of  Lardner  (CrttUtSity  of  lie  Got- 
pti  Hilton/,  in  his  ITorJv,  1-vi,  ed.  Kippis,  1788  j  i.lan 
1838,  ID  vols.  8vo)  furtiisbes  copious  nuteriali>.  For 
the  earlier  period  his  criticism  is  necessarily  imperfect, 
and  roqulres  to  be  combined  with  the  results  of  Lter 
itiquiries.      Kircbhofer's  collection  oftbe  original  paa- 

'-'-'-  Iwar  on  tbe  history  of  tbe  Canon  {Qad- 

.  etc.,  ZQrich,  18*4)  is  useful  ond  fairly 
iplete,  but  frequently  inaccurate.  The  writings  of 
P.  C.  Baui  and  his  Ibllowers  often  contain  ver\'  valua- 
ble hints  as  to  the  characteristics  oftbe  nveial  books 
in  relutinn  to  later  teschlng,  however  perverse  their 
conchirfons  may  be.  In  opposition  to  them  Thierach 
has  vindicated,  perhaps  with  an  excess  of  teat,  bat  yet, 
in  tho  main,  rightly,  the  position  oftbe  aposlolic  writ- 
ings in  relalinn  to'lhe  firit  age  (fermf*  tur  UrrOrl- 
luBji  etc,  Eriangen,  1846;  and  Ervirdtrmy,  tic,  Er- 
laug.  1S4G).  Tlie  section  of  Renas  on  the  iubject  (Die 
Owe*,  d.  hal.  Sehri/l^  d.  X.  T.,  2d  ed.  Braunschw. 
1(^H;  also  in  French,  ffuloire  rlu  (Vnvw,  Strasbourg, 
1868,  Svo),  and  the  aHicle  of  tenderer  (Herzog's  Etiry- 
tlop.i.  v.),  contain  valnalile  summaries  of  the  evidence. 
Other  references  and  a  fuller  diKUKiion  of  the  chief 
points  are  given  by  Westcott  in  TSi  Hitlorg  of  tie 
OmoB  r/tht  N.  T.  (Cambr.  1«66).  In  addition  to  tho 
works  named  thronghont  this  article,  the  following 
may  also  be  consulted :  Cosin,  Schaiitlical  Hillary  of 
lie  CoMM  (4to,  London.  1667,  I6T2. 168» ;  also  Workt, 
iil;  Iv,  410):  Du  Pin, //utmy  o/iIk  Canon  and  IVril- 
en  o/Uie  Booti  •.file  Old  and  Kea  Tut.  {i  vols.  Killo, 
London,  1G99,  ITOO) ;  Ens,  BibtinUiaa  Saera,  liv*  Din- 
Iribe  de  fJbron,m  Niv.  TrU.  Cannne  (ISmo,  Amstel. 
1710)  ;  Storch,  Comment.  Hiit.  Cril.  de  I.ilA.  Nov.  Teil. 
Canone  (Svo,  Fr.  id  Vi,  17ft5) ;  Schmld,  Hat.  AnHq.  tt 
VindicaHo  Cimimli  V.  tl  JV.  Tat.  (8vo,  Upe.  KTfi); 
Jones,  jVew  mdJiiU  MitMod  of  ttttUng  Die  CanomctA 
Aalk-niis  -fl"  ^w  ?'«''  (S  "Oi*.  Oxf.  18S7);  Alex- 
ander, eowm  o/lAe  OU  and  New  Tut.  aMn«aM«{(llmn, 
Princeton,  1896;  Lond.  1838,  I8S1);  Stuart,  Old-Tat. 
Cuwn  (12mo,  Andover,  IS4S;  Edinb.  and  Lond.  1849); 
Wordsworth,  Ifu'tm  Ltelara  (Bvo,  London,  IBIS); 
Gsu^en,  Ia  Canon  dei  Bainiet  fcritum  aa  double  point 
'•evaedeU  Kirwx  H  de  lafi.i  (Uusantie,  1660, !  vols. ; 
Engl,  t-analation.  The  C'inon  of  SeHptnrr,  etc.  [I.on- 
don.l8S2,  Bvo]);  BihliotAfea  Saem,xi,278;  Credne-, 
Crieh.  d.  muUA  Katon  (edit.  Volkmar,  Berlin,  1860) ; 
Hllgenfeld,  Kan.  dn  N.  T.  (Hulle,  18SS);  Boftnann, 
DU  ktiigm  Sckrift.  d.  N.  T.,  etc.  (Nardlingen,  I86S, 
pt.  i).     See  BiBLB. 

Caaon,  Ecclksiasticai.  {tainii',  nUe.  see  the 
foiegoing  article,  $  i),  a  term  used  in  various  aensee, 
as  follows : 

CANON,  a  clerical  title. 

1.  The  roll  or  church  rt«iBter  in  which,  In  the  an- 
cient Church,  tbe  names  of  the  clergy  were  written 
was  called  the  conoiii  and  the  clergy  were  bence  called 
canoniei  (Bingham,  Orig.  Eed.  bk.  i,  eh.  v,  J  10).  In 
Cyril  (/Vn/:  Catecli.  a,  6),  tbe  presence  of  tbe  clergy 
Is  expressed  by  the  words  «ivot'ini>»'  xapmrna.  See 
also  Canohicv. 

?.  Caihedrtil  Canoni.  —  Chrodegangns,  bishop  of 
Meti,  about  A.D.  7i.%  gave  a  common  eloiater-li'e 
law  to  his  cleriCVi  ■">!  thus  originsted  the  proper  vilit 
riHDncn,  as  attached  (o  a  cathedral  church.  (See 
Chapter.)  Originally  canona  were  only  priests  or 
inferior  ecclesiastics  who  lived  in  community,  resid- 
ing near  the  cathedral  church  to  assist  the  bishop,  de- 
pending  entirely  on  his  will,  supported  by  tbe  reve- 


CANON  LAW 

BUM  of  tb«  l)i*bopiie,  and  liTlng  In  the  suna  bouM,  u 
his  GonnMllorB  or  domutlci.  lliaf  evan  inheriled  hb 
inonbles  till  A.D.  SIT,  whan  thia  wia  prabibtt«d 
tha  CooDcil  of  Alx-U-Chapelle.  B]-  dagrau  Ihaaa 
Goinmunitiaa  of  prlaatii,  ahakiiiK  off  their  dapcDdencci 
furmed  Hparata  bodiea,  of  which  tho  blahopa  were  a^l 
th<  baad.  In  tluiteDth  eantury  there  were  communj- 
tiea  of  the  ume  kind,  ertobllahed  even  in  cities  where 
then  ware  no  blihops:  tbeia  were  culled  collegiataa, 
luthelemig  "collie"  ud  "  oongregation"  were  u>ed 
IndiSiireatl]'.  Under  the  second  nco  of  French  klngi 
th:  canonical  life  ipread  over  the  country,  *ad  e«eh 
cathedral  had  it>  d^iplrr  diitlnct  from  the  rest  of  the 
clargf  (Fiirrar,  s.  v.).  Benedict  XII  (1389)  endeav- 
ored to  lecure  ■  general  adoption  of  the  mle  of  AuKue- 
tine  by  the  canon*,  which  gave  riie  to  the  diitinctioi 
between  omtnuni^iifctrO.  a.  those  who  follow  that  rule) 
and  cammt  kcmJdt  (Ihoae  who  do  not).  See  CAHOxa, 
ReaoLAB.  Aa  demorallutlon  Increaeed,  the  canon- 
riea  were  Ailed  bj  yonnger  aona  of  nobles,  without  or- 
dination, for  the  rake  of  the  revenues.  The  njirctiHt- 
cie$  (q.  V.)  of  canonriea  became  objects  of  tmlQc,  as 
advowBiini  (q,  v.)  now  are  In  the  English  Church. 
The  RefbrmatloD  aboliabed  most  of  the  chapters  and 
canonriea  in  Germanj  :  a  few  remain  at  Brandon  bur,.-, 
Mersaburg,  Naumhurg,  and  Meiaaen. 

In  the  Church  of  England,  canoat  or  prrbrndariri 
are  cleriiynien  who  receive  a  itipend  for  the  perform- 
ance of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate 
church.     SeeCHAPTER;  Deam. 

CANON  OP  THE  MASS  (canon  Uiurr),  a  part  of 
the  maasor  commanion  service  of  the  Church  of  R< 
The  office  of  the  mass  is  divided  into  three  parts :  (1) 
from  the  introlt  to  the  preface ;  (2)  which  c  '  ' 
coikM,  from  tha  Statetiu  to  the  time  of  c» 
and  (3)  the  thankagiving.  The  second  is  considered 
the  euenlial  part,  being  that  which  contain 
■aeration  of  the  elements.  The  Qreeka  call 
pa,  probably  liecausa  of  the  exhortation  of  tho  priest 
at  the  commencement  to  the  people,  Hnan  oardo.  In 
the  Roman  liturgy  the  canon  begins  at  tho  wordi  Tt 
igilw,  etc.     In  the  Roman  Chnrch  the  form  of  the 

times,  by  ancient  writers,  called  the  actio.  It  is  also 
known  by  the  name  tcrfia,  or  aecntinit,  becauae  the 
piiett  is  ordered  to  say  it  in  alow  voice;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Ooir,  the  same  practice  i)  otieerved  in  the  Etti. 
(See  Cime.  Tridatt.  aess.  fi,  can.  9.)~HBrtene,  De  anl. 
mi.  1, 141  j  Landon,  Ecd.  Diet.  s.  v, ;  Procter  On  Con- 
mm  Prayer,  319.     Sea  Hau. 

CANON  LAW,  Cakons  of  DraciPuirG,  CANon 
AHD  DiCRmAt.s  OF  RoHE.  The  canons  or  rulea  of 
discipline  of  tha  Romish  Church  form  a  body  of  law 
which  has  been  accumulating  for  centurion.  They  are 
made  op  of  the  ao-called  Apostolical  Canons,  of  decrees 
of  coancila,  and  of  decrees  and  rules  pmmnlgiited  by 
the  popes.  The  different  collectinns  of  these  are,  1. 
For  the  early  ages,  the  so-called  "Apostolical  Canon", " 
the  Greek  ■'CollectionB"  in  the  Cda  Cimanum;  2.  For 
the  Middle  A^e,  up  to  Gratiiin'i  time,  a  number  of  col- 
lections 1  S.  From  the  twelfth  centurf  onward,  the  de- 
cretal- ofOratian,  of  GreKorr  IX,  and  Boniface  VIII, 
the  Clementines,  the  Eitmvaganli,  and  the  Cnnmt 
J«ri,  Canofod. 

I.  Earls  AjM.— (I.)  Camoks  ApnsTnt.icAt,  ■  col- 
lection of  canons  (in  numl)er  sevenly-rfx  or  elRhtT- 
Hve,  accordint;  to  the  different  methods  of  rtivieion),  nul 
to  bo  attributed,  as  the  name  implies,  to  the  apostles. 
Boveri.t^'e,  in  bis  Codtx  Can.  Kal.  Prim.,  seeks  to 
■bow  thut  these  canons  are  the  synoilal  rules  and  reg- 
nUtiona  made  in  cnonclli  anterior  to  the  Council  of 
Niena,  in  which  view  Petrus  de  Marca,  Dupln.  and 
others  ajree.  Dailli  (^De  Pfudrpi'grapiu  Apotlolle'tj 
ronsidora  them  the  work  of  the  Afth  century.  That  i 
they  are  not  of  apostolical  orijin  la  very  clear  from 
the  use  in  then  of  terms  and  mention  of  ceremonies 
quite  unknown  in  the  apostolic  age,  a>  well  at  (torn  I 


B  CANOK  LAW 

tha  bet  that  they  ware  never  even  dted  imdar  tha 
Dame  of  apostoliul  before  tho  Council  of  EpbiHs,  if, 
indeed,  we  ought  not,  a>  some  think,  to  read  in  the 
acts  of  that  council,  instaail  of  "the  canons  of  the 
apoalles,"  '' the  canons  of  tha  bthcn."  Fievionslyto 
this  synod  they  are  dted  as  Caiumti  Patmm,  Oaaia 
aati^  or  talaiatlici.  Bellarmlne  and  Baronios  claim 
apostolical  authorityforonly  the  first  flfty  canons.  Pope 
Gelaaios  (_Diil.'ad.  xr,  can.  Staicta  Rumtaui)  plainly 
declaroa,  liber  CaRonun  Apatlolonai  qpornQiAu  rtl; 
but  the  autbentidty  of  the  passage  la  doubled.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  Beveridgo  (Cod.  Cimaaia  livlit.  Prim!. 
lita,  Lend.  1178)  that  the  Apoat.  Canons  were  enacted 
in  dDTereut  ijiiDdi  about  tho  doso  of  tho  second  cen- 
tury and  be/inning  of  the  third  ;  and  that  the  collec- 
tion was  made  aoon  after,  but  since  tlut  time  interpo- 
lated; and  that  the  compiler  of  tha  collection  caniut 
be  ascertained.  Dr.  Schaff  sums  up  the  whole  case  in 
the  following  JQdicinos  passsgi^s :  "The  contents  of  the 
Bo-called  Apostolical  Canons  arc  borrowed  partly  from 
tho  Scriptures,  especially  the  Pastoral  Ejustles,  partly 
from  tradition,  and  partlji  ftvin  the  decrees  of  early 
councils  at  Antjoch,  Neo-Casarea,  Nice,  I^odicea,  et4-« 
(hut  probably  not  Chalcedon,  451).  They  are  then- 
fore  evidently  of  tcrsdusl  growth,  and  ware  collected 
either  after  tlie  middle  of  the  fourth  century  w  not  till 
the  latter  pert  of  the  fifth,  by  sonie  unknown  hand, 
pndiably  also  in  Syria.  They  are  designed  to  fnmiah 
a  complete  system  of  discipline  for  the  clergy.  Of  the 
laity  they  say  scarcely  a  word.  Tha  eighty-liftb  and 
last  canon  settles  the  canon  of  the  Scripture,  but  reck- 
ons among  the  New  Teatamant  books  two  eptstlaa  of 
Clement  and  the  ganolne  boohs  of  the  pseado^Apo*- 
tollc  Constitndons.  The  Greek  Church,  at  the  Trwl- 
lan  Cooncil  of  692,  adapted  the  whole  collection  of 
eighty-five  canotu  as  authentic  and  binding,  and  John 
of  Damascus  even  placed  it  on  a  par.illel  with  the  epia- 
tlea  of  the  apostle  Paul,  thus  ahowing  that  be  had  no 
of  the  ioflnila  superiority  of  the  ins^Mred  wrrt- 
The  t^tin  Chnrch  rejected  it  at  first,  but  anb- 
•equently  dedded  for  the  smaller  collection  of  fifty 
canons,  which  DionyalnB  EilgDOS,  nbnnt  the  year  500. 
translated  from  a  Greek  mannscript."— Schsff,  CImrfi 
itlory,  vol.  i,  g  U4. 

Although  Iheee  canons  have  special  reference  to 
discipline,  they  are  not  entirely  silent  on  the  subject 
^^nas,  morals,  and  tha  cereniooial  of  worship. 
They  clearly  distingniah  between  the  orders  of  biabop 
and  priest,  affirm  the  snpertorily  of  the  former,  speak 
of  an  altar  and  a  Bacriflce  in  the  Church  of  Cbri^t,  atid 
ribe  matters  to  he  observed  in  the  sdmlnistratioo 
of  bspliam,  the  eucharlst,  penance,  ordination,  with 
many  other  thinga  evincing  a  late  date.  Tbsj  may 
he  found  in  Labbel  Candlia.  vol.  I,  and  in  Cotelcrii 
Pair.  Optra,  i,  199  \  also  in  Ultzen,  Cmutituliima  Apo»- 
tofine  (Rostock,  1863,  Svo);  In  EnKli»h,  in  Chase.  Ctmtti- 
litfioM  cmd  Camimt  of  lie  ApoMa  (New  York,  184S, 
~  0.  and  in  Hammond,  Cmow  of  Or  t'jhirc*  (N.  Y. 
4,  p,  188  sq.).  Sea  Knbbe,  Df  Cndlrt  CtimMmm, 
.,  translated  by  Chase,  fn  Biblielkrai  Sicm,  iv,  1 ; 
Mosheim,  Cmaumlaria,  cent.  {,§&!;  Bunsen,  Bip. 
po^fu  (Engl,  transi.  vols,  v-vii);  and  the  article  Ci.e> 


(II,)  Creft  CeOre/ioiu;  Codex  Canokdn.  1.  TT»e 
first  niontinn  of  a  Codrx  CtmoMiM  is  found  in  tha  Acta 
of  tho  Council  of  Chalcedon  (A.D.  4M\  where  a  nnin- 
'  cannns  of  previous  councils  (Nice,  Ancyra,  An- 
tioch,  Laoclictta,  and  Constantinople)  were  appmr«d. 
collections  existed  at  the  time,  and  others,  again, 
followed,  but  none  were  considered  as  law  for  tbt 
'hole  Chnrch.  Tha  so-called  Coda  Crmnmttm  fJxietiir 
Umiviria  (Book  of  the  Canons)  was  first  published  bv 
Justellus  (Paris,  l«tn,  %vo\  reprndnced  in  the  Bibti. 
'•Ihrea  Jurit  Cmai.  Vtl.,  op.  V«eUi  el  JutMli  (Pari*. 
I66I,  vol.  i),  and  also  in  Mlgna,  /tornl.  Cm.  Omplrt. 
(Paris,  IS48,  vol.  Iivii).  It  is  not  authentic  ;  the  title 
and  arrangement  are  Josteao's,  and  tha  work  la  only 


CANON  LAW  87  CANON  LAW 

il  attnDpt  of  Ml  to  nuk«  an  aattaentle  |  Tfaa  gntt  increua  of  the  woridly  powei  of  tfaa  cle>- 
Gnek  Codax  from  the  old  coUecdoDs  and  HSS.  I  E7  a"^'  <>>«  CarlqxiiigUn  dyaaity  nscaulUMd  mora 

X.  In  the  flfth  canturj  ws  And  Lbs  Wnlem  Ckvch  co[Hoiuandcomp1etecollectlonSDf  thacanoiu.  Among 
ncogaiiiiiK  the  intborit^  of  th«  Onek  canons,  and  tho  mora  Important  we  name  (1)  tbe  CoUectio  Aiudme 
Ave  an  One' principal  collectkin*  of  tbem,  via. :  |  iMfrata  (888-897,  1!  Tola.),  of  Italian  origin.     It  In- 

(1)  Hh  SpatiM  or  liidonm  (erronHualy  ao  called  cludei  the  pteudo-ItidorlaD  decretali,  and  ilw  the  In- 
bnoae  foond  in  Iildnr  of  Sevillo'i  later  colleMioa).  iCifWao/'yufuwn,  which  for  the  Ar»t  time  now  appear 
ItoonttincdthecanDnaDrNioe,  Ancyra,Nei>-CBBarea,  '  in  the  canon  Liw  coUectionf.  (!)  Regi ni 'i  litri  dm 
and  GanpB.  Aa  to  it*  dale,  we  know  for  certain  only  de  cauiit  Si/nodalibut  d  diieip.  eeHrt.  waa  compiled 
tUi  umch,  that  thia  tranilation  of  tlie  Nleene  oanont  about  A.D.  90fi,  and  includee  alio  lome  of  tbe  Mae 
wu  known  in  Qaal  A.D.  43D  (Condi.  Jlegtiu-,  c.  S),  decretala.  It  ia  imporUnt  for  ita  account  of  tbe  acU 
and  that  of  the  Ancynn  canons  waa  qnoted  jn  the  of  German  cotincUa.  (S)  Burcbard's  Liirr  deerelonm 
OmdL  fpoflwu,  A.D.  617.  A  later  tranalatloo,  add-  oiUntariitm  (101S-1D28),  in  20  Inok*.  To  Ftrenglhen 
In^C  tbe  canona  of  Antb>cb,  Coostantlnoplp,  and  Cbal-  the  anthoHty  of  certain  canoni,  Bnrclurd  ascribea  them 
cedoa  to  tboae  atHnv  named,  waa  compiled  toward  tbe  to  too  early  datea,  and  bla  errora.  followed  by  Grittan, 
cad  of  the  flftb  century.  It  waa  flrrt  publubed  from  .  hare  been  incorporated  Into  later  I  ooks.  Tbe  nine. 
■a  Oxford  H3.  under  tbe  till*  Caiex  Scdaia  Jbumma  '  teenth  book,  treating  of  penitrntlil  dirdpllne,  one  of 
(ad.  Paachai.  Qneniell,  in  0pp.  LamU,  Par.  ISJG,  t.  li.)  .  wboae  titles  la  Cantarltiditirt  npiiit'.&iKt,  tbrowi  much 

(I>  Tbea»<aIlod  V«ni»ottraiiAitiopi'itca,f\nifa\i-  %bt  on  the  Mate  of  wciely  in  Ibat  axe.  Several  edi- 
nabedby  jDateiliuintlie0iUtDaroujw.Clmoii,l,!;6,  \  tiona  exlBt:  the  lateat  fa  in  Migne,  Palnlog.  iio\.  UO 
trail  an  incomplete  MS.,  and  afterward,  in  more  com-  (Paria,  1868).  (4)  Impottaot  momitcripl  coUectloni 
pbte  form,  by  Ballerloi  (0pp.  Leim  t,  ili,  47S).  of  tbe  rlerenth  centur}-  are  the  CoUrrtio  ducdecim  par. 

(3)  The  tnnalatioo  and  collection  made  by  Dlony-  |  tiim  (after  l(e8);  that  of  Aiue/m  </£iin»  (died  l(«(t), 
•ioa  Eiignui  (q.  t.),  made  probably  at  Rome  lowird  in  IS  tjooks;  two  cnllecttoni  o(  ranlmal  DiurdnlU,  tteh 
tba  end  of  tbe  flfth  eontnrr.  He  afterward  (abnot  in  4  booka  (1086-1087),  in  which  the  valuable  archlvea 
A.D.  6107)  made*  aecondcollectian,  adding  a  number  DflheLateren  were  employed.  (6)  Jo  im  o/ Cittrtrt$ 
of  papal  decretala.  Tbeee  wen  merged  into  one,  and  ,  (died  111')  two  collections  are  aicribrd,  vii. :  tba  Dt- 
tba  ndti  tba*  formed  waa  generally  accepted  througb- 1  crrtum,  in  17  booka,  and  (he  i^mwrmio.  In  B  lockf,  of 


aM  tbe  Chnrch.  Pope  Adrian  (A.D.  771)  presenlad 
■o  enlarged  copy  of  It  to  Charlemagne,  and  it  became 
tba  baiia  of  tbe  French  canon  law.  In  thb  enlarged 
form  it  ia  draignated  aa  the  i^d/vmo-^'oaifnait  Codei. 
It  mar  be  found  in  tbe  Bihliak.  Jttr.  Can.  1, 101,  and 
ia  Hipie'i  Palnl.  Lot.  (Par.  1H48,  vol.  l.tvll). 
II.  iliddit  Age.—\.  In  A/r 


rhich  Iha  farmer  teems  to  be  a  collection  of  malninls 
for  the  latter.  They  kn  given  by  Uigne,  Patrolag. 
Ijit.  vol.  clii.  There  are  several  other  HS.  eolleo- 
tiona  of  minor  importance. 

HI.  /VoiH  tie  Trt'/lh  CrnlMiy.^1.  CmdWr.     The 
want  of  a  collection  containing  all  canona  and  decre- 
ig  merel}'  local  ones, 


supplemented  by  tboee  of  native  councils,  eepe-  I  end  having  a  good  ■rnngemtnt.  began  to  be  aniver. 
eially  of  Carthage  (q.  v.).  Falgentios  Ferrandna  (q.  |  eal  abont  the  tnelflh  centoiy.  Ghatiah,  a  monk  of 
v.\  In  M7,  compoMd  tbe  Bmiatio  Canomm,  adding  tbe  convent  of  Rl.  Felix,  in  Bologna,  underttok  to  aup. 
Afirieandf«i>ionanpto437r  itwaapnbllabedby  Pitbon  ply  ft.  Hia  work  ia  now  known  as  the  itHrrlui  Gra. 
(Paria.  ISS"),  and  In  Uigne,  Patrotog.  (1848,  vol.  Ixvli,  tiawi.  It  waa  compiled  from  all  preceding  books  and 
p.  »49).  Cresconlua.  sn  AfWcan  blabop,  about  690  many  USS.  It  is  divided  into  three  parte.  The  first 
iaanad  a  Oxwonfo  CniMaini  (Bibt.  Jur.  Cim.  i,  App.  p.  part  Lt  anbdivided  Into  101  DiMircUimrf.  and  each  of 
SS).  1.  In  Spam  a  Code:t  exiateil  in  the  sixth  centu-  these  Into  csnonr.  Of  tbe  ditHnetiimn,  »i  rcljite  to  (be 
ry,  which  was  afterward  the  ba»i»  of  the  pseudo-Iaido.  flei^,  and  this  part  of  the  book  ia  failed  liy  Gralian 
riaD  DecTStila.  In  tbe  seventh  centary  It  aaanmrd  '  himself  Tmctalui  ordintmdnnnB.  Tart  II  contains  £6 
tbe  form  in  whlcb  we  know  it  (Codrx  Cananim  Ecd.  ,  cauiv,  or  paints  of  law,  subdivided  into  qur^ioma,  each 
At^i.  (Madrid,  IMW,  fill,))  and  part  ii.  ^sroJ^p  drrrr.  i  of  which  ia  answered  by  raiuiw).     fart  III, /)e  ««««. 

■.  Romt.  Puutifiam  (Hadrld,  18!1,   fol.).      It '  crnl^itr,  ccntaina  the  eacmmenta,  In  Rve  Siil.'m  tiata. 
tanon*  of  the  Greek,  African,  Fnnch,  and  ,  In  this  work  Qratlan  not  gnir  made  a  collection  of 

oonncils  and  aynoda.  with  Papal  decrees  from  (he  dinrent  canons  in  a  certain  order,  but  presented 
u  to  Greimry  I.  It  does  not  appear  that  IpI-  all  tbe  canona  treating  upon  one  rnhject  under  that 
dor  of  Seville  really  had  any  share  In  preparing  the  head.  Tbe  drtmum,  with  all  iU  shortcamlngs— fbr  H 
oollartlon  which,  after  the  dlacovery  of  tbe  »aDdu1en(  waa  not  yet  a  complete  work'-aoon  rapeneded  all 
fccretal*  (m«  Pskddo-Isi dorian),  waa  known  by  bla  other  collectiona.  But  what  moatlr  helped  lo  gain  (or 
—mi  A  new  edition  of  the  ftaudolent  decretala  ap.  this  defrttiam  its  portion  ip,  that  (iratlan**  ccmmenta 
pwmd  In  IW-%  via.  Dfrrrlattt  Ptudo-ltiianaam,  etc.,  and  eluddatians  resnltcd  in  the  fbrmsUon  of  a  new 
■d.  Panln*  Hlnnchina  (Leipsic,  2  vols.  8to).  scbooi  of  eanonicta  and  dccrrbitl'ts  al  Bologna.     This 

S.  In  the  Bntiik  ftlatdt  and  In  tbe  ^■^b.^anm  made  the  decrflum  known  In  all  the  charche*,  and 
Cbareh  native  canona  prevailed,  of  which  we  hive  no  brought  It  into  auch  high  ectrcm  tliat  the  pupes  thcm- 
■•riy  rerordp.  D'Achery  has  gathered  the  fkagmeala  selves  quoted  it,  thouali  il  waa  not  received  by  them 
af  an  IriiJi  Codex  of  tbe  eighth  century  In  hl»  Spiriir-   as  an  ol^cisl  codex. 

fimm.  i,  401  aq.,  which  eonUIns  Greek,  African,  Gallic,  '  !.  (TrVr  CaiitcHfrnt  Uf.n  Crrffory  AV.— Tbe  papal 
and  Spaninh  canons,  as  well  aa  native  ones.  See  also  decretals  after  tbe  twelfth  centuiy  l:ecame  to  abutk 
apniman.  Ovi/M,  drertln,  ric.  ht  n  ttel.  ariii  BrUim-  dantonpoinla  of  diFcipllne  that  tbe  collection  of  Gra- 
mri  (limd.  1939-64,  S  vols.  fol.).  tlan,  however  complete  at  first,  roon  ceased  to  be  tn, 

4.  In  FroKce  the  Spanish  collection  came  Into  use  and  new  coilectioDi  were  made.  We  mention  only 
la  tbe  eighth  teutury.  along  wilb  tbe  Adrlino-DloDy-    Ibe  principal  ones. 

■ian  mentioned  above.  In  (be  ninth  century  many  (I.)  The  Brtriartum  rrfrnvagaitliBm  of  Bernardua  of 
of  the  forged  decretals  from  the  peeudo-Itidorlan  col-  Pavla  (1  blsbop  of  Pari*  ISIS),  cimpilcd  In  11S0,  and 
lactkm  were  mlniiled  with  the  authentic  canons.  Tbe  contsining  newer  derrcUla  not  in  Gratiitn's  Decre- 
eoaruiloa  led  to  several  new  collectiona :  (1)  Cmvmirm  tnm,  and  thenfOre  called  eifra  drrrrlina  apm-ln,  tot 
aiBrctia.in  B81  titles,  (award  tba  end  of  tbe  eighth  cen-  which  he  made  nee  of  several  minor  collections  poile- 
Boy  ;  (!)  CMrttio  Afirriaiia  (perhapa  of  the  beginning  rior  to  Gratlan,  «.  g.  tbe  Ajyndir  Cmrilii  Laltrantm. 
eT  tbe  ninth  t«ntu[y)j  (S)  the  Ptmlenlialu  of  bishop  lu,  etc.  His  divisions  nnder  the  titles  fndrr,  Imdia- 
RalitagarofCambray,  A.D.  016.  Besides  these  there  m,  C^ena,  Omaiibia  (Sponaalla),  and  Crimn  were 
ware  namcrons  small  collccttoBa,  called  O^vla  EpU-  adopted  In  suhaequenl  collrctinnB.  The  .Santnu  of 
B^parwi  thia  work,  written  l>y  Bemardui  himself,  was  approved 


CANON  LAW  g 

of  by  the  BoloKiui  uhool.  A>  this  wu  tbe  Ant  col- 
lactiDn  of  EitTOK^ania,  It  ia  kn<txn  m  Vulnmm  pri. 
mm,  or  Compitatio prina. 

ft.)  Tha  complUtian  ot  Prtriu  Collimeiina,  mad* 
liT  ardsr  of  InniKtiit  III,  containing  ths  decretab  of 
tnnocent  during  tba  Hnt  eieren  yean  of  hli  rai^ 
(119B-1210).  It  wu  approved  l>y  the  Bologn*  anon- 
iat«,  and  known  u  Comp'lalio  lertia.  The  d«cret*ls  of 
th:  popea,  IVoni  Alexander  III  (1181)  Ifl  Celeitiu  IH 
(1I9S),  were  compiled  l<y  Gilbertua  and  Alanoa,  tiro 
Rnnllahmen,  bat  vrere  not  receired  at  Bologna  until 
they  were  raviaed  and  completed  liy  Jofaannaa  Oallen- 
sitt,  which  was  admitted  and  known  as  Compilalio  tt. 

(S.)  Tbe  Compilalio  jtiaiin  waa  made  after  Iba 
fourth  Luteran  Council  (1316),  and  containa  tbe  decre- 
talf  of  Innocent  after  1210.  Theee  four  compUationa 
tn  given  by  LibhA,  Atittqun  coOectioitt  cfacrMaVuni 
fum  Aal.  Aoffutl,  tt  I,  Cajacii  k^.  tl  enttnd.  (l>aris, 
1609-1621). 

8.  Daraal  if  Gnpnry  /JT.  — In  1230  Gregory  IX 
directed  bia  chaplain,  ICayniond  of  Pennafbrte,  to 
make  a  new  collection  of  decretals,  auppniaaini;  many 

the  whole  aystematically.      Thin  DrrTrtaliam  Grw/orii 


IX  a 


•pilatin  was  in  1284  H 


.e  Uni- 


>f  Uologna,  with  the  bull  yokiUti  , 
"Cdin^  the  older  compilations,  although  two  of  them 
had  been  pabljahed  i)y  popes.  The  new  collection  waa 
in'riduced  into  univeni^  inntrDction  aa  well  aa  gen- 
fTf]  practical  use.  Appenitim  and  aopplementa  were 
added  by  Innocent  IV  (1245),  Alexander  IV,  Urban 
[V,  Clement  IV.  and  G™  foir  X. 

4.  Ikertlal  o/Bm/oBe  r///.— In  1398  a  new  collec- 
tion. iDclodin^  the  poM-GreKorian  decretal*,  waa  pub- 
llahed  by  Pope  Banlface  VIII  under  the  title  lOa- 
•fxtia,  becauae  it  waa  a  completion  of  the  five  book*  of 
Oragory.  After  the  publication  of  the  Librr  ntei 
Ilenilhce  iaaned  a  seriea  of  decretala  (among  which  we 
And  tbe  celebnted  Unan  taneian  againat  Philip  of 
France  in  I3D2),  aadid  also  his  auccesaor,  Benedict  XI. 
Theae  were  united  under  the  atyle  of  Comlittilioitrt  rx- 
Iramgaiitium  liiriiati,  with  commenta  by  cardinal  Jo- 
hannes Monacbua. 


8  CANON  LAW 

teptimai  deerHalimm,  in  G  vola..  containing  decratata 
fh>m  Sixtua  IV  to  Sixtoa  V  (158&-1590),  and  fonniug 

but  the  work  was  not  aanctioned.  Gregory  Xllt 
gave  ordera  for  the  compilation  of  an  authentic  liitr 
trpHmia,  wbich  was  completed  under  Clement  VIII 
(IMS).  It  conUuns  the  dogmatic  dsciatons  of  the  Syn- 
oda  of  Florence  and  Trent,  but  waa  soon  after  with- 
drawn. Ho  attempta  have  aince  been  made  to  collect 
the  decretals  of  the  succeeding  popea. 

Pnvaltnct  of  ikt  Canon  La«  lii  Uodtm  Tlmr*.- 
"The  canon  law,  borrowing  from  the  Roman  civil 
law  many  of  ita  principles  and  rulea  of  pniceeding,  has 
■t  different  timea  undergone  careful  reriaion  and  tbe 
most  learned  and  acie ntilic  treatment  at  tha  handa  of 
Its  professors,  and  vaa  very  generally  received  In  tbosa 
Christian  states  which  acknowledge  the  sopremacy  of 
the  pope ;  and  it  atill  givea  eccleaiastlcal  law,  more  or 
leu,  to  Roman  Catholic  Christendom,  although  its 
provisions  have  in  many  countries  been  considerably 
modlHed  by  the  Cemcordali  (q.  v)  which  the  popes  now 
and  then  And  it  expedient  to  enter  into  with  Roman 
Catholic  aoverelgna  and  govcrnineDta,  wboee  munici- 
pal system  doea  not  admit  of  the  application  of  tbe 
canon  law  in  its  integrity.  Indeed,  the  Ikct  of  its 
main  ol)}ect  being  to  estibliah  tbe  aupromacy  of  tbe 
eccloaiaetical  authority  over  the  temporal  power  is  suf- 
ficient to  explain  why,  in  modem  timea,  it  is  found  to 
conflict  with  the  views  of  public  law  ami  government, 
even  in  the  cue  of  the  moat  absolute  and  deapclic  gov. 


the  Oeuerai  Synod  of  Vienna  (ISll)  and  his  own  de- 
cretals, in  five  books,  and  sent  it  to  the  University  of 
(trleana.  Here  be  aaams  to  have  stopped  ita  circula- 
tion, Intending  to  replace  it  by  a  new  collection,  which 
waa  completed  under  hia  auccessof,  John  XXII,  who 
sent  it  to  the  Unlversitiai  of  Paris  and  Bologna.  It 
liecame  a  full  authority  in  the  Church,  under  tbe  name 
''JtneiKiaei  (Conatitotiones  Clemenyn«).  With  the 
I'lemenUnes.  tbe  coda  of  canon  law.  as  such,  may  be 
said  to  hare  been  completed,  as  "the  power  of  the 
pop;s  has  not  aince  been  sufficient  to  give  tbe  force  of 
law  to  their  enactments  throughout  Christendom." 
I^ler  laws  have  been  added  fmm  papal  decretals,  de- 
cisions of  Trent,  etc..  bat  they  have  never  obtained  U- 
j^,/ authority. 

0,  Oapui  Jarit  Coaomci. — The  ZVondw  Grali/nt, 
Gregorian  collection,  LUer  tatn,  and  Oxutitu^imn 
C'emralmir,  were  afterward,  however,  collected  under 
the  Joint  ■ppallation  of  Ci)iiPDS.TDnTBCAMi>KTOi,  The 
I^rit  edition,  edited  1>y  Chappuls  (1490-1502).  dirides 
the  Extraraganitt  into  two  pjtts ;  first.  Eitnrvagamla 
JoamiU  P.  XXll,  contains  80  decreUls  of  John  XXII. 
under  14  titles,  anwiged  in  the  usual  system ;  the  sec- 
ond, or  Krtrm.-gwlri  mntmmei,  embrace*  74  decretals, 
fh>m  Urban  IV  (12B1  ISM)  to  Sixtus  IV  (1471-1484). 
There  bare  been  many  editions  of  the  Corput  Jvrii  Ci- 
Homn':  among  them  may  be  named  that  of  l^ncelolti 
(rjoioime,  1783,  i  vols.  4lo) ;  of  Boehmer  and  Richt^r 
(Lips.  18.19,  S  vols.  4ta).  The  Psris  edition  of  1047  (2 
vola.  4to)  is  much  esteemed. 

Potma  Mattbewt,  of  Lyon,  comi^led  in  1593  a  IJltr 


In  the  Proleatant  Church  of  Germany  tbe  cbdod 
law  ia  still  the  basis  of  the  common  Church  law.  Lu- 
ther Immed  the  Caipui  Jurii  at  Wittenberg  (Dec.  SO, 
lASO);  but,  nevertheleas,  the  canon  law  was  afterward 

marriage,  etc.,  became  the  basis  of  eccleaiaatical  law 
in  Uie  German  Pri>test4int  Churtb  (Henog,  Srot-Ett- 
cgUopad'e,  a.  v.).  Calvin  calla  tbe  legislation  of  the 
Roman  Church  "an  overgrown  and  barbarous  em- 
pire;" and  maintaina  that  Church  laws  land  tbe  con. 
science  only  as  thcv  are  Chriat's  laws  (/iMtalatft,  bk. 
I»,  cb.  10). 

In  England,  the  canon  law,  even  in  Roman  Catho- 
lic times,  never  obtained  so  firm  a  footing  as  on  tbe 
Continent.  Hook  ((7AarcA  DidiataTf,  a.  v.  Canon) 
says  that  "aa  to  the  Church  of  England,  even  at  that 
time,  when  the  papal  authority  waa  at  the  higbcK, 
none  of  these  foreign  canons,  or  any  new  canone,  made 
at  any  national  or  provincial  synod  here,  had  any  man- 
ner of  fonw  if  they  were  against  the  premgative  of  the 
king  or  the  laws  of  tlie  land.  It  is  true  that  every 
Christian  nation  in  communion  with  the  pope  sent 
some  bisbop,  aliboti,  or  prioni  to  those  foreign  coun- 
cils, and  generally  four  weie  font  out  of  England;  and 
it  was  by  those  means,  together  with  tbe  allowance  of 

ceived  here,  but  anch  aa  were  against  the  laws  were 
totally  rejected.  Nevorthelest,  aome  of  Uieae  foreign 
canons  were  received  in  England,  and  obtained  tbe 
force  of  laws  by  the  general  appmbalion  of  the  king 
and  people  (thongfa  It  may  be  difficult  to  know  what 
these  csnona  are);  and  it  waa  upon  this  pretence  that 
the  pope  claimed  an  ecclesiasticai  JurisdictiDn,  inde- 
pendent of  the  kini;,  and  sent  his  legates  to  England 
with  commissions  to  determine  causes  according  to 
those  canons,  which  were  now  compiled  into  several 
volumes,  and  called^  camnscHm ;  these  were  not 
only  enjoined  to  be  obeyed  as  laws,  but  publicly  to  be 
read  and  expounded  In  all  acbools  and  universities  aa 
the  civil  law  was  read  and  eiponnded  tlieic,  under 
pain  of  excommunication  to  those  who  neglectod. 
Hence  anise  r|uarrela  between  kings  and  several  arch- 
bishops and  o:her  prelates  nbo  adhered  to  those  papal 
usurpstinn'.  There  waa,  bu«ever.  a  kind  of  naUonal 
canon  law  in  England,  conipoeed  of  Ji^^ifirr  andpnnu- 
eiat  constitutions,  adapM  to  tbe  particular  necesaltlea 


CANON  OF  CHURCH 


•fthiEnfttUhCharch.  ThsUgitii 
cedetiutical  law*  BanctAJ  in  national  ij-nodi,  held  un- 
dsr  Uie  canliniila  Otbn  and  Otboboa,  legntu  from  Pope 
Cngory  IX  and  Pope  Clement  IV,  in  the  reign  of 
kinic  Henry  III.  •.boat  the  jun  1320  and  1S68.  The 
in  mi  imiial  connitutiong  are  principall;  the  decrees  of 
|ico*iiicial  ejqoda,  bald  nnder  diven  arcfabiituipa  of 
Caotrrbanr,  (torn  Stepbcn  Laogton,  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  [II,  h>  Hen[7Cbkheler,  In  the  tdgn  of  Hanrf 
Y.  and  sdupted  al»o  by  the  {novinca  of  York  in  the 
nign  of  Henry  VI.  At  Ibe  dawn  ot  Ibe  Befurmatian, 
m  the  reij^  of  Henry  Vlli,  It  wu  enacted  In  Farlia- 
mniC  that  ■  review  abonld  be  had  of  the  oinon  law ; 
and  till  anch  review  ihonld  be  made,  all  canona,  con- 
■titatiD&a,  ordinancea,  and  lynodala  provincial  being 
dwn  alnady  made,  and  not  repugnant  to  tba  law  of 
the  land  or  the  king's  prerogativf,  (bould  atlll  be  lued 
and  esecDtsd.  And  oa  no  *Dcb  review  has  yet  been 
perCeetnl.  upon  Ihb  enactment  now  depends  the  au- 
thority of  the  canon  taw  in  England,  the  limitations  of 
which  appear,  npon  the  whole,  to  be  as  followg :  that 
DO  eason  contrary  U>  lbs  eommou  or  statute  law,  or 
tba  prerogative  royal,  is  of  any  validity ;  that,  sDb>ict 
to  this  condition,  the  canon)  made  anterior  ta  the  par- 
liamnttary  provliion  above  menlinned,  and  adopted  in 
our  svsleni  (for  there  an  some  which  have  had  no  re- 
cnptxn  among  Di).  are  lilnding  botli  no  clency  and 

having  DO  sanction  from  the  Parliament,  are,  as  ra- 
pid* the  laity  at  leasC,of  oofbrce."  See  Cakodbov 
THE  Cbdbcii  or  Eholahd. 

Beijre  the  RefoTmation,  degrees  wen  as  ftoquent  in 
the  canon  law  as  in  the  civil  law.  Many  persons  be- 
came graduates  in  both,  or  Juris  utriosque  doctores; 
and  this  il^^ree  is  still  common  in  foreign  anlverslties. 
Bat  Henry  VIII,  in  the  twenty-seventb  year  of  his 
reign,  iaeued  a  mandate  to  the  University  of  Cam- 
bnlge  to  the  effect  that  no  lectum  on  canon  law 
ahmld  be  rend,  and  no  degree  whatever  in  that  faculty 
omferTHl  in  the  Dnivrrsity  for  the  tutun.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Oxford  received  a  similar  prohibition  al}out 
llie  aame  time,  as  degree*  in  canon  law  hsve  ever  since 
fae«n  diacontinned  in  England  (/Vnay  Ci/dopa^a^  vl, 
SU). 

In  Scotland,  Presbyterian  thon,ih  tlie  eccleriutical 
syMem  of  tlut  coontry  be,  the  old  Roman  canon  law 
(till  previile  to  a  ceruin  extent.      "  So  deep  hath  thii 
canon  law  been  rooted,"  observes  Lord  Stair,  In  his 
AaaCtMes  of  tht  Scolck  Lam,  "that  even  where  the 
pi^ie's  antbority  is  rejected,  yet  consideralinn  mutt  lie 
bad  to  these  laws,  not  only  as  thoae  by  which  Church 
bmeficFa  have  been  erected  and  ordered,  but  as  like- 
wiaB  ccnMaining  nuiny  equitable  and  profitable  lai 
wbicb.  becaniie  of  their  weighty  matter,  and  their  be- 
ing one*  roerired,  may  more  fltl; 
ject«d."     In  two  old  Scotch  acts  ot  Porllsment,  made 
in  IMO  and  IQSI,  the  canon  law  Is  used  in  conjunct' 
with  the  Ronun  law  to  denote  the  cnnimon  law  of  i 
coVDtry,  the  expresrion  used  being  "  the  common  li 
faaitb  canon,  civil,  and  statute*  of  the  nalme"  (Chi 
bers's  EueticiBpitdia,  s.  v.). 

In  the  United  Stales  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is 
nled  by  Ibe  Reman  canon  law,  and  also  by  the 
ova*  of  national  and  provincial  conncits,  and  by  Ibe 
ragolatieaB  set  forth  by  the  Usbopa,  subject  to  the  re- 
viaioa  of  Rome. 

Sec,  on  tbe  sot^ect  nftbls  article  generally,  the  fol- 
lowing authorities  \  Heruw,  RtiJ-EnejUiipadit,  vii, 
a08K|.:  Blackitone,  CnamflifarKJ,  1,  B3;  Knight,  n>- 
hUcal  Dictirmary,  s.  V. ;  Denoux,  TkioL  SeolatHipu,  li, 
KM  tq.  \  Cnnningbam.  Hiilaneal  ThroU>gy.  vol.  li,  ch. 
XT:  Hogenbach.  ThnJ.  A'wjiUo/vddEr,  %  US;  Walter, 
Fomtff  jm  Errl/tti^lin  i^nn.\»e3);  Boehmer, /wCi. 
My.  Jirr-j  CimBmri  (ilal.  1770,  Mh  ed.1. 

CtSON  OP  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 
Tbe  antboriiy  of  the  English  caBoos  rests  upon  "  the 
alatate  li  Henry  Vtll,  commonly  called  the  act  of 


3  CANON  REGULAR 

submission  of  the  clergy,  l)y  which  they  acknowledged 
that  the  convocatbn  had  been  always  assembled  uy 
the  king's  writ ;  and  they  promised,  in  vtrbo  toccrcfobi. 
not  to  attempt,  claim,  or  put  in  use,  or  enact,  prt^. 
mulge,  or  execute  any  new  canons  in  conToration 
without  the  king's  assent  or  license.  Then  follows 
tfaia  enacting  cUuse,  via.;  That  they  shall  not  at- 
tempt, allege,  or  claim,  or  put  in  use  any  constitudons 
canons  without  tbe  king's  assent."  Tbe  flrct  faiok 
English  canons  was  published  in  Latin  in  1&71, 
^hbisbop  Parker  and  the  bishops  of  Ely  tnd  Win- 
chester being  the  principal  sgentu  in  its  construction, 
though  "all  the  bisbops  In  both  provinces  in  synod,  In 
own  pertons  or  by  proxy,  signed  H."     These 

IS  underwent  various  modtticttic  ns.  until,  in  1604, 
bishop  Bancroft  collecteil  a  hundred  and  forty-oDa  can- 

nt  of  the  articles,  injunctions,  and  synodlcal  acts 
passed  and  pnblished  in  the  roigns  of  Edward  V[  and 
Eliiabetb,  which  were  adopted  by  the  Convocation  of 
that  year.  These  canons,  which  at  fin>t  spprarcd  in 
Latin,  we  have  in  English,  under  the  title  of  "Conrti- 
iDtions  and  Canons  Ecclesiastical."  The  code  of  can- 
ons was  amplified  In  1G06,  and  finally  completed  by 
the  addition  of  seventeen  more  in  1640.     They  do  not 

itute  the  law  of  tiie  land,  bpcause  they  were  not 
made  pursuant  to  Ibe  statute  !G  Henry  VIII,  since 
\j  were  made  in  a  convocation,  silting  by  the  king's 
it  to  the  archbishops,  sfter  the  Parliament  was  dis- 
solved. After  tbe  Restoration,  »ben  in  act  was  pass- 
ed to  restore  the  biphnps  to  their  ordinary-  jurudictlon, 
a  proviso  was  n  ade  that  the  act  should  not  conflrm  tbe 
csnons  of  I64D.  Tliis  clause  makes  void  tbe  royal 
confirmation.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  canons 
should  be  made  in  a  convocation,  the  Parliament  sit- 
ting j  thai,  being  so  made,  they  are  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  sovereign ;  and  that  without  such  confirmation 
they  do  not  bind  the  laily,  much  less  any  ordpr  or  rule 
made  by  a  blsbnp  alone,  where  there  is  neither  custom 
nor  canon  for  it.  See  Bum,  Eedtnattical  Laie,  App. 
to  vol.  iv.  The  canons  an  also  given  I  y  Hammond, 
Tie  DtfrntioKi  of  Faith  md  Cimom  <f  Iiwc'pUtir,  etc. 
(New  York,  IStl.  ]-2mo).  See  Catdwell,  Syudalii 
(Oxford,  imS,  2  vole.  »\o\:  Hall,  Ingtiiryim  Ikt  COnoiu 
mtd  Arlicla  (_Ijan{\<,ii)t  Edcn.CAarcA  £tc(iiiiiafVi  s.t.  ; 
Haak,OUirrt^>tc(tniin3>,s.v.    SeeEK«LaKD,CHiJlicll 


CANON  OF  THE  PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH  (of  America),  tbe  Uw  or  discipline  of  that 
Church.  The  canons  an  of  Iwo  kinds;  ([.)"Thecfn- 
stitution  and  canons  of  the  General  Convention,  form- 
ing a  code  fnr  tbe  unifirm  eovemmcnt  of  every  dio- 
cese and  every  church ;"  (2.)  "  The  constitutions  and 
canons  of  the  several  dioce>es,  of  force  only  within 
their  several  precincU,  and  generslly  subcrdinate  to 
the  power  of  tbe  General  Convenlicn."  The  csnona 
are  liable  to  be  repealed  or  altered  hy  tbe  successive 
Conventions.  Thev  are  given  by  Hsmmnnd,  Drfiii- 
liom  o/FaiJi  mid  Cammi  o/DUdplint  (N.  York,  1M4, 
p.  283  sq.).  Then  ia  also  a  Oitjfit  nflke  Canoiu  by 
Dr.  Hawks  and  Judge  Hoffman  (N.  T.  1S60) ;  ree  alio 
Hoffman,  Trmlite  on  the  Lav  <•/  Iht  Prolflma  Ep'ioo- 
pal  Ckarrk  (N.  York,  1860);  Dig^ri  o/He  Commfir 
iJir  Goeenuatnl  of  Iht  PmlMliml  Eptcopal  Clmrth,  adopt- 
ed in  Ibe  Gfneral  Conventlona  of  lfii!>,  If  62.  and  1865 
(Boston,  1866,  Bvo).  See  PRoTxaTAKT  EpiecorAi. 
Chorch. 

CANON  REGULAR,  a  claaa  of  monastic  orden 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  claw  cnmptises 
those  canons  (q.  v.)  who  not  only  live  In  common,  and 
under  Ihc  seme  rule,  but  also  bind  themselves  I  y  either 
simple  or  solemn  vows,  and  who  therefore  really  consti- 
tute what  ia  called  in  the  Roman  Church  a  "  religious" 
order  (see  Ohheb,  Bklioiocs),  The  "canons"  owe 
their  origin  to  Cbrcdcgang  (q.  v.),  who  established 
them  on  a  monastic  basis  \  but  after  the  tenth  century 
the  common  life  benn  to  cease  among  a  large  portion 
of  them.     In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  many 


CANONESSES 


nude  to  nMore  their  monutic  chine. 

mint  at  con^^Rpitioni  were  bunded. 

It  importuit  imoag  them  wore  the  Pitnnon- 

i«  (q.  v.),  the  congragation  of  Sl  Genoveva  (q. 

v.),  St.  Rufh*  (q.  v.),  Slid  of  St.  Victor  (q.  v.)   in 

Fnnce,  the  Gilbertiae  cinooa  (q.  v.}  In  EngUnd,  ud 

the  canons  of  the  Hal;  Crou,  or  eometimei  ■!»  called 

cinon*  of  the  Holy  Sep- 


orSt.Aagnatine,orcDm- 
poHd  their  nile  out  of 
thaw  of  Angmtlnfl  and 
Benedict.  Tbej  were 
Tery  nnmeRHii  Id  En;;- 
land,  where  they  were 
Introduced  aboM  1106, 
■nd  where  they  had,  at 
the  time  of  their  diHo- 

cludin  g  thoM  of  the  c»n- 
oneM^ei).      Their  hibit 
ong  bUck  cu- 
[  aock,  with*  wbile  roch- 
et aver  it,  end  over  thit 
■  bluk  clo^k  end  hood. 
f  In  1619  cardinal   Wol- 
'    eey  undertwjk  the  ref- 

Cuon  K,«al«  »f  ...iglapO.  '>"'"^*^«''  "f'"  *^'  ™- 
gregntipni  of  rugnlar 
CtnoiU  exiitlng  in  Engljnd,  in  virtue  of  ■  ball  af  Leo 
X.  He  ordered  them  to  hold  general  chapters  every 
thlrd  year,  and  to  reatore  a  risid  discipline.  A  few 
jean  afUr  they  were  suppraned,  together  with  all 
other  English  monaiterles.  In  Ireland  the  regular 
canona  were  so  numerous  that  they  counted  ai  nuny 
hDQseB  M*  all  cither  orders  together.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  reformersof  the  order  in  France  waa  bishop 
■to  of  Chartres  (t  in&)  j  yet  be  did  not  foaod  an  inde- 
pendent congregation.  Tht  Congrega&m  of  St.  Zav- 
rrnce,  near  Oulx,  in  the  DaaphinA,  which  waa  founded 
In  106U  by  Gerard  (JhaiLirerius,  spread  especially  in 
Savoy  and  south-easlem  France.  At  the  and  oftbe 
Mgbtecnth  century  [bey  had  nearly  disappeared.  The 
anperior  of  the  mon*>lery  of  St.  Lawrence,  which  atill 
existed,  bore  the  title  of  provost,  poasessed  episcopal 
Jorisdiction  in  his  pravastiy,  and  waa  only  dependent 
on  the  pope.  The  Caagrrgitioii  of  JUarbadi,  in  Alsace, 
was  eMablisbed  abotit  1100  by  Manegold  de  Lutem- 

tima,  about  800  monasteries.  Very  numerous  was  the 
Cimgrrgatim  of  AroHaut,  established  about  the  same 
time  by  three  hfrmits,  one  of  whom  was  made  a  cardi- ' 
nal.  It  spread  over  Entfland,  Scotiand,  Flandera,  and 
Poland.  A  refonned  coni^Rstinn  of  the  Regular  Cm- 
Ota  of  LorriuiK  (ewXiei  iia  "Con-Temtion  of  our  Sav. 
lour")  waa  established  by  Pierre  Fourier  in  18i*,  but 
many  of  the  other  congregations  refused  to  recogniie 
it.  The  most  celebrated  and  numeroas  of  the  ccngre- 
gilioni  in  Italy,  next  In  that  of  Laternn  (see  Latrr-  ' 
ah),  waa  the  Omgrrgalkm  of  oar  .Savioar  (of  Bohgita), 
founded  by  Stephen  ('ioni  in  140fl,  which  posiesaed,  in 
the  eidibteenth  century,  three  monastcriss  in  the  city  . 
of  Rome.  Few  orders  of  the  Roman  Chorch  have  been  ' 
oltener  and  more  generally  pervaded 


n  tho  regular  ci 


The 


great. 


number  of  the  French  congregations  were  extinguished 
by  the  French  Itevnlntion.  A  new  congiegation  of 
regnhir  canons  "of  the  .Sacrwl  Hrart"  (generally  call- 
ed, after  the  atrcnt  in  Paris  in  which  they  had  their 
flrst  house,  the  Congregation  of  Piepm)  waa  (bunded 
in  182S  bv  abW  Coodrin  ("ee  Picpua,  Congreiration 
of).  See  Helyot,  Onli-fi  Rdigeux,  I,  761  sq.  i  Fehr, 
Gadiidite  ilir  MOarhtorilen,  i,  65  ^<^. ;  11.  27  and  40R. 

CanaaeBBe^  (CanonUm).  a  class  of  female  orders 
in  the  Roman  Chorch,  organized  after  the  model  of  the 


1  CANONIZATION 

regular  canona  (q.  v.),  obaerrlng  the  mis  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, and  living  in  common.  They  are  fliat  found 
in  the  aevanth  century.  They  took  no  solemn  vowa, 
but  were  to  remain  anmarried,  were  generally  gov- 
erned by  an  abbess,  and  were  under  the  spiritual  di- 
rection of  the  canona.  Theaa  female  aocletiea,  liko  tba 
canons  (q.  v.),  fell  into  irregolaritle*  {  gave  np  the 
common  lift;,  and  their  property  f^ll  mostly  into  the 
hands  of  the  nobility,  who  provided  for  aumc  of  their 
daughtera  by  canonical  livings.      Reformed  coni^rt^a- 

the  reformed  congregatiuns  of  the  canons,  sometimaa 
being  independent  of  them.  Refcrmatory  move  men  ta 
were  partlcnlirly  extensive  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century,  wlien  the  Beghords  (q.  v.)  and  Beguines  (q. 
v.)  msido  their  appearance  bi  manj-  towns  oftbe  Nelb- 
erlands.  Those  who  did  not  bind  themselves  by  a 
monastic  nle  were  called  secular  csnunesses  (jCiBumi»- 
•z  ttaUara,  or  also  DomefOa),  and  they  were  almost 
exclusively  fbnnd  in  the  institutions  of  noble  ladiea. 
Many  of  thetn  married  and  ttien  resigned  their  Iwdc- 
llcea.  The  Reformation  in  Germany  did  not  aboliafa 
tlie  bousea  of  the  canonesaes,  hut  changed  mostof  tbem 
into  asyluma  for  the  nnoiarried  daughters  of  the  Pro- 
tesUnt  nobility.  Celebrated  bouses  ("stiftir")  of 
this  class  were  at  Gandeishelm,  Hcrford,  Quedlinbarg, 
Genirode,  etc.,  and  after  their  model  even  new  Pro- 
testant houses  were  founded  at  Halle,  Alt:nbui^ 
Frankfort,  and  in  other  places,  especially  in  Uecklert- 
burg  and  ^Vestphalia.  See  Ueiyot,  Ordra  JteSgiaa 
(Paris,  1M7),  i,  789. 

Cauotilcn,  vii^na  who  devoted  themselves  to  tha 
celibate  before  the  monastic  life  wss  known,  and  there- 
fore before  there  were  monasteries  to  receive  tbem{ 
and  called  anutmca  (canonical  virgins),  because  tliair 
names  were  enrolled  in  the  canon  or  mitfnm/n  oftbe 
Church,  that  is,  in  the  catalo,nie  of  ecelesiastio. 
They  differed  from  the  monastic  vir,.-ina  in  this,  that 
they  lived  privately  in  their  fathers'  hunsea,  and  liad 
their  maintenance  from  them,  or,  in  case  of  necessity, 
from  the  Church ;  but  tbe  otliers  lived  in  communi- 
ties, and  upon  their  own  laLor;  so  that  it  Is  now  out 
of  dispute,  says  Blnf^m,  that,  sa  the  ascrtlcs  for  tlis 
first  three  hundred  years  vcre  not  monks,  so  neitho' 
were  the  sacred  virgins  oftbe  Church  niuia  confined  to 
a  cloister,  as  in  after  ages. — Bmgham,  Orig,  Ecd.  bk. 

Canonical  botum,  certain  stated  hoars  of  the  day 
asalgnod  to  prayer  and  devotion.  Such  are  Noctums, 
Mstlns,  Lauds,  Nones,  Vespers,  and  Complini.  It  is 
not  Itnown  at  what  period  these  bouts  were  settled  in 
the  early  Chureh,  The  Apostolical  Conatitutlons  di- 
rect prayers  to  be  said  at  dawn,  and  at  the  thinl.  sixth, 
and  ninth  hours,  as  well  as  at  evening.  In  England 
the  canonical  hours  are  trom  eight  to  twelve  in  tbe 
forenoon,  before  or  after  which  marriage  cannot  law. 
fnlly  be  performed  in  any  church. — Bingham.  OHg. 
£ceiri.  bk.  xlli,  cb.  ix,  §  S ;  Procter  On  Commm  Prtqf 
er,  p.  10.     See  Bbsviart, 

Canonloal  obedience  is  that  submission  which, 
i>y  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  inferior  clergy  are  to  pay  to 
their  bishop,  and  membtn  of  religious  orders  to  tlieir 

Canoniat  a  prof^sor  of,  or  a  writer  upon,  the  Coik 

on  Law  (q.  v.). 

Canonization,  In  the  Roman  and  Greek  choreb- 
ps,  tbe  net  and  ceremony  of  proclaiming  a  deceased  per- 
son who  has  previously  been  beatified  (see  BeaTIFI- 
cation)  a  saint,  and  enrolling  such  s  one  in  the  cata- 
logue of  saints  to  be  honored.  In  the  Roman  Church 
thi»  is  done  bj-  the  pope  only,  who,  aftor  examination, 
"  declares  tlie  person  In  question  to  have  led  a  perfbet 
life,  and  tbat  God  hath  worked  mliuclea  at  his  inter- 
cession, either  during  bis  life  or  after  his  death,  and 
that,  consequently,  he  is  worthy  to  be  hrmored  as  a 
saint,  which  implies  permUsion  to  exbibit  bis  relics,  t» 


CANONIZATION 

InTOks  him,  and  to  celebrala  mui  kod  an  office  in  his 
booor."  Id  tha  Cml  Church  the  cctemony  of  canon- 
isatiou  Ukea  pUce  onlj  in  iha  pmeaca  of  tha  patri- 
■Tch,  who,  haring  asMmliled  hu  biihup*  for  thii  puT- 
poM  in  ajnod,  cauaea  the  t«tinionl«  of  Ihs  witneues 
in  fkior  of  the  penon  to  be  eanonUed  to  be  examliied. 
'    "  '      "  icswa  an  reqainid.     The  trouble  end 


II  in  the  Eaat  an  tew. 
Anciently  the  Teverencg  doe  to  "aajnta"  vaalbougbt 
Id  ba  rolfillBd  b;  putting  the  Dams  of  the  uiDt  on  the 
Saoed  Diplydu,  or  AHam  Siaietcnim,  or  erecting  or- 
■toria  Dt  chnrehe*  under  the  ioTOcatian  of  lha  laint. 
"  CanoniialiDD  in  tha  Romu  lenee  wu  not  known  be- 
tan  the  trnth  nntniy,  but  aoma  hold  that  the  flnt 
It  wat  celebrated  by  Leo  111,  A.D.  804-, 


Dfita  o 


noaiei 


with  tboea  which  were  performed 
daiAcatiDn  of  the  ancient  Romaos,  it  la  with  great  prob- 
stnlitj  auppowd  to  derive  lu  origin  tlwnca.  In  con-  I 
■vqiunee  of  tha  mnltiplicalion  of  uinti  dnilng  the 
Dark  Ageo,  tha  canonliing  of  anj  deceiaed  CbriitiBna 
wma  probibiled  by  a  Bolamn  ordinance  In  the  ninth 
ceotory,  unleea  It  were  done  with  the  conaent  of  tha 
bUwp.  Thii  edict  occaalaned  a  new  accauion  of 
power  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  aa  it  ultimatelr  veatod  in 
him  the  exclnuve  ri^t  of  cunonicing  whomaoever  he 
plaBoBd.  John  XV  was  the  flnt  pope  who  eiarciaed 
thin  aaanmad  right,  and  who,  in  the  year  995,  with 
great  fonnality,  enrolled  Udalric,  bishop  of  Augiburg, 
■OKiatE  (ba  nmober  of  the  niDts.  Before  a  liealified 
poaoB  can  bacanoniiadfbircondstOTiea  arebetd.  In 
ttM  lint  tbe  pope  csnaea  the  petition  of  the  patties  re- 
qnesting  the  canonliation  to  be  examined  bj  tlirea 
aaditaTs  of  the  rota,  and  directs  tha  csrdiiuta  to  reviae 
aQ  (be  neeesaary  instnimenta ;  in  the  second  the  car- 
dinala  nport  the  matter  to  the  Roman  pontiff;  In  lha 
third,  wldch  ia  a  public  cooaistory,  tbe  cardinala  pay 
tlwir  ndontioa  to  the  pope.  One  person,  called  the 
itaril'a  adTocata,  aaya  all  ha  can  agsinat  the  peraon  to 
be  euiDiiiiei],  ralHS  doubta  on  tbe  genaineneaa  of  the 
miracles  said  to  ba  wronght  by  him,  and  axpoaes  any 
waDt  of  formality  In  tha  proeednre.  It  <a  said  that 
tbe  ingmuity  and  aloqaence  of  the  devil's  advocate 
Bearly  prevented  tbe  canoniistion  of  cardinal  Borro- 
■Mo  in  (he  sennteeatb  century.     But  another  idvo- 

wbo  la  to  be  created  a  saint,  in  which  ba  largely  ex- 
patistf  on  tlte  miracles  aaid  to  have  been  wrought  by 
him,  and  even  pretenda  to  know  from  what  motives  he 
acted.  In  the  fourth  and  last  conaislor^',  the  pope, 
having  convened  all  tbe  cardinala,  orders  tha  report 
cmoeniing  tbe  deceased  to  be  read,  and  then  proceeds 
to  take  their  voles,  whether  be  ia  to  be  canoniEed  or 
■Ht.  Pravinnsly  to  pronouncing  the  aentence  dfclir- 
■■X  lha  beatified  party  to  be  ■  raini,  tha  pope  makes  a 
solemn  pmtHtatioa  that,  by  this  set  at  CBnoniMtiDn, 
Im  do**  not  intend  to  do  anything  contniy  to  faith,  or 
to  tbe  Catholic  [Bomiah]  Chnrcb,  or  to  tha  honor  of 
God.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the  ceremony  tha 
church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome  ia  hunR  with  Upealrj-,  on 
whk-h  are  embtainned  the  arms  of  tbe  pope,  and  of  Iba 

is  alw  brilliintiy  illuminated.  Thouunds  of  devout 
memhrn  of  the  Romlnh  comDiunion  fill  tliat  capacious 
ediflce,  eager  to  proflt  by  tbe  inlercee^ions  of  the  new 
■aial  with  the  Almighty.  During  the  ceremnny  of 
cannaiiing.  tbe  pope  stwl  cardinals  are  sU  dressed  tn 
wbite.  The  expenses,  which  are  very  contidcrabic, 
■re  da^ved  by  tbe  royal  or  princely  perponage  at 
wbOM  reqotat  the  beatifled  person  is  enrolled  among 
tbe  saints.  The  cost  of  ranoniiing  the  saints  Pedro 
4a  Alcantara  and  Maria  Maddalena  di  Psssl,  ander 
W  of  Clement  IX,  amonnted  to  sixty-four 
Id  scodl"  (or  dollars)  (Esdie,  Eerlrt.  nitt.  a.  v.).  I 
son  can  be  canonised  until  at  leaat  filly  yeara  ! 
tath,  DO!  if  h.)  he  believed  to  have  passed  into 


91  CANSTEIN 

pulsatory,  nor  if  ha  ba  ■  baptised  infant  dead  befoia 
reachingyeara  of  discretion,  except  in  cases  of  inanyT< 
dam.  lbs  act  of  bsalijlcaiiim  pracedea  that  of  canon- 
iiation.     See  Bbatification. 

The  worship  of  "  canonised  ulnts"  Is  enjoined  by 
the  Cooncil  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxv,  De  imroeatiarir,  etc.). 
Many  Bomanists  have  declared  aguinat  this  supersti- 
tion ;  snd  the  Pmtestsnt  churches  reject  It  as  idola- 
trous. Canoniistion  la  a  relic  of  Pa).'snism.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  a  Dualitt  csme  very  near  being 
canonised.  In  1269  there  died  at  Ferrara  a  wealthy 
ciaien,  Armanno  FnngilDvo.  whose  extraordinary 
charities  endeared  him  to  the  poor,  while  his  aastere 
snd  exempUiy  life  procured  him  a  ganaral  reputution 
of  sanctity.  Ha  was  buried  in  the  cathedral,  In  the 
presence  of  sn  immense  crowd,  who  Ismented  (heir 
public  veneration  that 


miracles  were  soon  wrought,  or  appeared  (o  be,  on  tha 
spot  where  he  was  buried.  An  altar  was  hnilt  over 
his  remains,  snd  statnea  were  erected  in  his  honor 
tbronghont  the  churches  of  the  diocese.  The  bishop 
and  chapter  of  Ferrmra  proceeded  to  an  investigation 
of  tha  miraclea  wron^^ht  at  his  tomb,  aa  ■  preliminary 
atap  to  appl}ing  Ibr  hia  canDuliation,  and  professed 
themselves  satbfled  of  the  veracity  of  persons  who  tes- 
tified that  they  bad  themselvas  b«en  cnrtd^ — tome  of 
blindness,  otlters  of  parslysia.  What  was  tha  general 
consUroation  when  the  Dominican  Aldobrandini,  in- 
quisitor general  of  Lombardy,  1>raught  forward  Irre- 
listlble  evidence  that  (he  decessed  was  a  member  of 
the  Catbarists  (q.  v.) ;  that  his  house  had  been  for 
yeara  tbe  asylum  of  their  teachers;  snd  that  he  had 
both  received  and  administered  the  OMtolamaitvin  (q. 
v.).  The  clergy  of  Fonara  were  slowly  and  nnwlll- 
iatily  convinced,  tba  people  not  at  all ;  but,  after  ro-' 
peated  iDvestigatloDS,  and  a  delay  of  more  than  thirty 
years,  those  remains,  which  had  well-nigh  been  pro- 
poaed  to  tbe  adoration  of  the  failhfol,  were  dug  np  with 
iguomlny  and  homed  to  ashta.  See  Hellmann,  (7m- 
KcrtUio  SamlonoH,  etc.  (HsI.lTM,  4to);  Elliott,  iWw- 
taliatt  if  Saman^n,  bk.  iv,  cb.  iv;  Ilnrd,  Afl/jiou 
Sita  oad  Cemnoaies,  344 ;  Ferraris,  iVomfa  BUIiotlir- 
fa,  s.  V.  Teneralio  Ssndornm,  ii,  119  sq.;  Chemnl- 
tlna,  Eamtn  Condi.  TtHhU.  pt.  il,  loc.  6;  pt.  Ill,  loc. 
4;  Uenog,  Beal-Enc^ibjMK,  vii,  SS6;  Eadie,  EkI. 
Dicliinianf,  a.  v. ;  Hook,  Ci.  DidiauTi/,  a.  t. 

Canopy  (arrurtlay,  from  ruvui^,  a  ipialt  Tulg. 
ccntpnm) :  (1)  In  the  O.  T.  the  term  employed  for  tba 
banging  ofthe  couch  of  Holofemrs  (Judith  x,  !1 ;  xjii, 
a;  xvi,  19),  where  alone  it  occura  In  tbe  Bible,  although, 
perhaps,  trvm  tbe  "pillars"  of  the  litter  dercribed  in 
Cant,  tli,  10,  it  may  be  argued  that  its  equlpai-e  would 
include  a  canopy.  It  probably  retsined  tbe  mosqnlto- 
neti  or  cnrtahis  in  which  the  name  originated,  al- 
though Its  description  (Judith  x,  71)  betraya  luxury 
and  display  rather  than  such  simple  osefulDera.  Var- 
ro  (B,  II.  ii,  10,  8)  uses  the  term  (_qiiir  in  conopti'tjiicriii) 
of  languid  women  very  much  aa  tba  t>ook  of  Judith 
(ararovoiiivBS  ,  ,  ,  Iv  Tifi  nijvuiirii((j)  descrides  the 
position  of  a  luxurious  general.  (For  farther  cissflcal 
illnstrstlon,  sec  Smith,  Did.  of  Ana.  t.  v.  Conopeum.) 
Itmlght  possibly  he  asked  why  Judith,  whose  tmsinets 
wits  to  escape  witbont  delay,  should  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  pull  down  Iba  canopy  on  the  liody  of  Holo- 
femes  ?  Pmbably  II  waa  an  Inatance  of  the  Hebrew 
notion  that  blood  should  be  instantly  covered  (comp. 
B  Sam.  XX,  18j  Uvit.  ivii,  IB)  [see  Blood],  and  for 
this  purpose  the  llglit  bedding  of  Syria  waa  imdequHte. 
See  Bfd.  Tent  furniture  also  ia  nHtumlly  lighter, 
even  when  most  luxurious,  than  that  of  a  palace,  and 
thus  a  woman's  hand  might  unfix  it  from  tbe  pillars 
witbont  much  difficulty. 

(3)  In  ecclesiastical  use,  see  Baldachin. 

Canstolii,  Eabl  Hildbbraiio,  Soma  nm,  was 
bom  Ang.  15, 1687,  at  LIndetiburg,  in  Gerrosny,  stud- 
ted  law  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder,  (ravelled  much  in 


CANTERBURY  92 

Europe,  and  la  1S88  iru  tppolnted  pagn  of  Un  electoi 
or  Bnadenbnrg-  Ha  •ftorward  Mrved  u  •  voluDtoar 
in  the  NatharUnds.  A  dingaroufl  aicknsu  oljli|;ed 
him  M  leave  Uie  military  Mrvlce,  and  led  him  to  ■ 
ligluDS  lifa,  in  wbich  he  wu  greatl}'  helpad  by  Spei 
(q.  v.).  Hii  wish  to  gpraul  the  Bible  kmong  the  poor 
led  him  to  rnrm  the  idea  of  [ffindnK  it  witfa  flareotj  pe 
platea.  lliai  ori)(la>l«d  the  funoua  inititution,  cUed 
in  German  Die  Caaitriateie  BMaitaalt.  He  lived  Co 
■ee  100,000  TetUmenI*  and  40,000  Bibles  lold  from 
tbe  eatabluhment.  U  la  atiU  continued  on  a  very 
large  scale ;  the  books  are  fiirntahed  at  cost  price* 
(4l>aut  tweDty-Gve  cenia  for  tbe  Bible  and  el^t  (tor 
the  Testament).  Up  to  1864,  4,612,000  Bibloa  and 
2.630,000  TealwnentB  hsd  been  sold.  He  edited  a 
aarnaut  <fer  *  KeaitgtlUle*  (!d  ed.  ITST,  fol.),  and 
alio  wrote  Liitn^ittehre^iiiHg  SpoKri  (Life  of  Spener), 
the  edition  of  which  by  Lange,  1740,  contains  a  Liog- 
npb;  of  Canale^  who  died  at  HalU,  Aug.  19, 1719. 
8m  also  Miemeyer,  Gachidiit  der  CinuleinKien  BiieU 
aalaa  (Halle,  IB27,  Bvo);  Plath,  Lrien  km  Cjnalan 
(ISSl,  Sto)  1  BBftnm,  Gaciichlt  dor  Cantfetwrint  Bi- 
bdaiutak  (1B63,  Bva)]  Jakrbtcker  f.  Dtidtdu  Titalo- 
gif,  is,  892.  —  Hoefer,  ^wr.  Sing.  GhiraU,  viii,  &10 ; 
Henog,  ReaUEnesldi^Hdie,  U,  i&2. 

Cant«rbiU7  (paalaana  Danbenuun).  the  capital 
of  the  count;  of  Kent,  a  cathedral  city  and  the  uaC  of 
an  archlilshop,  who  is  the  metropolitin  of  all  En;-1and. 
ItiaGSm<tesfh>mLondon,E.S.E.,  on  tbe  rood  to  Do- 
ver, niien  Auituatino  became  archbishop  of  this  see, 
A.D.  G97,  king  Ethelbert  granted  hia  palace  here  to  the 
archliiahop  and  hla  monka,  who  thereupon  bejnn  to 
build  a  monaatery,  converting  an  ancient  church  In  tbe 
neighborhood  (said  to  have  been  nsed  by  the  Roman 
Chriatiana)  into  his  cathedral  church.  Cuthbert,  the 
eleventh  archbiihop,  A.D.  740,  added  a  church  to  the 
eaal  of  this.  In  the  course  of  ages  it  received  nnmer- 
ona  addltiona,  nnUl  it  aaaumed  ita  preaent  magnlficeDt 
(brm.  Among  thole  who  helped  to  repab",  enlarge, 
and  rebuild  it  ware  archblahaps  Odo  (A.D.  Mt),  I.an- 
franc  (.inTn),  and  Aaaelm  (1098).  In  1174  the  choir 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  in  order  to  the  rebaildin^f 
of  it  a  number  of  French  and  Engliah  artiflcors  were 
anmmoned.  Ammig  the  former  was  a  certain  William 
of  Sens,  and  to  him,  a  man  of  real  gcnlua,  tlie  work 
Waa  intrusted.  The  church  was  rich  in  relics;  Plei^ 
raund  had  brought  hither  the  body  of  the  marti-r  Bla- 
tiua  fVom  Rome;  there  were  the  relica  of  St.  Wilfred, 
St.  DunsUn,  and  St.  Elphe^  ;  the  murder  of  Thomas 
Docket  (q.  v.)  took  place  In  the  north  transept.  Dec. 
29,  IITO.  The  total  exterior  length  of  the  cathedral 
b  oH  feet,  by  15fi  in  breadth  at  the  eastern  transept 
The  crypt  b  of  greater  extent  and  loftier — owing  to 
the  choir  beinK  raised  bv  numerous  steps  at  tbe  east 
end — than  any  other  in  England.  Tbe  arebblshop  of 
Canterbury  ia  primate  of  all  England,  metropolitan, 
and  first  peer  of  the  realm.  He  ranks  next  to  royalty, 
and  crowna  tbe  sovereign.  Hla  ecclaaiasUcal  province 
Includes  all  England,  except  the  six  northern  countjea. 
Among  hla  privileges,  he  can  confer  degrees  in  divin- 
ity, law,  and  medicine.  Hia  seats  ara  at  Lambeth  and 
Addinglon  Park.  He  is  patron  ori49  livings.  The 
present  archbishop  ia  Charlea  Thomas  Longlev,  trans- 
lated to  the  we  in  1H6-2.— Landon,  EccK  D-climary,  s. 
V. ;  Chamber*,  Etryiifadia,  a.  T. 

Cantharan  (a  e^p  or  pa<).     In  the  ai 


CANTICLES 

la  also  called  by  aome  ecclealaatical  vriteri  IsMtartitK, 
It  ia  alao  called  tigmphiaim,  to\v)ifltliiv,  both  of  which 
lignliy  a  fountain.  Tertallian  exposes  the  absurdity 
of  men  going  to  prayers  with  washed  hands  while  they 
retained  a  fillfay  apirit  and  polluted  anui.  Some  uftbi 
Ronun  Catholic  writers  pretend  to  Justify  their  use  of 
holy  water  from  tbe  existence  of  tbia  ancient  cuatom. 
It  ia,  however,  more  probable  that  it  owea  its  origin  to 
the  Grecian  rite  called  x^plppavTilp^Jl,or  luilTal  ^irink- 
/inji.— Bingham,  Orig.  Ecda.  bk.  viii,  th.  iiJ,  |  0,  7. 

CfUltllfiras  (Kav^qpaOi  ■  person  mentioned  by 
Joaephoa  (^M.  xx,  1,  8)  as  baving  been  deposed  from 
the  Jewish  hlgh-prierthood  by  Herad,  king  of  Chslcia, 
to  make  room  for  Joseph,  the  son  of  Canu,  A.D.  4A ; 
he  is  elaawhare  ^Amt.  xix,  6,  S)  identlfled  with  tbe 
SiKOH  (q.  T.)  who  had  before  enjoyed  that  bonor,  u 
tbe  son  of  (Simon,  the  son  of)  BoCtfains,  &ther-in-law 
of  Herod  the  Great  (^Aml.  xv,  B,  S).    SeeHiou-PBiasT. 

Caatdcla  (•oh^),  applied  commonly  to  sacred 
aongi  chanUd  In  the  Church,  such  as  the  BneJiale. 

Can'tiolea,  or  Bolomon'a  Song  (called  in  ver, 
ISUrhaASkirim',  B'<^^1^n  -i^V,  Song  of  tie  Soagi, 
a  Keb.  superlative ;  Sept.  faiia  dvpirm',  Vulg.  nut- 
licam  CwKtcDrm),  entitled  in  the  A.V.  "TuK  Soso 
or  SoLOHon."  No  book  of  the  0.  T.  baa  been  tbe 
subject  or  more  varied  criticism,  or  been  more  fre- 
quently selected  for  separata  translation  than  this  Ll- 
tie  poem.  It  ia  one  of  the  five  tivgiliatk  or  roUa  placed 
in  most  Jewish  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures  immediately 
after  the  Fantaleuch,  but  in  tbe  Keb.  ptintsd  copies  it 
conatitutea  the  fourth  of  tbe  Ketvbim  or  Bagiagrafin 
(q.  v.).  (See  Davidson  in  Home'a  Intnd.  new  ed.  ti, 
7iH)sq.)     SeeBiBi.E. 

I.  AuOmr  and  DaU.—hy  tbe  Hebrew  title  it  ia  as- 
cribed to  Solomon ;  and  so  in  all  the  versions,  and  by 
the  majority  of  Jewish  and  Christian  writers,  ancient 
and  modern.  In  fact,  if  we  except  a  ftw  of  the  Tal- 
mndical  writers  (finia  Balira,  R.  Moses  Klmchi ;  see 
Gray'a  Krg),  who  assiKned  It  to  the  age  of  Heieklab, 
there  la  scarcely  a  dissentient  voice  down  to  the  close 
of  tbe  last  century.  More  recent  criticism,  however, 
haa  called  In  question  thu  deep-moted  and  well-accred- 
ited tradition.  Among  English  scholan  Kennicott, 
among  German  Eichbom  and  ItoaenmCilIrr,  regard  the 
poem  as  belonging  to  the  age  of  F.m  and  Nehemtah 
(Kennicott,  i^ut.  1,  p.  20-S2;  Eichhom, /n^  pn>  in  V. 
T.  pt.  iil,  §  647,  p.  681  aq.,  2d  ed. ;  Bosenm.  S.luL  « 
V.  r.)  Kennicott  baaed  his  otrfnion  upon  the  nnirorm 
insertion  of  the  ^  In  all  Uw  copies,  in  tbe  name  of  David 
(T'Tl).  The  name,  howerer,  occnn  only  once  (iv,  4) ; 
and  the  insertion  ofthe  letter  in  this  solitary  instance  is 
eauiy  accounted  for  by  a  auppoeed  error  in  tranacriptlofl. 
At  any  rate,  the  Insertion  of  the  *<  would  not  bring  tbe 
Canticles  so  fardown  as  the  time  of  Exia,  since  we  find 
the  same  peculiarity  in  Hoa.  lli,G.  and  Amoa  vi,  6(Ge. 
aeniua,  Thaaar.  a.  v.)  The  charge  of  Chaldairm  has 
been  vigorously  pressed  by  RoeenmQller,  and  osp^ 
cially  by  Eicbborn.     But  Gesenius  IRA.  dr.  S  !)  as- 


mrche*  there  w 


iwnly  a  foui 


tern,  in  which  wnrnhippers  could  wa.«h  their  hands  and 
face*  before  entering  the  church.  Euscbiua  aara  that 
In  the  oourt  over  a&\tut  the  chnreh  were  placed  foun- 
taina  (jtoiii-ni)  of  water,  as  aymlwls  of  puriflcJitlon,  for 
such  to  waab  as  entcriHi  into  the  chnreh  (/>Oni(.c.  xi). 
Paulinus.  bishop  of  Nola.  calla  this  fountain  innlk-im 


i,  ad  .Irmr.). 


Dufresne,  cne  louniain  was  aurrounrlecl   w 
fi*om  whose  months  wat«r  apoutedi  wlionce 


icfording  to 


lebooktc 


le  golden 


iofHeb 


few  "olilarj-  Chaldaisms"  which  occur 
in  tbe  writmgs  of  that  age  to  the  hands  of  Choldeo 
copyists.  Gcwnius  haa  moreover  suggeated  an  im- 
portant distinction  twlwern  Chatdalama  and  diidtrHc 
variations  indigenous  to  Northern  PslcFtine,  where  he 
conjecturea  that  Judgea  and  Canticlea  were  oompoaed. 
Tbe  application  of  this  principle  is  sufficient  to  elimi- 

moat  of  the  Chaldaiams  alleged  by  Eichbom  (e. 
g.  OforTiK);  while  the  occurrence  of  similar  forma 
in  PbconicUn  aff'orda  an  Indication  of  other  intrmive 
forces  beaidea  tbe  Atainiean  acting  upon  the  Bilillcal 
Hebrew.  Nor  ia  the  lugKestion  of  GsHniua  that  the 
book  was  written  in  Northern  Palestine,  ami  conse- 
quently  tingeil   with  a  local   coloring,   inconri«tent 

tbe  opinion  which  plocM  itamnn  tthe  "one  thoo- 
Bond  and  five"  songs  of  Solomon  (1  Kinga  iv,  3!). 


CA>mCLES  «3  CANTICLES 

Conp.  I  Kings  ix,  19  *ith  3  Chnm.  vUl,  6;  vlMrs  the  rani,"  and  tha  Chaldee  pinphrue,  "  the  aongi  ud 
tuUings  of  UbanoD  an  dacidiidly  conlruted  with  hynnuobich  Solomon,  the  prophet,  tbaking  of  Innel, 
thgaiB  of  Jtrnwlem,  and  m  not,  tharelbre,  to  be  coo-  uttered  in  the  spirit  of  propbei;}-  before  the  Lord"), 
fbanded  with  the  "booM  of  the  forett  of  LebanuD"  (1  Ghislerloa  (16tb  centui7)  coniidered  it  *  dranu  Id  Atb 
King*  vii,  2),  which  wu  probablv  In  Jeroulem.  By  acta.  One  of  the  Ant  HparBte  tnuitUtioDS  puhliabed 
■  Iknber  compuiioo  of  these  puuges  with  Robioaon  in  England  is  entitled  "The  CanUcles,  or  Balades  of 
iBiU.  Am.  iii,  441),  who  deseribes  remains  of  mauive  Solomon,  In  Eaglbh  metre"  (164!)) ;  and  Id  1696  ap- 
buildinga  as  atill  standing  on  I.ehanoii,  it  will  appear  peared  SoIddiod'i  Song  in  eight  edognea,  by  J.  H. 
probable  that  Solomon  bad  at  least  ■  hDnting-«eat  [Jervaie  Slarkham] ;  the  numbet  of  eclogue*  in  thia 
Bomewbere  on  the  alopea  of  that  moontain  (comp.  latter  production  being  the  eame  a>  that  of  the  idylla 
Cant.  It.  9).  In  such  a  retreat,  and  under  the  influ-  Into  which  the  book  was  aftentard  divided  by  Jabn. 
•DC*  t^itt  aceneiy,  and  the  language  of  the  surronnd-  Down  to  thell^Ui  century,  however,  the  Canticles  were 
lag  peaaantT)',  be  may  hare  written  Canticles,  Ar-  generaJTy  regarded  as  cnntinuous. 
Ilatfcallj  this  would  have  been  in  keeping  with  the  Gregory  NazianioB  calls  it  "  a  bridal  dramatic 
Reacra)  condition*  of  [uutonl  poetry.  In  oar  own  song"  (vvfufuny  tpand  rt  xai  fgfia).  According  to 
langnagn  anch  compositions  are  not  nnfrequently  ao-  Patrick,  it  is  ■  "pastoral  eclogne"  or  a  "dramatic 
coauDodated  to  rustic  ideas,  and  sometime*  to  proTin-  poem ;"  according  to  Lowtb,  "an  eplthaUmium,  or 
cial  dialects.  If,  moreover.  It  should  be  urged  that  6afuirTvc  naptklls  of  a  pastoral  kind."  Hicbselis  and 
Chaldaiama  are  not  provincialisms,  It  may  be  replied  Rosenmliller,  while  differing  as  to  its  interprelatioD, 
that  SolomoQ  could  scarcely  be  l^orant  of  the  Ara-  agree  in  making  it  conUnnous,  "  carmen  imatorinm." 
maan  literatore  of  bis  own  time,  and  that  he  »»}>  A  modified  continaity  was  soggeated  by  Boeeuet,  who 
han  cDDBcioosljased  it  (brtbe  purpose  of  enrichment  divided  the  Song  into  seven  part*,  or  scenes  ofapaato- 
(Gesen.  IM.  Gr.  $  3, 4).  ral  drama,  cnrretponding  with  the  seven  dsrs  of  the 

The  title,  though  it  b  posslblv  too  flattering  to  have  Jewish  nuptial  ceremony  (Lowth,  Pndeel.  xxit).  Bos- 
aia»  from  the  hand  of  Solomon,  must  have  existed  soet  Is  followed  by  Cslmet,  Percy,  Williams,  and 
in  the  copy  oaed  by  the  Sept,  and  consequently  can  Lowth  ;  bat  bis  division  is  impugned  by  Taylor 
lay  claim  to  a  respectable  antiquity.  The  moral  ar-  (^Frngnt.  Calmtf),  who  proposes  ono  of  six  days,  and 
gament  pot  forward  by  tha  supporters  of  the  most  re-  cnnslders  the  drama  to  be  juM-miplial,  not  anle-taip. 
cent  literal  Interpretation,  and  based  upon  the  improb-  rial,  as  it  Is  explained  by  BofsueL  (Soe  below,)  The 
■Ulity  of  SolOQioa's  criminating  himaelf  (see  Iwloii), '  entire  nuptial  theoiy  has  been  severely  bandied  by  J. 
is  not  very  conclualve.  Even  on  the  theory  of  those  [  I).  Michacliii,  and  the  literal  whool  of  Intarpretrra  in 
~  rs  bis  conduct  might  be  traced  to  a  spirit  of  j  general.  UlchaeUs  attacks  the  llret  day  of  Bursnet, 
■■lt«ccB*ation ;  and,  st  any  rate,  it  need  not  and  invdves  Id  its  destruction  the  remainiBg  six  (Kot. 
be  exaltMl  above  the  atiudard  which  waa  likely  to .  ad  Lanlk  PntL  xxxi).  It  should  be  observed  that 
floarish  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  court  such  as  hb^  On  |  Lowtb  make*  it  a  drama,  Lot  only  of  the  minor  kind, 
tba  wbole,  then.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  depart  th>m  j  f.  c.  dramstlc  as  a  dialogue,  and  therefore  not  more 
Um  plain  meaning  of  tha  Hebrew  title.  dramatic  than  an  Idyll  of  Tfaeocrllua  or  a  ratira  of 

Supposing  the  date  fixed  to  the  reign  of  Solomon,  |  Horace.  The  fact  is  that  be  was  nnahla  to  diacovcr  a 
great  ingenuity  haa  been  employed  by  tha  Rabiiinical '  plot;  and  it  ecems  clear  that  If  the  only  dramatic  ele- 
BBrd  some  Cbrbllan  writer*  in  determining  at  what  pe- 1  ment  in  Cantiiles  be  the  dialogue,  the  rich  pastoral 
riod  of  that  monarch's  life  the  poem  waa  written  (see  |  character  of  Its  scrncr\'  and  allusions  renders  the  term 
Poll  SfiufH.  Vrmt.  ad  Cant,),  The  point  at  i^Bue  j  dnima  lesa  applicable  than  that  of  idsU.  Bwsuet, 
seems  to  have  been  whether  Solomon  ever  repented  i  however,  extravagantly  claims  it  as  a  regular  drama, 
afta  his  falL  If  he  did,  it  was  contended  that  the  i  with  all  the  pmprieties  of  the  classic  model ;  and  if 
ripen eas  of  wisdom  exhibited  in  the  Song  seemed  the  :  with  Lowth  we  recognise  a  chores  completely  sympa- 
BBtoral  growth  of  such  an  experience ;  if  he  did  not,  i  thctic  and  assittant,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  we  can 
is  waa  urged  that  no  other  than  a  aplritnally- minded  .  avoid  catling  tlie  poem  a  drama :  but  in  all  the  trans- 
nun  could  have  compoaed  anch  a  poem,  and  that  i  lationa  of  tho  aUtgorical  school  which  are  baaed  upon 
tberaforc  it  must  hsre  bren  written  while  Solomon  i  the  diamstic  idea,  the  interference  of  the  choms  is  so 
wu  atill  the  cherished  of  God.  Then,  again,  it  was  a  infregucnt  or  an  indefinite,  the  abaenee  of  anything 
■tooted  pcMUt  whether  the  composition  was  the  product ,  Ilka  a  drsmxlic  progress  and  development  sufficiebt  to 
of  SolomOD's  matured  wiMlom,  or  the  ftesh  outburst,  enlist  the  armjiathy  of  a  chorus  is  so  evident,  that  the 
t4  bis  warm  and  passionate  youlli ;  whether,  in  (act,  strongly-niarked  ii^ic  Fcenoij  could  not  far  outweigh 
tha  maatar  element  of  the  poero  were  the  iilenU  form  ;  the  (csrcely  perceptKile  elements  of  dramatic  Inlen* 
or  the  aBrgorieal  meaning.  In  either  view  of  its  in-  tion.  The  idyllic  theory  is  confirmed  i^y  Ihe  use  of  a 
tarpretatlon,  however,  the  only  historical  occasion  in  similar  furm  among  the  Arabians,  under  Ihe  name  of 
tb*  life  oTSolomon  for  a  poem  like  this  iahia  marriage  I  "Cesiides"  (Sir  W.  Jones,  f.n.  J»,  Cnnrnm*,  iii). 
with  tha  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  B.C.  1008  (1  Kings  ill,  I  By  tha  nuctionary  alletioricts,  of  whom  KoH-nmQl. 
]);  a  nfcrence  that  is  atrongly  cotroborated  tiy  the  !  ler  may  be  considered  the  represenlative,  the  Mong  of 
imhable  date  of  Psalm  xlv,  which  indeed  msj'  be  re-  Solomon  haa  either  iieen  made  abMilutrly  continuous, 
garded  as  the  krf  of  the  Canticles  themselves.  An '  or  hss  been  divided  with  reference  to  Its  s|Hritua1 
old  cvramentstor  (Woken,  Wittemb.  1719)  holds  that  meaning  rather  than  Its  cxteraal  form  (e.  g.  Heng- 
tlH  bride  waa  "Nicaule,"  the  qneen  of  Sheba,  and'  stenl«rgand  Prof.  Buirowcs). 

that  she  formed  a  connubial  intimacy  with  Salomon  I      The  supposition  that  the  Canticles  supplied  a  model 
during  her  suy  in  Palestine.     See  9ou>Ko:(.  1  to  Theocritus  seems  based  on  merely  verbal  cnlncl. 

IL  Form.  — This  queatlon  Is  not  absolutely  deter-i  dences,  such  as  could  scarcely  fkil  to  occur  Iwtween 
mined  br  the  Hebrew  title.  The  rendering  of  TiO  i '"°  ■""*"  of  po«to™/ poetry  (com p.  Cant,  i,  9;  vi, 
S^im.  mentioned  bv8imonU(/^.ffeS.),"  series '];2j*''^'r''^r,";;'^'»^^^  "■  "UI' 

.  .,  ,  ,     I  ,  ,        J     J        JIT..  iTboocr.  XX,  2fi,  27;  Cant.  vil],6, 7.  with  Theocr.  xx   L 

of  aong.     (comp    ,.v«,  chain),  and  adopted  by  Paul-U  jg    ^'^^^  ,„  p„i  ^^     ^^^  p^l' 

^    '^►,  ^  ,  J;  r  '=°T'""S:![^  "P>^     /  ""T  «™)-«  f-yl-     m  "»  »wntial  matters  of/™  and  of 
peu  with  thrt  of  Ge«nius,  "  Song  of  Songs,  I.  e.  the  I  ^^,  ^^i„g  „,,  resemblance  doe.  not  exi-t. 
mort   beantifnl  of  songs"  (comp.   Pmi.  xlv,  1,  •^••p  I       „|    ^^r,,j,._Tha  schools  of  Interpretation  may 
nVTIi  '■»  delightful  song;"  comp.alsoTheocr./4rf.  I  he  divided  into  three:  the  stysfico/, or  (Jiiioo/,-  tba  o;. 
vlii,    wpoafi^it  /iiXo().      The  non-continuity  which    Irgnrieal,  and  the  liltral. 

mniy  critica  attribute  to  tho  poem  is  far  from  being  I      1.  The  mjsfMfli  interpretation  Is  properly' an  olbhaat 
a  Bwdem  discovery-  (romp,  the  LaL  "  Caotlca  cantlco- 1  of  the  aVrgan'cal,  and  probably  owes  Its  origin  to  the 


CANTICLES 


:h  vaa  f«It  of  >np[!jjiiig  a  tUettJ  bula 
Sar  the  apecaliDaTii  of  the  allagoriiM.  Thla  basla  is 
(ither  the  miirisge  of  Solomon  with  Pharaob' a  daugh- 
ter, or  hl>  marriage  with  an  Isnelltlah  woman,  the 
Shulamite.  llie  fornisr  (Uken  together  with  Har- 
mer'a  varktloD)  wtu  the  fdvorita  opinion  of  the  myeti- 
csl  inlerproten  to  the  end  of  the  IBth  centniy :  the 
latter  lue  obtained  aince  Ita  Intradoction  b;  Good 
,  (18011).  The  mfatlcal  interpretattoo  makea  Ita  "  ' 
appearance  In  Origen,  who  wrote  •  volnminons  < 
■nentar}'  upon  the  Canticles.  Its  literal  baais.  n; 
the  mystical  application,  is  condemned  bv  Tbeodoret 
(A,D.  iill).  It  raappean  Id  Abnlphiirakilas  (I!2e- 
]!86),  and  ww  received  Ijj  Grodoa.  Ai  involving  i 
literal  basis,  it  was  vebBmeDtlv  oli}ect«d  to  by  Sane 
tius,  DuTbam,  and  Calovins,  but  apprond  of  and  a;s- 
tematiicd  by  Bossaet,  Indorsed  by  Lowth,  and  used 
Ibr  the  purpose  of  translation  by  Percj'aiid  Williama. 
The  Br^umentt  of  CalovluB  prevented  Its  taking  mot 
In  Germin;;  and  the  aahatltutlon  by  Qood  of  an  I>- 
Taelltiah  tor  an  EiCTptian  bride  baa  not  saved  the  gen- 
eral theory  from  the  neglect  which  woi  Inevitable  after 
the  reactionary  movement  of  the  latta-centnry  " 
ista. 

3.  AJtjnriciiI.^KotwlthMaDdingttaeatteinpta which 
hare  been  made  to  discover  thla  principle  of  interpre- 
tation in  the  Sept.  (Cant,  ir,  B);  Jeans  Sirach  (xlvli, 
ll-i;) ;  Wisd.  (WU,  3).  and  Josephus  (c.  Ajaian,  I,  S  8), 
It  Is  Impossible  to  tnce  it,  with  any  certainty,  forther 
back  than  the  Talmud  (aee  Ginaburg,  /ntiwl.).  Ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud,  tbe  MavrJ  ia  taken  to  be  God ; 
the  bcni  imt,  or  bride,  Is  lie  antgngatiiM  of  lirarl. 
This  generiU  relation  is  exp:inded  into  more  particular 
detail  by  the  Targnm.  or  Chaldae  Paraphrase,  which 
treats  the  Son)c  of  Songs  at  on  allegorical  history  of 
the  Jewish  people  ftom  the  exodus  to  the  coming  of 
tbe  Messiah  and  the  bnilding  of  the  third  temple.  In 
order  to  make  oat  tbe  parallel,  recoune  was  had  to 
the  most  entraordiniiy  devicea;  e.  g.  the  reduction  of 
words  to  their  numerical  value,  and  the  free  inter- 
changing of  words  similar  to  each  other  in  sound. 
Elaborate  aa  It  was,  the  Interpretation  of  the  Targum 
was  still  farther  developed  by  the  msdinval  Jews, 
but  generally  constructed  upon  the  same  allegorical 
hypathesis.  It  was  introdticed  Into  their  liturgical 
services;  and  daring  the  persecutions  of  the  Middle 
Ages  IM  consoling  appeal  to  the  past  and  futnre  glo- 
ries of  Israel  maintained  It  as  the  popular  exposition 
of  a  national  poem.  It  would  be  strange  if  so  univer- 
sal an  influence  as  that  of  the  scholastic  philosophy 
had  not  obtained  an  expreealon  In  the  InterpreUtion 
of  tbe  Canticles.  Such  an  expression  we  And  in  tbe 
theory  of  Ibn  Caspe  (1800-1250),  which 
book  as  representing  tbe  union  between 
Itllect  (intetlectuB  agens),  and  tbe  receptive  or  moterial 
iMtBtct  (Intellectns  materialii).  A  new  school  of 
Jewish  interpretation  was  originated  by  Mendelssohn 
(1729-1788),  which,  without  actually  denying  the  ex- 
istence of  an  allefforical  meaning,  determined  to  keep 
It  in  abeyance,  and  meanwhile  to  devote  Itself  to  tbe 
literal  interpretation.  At  present  the  most  learned 
rabbis,  following  Loweaohn,  have  abandoned  tbe  alle- 
gorical interpretation  altogether  (Hexbeimer,  1848 ; 
PhUippson,  18M). 

In  tbe  Christiiin  Church,  the  Tolmudlcal  interpreta- 
tion, imported  by  Origen,  woa  all  but  universally  re- 
ceived. It  was  impugned  by  Theodore  of  Uoptmestla 
(360-429),  but  continued  to  bold  lU  ground  as  the  or- 
thodox  theory  till  the  revival  of  letten^  when  it  was 
called  In  question  by  Erasmns  and  Orotius,  and  was 
gradually  superseded  by  the  typical  theory  of  Grntius, 
Boaiuet,  Lonth,  ete.  Thiis  however,  was  not  effected 
witbont  a  severe  struggle.  In  which  Sanctins.  Dar- 
bom,  and  Colovlus  were  tbe  champions  of  the  aUrgori- 
cal  against  the  tjipical  Iheorr.  The  latter  seems  to 
have  been  mainly  identified  with  Grotius  (Pol.  -tjn.), 
and  was  Mlgmatiied  b}'  Calovlua  aa  tbe  hereby  of  The- 


»  CANTICLES 

odore  Uopiuestia,  condemned  at  the  second  WuDcQ  of 
Constintinople,  and  revived  by  the  Anabsptiste.  In 
the  IBth  century  tbe  alle^rical  theory  was  reaaaerted, 
and  reconstructed  by  PulfendoTr  (177C)  and  the  reoi^ 
tionaty  allegorists,  the  majority  of  whom,  however, 
witli  KosenmOller,  return  to  the  syaUm  of  the  Choldea 
Paraphrase. 

SoiDe  of  the  mors  remalkaUe  variations  of  the  alle- 
gorical school  are :  (a.)  The  extension  of  the  Chaldee 
allegory  to  the  Chriithin  Church,  ori_inally  projected 
by  Apouiue  {7th  century),  and  more  follv  wrought  oot 
by  De  Lyia  (1270-1340),  Brigbtman  (ItiOO),  and  Coc- 
ceiuB  (1603-1699).  According  te  De  Lyra,  chaps,  li- 
vii  deecTibe  the  history  of  the  Israelitee  fhim  the  exo- 
dus to  the  birth  of  Christ;  chap,  viiad  fin.  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Church  to  Constontlne.  Brigbbnan 
divides  tbe  Canticles  into  a  history  of  the  Ltgal  and  a 
history  of  tbe  EvangeHeal  Church  r  his  detail  is  highly 
eUtnraU ;  e.  g.  in  Cant,  v,  8,  he  discovers  an  alinsion 
te  Peter  Waldo  (1160),  and  In  verse  IS  to  Robert 
Trench  (I290|.  (A.)  Luther's  theory  limits  the  alle- 
gorical meaning  to  the  contemporancoos  history  of  tlie 
Jewish  people  Dnder  Solomon,  (c)  According  to 
Ghiaterins  and  Com,  a  Lapide,  tbe  bride  is  tbe  Virgin 
Hary.  (d.)  PuObndorf  refers  the  spiritual  sense  to 
the  circumstance  of  our  Saviour's  death  and  burial. 

B.  Tbe  Kural  interpirtatiou  seems  to  have  been  con- 
nected with  the  general  movement  ofHieodore  Uop- 
Buestia  (860-429)  and  hit  folbwers,  hi  oppoeitinn  to  the 
extravagances  of  the  early  Christian  allegorists.  Ita 
idteme  was  nuptial,  with  Pharaoh's  daughter  as  tbe 
bride.  That  It  was  by  many  regarded  aa  the  onl}~  ad- 
missilje  interpretation  appears  from  Tbeodoret,  who 
mentions  this  opinion  only  to  condemn  it  Borne 
duwn  and  overwhelmed  by  tbe  prollHc  genins  of  medi- 
eval allegory,  we  have  a  glimpse  of  it  In  Abulpbaro- 
Rius  (see  above),  and  in  tbe  US.  commentary  (BodL 
Oppeuh.  Coll.  Ko.  025),  cited  by  Mr.  GinsburR,  and  by 
him  referred  conjectnrally  to  a  French  Jew  of  the  Itth 
or  ISth  century.  This  commentary  anticipates  mora 
recent  criticism  by  interpreting  tbe  Son^  as  cdtbmting 
Ihe  JiunWe  (o«  nfa  tkrpkrrd  ond  Atpheriai.  The  ex- 
treme literal  view  was  propounded  hy  Casteliio  (IU4>, 
who  rejected  it  from  the  Canon.  Following  out  thla 
idea,  Whiston  (1728)  recognised  the  book  as  a  compo- 
sition of  Solomon,  but  denounced  It  u/aaluk.  JoKMk 
iam,  and  idolatmat.  Nearly  the  same  view  is  enter> 
talned  by  Dr.  Clarke  In  his  Ormntnlarj.  Meanwhile 
tbeiwpftaftlieoiy  was  adopted  liy  Grotius  as  the  literal 
basis  of  a  secondary  and  spiritnal  interpietaticm,  and, 
after  Its  dramatical  development  by  Boasuet,  long  con- 
tinued to  be  the  standard  scheme  of  the  mystical 
school.  Boesnet's  idea  of  this  poem  was  that  It  la  a 
regular  drama,  or  pastoral  eclogue,  consisting  of  sevna 
acta,esich  act  fillingaday,con  eluding  with  the  Sabbath, 
ina^raach  as  the  bridegroom  on  this  day  doea  not,  aa 
usual,  go  forth  to  bis  rural  employments,  bnt  pvcoed* 
tmm  the  marriage  chamber  into  public  with  Us  brida. 
The  following  are  Boasnat'a  divisions  of  the  (data : 

FIntdsT Cbap.l-ll,(. 

feeunddty "     ll,T-ll. 

Thliddsy .,,    "     liUv.i. 

Fourthday "     v,»-vl.». 

Flfthday "     vl,  iO-vil,  TI. 

MithdnT "    viLis-vUj,a. 

FabbnUi "     Till,*-!*. 

In  1803  this  scheme  was  reconstraeted  by  Good,  with 
a  Jewish  instead  of  an  Eg3-pCian  bride;  and  his  version 
is  still  the  meet  elegant.  For  the  most  ingenions  and 
completely  elaborated  form  In  which  this  theory  hat 
been  developed,  see  the  new  translation  In  scenic  form 
by  Taylor  in  his  edition  of  Calmet's  Diet. ;  also  more 
lately  b}'  Homer  in  the  Melho^il  Quart.  lUriev,  July, 
1862.     See  Theatbicai.  REPRKaEItTATlONa. 

The  partly  Utml  theory,  opposed  on  tin  pno  hand 
to  the  allegorical  interpretation,  and  on  the  other  to 
Casteliio  and  Whlston,  owes  its  ori^  to  Germany. 
Michtellt  (ITTO)  regarded  the  Song  ai  '    * 


CANTICLES  9, 

»^'ti  Cjmt,  MUMMt  and  Ik^ifg.  Bat,  wbUt  jnitir^-  I 
'ag  h>  >dni»iini  into  tbe  Cmmh,  be  \t  betnjed  into  > 
Imtjr  of  mutrk  altogiittMr  locontistent  with  the  *up- 
paotkiB  tb*t  tbe  book  ii  iiupind  (Not.  ad  Loitik, 
PrmL).  FivDi  thb  time  tbe  uboUiihip  of  Gennan}' 
wMniUDl*anliatsduii  tbaiideDrtbelllenllM.  The 
Ijtonl  htMiB  becvne  Ihonnghly  diBHiciated  from  the 
■tjitical  lapenitntcturr,  uid  M  tbut  remained  Co  ba 
looa  wu  to  elucidate  the  true  icheme  of  the  former. 
Tbe  most  gcnenUy  received  iDterpretilion  of  tlie  mod- 
em li(enli>t>  is  that  which  wa*  originally  propoeed  by 
Jacobi  (ITTIX  adopted  bir  Herder,  Ammon,  Umbreit, 
Evald,  f  Ic.,  and  more  recently  by  Pn>r.  Meier  of  TO- 
Ungm  (IHM),  and  In  England  by  Mr.  GiiubaT)(.  in  bis 
learned  tranaUtioo  (I8fi7).  According  to  the  de- 
tailed  application  of  this  view  oa  given  bj'  Mr.  Gin»- 
bnr^  the  Song  la  inteoded  to  display  lie  vidory  of 
krmtie  and  fautoKl  lopt  orer  tite  itmpiaioiu  of  vaillk 
ami  rvyaitf.  Tbe  tempter  1>  Solomon ;  the  object  of 
hii  aadactivB  endeavora  is  a  Shulamite  ehepherdeaa, 
wko,  anrTDonded  by  (he  glotiea  of  the  conrt  and  the 
badnatkms  of  nnwonted  ■pleador,  pine*  for  tho  shep- 
bBd-lorer  ftom  whom  ahe  has  been  inToInntaiily  sep- 
arated. In  this  scheme  the  drama  is  divided  Into  Are 
••ctioiu,  iodloted  by  the  thrice-repeated  formula  of 
ad}antion  ^,7;  ili,(>i  tUi,  4),  and  the  oeo  Of  another 
da«iiigaeiil«H»(v,l). 

(~  4u^len  of  Jennleiii"'     — 

~>:  the  plwbherdea«  eaptaLu  to  the 

of  her  brotheis,  whleh  bad  led  to  tbe 

!B  bamlfud  her  belored. 


•fOI  attempt  lo  1 


t  iHt,  S-v.  1) ;  enlrjr  of  Uw  n«I 

'  '"        *  U  betmUied  hila  tbe  cliy,  and -prnpih 


B  abepherd  Mkm  bl 


■  ai  Hog,  lUaer,  Roaenmliller, 
Hatw,  and  Hengstenberg.  On  the  whole,  thur  tend- 
ncy  is  In  retnni  to  tbe  Cbaldm  paraphrase,  a  tend- 
rory  which  is  specially  ourked  In  Roaenmfiller.  In 
Kokand  the  Imttle  of  tbe  llteraliits  has  been  fonght 
bv  nr.  Pye  Smith  {Omgrtg.  Mag.  for  1887,  S8);  in 
America  IiT  Pror.Nnre*,  who  adopts  the  rxtrrme  erotic 
theory,  and  ia  unwillin«  to  rocognlso  in  Canticles  any 
moral  or  rrBgioHt  do-gn.  It  sbould  l>e  obaerred  that 
tub  a  (rntiinent  as  this  of  Dr.  Moyei  Is  atteriy  alien 
tatbe  views  of  Jacobi  and  his  followera,  who  CODCeire 
tbe  recommend:! tlnn  of  vlrtoous  lore  and  coastancy  to 
be  a  pertion  of  the  very  bighett  moral  Eeacbtng,  and 
In  noway  unworthy  of  an  inajrired  writer. 

Tk  ailriinrlcBl  inlrrptetetion  has  been  defended  in 
Americ*  by  Prnfennr*  Stuart  and  Barmwes.  The  in- 
fci'auf  argumrnts  adduced  by  the  allt^orista  are  sub- 
itaotiatlT  the  ajime  with  thoas  urired  by  CsloviuB 
Bcain^  tbe  literal  liasia  of  the  myTtlcal  interpretation. 
Tbe  follawtnic  are  ■prcimcns :  (o.)  Particulara  not  ap- 
ptip^Je  to  .Solomon  (v,  T).  (i.)  Particulars  not  ap- 
idkable  t»  tbe  wife  of  Solomon  (i,  S,  B;  v,7;  yii,  1, 
cemti.  L  6).  (r.)  Rolomon  addreiwd  In  the  second  per- 
um  (riii.  IS),  (i)  Particulars  inconsistent  with  the 
w^fattTT  CKndilkma  of  decent  lore  (v,  £).  (r.)  Date 
twenty  years  iftef  Solomon's  marriage  wltb  Pharaoh's 
imglit^r  (comp.  Cant.  Iv,  4,  end  I  Eingi  vl,  B»).  It 
w3l  nsdily  be  ohserred  that  tbese  argnmrnts  do  not 
taany  way  affect  the  literal  theory  of  JacoM. 

Tor  ertrrmd  argnmentt  tbe  illeitDrlMa  depend  prin- 
^■117  DpoD  JntiA  traditiiM  aid  One  imalogg  tf  Orittt. 


i  CANTICLES 

la/  poetrg.  The  value  of  the  former,  aa  respects  a 
composition  of  (he  10th  century  B.C.,  Is  estlmited  by 
Hichselis  (A'aC.  ad  LowlA)  at  a  very  low  rate.  For 
the  litter,  it  is  usual  te  refer  to  rach  authors  aa  Cbir- 
dln,  Sir  W.  Jonea,  D'Herbelol,  ete.  (see  Boeenm.  Ami- 
nod.).  Roeennnller  gives  a  song  of  Hath,  wi^  a 
paraphrBM  by  a  Turkish  commentator,  which  unfolds 
the  spiritual  meaning.  For  other  specimens  of  tbe 
same  kind,  see  Lane's  Egyptiau,  ii,  216  sq.  On  tho 
other  hand,  the  objectjana  taken  by  Dr.  Xoyea  are  very 
important  (A'na  TVmuf.).  It  would  seem  that  there 
ia  one  essential  dHTerence  between  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon and  the  allegorical  compositions  of  the  poeta  in 
question.  In  the  latter  tbe  allegory  Is  more  or  leas 
Bvowed,  and  distinct  reference  is  made  to  the  Ruprtme 
Being;  in  the  former  tbera  is  nothing  of  Ihe  kind. 
Bat  the  most  Important  consideration  adduced  by  the 
llterallets  Is  the  fact  thU  the  Canticlea  are  the  produc- 
tion of  a  different  couDtry,  and  separated  from  the 
songi  of  tbe  SnSs  and  tbe  Hindoo  mjsdcs  by  an  in- 
terval of  nearly  2000  years.  To  this  it  may  be  add- 
ed that  the  Song  of  Solomon  springs  out  of  a  religion 
which  bas  nothing  in  common  with  the  pantheism  of 
Persia  and  India.  In  short,  the  conditions  of  produc- 
tion in  the  two  cases  are  utterly  dissimlbir.  But  tbe 
literalista  are  not  content  with  destroying  this  analo- 
gy; tbey  proceed  farther  to  maintain  that  allegories 
do  not  generally  occur  in  the  sacred  writings  withont 
some  intimation  of  their  eecondar}'  meuning,  which 
intimation  in  the  case  of  the  CjnticleB  is  not  forthcom- 
ing. They  argue,  from  tbe  total  silence  of  oar  Lord 
and  his  apostles  respecting  this  book,  nut  indeed  that 
It  ia  nninapired,  but  that  it  was  never  intended  to  bear 
within  ita  poetic  envelope  that  myatical  sense  which 
would  have  rendered  it  a  perfect  treasury  of  referenes 
for  Paul  when  unfolding  tbe  spiritual  relation  between 
Christ  and  his  Church  (see  2  Cor.  xl,  2;  Fom.  vii,  *; 
Eph.  V,  28-82).  Again,  it  ia  urged  that  If  this  poem 
Ifa  allegorlcally  spiritual,  then  its  spiritualism  is  of 
the  very  higbeat  order,  and  utterly  inconsistent  with 
the  <^nion  which  assigns  it  to  Solomon.  The  philos- 
ophy of  Solomon,  aa  given  in  Ecclesiastes,  is  a  philos- 
ophy of  indifference,  apparently  suggested  by  the  BX- 
haustlon  of  all  sonrees  iit  physical  enjoyment.  The 
religion  of  Solomon  had  but  little  practical  Inflneuce 
on  his  life;  if  he  wrote  the  glowing  ppiritualism  of  the 
Canticles  when  a  young  man,  how  can  we  account  tor 
his  fearful  degeneracy?  If  the  poem  was  the  produc- 
tion  of  bis  old  age,  bow  can  we  reconcile  it  with  the 
last  (iict  recorded  of  him,  that  "  his  heart  was  not  per- 
fect with  tbe  Lord  hla  God?"  For  the  seme  reason  it 
ia  maintained  that  no  other  writer  would  have  aelected 
Solomon  as  a  symliol  of  the  Meprisb.  The  excessive- 
ly amative  character  of  some  passages  is  designated  as 
almost  blasphemous  when  supposed  lo  L  e  addressed  by 
Christ  to  his  Cburcb  (vU,  2,  S.  7,  9) ;  and  the  fact  that 
the  dramatis  persouts  are  tbree  is  regarded  as  decided- 
ly enbveralve  of  the  allegorical  theory. 

The  strongest  sr).-unient  on  the  side  of  the  allegoT- 
ista  is  the  matrimonial  metaphor  so  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  Scriptures  to  describe  the  relation  be- 
tween Jehovah  and  Israel  (Eiod.  Kiiiv,16,16:  Num. 
IV,  89 ;  Psa.  liiiii,  27 ;  Jer.  ill,  1-11 ;  Eiek.  :iTi,  xxiU, 
etc.).  It  Is  fully  stated  by  Prof.  Stuart  (O.  T.Omim). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  literalista  deny  so  early  a  nae 
of  tbe  metaphor.  They  contend  that  the  phrases  de- 
scribing epiritnal  fornication  and  adulteri-  represent 
the  literal  fkct;  and  that  even  tbe  metaphor,  as  u^ed 
by  tbe  prophete  who  lived  after  Soli  mon,  implies  a 
wedded  relation,  and  therefore  cannot  be  compared 
with  tbe  ante-nuptial  affection  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  Canticles.— Smith,  Dvt  r/BihU,  s.  v. 

On  the  H  hole,  a  combination  of  tbe  moderately  lit- 
eral inti  rpre'alion  with  tho  i.-en(nl  allegorical  idea 
seems  to  lie  tlie  tnie  one,  by  which,  under  Ibe  figure 
of  chaste  conjugal  lore  (prohebTy  that  of  Solomon  and 
tbe  Egyptian  princess),  set  forth  in  Oriental  ttjie  and 


CANTICLES 


96 


CANTICLES 


•ranotli  [im  HabRIAOb],  (he  nnioii  of  Jehovah  iiid  <  Cioatlclim  or  Dvar-wraoBbt  eathiuUnii,  than  of  (miBd 
h<a  Charch  ta  r«prewnt»d  after  the  analogy  of  ■  pin- I  devadDD  or  aobar  IntaqirxtatiDn.  See  Ai.I.boobt. 
ble  (q.  v.).  All  Bttampts,  howenr,  hitherto  maile  to  I  Taking,  Iberefora,  the  KrouDd  6gan  of  connabiBl  u 
cany  the  axplanation  into  detail,  eapeciall;  in  the  up- !  Epical  of  dlrlne  union  tD  be  inUnded  to  lie  repnamt- 
pUcatlon  of  the  luigBage  to  (he  phenomena  of  Indirid-  I  ed  In  this  gBmeral  eipnulon  onlj  by  thia  uniqoe  ipec- 
uil  rell^ons  experience,  have  l>een  eignal  failnra,  ioMin  of  aeni  phanCaimagorU,  we  majr  tentiire  to  n^ 
baring  bean,  Indeed,  ralfaer  the  oOkpring  of  ■  eantnoua  1  range  it  dnmalkallf  tomewhat  aa  toUom : 


Tta.. 

PllH. 

e,m^ 

■•UHI. 

p»(.- 

1.  Mnni. 

AudluiMi-nom  etfUe*. 

Tk.  nlnmu  to  Ih.  liiuini  home. 

1,2-S. 

Kre. 

TIM  flnt  Intenlew. 

i,ft-ii,&      ; 

LHofD. 

u,T-n.       1 

PrlTiU  chmnibm. 

The«areb,lnfiu,cT. 

111,1-4. 

S.Uan. 

ITmnlDrpalase. 

Bildr,(n»in,aiidladl<» 

TTw  return  from  pirade. 

fll,»-ll.       1 

t>e. 

PidaoeEi^K. 

Bride  udEid^ 

i*,l-T,l.            1 

4.  Mom. 

The  dreuD.     '""     "" 

Y,  i-v[,  8.       , 

Em. 

Bride,  (reom,  and  vWlon. 

Ti,  4-ta.       ; 

S.  Hsm. 

Prime  dumber. 

BrileandMleu 

ThelrfleMe,     "^   '' 

»ii,i-»- 

Brt. 

Tbe  mntuil  annL 

Tt^O-rtlUB.' 

a.  Hon. 

Public  aparUiwal. 

Bride,  gro^t^-ltoeneL 

Thee^wMiJ. 

.IIU*-I.         1 

'^!.':_ 

Private  .p^tmsiil. 

Brid^  grooo,  and  broUmn. 

Ths  dowry. 

Tiii.ft-14.     ; 

tV.  CafUM  a(y.— It  haa  alraadj  been  obierved  that 
the  book  waa  rejected  ^m  the  Canon  by  CaatelKo  and 
WhlMoo,  bat  in  no  caie  hu  its  rejection  been  defended 
on  extermd  ground*.  It  la  found  in  the  Sept.,  and  In 
tbe  tnuulationt  of  Aqaila,  Symmuchua,  and  Theodo- 
Uan.  It  la  contained  In  tbe  catalogae  given  In  tbe 
Talmud,  and  In  the  cataloKae  of  Mellto ;  and,  in  abort, 
we  liaTa  the  aama  evidence  for  Ita  canonlclty  aa  that 
wblch  la  comnionly  adduced  for  the  cauonicity  of  any 
boolcoftheO.T. 

V.  Commaaariit.—Tht  following  are  the  ezegetica] 
worka  ezpreaaly  on  the  whole  of  Ihia  book,  a  few  of 
the  most  Important  being  indicated  bv  an  aatadak  (*) 
prefixed :  Orb[en,  llimUia,  etc.  (in  0pp.  iU,  12,  !8,  94) ; 
Thaophilna,  FfOgau^taHaGnWi  S/ncilfs  um,  II,  iSH); 
F.uHbius,  Efoitio  [Gr.  and  Ltt.]  (in  Heuraii  Opera, 
Till,  I2J)j  Pulycbroniua  and  PmIIui,  Etpoi'tioint  (ed. 
Heuraiua,  Lugd.  1617,  4to)i  Athanuiua,  HomUia  (in 
0pp.  ili,  37)  i  «l*o  FragmeMa  (ib.  I,  ii,  1006) ;  •Grogo- 
rySvnen.,t;iplaKitia(iaOjip.i,Ae»i  alao  0tU.  Pair. 
Gall.'  ri,  64S);  Ambrme,  Cammenlariui  (in  0pp.  I, 
lUe);  Epiphanlna,  Cotimenlariit  (ed.  Fo^tginl,  Kom. 
1750,  *Ui)i  Philo  Carpalhina,  InUrprttatio  (Let.  in 
Biht.  Mae.  Pair,  v,  661  i  Gr.  and  Lu.  in  BOI.  Far. 
GiII.  ia,  T13 :  also  E^virrativ,  ad.  Gr.  and  Lat.  Olaco- 
mall,  Kom.  1772,  4to);  Theodoret,  ErjAmiH}  (Rom. 
lota,  foLi  Ven.  1574,  Ito :  alao  in  0pp.  II,  i;  tr.  in 
"  V<^  of  the  Church")j  Caaaiodoruii,  ExpoiMo  (in 
0^.  li,  479);  Gregory  the  Great,  Eijrmtio  (in  Oj^. 
Ill,  U,  397);  Jaatna  Or^aliUnDi,  Expticado  (in  ItM. 
Mac.Patr.ix,'13l):  Isidore,  £ip«i(«i  (in  C)pp.  p.  SOS); 
Apponiua,  Sijunlin  (in  Btbl.  Max.  Patr.  x\v,  98) ;  Lu- 
cas, Suinmiriola  (in  BiU.  Mai.  Patr.  liv,  128)  ;  Udal- 
ricua,  Sckotia  (!b.);  Bede,  Kxpadlio  (In  Of^.  iv,  714; 
alao  tVorki  by  Gilea,  ix,  1S6) ;  Alculn,  Compmiiam  (in 
0pp.  I.  il,  391);  Angetomanus,  Enirrationa  (in  Kbl. 
Mm.  Fair,  xv);  Bruno  Aalenaia,  Caatica  (In  0pp.  i); 
Anaelm,  E<tarraAn>rt  (In  Opp.  ed.  Heard);  Rupertua 
Tultienala,  OmmaUaria  (in  Opp.  I,  086) ;  Bernard,  Ser- 
moiui(inC^.  I,  ii,2619;  alao  f(.  1 1,  i,  655) ;  Irimper- 
tui,  ConnKaMrw (Pel,  riwiur.  11,1,  369);  Aqninaa. 
Coouaealaniu  (in  Opp.  i):  Honorina  Anguatodunenal*, 
rnmnmlariiu  (in  Opp. ;  alao  BJil.  Pair.  Max.  si.  96,1) ; 
Jarcbi's  aonolatiani  [lieb.]  (in  Buxtnrf'a  Rabbinical 
Bible,  q.  v.);  Raahl'ai:illB(iDlheI{abtrinical  Bibles; 
alaewith  Lat  tr. by  Gcnebrard,  Par  1S7l)andl.'>85,Svoi 
with  nolea  by  Brclthiupt,  Gotha,  1714,  4to ;  in  Jcwiiih- 
German  by  Breich,  Cremona,  1560,  fol.,  and  aince); 
R,  S.  ben.Meir  (Kaabbam),  ti^llB  (first  pubUahcd 
Lpi.  1865,  evo)  i  •Aben-Eira,  ClIB  (in  Frankfurter's 
Rab'ilnical  Bible;  In  1^1.  by  Rertehrard,  Paria,  15TII 
and  1S58,  8Tn);  AUcheich,  B-'i:«3n  rj3''d  (Ven. 
1591  and  1606,  4to,  and  sine;) ;  Nachmanl  (or  rathvr 
Aaariel,  A.D.  cir.  1200),  rjina  [Cabalistic]  (Altona, 
1764,  4tO;  indading  comni^nta  by  Ibn-Tamar,  Joban- 


nlib.l85T,  Svo);  Aram*,  tintl  (in  the  AmaL  Rabb. 
,  which  llkewiae  contains  the  three  foUowing); 
De  Banolei,  ti^^D  (R.  de  Trvnto,  1560,  4to);  Joa. 
benJachja,  Xil^V  (Bologna,  1688,  fol.);  la.  Jaabei, 
D-'bibrr  uhp  (Belvldere,  n.  d.  fol.) ;  tlolkot,  JVoto 
,  1[>09,  fol.) ;  Nic.  de  Argentina,  Eip^iitiamu 
(Pet,  Bibl.  Aim.  xl,  xli);  Thomaa  Vercellensis,  Cam- 
mailariiu  (Pei,  rAeiRar.  il,  50S) ;  Perei,  Expontio  (in 
Eip.  Fmlm,') ;  Radulphoa  Pontanetlenala,  Commentaria 
[Hommev,  Svppl.  p.  276);  Gerson,  Trartalui  (in  Opp. 
iv,  27);  'Luther.  A'narTiKio  (Vitemb.  1538,  1539,  8vo; 
alao  In  Opp.  Utin  ed.  Vit.  iv,  49;  ed.  Jen.  Iv,  S26; 
"  L.  ed.  Lips,  vii,  1;  ed.  Hal.  v,  23361;  Zwingic, 
,  lanatiii  (in  0^.  Ui) ;  Uarlorataa,  £.r7>3ial>D  (in 
lit.  Plain,  etc.):  Beia.  Sermoiu  (tr.  by  Harmar,  Oxf. 
1537,  4to);  Hall,  Parapkrait  (in  Wortt,  i,  245,  ete.t^ 
Theresa,  £rpfi(»(«iiu  (in  (KuBTU,  p.  329);  Jansen,  ^i:. 
thiat'oari  (in  Pnim,  etc.);  Blaldonatua,  in  Ca-U.  (in 
Conmenbirn,  p.  166);  Hercer,  Commetitara  (In  Jataa, 
itc.)i  Wilcock*,  F.xpimiiim  (in  Wnrkt);  k  Upido,  m 
CaiU.  (in  CommtiUarv) ;  Homes,  CommeM.  (in  Workt) ; 
Castell,  Amataliama  (in  Walton'a  FatsylMI,  vi) ;  Tegt- 
lath,  Erpaiilia  (Von.  1510,  fill,);  Ilalgrin,  F-yuUia 
(Par.  1521,  fol.);  Gaidaeer,  ComTtaUariiu  (I^r.  1631, 
"  >);  Arboreua,  Commaitanai  (Paris,  1637  and  1563, 
.);  Titalminn,  CammnHarii  (Antw.  1547,  Svo,  and 
sr) ;  Alkabex,  B''3n(«  n!)*!(  (Vcn.  1562, 4lo) ;  Nan- 
la,  Scholia  (Lon.  1564,  4Id)  i  Ab.  ben.Iaaak  (Tamah), 
dl*>B  (with  othcn,  Sabionetta,  1558,  ]2mo;  Prjgno, 
I,  Ito) ;  Strlgel,  Stholia  (LipL  15C5,  8ro) ;  Almas- 
nine,  ni^a -^Ti  (Saloniea,  1573;  Ven.  1597,  4to);  Hei^ 
cer,  CoMMflitannj  (Gen.  1573 ;  L.  B.  1651,  fol.) ;  Ibn- 
Jaiach,  '^[AIS  n'lp^  (Constant  1576,  fol.);  Genebraid, 
Obtrvatioma  (Par.  1579,  4to  ;  also  hie  Parapltraia,  ib. 
1536,  8va);  Arepol,  vi^  ll^  (SaTet,  1579,  4la;  also 
in  iSflTSd  n?a!(,  Ven.  1593);  Saadiaa,  C'HB  (tnm 
the  Arab,  with  othen  on  the  same  book,  Constpl.  n.  d. 
4la;  llrat  separately,  Prague,  1608,  4to,  etc.);  Brocar- 
dua,  laltrprtlatio  (L  B.  1680,  8vo);  Gania,  Eiputllia 
(Com pi ut  1581,  fol.,  and  later);  Da  la  Huerga,  Cnk 
inni(anKi(Camp1iit  1682,  fol.);  Ddmianas,  Conmflitu- 
n'lU  (Venice,  1535,  4to)  ;  Almondrioa,  Cammattarim 
(Complut.  1588.  4to);  Blackncy,  Cimmntiriiu  (Ven. 
liSSt,  4to);  Roaseti,  ConnnMoruu  (Ven.  1594,  4ta): 
.lanson.  Cammmtariiu  (Land.  1596,  1604  ;  IngoUtadt, 
1605.  8to);  GyfTiird,  Sfrmona  (Lond.  1698,  8vo);  Bni- 
cioli'a  commeatar;-  (in  Italian,  Ven.  1598,  8vd);  Sato- 
major,  InlrrprtlatiB  (Olyssip.  1639,  Paris.  1605,  fol. ; 
also  A'ofa,  ib.  1611,  4to);  Je»u  Maria,  JultrprrliilJe 
(Rom.  1601,  8rn,  and  later);  De  Pinala,  PrtlreiiB 
(Hisp.  1602,  4to);  CUpham,  ErpnUim  (i^nd.  1608, 
Hvd);  Del  Rio,  r^nieit(artiu(lngolst.  1601,  fol.;  Par, 
ICn7,  I.ugd.  1611,  4tn);  I/)ana,  D-nit  rii  [Cahelia- 
tii:]  (Baael,  1606,  1612,  4to) ;   Tncclua,  AdKCtaliaia 


CANTICLES 


97 


CANTICLES 


iLogd.  ime,  4to);  Jun«,  Expomtio  (Oxt.  1607.  4t(i); 
BlMur  iKD^elnuU  (GuidEh),  n^"!!  ;■•••  [CabalU- 
tic]  (Cncow.  IWS,  4to);  Veranlnt,  PkihiiEia  (Frih. 
14U0,  4Ui) ;  Chiller,  laterfrrlatio  (Rom.  1G09,  fol.,  and 
later))  Hu,  m^^Wir-iCPn^e,  IMS,  tut.);  Scblrt- 
km'ia»DiDeiitu7[Ji!wiBb-GanTi.](Pn«a«,1613,4Eo); 
Suctiiu,  Ommalaritu  (Lngd.  161S,  4ta) ;  Nigldiua, 
EzpotiHo  (Rom.  161S,  Yen.  1617,  4ta) ;  Fcmriiu,  Con- 
-1— — 'fT  (Lujd.  1616,  Mediul.  1GS6,  Ito)  ;  Laliado, 
t;03in  ri^J  [Spaniih]  (Veaic«,  1619,  4tD) ;  Argsll, 
C^^^ailari^' (hoDd.  16iU  4ta) ;  Gebhard  or  WsHner, 
BtpBeallo  (16S4,  4to) ;  CuitacD»uai,  EirpaiUio  (Rom. 
1624,  fill.);  Cathinn,  Pan^Anuit  (Antv.  16S6,  Sro); 
Aiiuwarth,^ia»MMu(Loiid.lC27,  ffll. ;  alto  in  Ger- 
BUi,  F.  ad  0. 1G»2,  Beri.  ITSa,  8vo) ;  Malder,  Commtn- 
tarin  (Adtw.  1618,  Syo);  Peregrine,  .<;^cattD  (Antw. 
K81,8vd);  DooM,Cwiiilfl«<wy(Lond.l631,8vo)i  Ca- 
loa,  Tradumon  (Hamb.  1631,  4CO)  i  *Gerhsid,  Ertla- 
r^(Jcn.l6Bl,LuUl»4,  Lpi.  165!,  lCGG,4to);  Sber- 
lifC,  CiimmeMariu  (Lngd.  1633-40,  3  vol«.  fiiL);  Dur- 
Ud,/Mn7>rr{aM(Rint.[633,evo;  1643,  4 to)  i  Folioth, 
fT-r"'-  (Undon,  1638,  Ito);  Hellpioii,  V^X  TZnit 
(Labi.  1699,  fol.) ;  SibbB,  Stnmu  (London,  1S39, 1641, 
«o  ;  abo  in  Worh,  iU,  1)  ;  Pctranii,  Parapliraiii 
(Hafta.  1640,  4u);  Anriu.  VeSOUiimtf  (Medial.  I64D, 
4ta);  SibeI,(7«iiwii«inH((Dav«at.l611,4to)i  Plntnt, 
Cumaiemlaritu  (Lugd.  1642,  fol.)  ;  De  3iilaiir,  Erpoa- 
lioma  (Lngd.  1641,  fal.);  Colton.  £ipotitiim  (London, 
1642,  Svo)  ;  Briglitman,  Cammnlaty  (Land.  [hIki  in 
Lat.  Bull.]  1644,  4to);  Desson,  LaciJiralionfi  (Lugd. 
1646,  (bL);  D«  Ponte,  IJipotHio  (Paris,  1646,  g  toU. 
toL);  Trap.  CowanCnt;  (Load.  1650,  4to}:  Roboth- 
*Mi.  £ipanAoa  (Lnnd.  1652,  4to);  Fmnond,  Comrrm- 
Liria  (Uvan.  1652,  1657,  4U.);  De  Raia.,  Commnla- 
rw  (Gen.  16M,  fol.  vol.  <);  De  la  Place,  EzpofiHon 
(SBDTn.I6a6,8To;  in  Lat.  Franek.  1^9, 1T0&,!  vols.) ; 
GBiU,  KsftiralM  (Lond.  1658,  8vo);  Koeper,  f^tdig- 
m  (Jen.  1662,  4to) ;  Hammond,  Pamfhrtut  (London, 
16e,  8to):  Udeman'a  expoHtion  (in  Dntcb,  Amst. 
1666 ;  in  Cerm.  Lunenb.  1687,  8vo)  j  "Tyrham,  CLvu 
(Eilinh.  1668;  London,  1669;  in  Dutch, Utr.  1681;  In 
(;«m.  Lpz.  1696,  4to);  Durham,  J^JTHuifion  (London, 
1668,  4to:  Edinb.  1734,  4lu;  Aberdeen,  1840,  12mo, 
etc.);  Grunewegcn'i  comntcnUrr  (in  Dutch,  Delv. 
1670;  in  Gcmi.  Frrft.  1711,  4lo);  CollinKes,  Strmmt 
(London,  1676.83,  2  vols,  4[o);  I>«  Salsa,  Ex^icilion 
(In  <Z.'«nv(,  jtiT)  ;  "De  Veil.  fJxpLealio  (Land.  1679, 
Kto):  DUbMT,  .4i/iH«(ilwM(Vrati>l.ie80,  8va):  Sen- 
Biat,  AobF  (Titemb.  1681,  I68C,  4to);  FranMkSerrano, 
£11~n  (Amat.  1688,  Std);  Guion'a  commentary  (in 
Fnnch,  Uyd.  1C88,  8to  ;  In  Gorm.  Fref.  170C,  15mo) ; 
Schlitten,  CtminailariiAt  (Lip).  1688,  4ta);  Auralu 
fjfoiMem  (Losd.  1689,  1698,  8vd);  BountalDne,  £ 
pmlum  (Paria,ie89,  ISmo);  Heoniscb,  Ommniar: 
(IJpa.  1689,  4to);  Lydios,  VtrHaar.  (Amat,  1690  ai 
1719,  8to)  ;  Anonymona,  Eiplkatiim  (Pari),  1600, 
8to);  Bountt,  A'sAr  (Parb>,]693,  8voi  also  In  (Em 
Kii,  31)1}:  Gscbwend,  Ar<M(>  (Jen.  1699,  Sro);  Mar 
CimMfiUarim  (ArntL  1703,  4to};  Hamon,  Erplir-at 
(Par.  1708,  4  volt.  ISmo);  Anoavmooa,  .'■'piriliirJ  SoKgi 
(inth  ed.  London,  1708,  Bvo) ;  Adam,  ErUanmg  (Lpi, 
1700,  4to)i  SMbach,  grUirviy  (Leipi!).'',  1710,  8vo); 
Anonymona,  EflaOio  (Paria,  1717,  ]2mo)  i  Hellcn- 
bfwk.  Vrrttaar.  (Amst.  1718,  17m,  2  voir.  4(o):  Mi- 
fbcUa,  AJa^tatiimn  (Hal.  1720,  Ato) ;  Anon,  (after 
Scnmann),  ErUdnag  (Ilrealiu,  I7!0,  8vo);  Wacter, 
A^KTimmgni  (Hemm.  1712,  4to) ;  HHl,  Cim-m,  nvfhn-- 
■•w.rtc.(Ultra].172S,4ln>;  KeTT.P^nipArafit  (Edinb. 
1:T7.  12nio;  also  in  Prel.  SrtH.  1);  Stennrt,  IVntinn 
CnWorb.irfi  Gill,  £i;Mtf.«  (Land.  1728,  fol.);  Pe. 
tanpn.  ErVamg  (Bod.  1728.  Bro) ;  Woken,  CimmfOr 
taft  (Vit™b.  1729,  4[n) ;  Ternn,  K'tw.  d.  Wn*.  (Lp«. 
im.  8*0}  i  Reinbard,  CamnifnlarJu  (Umg.  1 74»,  8  vo) ; 
UoH  ban-Rilld,  O^an  r^>i;  (Z<ilk.  1745,  8vo)i 
EnkiM,  Pantpiram  (in  Warh.  z,  800,  &&0);  Bland, 


Venim  (London,  1750.  8vo);  An<>nymon^  Erkldnmg 
(Barl.I761,4Io);  Scbfllier,  l/m/chrriiia-ffiAagtb.llbi, 
Bvo);  Anon,  ErUarmg  (Lpi,  1756,  ii,7,  1788,  8vn): 
Anonymoua,  Paraplirat*  (Halle,  1756,  8vo);  Hans- 
•en,  httraclUimgrn  (Hamb.  1756,  4to) ;  Scmler,  VarM- 
fia>;n>(U*1.17a7,8va)i  Wilhelini,^ft>n<'rJ:tia^ni  (Lpi. 
1764,  flvo);  Bp.Perey.  Connntnry  (Load.  1764,  )<v»}: 
Harmar,  OtOtaut  (Lond.  1768. 8vo);  •Jarobi,  BAlarmg 
(Calle,  1771,  8to)  ;  Anton,  Eminmg  (Lpi.  1778,  8vo: 
-'-oArD(oi,Viteb,  and  Lipe.  1708, 1800, 8vo);  Van  Koo- 
I,  Obtmatiovt  (Tr.  ad  Kh.  1774,  4to);  NeunbOfer, 
mrrhmgni  (Brern.  and  I.pi,  1776,  Bvo) ;  Mr*.  Bowd- 
ler,  CMiwoUaJj  (Edinb.  1776,  Bvo);  Green,  A'aUt  (in 
Porti  afO.  r.)  ;  LDdenrald,  ErMrmg  (IVolfenbollel. 
1776,  8vo);  Von  PufendorT,  AnUann;  (Brem.  1776, 
4to)  ;  Heiel,  Erklatmg  (Lpi.  and  Bre«l.  1777,  8vo> : 
Zinck,  CanmaKnri'iu  (Au}!ab.  1778,  41a);  Leaaing,  /n- 
Itrpntatio  (Lipa.  1779,  8vo)  ;  Harder,  Inltrprrtalio 
(Lipa.  1779,  Sro;  alao  In  H'nif,  iil,  8tutt«.  1851). 
Hufoaget, t/ekr'a  H.  L.  (in  Eicbhora'a  BeprrUrrimi.  pi. 
vil-xi,  Upa.  1780.-!;  also  Erlauttnmg,  Erlang.  17B4, 
Bvo)  I  Kleuker,  Samtnbaiff  (Kamm.  1780,  8to)  ;  Fran- 
cis, yolet  (Lond.  1781,  4to};  Komaine,  Diteomei  (in 
Wonb.v,!};  Jonee, /nji/iiy  (in  ITrmb.  ili,  351);  Skin- 
nar,i'noy(in  tTorij.li);  Schipi,  Aniurlni«gtu(_Aaffh. 
1782,  Bvo);  Ropert.  Obirrraliimti  (in  fginlBla,  I,  i,  li, 
Gott.  1782, 1791);  D6derlein,  f f irne/iunj  (Nornlinrf-, 
1784, 179!,  Bvo);  Hodgson,  rmmfarinn  (Lond.  I'I'S, 
4tB);  Panlus,  Uehtr;  II.  I..  (In  Eichbom'a  Prfrri. 
xvli,  1785);  Veltbnsen,  Colna  (Helmst.  17»S,  Svn; 
alui  5ctir«((mAinde/,  BraDDachw.l7('6,  Bvo;  also  Anr- 
ri^,  ib.  eod,  Bvo);  Anonvnoua,  lernDiM  (Flnr.  1786, 
8*o):  Lederer,  .Si'n^ipHf  (Burgb.  1787,  Pvo);  l.oone, 
aB«nKniani(TnTln,  1787,8ro};  *Mendels(ohn, DSC^n, 
etc.  (wilt)  other  commentators,  Berl.  Kt^B;  Prague, 
1803,  8to;  with  Germ,  text,  Brannscbw.  1780,  Svo); 
Anonymona,  ErUdnrng  (Hamb.  1788.  Kvo) ;  I-indc 
mann,  ErUarvag  (in  Keil,  AnaleHin,  III,  i,  l-SO); 
AnoaynioDa,.4nnrrihaijni (Basel,  1789, Svi>);  Ammon, 
Ufbeigedichl  (Lpa.  1790,  8vo) ;  Gallcho,  C?^B  (Legb. 
1790,  4ta);  Ubowltier,  Q3RM  rV«9  (Koni.  1791, 
Svo);  Beyer,  j4 lanenhMyni  (Uarb.  1792,  Svo);  Stlud- 
lln,  Idgllai,  etc.  (in  Paulni,  MemonAiHnt.  ii,  Jena. 
1792);  Gaab,  ErilUnoiff  (TOhingen,  1796,  Bvo)  ;  Bin, 
Tins  n';-^  (Grodno,  1797,  4lo)i  Schytb,  Commfi^a- 
nut  (Havn.  1797,  Svo);  Briegloh,  Erldiummg  (Amst. 
179B,  Bvo);  Joeei*  ben-Abrabam  l''Vn  IJCrB  (Grod- 
no, 1798,  Bvo)  ;  Aanlal,  ^isdlt  hn  (in  "li'tt  FTI-PI, 
L^h.  1800,  fol.);  .Williams,  Commttt/ary  (Lond.  i'bOI, 
1828,  Bvo);  "Good,  A'ofr»(Lond.l80S.8vo);AnonTmou., 
/Jtballeder  (in  Joam.  far  Kail,.  r*e  J.  I,  ii.  Erf.  and 
Lpi,1803);  Poloik,  r^Van  ti'?'n{Gn>Jno,]P04,  4lo); 
Fro»t.ConB.tro(in™(h«fii.l8r6,8vol;  ^a,^\.|■^kgt^ 
tatige  (in  BiaKtu,  I,  137,  Marbarg,  1809);  I.O»iF<.bn, 
•(S-iHlj^  nX-'lilS  (Tien.  1811, 4to)iWilna,Smb!J3F(='3 
(Prague,  IBll,  4to  [litargioal]  ;  also  B-^^b' [partly 
cabalistic ],  Waraaw,  1842,  4to)  ;  Frv.  A'.'trt  (London, 
1811,1825,  870)  i  Hug,  Ctu(i/nff,  *lo.'(I'i*v.  and  Conai. 
18L3,  4to|  also  frUalfran^,  Freyb.  1816,  4Io):  Jacob. 
LIsaa,  lEi  ■'7B!*  (Dyrenfurt,  IBI5-I9,  4to);  David- 
son,  Rrmarii  (uind.  1817.  Bvo);  Kistmakrr,  lllafrn- 
tio  (Monast.  1818.  8va)j  •Uuibreit,  ErUHnmij  (Goir. 
1820,  Heidfllb.  1828,  Svo) ;  Taylor,  Minitrtl  (QUqrow, 
1820,  I2ma)i  Clarke,  Targum  (in  Coumtiitary,  iii); 
Hawktt,  Commfwlmy  (Umdon.Hn),  l/iwih,  Prakcl. 
XXX,  xxxl  (with  Iha  note*  of  Michaelia  and  the  ani> 
msdverainna  of  RoaenmUller.  Oxon.  1B11);  Kalaer. 
I  CoUeclic-f!fM.ms  (Erlang.  IB2fl,  Bvn) ;  'Ewald,  Anmtr. 
H-unf/en  (liotN  1826,  Svo);  BanhnlrnK,  KrlauUnmim 
KKUmb.  1827,  Bvo);  Diipke,  CanmnUar  (Upi.  1829, 
,8vd);  •RnwmmUller,  Schulia  (Lipa.  1880,  Bvo);  Cu- 
nili.  Uitl.  df  Thltrpritatim,  etc  (.Slraaab.  1884  4ln> ; 
Rebenalein,  EHdaitrvBg  (Iterl.  iat4,  Svn);  Blau,  IVr- 
I  iMiA  (Culm,  IS3B,  Svo) ;  Kmmmicher,  Stmmu  (Und. 


i839,Svo;  Rmqi  th<GwniaD,Sd(!d.E]barf.ie80,8To):  llwm  u  tfae  pnennorg  of  AnUchiln,  and  *a  ■domm 
Btibua,  S.  of  a.  (in  Biilt,  ii);  *VbltmABti,  Dt  aUtrp.,  fully  thH  it  wu  not  OTitil  be  had  gona  to  the  Cuunn 
ratuM,  ate  (Berlin,  ISSS,  Ito);  Schlcic  (WuiiUiiohJ,  I  that  tbty  could  cfUt>ltih  themiclvei  In  SfUmancm. 
-\i»n  nm-O  fWanaw,  IMO,  SvD) ;  Hirwl,  ErtUnrng  '  He  *••  ™adB  bUhop  of  the  Cuuriaa  by  Paul  III,  bat 

,_  "  "     J  V        r  lo.n  to ^     u o iu._.  '  rwiBned.  and  retired  into  a  convent  of  hii  order,  of 

^l:,  LIT  •:  \*"' """>'  "^^^fr^T'  whi?hT;  t-=«m..  in  nn.  provincial  for  the  prortB^ 
(Halle,  1842,  8yo);  laaat-Aaroml-iq?  n-'a  (WUoa,  ^,  He  died  at  Toledo,  Sept.  80, 1680.  — 
IWB,  8vo>;   Ulricb,  Commtnlar  (Berlin,  18«,  8vo);    rtiefTnd  beat-known  «ori(  i.  b'     ' ■"    '- 


1,  '>4etS  (Dani.  1846,  8to)  ;  AvrilloD,  Affee-  nun  libri  k>,  relating  to  Ibe  Kwrcej  whence  polemical 
Ihmi,  etc.  (Lond.  1846,  ISmo);  Stowe,  in  ^M.  Bib.  A»-  theologlana  may  derive  proofa  of  tfaeir  opiniona  aod 
pot.  Apr.  184T  (reprinted  In  Jour.  Sac.  LH.  Jan.  186!) ;  ar^manU  (Salamanca,  l!A%  fol.).  It  may  be  found, 
Brown,  Z>i(CDiirM*(pt.  i,  Lond.  1848, 18ma) ;  BOttcher,  I  with  hi>  other  writings,  in  hi*  (^pero,  eiWl.  warin.  (fiaa- 
ErlMnmg  (Lpa.  1849,  8vo>  i  "Delitiach,  Aiutfffuitg  lani,  1776, 4to).— Hoefer,  .Viw.  An;;.  CaKro/r,  viil,  49«. 
(Lpi.  1851,  8vo)i  GoltE,  AmUguitg  (Berl.  1861,  8vd);  I       CanutO.     See  Dkdmabk. 


■mdt,  Ut6fr;  H.  L.  (in  LUtratitryaA.  \,  168,  1849) ;  f,^^  („,  Bosket,  pi&o/w),  in  clericJ  dredi.  Car- 
AnonymoM,  S/Jkctiom  (Lond.  1861,  12mo)  i  •Heng-  jj„j|  Klcholtea  !■  said  to  be  tbe  flnt  wbo  wore  the  ra- 
atenberg,  Aialfgii«g  (Berlin,  1863,  8vo)  ;  BarrowM,  i^.  oi  ap,  in  France.  The  red  cap  la  peculUr  to 
famamitary  (PbiU.  18S3,  ISrao) :  Clay,  iMfcra  (I*nd.  j^b  co1I«™  of  cardinala.  The  bonnet  or  cap  worn  by 
186S,  l!mo) ;  Meier.  XrtUrwjr  (Tubingen,  1864,  8vo) ;  j  j^,  j„^^_  Baraaljite.,  Theatine^  and  by  tfae  lUlUna 
Forbea,  CommtnlaTj  (Und.  18W,  BSmo);  Hltiiftir-  g^^j^jly^i,  three-cornered  and  wjnare,  and  worn  with- 
Uanoy  (in  £«j.  HaxB.  «vi,  Lpa.  1856,  8vo) ;  BUu-    ^^j  ^^  ^  g^  Ve«tkefiB  or  tHK  Cleroy. 

bach,£Hdt.i*rtwj(Berl.I856,8vo)i  Newton,G>inpar-  "^ 

»m,  etc.  (Bd  ed.  1856,  Bvo);  HSlemann,  Knme,  etc.  I  CaparooUa  (KQB-npmr.a,  a  name  of  which  tbe 
(Lpi,  J858, 8vo)[  ■Ginaborr',  Commenlart  (Lond.  1867,  '  initial  element  ia  evidently  the  Hah.  1B3 :  aM  Ca- 
8vo)  i  Walker,  Meditatiau  (London,  185T.  ISmo)  ;  '  fhab-),  a  town  located  bv  Ptolemy  (1v,  16)  in  Galilee, 
•Weiu,  Expovtiim  (Ekiinb.  1868, 12ma)  ;  Schnler,  Kr-  I  and  mentioned  (Cofarcolim)  in  the  Peuliogcr  TMi  H 
ISulerviig  (Wurab.  1868,  8vo);  Anonymotw,  Uibtrtet-  [  (lituated  between  Scythopolia  and  Csaarea  PaleatlnB 
anji  (Ulm,  1858,  8vd)  ;  Weiubach,  Er^Jarim;  (Lpi.  (Rctand, /■a'ru<.  p.461,e87),  34  R.  miles  from  the  for- 
1868,  8vo) ;  VaihioRer,  EMirwig  (in  MbU.  SdmJ\at  mer  and  28  from  the  latter.  It  wai  diacovervd  by 
i.  A.  B.  It.  StBttg.  1858,  8vo)j  Annnyrooua,  ErpiaM.  .  BnrckhaTdt  (TractU,  p.  oil)  in  the  modem  Ktfr.K»i 
(iim  (Lond.  1858, 8vo);  Anonymona,  rnnu'a/Hmfl^nd.  a  village  about  one  hour  [If]  wast  of  Jenin,  unonc 
1858,  8vo)i  Halbim,  titrn  i-iillj  (Bucharest,  1860,  the  hilla  (Robinaon,  Sararcha,  Ui,  169),  and  half  an 
SvD)  ;  AnonyuiDUB.  Cmmnwarj  (Lond.  1B60,  ISmo)  ;  hour  west  of  Burkin  (Wolcott,  in  the  BibSM.  Batm, 
lUnan,TVaA«ti™  (Par.  1860,  8vo):  Stuart,  iipoailw*  1^3.  P- '6;  Boliinaon.  inter  fifararyirt,  p.  121),  aitu- 
(Lond.  1860,  8to  ;  alio  Kq.  Und.  1861,  l!nio) ;  With- 1  ated  on  an  eminence,  with  a  high  wely  north  of  the 
ingtor,£i™ima(im{lio.ioii,1801,ianii.l!Tlirupp,rraju.|  village,  called  Sheik  Zeit,  and  viaible  from  ■  great 
tidon  (Und.  18e2,  8vo);  MenJel.lann,  E<lavU<-mg  diaUnce  »U around  (Van  de  Veldc,  iframr,  p.  801). 
(Berl.  1862, 4lo)i  Hon)witi,^amn-iuii</(a  (Vienna,  1868, 1       CspsUuB.     See  CapPbli.c». 

12m»);  Houghton,  &my  (Lond.  1886.  8vo)j  IMedrich.  |      Caper-Pi-AWT  (nji«i!*,  aWwua*',  (h,m  m»,  to 
>>H«/«-™ff  (Neu-Ropping,  1865, 8vo); -Strong,  SocredJr'^T^  J-^^^^^ 

H,i.  (N.  Y.  1890,  8V0).     see  8ou.-o»  (fl«.t.  of).         ^  1;'Z\^„":i''^\Zf^:^.^ir^\^^ 

Cantor  ((n^er),  an  ancient  «ecle*iaatical  order  eo  .  floariab,  and  the  graaahopper  aball  be  a  burden,  and 
called,  and  a  tide  still  given  to  the  master  of  the  d>iire  ahall  fall ;  because  man  goeth  to  liis  long  home." 
choir  in  many  chnrcbea.  as,  In  modern  uae,  precentor.  The  word  faere  translated  ifefire  has  been  considered  to 
The  CounciU  of  Cologne,  A.D.  1260  and  1536,  give  to  aiipiify  the  CAPBB-bcrry.  The  reaaoni  assigned  for 
the  cbantor,  or  cantor,  the  title  of  cAnnpucnpiv.  or  tbia  opinion  are  that  the  rabbins  apply  the  plural 
I'iehop  of  the  choir.  The  cantor  ia  also  the  Mine  with  '  (ni3i-'3!!.  ijgomolk':  see  Beracholh,  xxxvi,  1)  to  the 
the  primicerius.  The  order  of  canlorea  appear,  to  be  ,„  j,  ^,5,  ^  t,^  „d  ^„;^^  „  ,,ll  „  to  that  of 
of  great  antiquity  and  is  menlioncd  in  the  Canons  y,,  caper-bnab  (Buitorf.  La.  Talm.  col.  12) ;  that  the 
called  Apoatohcal,  No..  26,  43,  and  60,  snd  in  the  Lit-  „  ^.llTsh  la  coimon  In  Svri.  and  Arabia  («^  Galen, 
nrgy  of  St.  Mark,  which  was  written  before  the  fourth  ji-oj^,  Alim.  ii,  U) ;  that  Its  fruit  was  in  early  timea 
centnry  (Renandot,  Ulvg.  Orunl.  CaO.  torn,  i,  pref.  p.  „^„  „  ,  condiment,  heinR  atimnlatiDg  In  It*  natntt^ 
ix«T,  and  p.  161).  The  CouncU  of  Lsodicea,  can.  15.  ,^  therefore  calculated  to  eicite  desire  (Plutarch, 
forbids  any  to  sing  tn  chnrch  except  the  aingera  or  Qi«,k.  .9«w..  vi,  2 ;  Plinv,  ffirf.  A-oi.  liii,  89 :  xtl6j 
cantore.  who«i  n.mea  were  inscribed  on  the  canon  of  _  ^^^■^^^  59 .  K„cor.  li,  804)  p  that  aa  the 

the  church,  and  whose  proper  place  was  in  the  mbo.  <j,„,.|,„,h  grows  on  tombs,  it  will  be  liable  to  be  de- 
By  can.  28 jt  forbad  the  cantore.  to  wear  the  stole  or  ^^^  „i,^„  ^^,^^  „„  „^n^  ,„d,  fi„.||^,  th.,  „ 
oranam.  The  Roman  writer,  endeavor  to  prove  that  golomon  speaks  here  in  symbols  and  allegoriea,  we 
the  lector  and  cantor  were  the  same,  but  they  are  ev-  ^„,j  gupp™  hi,n  to  devUM  from  tbe  course  he  had 
erj-wbere  spoken  of  in  the  ancient  canons  as  diatinct  ,pp.„n£^e„ribed  to  himself  if  be  were  to  e:<pr«« 
order^  There  b  no  reason  to  believe  this  order  to  be  ;„  ,,,„  ^^^  (hat  "  derira  shall  fall,"  instead  of  inli. 
of  higher  than  «c  Win./  institution  only.  The  can-  „,|^„  (ho  aame  thing  bv  the  failure  of  that  which  is 
"!^  '?.'?^""'^  f'"  'y  \TZ^.^^T  '■^■*;  ■  «"PP<«^  to  have  been  n^d  to  excite  desire.  Ccl.iua 
cap.  10).  Th«  order  1.. till  retained  in  the  Oriental  ,ffifr«M.  i,  210)  aryue.,  on  (he  contr^y. "»'  Solomon 
t,hurLh._Bingham,  Ong.  Eixt.  bk.  iil,  ch.  vii;  Un-  ;  „ther places, when treatingofthepleMureaofyonth, 
don,  Ecd.  Ihcl.  s.  V.  „,^  ,^,,,  '„f  „p,„  ^„«  ^  ,y,  .^  perfume.; 

CBntIBorCano.MKLCHtoii,adiftlnga1shedSpan-  that,  had  he  wished  to  adduce  anything  of  the  kind,  he 
Ish  theologian,  was  bom  at  Taran^on  in  1623,  and  en-  wnald  have  selected  Himetfainb!  more  remarkable ;  that 
tored  the  Dominican  order  at  Salamanca,  where  be  capers,  moreover,  inntead  nf  being  pleasantly  stimu- 
atndied  theolosy  nnder  Francisco  Vittnria.  whom  he  Innt,  are  acrid  and  hurtful ;  and  though  occasionally 
aui;ceeded  In  1646  in  the  theological  chair,  after  having  emjdoyed  by  the  ancients  a.  condimenla,  were  little 
aarved  brilliantly  as  profeuor  at  Valladolld  and  Alca-  esteemed  by  them ;  and,  flnatly,  that  the  word  abisa. 
Ia.  He  tbrmed  a  party  in  opposition  to  CHrranaa,  af-  notA  of  tbe  rabbins  is  distinct  from  the  r^igimiJi  of  this 
teiward  archbishop  of  Toledo,  to  whose  disgrace  he  '  passase,  a.  is  admitted  even  by  Drslnus  {Arb^rA  Bib- 
grestly  contributed.  When  the  .lesnlls  endeavored  to  linon,  zzviil,  1).  The  caper-plant,  however.  Is  oftm 
settle  at  Salamanca,  Canna  vehemently  denounced   mentioned  in  tbe  Talmod  (J/aofmci,  It,  6;  Dsmai,!, 


CAPER  9 

1)  by  tin  leniu  fiVx,  Uelaph',  n^XS,  nk^ihiA',  and 
■YCD  Q-^'IBp,  iapliru'  (Buxtorf;  col.  isiS,  1S61,  2098). 
Bot  MM  tbs  Sfptuagist,  tbc  Vulgate,  tha  SyrUc,  and 
(be  Aisbic  triiul«tioii»  bave  anderalood  the  captr-lnai 
to  ba  imaat,  it  U  doirablB  to  (jive  nnie  Bccount  '  ' 
tipecullj  u,  Trom  it<  onimental  natara,  It  couli 
bM  attrart  MIeBlioo.  Than  are,  morMiv(f. 
poiuta  in  ita  natural  hisUiiy  wbich  tuTe  beau  < 
luakcd,  but  which  may  lent  to  abow  that  in  the  paa- 
ng«  under  review  it  might  without  impniprletj  have 
been  em{doj-ed  in  carrying  out  tbe  figunllve  laoguage 
with  Kbicb  tbe  vene  commencei  (aea  Plank,  PbaU. 
Utd.  f.  120 ;  Sprengel,  Hiit.  ra  kerb,  i,  H). 

The   cafWT-plant  helonga  to  a  tribe  or  planta,  tbe 


of  wbici 


I  ■peciea 


-e  found 


in  tropical  countriea,  aucb  a*  India, 
vbence  they  extend  northward  into  Anbia,  the  north 
of  AlncM,  Syria,  and  the  aoatb  of  Europe  (Foi»k»l, 
ftar.  p.  99 1  Shaw,  p.  396).  The  comawn  caper-buah— 
Ct^aru  VOWM,  Linn,  (the  C.  Hdcu  of  Penooii' 


CDDinMin  in  the  conntriei  immediately  <ut 
Ueditmanean.  Dioacorides  dencribes  it 
in  a  circolnr  manner  on  the  i^mund,  in  poor  soila  and 
ragged  titnalioni;  and  Pliny  "at  being  set  and  down 
in  Mnoy  places  especially."  Theophraitus  atates  that 
it  RftuM  to  grow  in  cultivated  ground.  Dioscwtdes 
farther  atalei  that  it  haa  tboma  like  •  Unmblc,  leavcK 
Gke  tbe  qnince,  and  fruit  like  the  olive — cbaraetera 
aloHst  aalScient  to  identify  it.  The  caper  is  well 
kovwti  to  the  Araba,  being  their  li£6iir,  and  deaignatcd 
alao  by  tbe  name  alKtifat  on/  The  bark  of  [he  root, 
which  ia  atill  uaed  In  the  Eaat,  as  It  formerly  waa  in 
Europe,  no  doubt  poeaeaaea  aame  irritant  property,  aa 
it  vaa  one  of  the  five  aperient  root*.  The  une^panded 
Oower-buda,  preaerred  in  vinegar,  are  well  kitown  at 
tar  tiblea  as  a  condiment  by  the  name  of  capers. 
Parts  of  the  plant  oeem  to  hare  been  aimilarly  aaed 

■Dental,  growing  in  liarren  places  in  the  midtt  of  the 
nbluah  ot  rains,  or  on  tbe  walla  of  buildings.  It  waa 
qtwrvcd  by  Ray  on  the  Temple  of  Peace  at  Kome,  snd 
IB  other  similar  aittutions.  It  forms  a  mnch.l  rnnrhed, 
difDse  shrub,  which  annually  loses  its  leaver.  TIic 
baanebes  are  long  and  trailin^r;  smooth,  but  armed 
with  doable  carved  stipnlary  (pines.  Tha  leavea  are 
aUenate,  nmidlBh  or  oblong.oval,  a  little  fleahy. 
smooth,  of  a  green  color,  bnt 


CAPERNAUM 


dish.  The  flowers  are  Isrge  snd  ahov 
gly  in  the  aiila  of  the  leaves,  on  atalks  w 
larger  than  the  leavea.  Tbe  calyx  is  fbar-leaved,  co- 
riaceous; the  petals  are  also  four  in  number,  white, 
and  of  an  oval  roundish  form.     The  etamen 


>gi  s 


ir  fiUmi 


s,  being  1 


aged 


with  purple  and  terminated  by  the  yellow  a 
give  the  flowers  a  verj-  agreealle  appearance.     The 
ovary  ia  borne  upon  a  straight  stalk, 
wbich  la  a  little  longer  than  the  i 
mena,  and  nblch,  aa  It  ripen^  droops 
and  forms  an  oval  or  pear^baped  ber- 
ry, inclosing  within  its  pulp  nnmerous 
small  seeds.     Many  of  the  caper  tribr, 
hemg  reniarlcable  for  the  long  at>tk>  I 
by  which  their  fruit  la  supported,  coD- 

apiennusly  displaj',  what   also   takes 

place  in  other  planta,  namely,  the  droo])-  '  "'' 
ing  snd  bunging  down  of  the  fmit  ua  it  ripens.  As, 
then,  the  flowering  of  the  almond-tree,  In  the  flnt  part 
of  the  verse  in  question,  hsa  been  auppoeed  to  refer  to 
the  whitening  of  tha  hair,  so  the  drooping  of  ^a  ripe 
fruit  of  a  plant  like  tbe  caper,  which  Is  conapieaous  on 
the  walls  of  buihlings  and  on  tombs,  may  be  supposed 
to  Xj^tj  the  hanging  down  of  tbe  head  before  "  roan 
goeth  to  his  long  home"  (seethe  Amiy  QFrfopcnKa^s.  *. 
Capparidacea).     See  Hrraor. 

Capar'nsilm  (Kartpvnauri  \  Lscbm.  [with  Codex 
B]  Kafapvaoiiitta  if  Qinj  ^(3,  "  villsgeorNabom" 
[from  some  unknown  person  of  that  name] ;  Syriae, 
Curelonian  Kaaphor  Nac\«m,  Pesfaito  Ka^utr  Ha- 
tktan;  Vulg.  Caphanaum),  the  name  of  ■  Galil»an 
city  bmiliar  as  that  of  the  scene  of  many  acts  and  In- 
cidents in  tbe  life  of  Christ  (see  Stuart,  CaprmotHn  at 
Os  Seme  nf  Chrul't  Mimclrr,  2d  ed.  London,  1864). 
There  la  no  mention  of  Capernaum  in  the  0.  T.  or 
Apociypha,  but  the  passage  Isa.  ix,  1  [viii,  !S]  Is  ap- 
plied to  it  by  Matthew.  The  word  Capkar  in  the 
name  perhaps  indicates  that  the  place  was  of  late  foun- 
dation. See  Caphar-.  There  ii  named,  however,  by 
the  rabbins  (Midrasb,  KoMeili,  fol.  89,  col.  4)  a  place 
called  Kfpiar-XaehuiM  (pfnl  1B=),  which  Efland 
(Palait.  p.  689)  preaumea  to  be  the  Capernaum  of  the 
Goipela(Bee  Olho,  Zu.  AiU.  p.llS).  JosepbuB  also 
mentions  a  remarkable  fountain,  called  by  the  na- 
tivet  Cufrtarnoum  (Kn^opvooip),  watering  the  fertile 
"  plain  of  Gennosarelh"  (  War,  iii,  lU,  8);  aa  also  a  vil- 
lage by  the  name  of  CrjAanuinit  (Ki^njivii'i/ii;)  in  the 
same  region  (£//f,  72).  Ptolemy  m\,o  (v,  16,  A)  calls 
it  Cajxmvium  (}i.aTapvauip).  Another  Capernaum  is 
mentioned  by  William  of  Tjtb  {Dt  BtUo  Sacr.  i,  26) 
on  the  Kishon,  nix  ieagoes  from  Cawarea. 

Alter  the  expulsion  of  Jcaus  from  Kazaretb  (Luke 
iv,  16-31;  Matt,  iv,  13-IC),  where  be  waa  "brout^ht 
up,"  Capernaum  become  emphatically  hia  "  own  city ;" 
it  waa  when  be  returned  thither  that  he  is  aaid  to  have 
been  "at  home"  (Maik  U,  1 ;  such  is  the  force  of  iv 
oltif—\.\.  "in  the  bouse").  Here  be  choae  the 
evangelist  Matthew  or  Levi  (Matt,  ii,  9).  The  broth- 
ers Simon-Peter  and  Andrew  belonged  to  Capernaum 
(Uark  i,  S9),  snd  it  ia  perhaps  allowable  to  imagine 
that  it  was  on  tbe  sea-beach  near  the  town  (for,  doubt- 
less, like  tme  Orientals,  these  two  flshermen  kept  cl0!e 
to  home),  while  Jema  waa  "walking"  there,  Ijefore 
"  great  multitndes"  bad  learned  to  "gather  together 
unto  him,"  that  they  heard  the  qoiel  call  which  was  to 
make  them  forsake  all  and  tbilow  hiro  (Uark  i,  16,  IT; 
comp.  S8).  It  was  here  that  Christ  worked  tbe  mira- 
ele  on  the  centnrion>  servant  (Matt,  viii,  fi ;  Lulie  vii, 
1),  on  Simon's  wife's  mother  (Mstt.  viii,  U;  Mark  I, 
flO;  Luke  Iv,  S8),  the  pamlytic  (Matt,  iir,  1;  Mark  ii, 
I ;  Luke  V,  IS),  and  the  men  afijicled  with  an  unclean 
spirit  (Mark  i,  SS  1  Lukelv,33).  Tbe  son  of  the  noble- 
man (John  iv,  46)  was,  though  resident  at  Capernaum, 
healed  by  words  which  appear  to  have  been  spoken  In 
Can*  of  Galilee.    At  Capemanmoccnired  tbe  emblem- 


CAPERNAUM  1( 

•tied  [neldtnt  of  ttaa  chUd  (U*Tk  U,  83;  Mitt,  xvlil,  l 
1  i  comp.  zvii,  U) ;  and  in  tba  ijnigogaa  thera  wu 
■pokan  the  remu-kkbls  disGonrae  of  John  vl  (ica  vena 
G9>.  The  inAdellt}-  and  Impanitence  of  tha  inhabiUata  j 
of  thia  place,  after  the  avidenca  givan  to  tham  by  our  ' 
Sa^ioar  bhnulf  of  the  truth  of  his  miuion,  bronght 
upon  tham  thia  beavj  denunciation:  "Andthou.Ca- 
pgroanm,  which  art  exalted  unto  tieaveo,  ahalt  be 
hroQi^t  down  to  hall ;  Ibr  if  the  mighty  works  which 
bava  been  done  in  tbee  bad  been  dona  in  Sodom,  It 
would  have  ramainad  nnto  Uib  day,"  etc  (Matt,  xi, 
S3).     See  Galii.kb,  Sba  or. 

According  to  the  notlcei  of  ita  eitnatlon  In  the  N.  T. 
Capemaum  waa  on  tha  waatem  aliote  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  (r>)v  iropa9a\aaaiav,tlMtt.W,lZi  cotap.  John 
vl,  24),  and,  if  recent  discoveriea  are  to  bs  trosted 
(Cureton'a  flilriaii  Rrc.  John  vi,  17),  waa  at  sufficient 
importance  to  give  to  that  aea,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the 
oame  of  tha  "Lake  of  Capomaum."  (This  was  tiic 
case  also  with  Tlberlia,  at  the  other  pxlremity  of  the 
lake.  Comp.  John  vi,  1,  "  the  S«  or  Galileo— of  Tibe- 
riaa.")  It  was  in  or  near  tha  "land  of  Gennesarot" 
(Hatt.  xiv,  B4,  compared  with  John  vi,  17,  !].  24),  that 
b,  the  rich,  busy  plain  on  the  west  shore  of  tho  lake, 
which  we  know  from  the  descriptioni  of  Joscphus  end 
from  other  soarcea  to  liive  bean  at  that  time  one  of  die 
most  proiperoDi  and  crowded  districts  In  all  Palestine. 
See  GRnNEaARETit.  Yet  it  wu  not  far  from  the  en- 
trance of  the  Upp^r  Jordan  into  the  lake  (Ughtfoot, 
Hor.  Htbr.  p.  139).  Being  on  the  abore,  Capemaam 
was  lower  than  Kaxareth  and  Cane  of  Galilee,  from 
which  the  rood  to  it  wai  one  of  descent  (John  li,  12; 
Luke  iv,  31),  ■  mode  of  speech  which  would  apply  to 
tha  general  level  of  the  apot,  even  If  our  Lord's  es- 
presaion,  "exalted  nnto  beaven"  (uV'uSit'ra,  Matt,  xl 
iS),  had  any  raferance  to  height  of  position  In  tbe  town 
ilaeU.  It  was  of  anIEcient  size  to  be  always  called  e 
"city"  (woXic,  Matt,  ix,  1;  Hark  I,  83);  had  its  own 
synagogue,  in  which  oar  Lord  ftaquentlv  taught  (John 
vi,  59;  Hark  i.  SI;  Luke  iv,  33,  3«>— a  aynagoguo 
built  by  the  centurion  of  the  detachment  of  Roman  nol- 
dien  which  appears  to  have  been  quartered  in  the 
place  (Luke  vii.  1 ;  comp.  8 ;  Malt,  vili,  8).  But  be- 
sides the  garrison  there  waa  also  a  cust'jms  station, 
where  tha  dues  were  gathered  both  by  itadonary 
(Uitt.  ii,  9;  Mark  il,  U;  Luke  v,  27)  and  by  itiner- 
ant (Matt,  xvii,  ■ifj  officers  (thoagh  the  latter  pnssaBO 
probably  refen  rather  to  the  ccclesiaBticiil  or  temple 
tax  than  In  the  Roman  or  secular  one).  If  the  "way 
of  the  sea"  was  tbe  RTent  road  from  Damascus  to  the 
aoutb  (Ritter,  Erdk.  xv,  339),  tha  duties  may  have  bean 
levied  not  only  on  tha  fish  and  other  commcrco  of  tho 
lake,  but  on  the  caravans  of  merchandise  passing  to 
Galilee  and  Judiea.  It  was  also  near  the  border  be- 
tween tbe  tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Naphuli  (Matt,  iv, 
13).  The  doom  wbieb  our  Lord  pronounced  against 
Capemeam  and  tba  other  nnbel^vlng  cities  of  the 
plain  of  Ganneaaratb  has  been  remarkably  fulflUed. 
In  the  presentday  no  eccle^aitical  tradition  even  ven- 
tures to  fix  Its  aite  ;  and  tha  contest  between  the  rival 
claims  of  the  two  most  probable  apota  is  one  of  the 
warmest,  and  at  the  same  time  the  moat  difficult  to 
decide,  in  sacred  topography. 

I.  Dr.  Robinson  {BM.  Srtearcha,  lii,  288-294)  ex- 
pisea  tbe  errors  of  all  previous  travellers  in  their  va- 
rious  attempts  to  identify  tho  site  of  Capernaum  j  and 
from  a  hint  In  Qoarasmius,  he  is  rather  inclined  to 
look  tot  it  in  a  place  marked  only  bva  moimd  of  ruins, 
called  hy  the  Arjba  Khan  Minyk.  Thii  is  situated 
at  the  north-eut.  m  extremity  of  the  fertile  plain  (now 
called  El  Ghnweir)  on  tho  western  bolder  nf  tha  Lake 
of  Gennesareth,  to  which  the  name  of  "  the  land  of 
Gennesareth"  Is  given  by  Joser*us  (ll'ar,  ill,  10,  8). 
This  plain  is  a  sort  of  triangular  hollow,  formed  by  tha 


Tstreat  of  tha  mountains  about  tbe 

•m  shore.     The  liasaofthisanRle  is  along  the  shore, 

and  la  about  one  hour's  Joomay  in  length,  wherea*  it !  be  c«afMaed,  not  without  difficulty— {q  Tafsrance  to 


10  CAPERNAUM 

takes  an  hour  and  a  half  to  trace  the  inner  aid««  of  tb* 
plain.  In  this  plain  Joeephas  places  a  ftonntain  called- 
Uaphaniaum :  ha  says  notblng  of  the  town ;  bat  If  it 
can  be  collected  from  the  scriptDiml  intimattona  that 
the  town  of  Capernaum  was  in  this  same  plain  (from 
a  comparison  of  Mark  vi,  47,  with  John  vi,  19,  it  ap-^ 
pears  that  it  waa  at  least  alx  miles  from  tha  N.E. 
shore),  it  may  be  safely  omclnded  that  the  ftmntala 
waa  not  fu  Trma  tha  town,  and  look  its  name  tfaera- 
from.  In  this  plain  there  are  now  two  fountains,  ona 
called  'Ain  et-'Hu,  the  ■■  Spring  of  the  Fig,"  near  the 
noTtham  extremity  of  the  plain,  and  not  far  from  die 
lake.  It  is  BDrroundad  by  vegetaUon  and  orerhuDg 
by  a  flg-tne,  tmm  which  it  derives  ita  name.  Near 
this  are  sei-eni  other  springs,  the  water  of  which  ia 
said  to  be  brackisb ;  but  Bnrckhardl,  who  tested  for 
soma  time  under  tha  groat  Hg-tree,  describes  the  water 
of  tbe  main  source  as  sweet.  This  is  the  founUin 
which  Dr.  Robinson  Inclines  to  regard  as  that  which 
Josepbus  mentions  under  tbe  name  of  Caphainaum. 
H.  De  Saulcy,  however,  contends,  in  hii  naual  can&- 
dent  manner,  agiUust  the  conclusion  of  Dr.  Rotdoson 
(_NarratJvf,  li,  867-365).  In  the  new  edition  of  Us 
KatarcAtt  (Hi,  348),  Dr.  Robinson  reviews  tha  argn* 
ments  and  reaJHrms  hia  position.  Three  miles  aouth, 
toward  the  other  extremity  of  the  plain,  is  the  other 
largo  spring,  called  'Ain  el  Mndauwarah,  tho  "  Round 
Fountain" — a  Iirge  and  beautiful  fountain  r'ising  im- 
modlslelyattfae  foot  ofthe  western  line  of  bills.  This 
Pococke  took  lo  la  the  Fountain  of  Capernaum,  and  Dr. 
Robinson  was  at  ono  time  disposed  to  adopt  this  con- 
cluslnn.  Tho  "  Round  Fouotnin"  li  B  mile  and  a  half 
rrom  the  lake,  to  which  it  sends  a  considerable  stream 
with  Hah.  Whichever  of  theaa  fountains  be  that  of 
Capharnanm,  we  should  look  for  soma  traces  of  an  an- 
cient  town  in  the  vicinity,  and,  finding  them,  sboold 
be  justified  In  supposing  that  they  formed  tho  remains 
of  Capomaum.  'I'bo  only  nndcnt  remains  orany  kicid 
nesr  tbe  Bound  Fountain  are  somo  large  volcanic 
blocks  strewed  over  the  plain,  or  piled  together  with 
little  architectural  order.  But  near  the  'Ain  el-Tin  ia 
tbe  low  mound  ol  ruins,  occupying  o  considcrablo  dr- 
cumference,  which,  if  Capemaum  were  situated  in 
this  plain,  offer  the  Itest  probability  of  being  the  re- 
mains of  the  doomed  city ;  and  if  these  be  all  its  re- 
mains, it  hsB,  accoiding  to  that  doom,  been  brought 
low  indeed.  Near  the  fountain  Is  also  a  kbon,  which 
gives  the  name  of  Khan  Hlnych  to  the  spot.  This 
khan  la  now  In  ruins,  but  waa  once  a  large  and  well- 
built  structure,  aoae  on  the  north  of  this  khan,  and 
of  tbe  founCein.  rocky  hills  of  considerable  elevation 
come  down  quite  lo  the  lake,  and  form  the  northern 
termination  of  the  plain.  It  is  Important  lo  add  that 
QuaresmiuB  expressly  states  that  in  his  day  the  place 
called  by  tha  Araha  Metick  (i.  e.  Minyeb)  was  regard* 
ed  as  marking  tbe  site  of  Capernaum  (Ebicid.  Tfrr. 
Smct.  ii,  864).  The  mention  by  Josepbus  (/./c,  li) 
of  a  village  called  Kfpkanmmt,  situated  between  tha 
mouth  of  the  Jordan  and  Taricbna,  will  agree  with 
either  location  of  Capemaam.  Willibald,  however 
(Vila,  16,  17),  passed  auccessively,  on  his  war  from 
Tiberias  to  the  Upper  Jordan,  through  Magdala,  Ca- 
pemsum,  Belhsaids,  and  Cbontin,  which  would  locate 
Capemaum  at  the  southern  end  ofthe  pldn,  if  (as  ap- 
pesn  true)  th'is  also  conUlned  Choraiin.  The  latter 
may  hsre  been  Immediately  on  the  shore,  and  Caper- 
naum at  a  little  distance  from  it  {Luke  ix,  57 ;  comp. 
HBtt.viil,18,I9).  Bsistbecase  st  the  southern  spring, 
hut  not  tha  northern.  The  arguments  in  bvor  of 
Kli<m  JfuivM  may  bo  found  in  Robinson's  BftfonAti 
(new  ed.  ii,  403  sq. ;  ill,  844-.W8).  They  are  chiefly 
founded  on  Joeephna's  account  nfthe  founlain  and  of 
his  visit  to  Cephamom^.  which  Dr.  R.  would  identify 
with  the  mounds  near  the  khan,  and  on  tha  tastlma 
niaa  of  snccessive  travellers  from  Arcnlfua  to  Quatss. 
Dr.  R.  i 


CAPERNAUM  H 

Kliaa  HiDfdi.  The  fonntiln  Ctphunanm,  wbkh  Jo- 
■cphai  mcntiani  (IFv,  lii,  10,  8)  in  >  var;  •mpbatlc 
■■iiiiiji  ti*  a  cbkf  MDm  of  the  watii'  of  tbs  pUln  of 
GcoDcuntb  ind  u  Bboimdini!  witb  flih,  wanld,  hov. 
•TO,  certBinlyiiuwar  belter  to  tha"  Kuund  Fouatain" 
tliui  to  a  ipring  to  clcwe  Co  Ibe  ibore  and  to  neu  one 
rod  of  the  district  u  ti  'Aln  et-T!n.  1  be  cl*ini  of  Khu 
HiB}-eb  is  ■!»  Urongly  oppaced  bj  k  Utar  traveller 
(fioaa,  p.  4S7-11).  ■■  tito  bj  Van  de  Velde  (i/enthV,  p. 
am,  S<M}  and  Tboninn  {Land  und  Boat,  I,  M2  aq.). 
ADDtlwT  obJiKtiDn  to  the  aite  of  Khan  Minf  eb  la  that  1 
th«  ucicDt  towD  of  Cinnennb  appean  to  bave  lain  | 
Borth  of  Capenunm,  and  in  thii  aama  plain  of  Genna- 
iareth  [ace  Ciiimkreth];  frum  which  it  la  meet  natu- 
ral to  infer  thai  Capemaam  lay  at  tha  abutbern  Bod  of 
th*  plaiD  (at  'Ain  al  Uadaawarah),  and  Cinnerath  at 
the  Dortham  ('Atn  et-Tin).  In  CbatcaM,tbe  ipproacb 
of  Christ  an<I  hia  diaciplei  to  Capeniaum  through  the 
plain  of  Ganae«areth  (Mat',  xiv,  St)  waa  from  the 
mrth.  the  diTsction  moat  likely  in  coaiin;{  from  their 
laat  iwint  on  the  north-aaatem  ahore  of  Iha  lake;  for 
Iben  tba  disciples  would  have  fallen  thort  of  tfaelr  det- 
tiaalkw,  owing  lo  tha  head  wind,  and,  after  landing, 
Ant  tnTcnad  the  plain.  The  aite  of  Abu  Shuelieb. 
however,  i*  in  wme  reapacta  mora  like);  to  bave  given 
nanw  to  the  plain,  U  that  of  tha  ancient  Cinnareth, 
which  will  thus  be  diatingnisbed  trom  tha  localitiei  of 
Oaperoaum  and  Cboraain.     See  Bethbaida. 

S.  Three  rriles  north  of  Khan  Hinyeh  ia  tha  other 
tUimant,  TtO  lliwt,  coDtaining  raina  (vorj'  extenaivp, 
aecording  to  Bonar,  p.  415  aq.)  of  valb  and  foundu- 
tiona  coveriDK  a  apace  of  bulf  a  mile  long  by  a  quar- 
ter wide,  on  a  point  of  tha  ghora  projecting  into  the 
lake,  aod  backed  by  very  gently  riaing  ground.  The 
ahapelcaa  nmains  are  piled  up  in  confueiun  all  along 
Iba  aboia,  and  are  mncb  more  atriking  than  tboae  of 
any  other  city  on  this  part  Dflha  bke.  With  two  ex- 
cFptionF,  the  bouaas  were  all  built  of  baaalt,  qnito 
yack  and  very  compact,  bat  radrly  cut.  Tha  atones 
of  Ibe  temple,  tynsgogue,  or  churcb,  whatever  it  may 
hare  been,  an  of  beaatifnl  marble,  cot  from  the  moon- 
taios  la  the  noith-waet  (Thomson,  i,  640).  The  nina 
are  described  by  Rublnson  {Rtttarcha.  iii,  M?  aq.). 
Bather  more  tban  three  mileg  fitrtbtr  north  is  the  point 
at  wbkh  the  Jordan  anlata  the  north  of  tha  lake.  The 
argamcnta  in  favor  of  Tell  Hum  dale  from  about  16TS. 
The  i^lncipal  one  ia  the  name,  which  is  maintained  lo 
be  a  relic  of  the  Hebrew  original — "Capbar"  having 
^Tcn  place  to  "  Tell."  Dr.  Wilaon  alao  range*  JoM- 
^na  on  thb  aide  (LamU  oftke  B!Ut,  ii,  1:^9  UO).  See 
tbo  Bitter  (fnil.  xv,  B35-SU),  who  aupporta  the  same 
loealit]-,  as  do  also  Van  de  Velde,  Bunar,  and  Thom- 
KB.  Against  Tali  Hfim,  on  tha  other  bend,  the  fol- 
lowing ■rgomenU  aeem  almost  concluaiva:  (1)  It  ii 
■a*  near  the  bonndary-line  beCwern  Zehnlon  and 
Naphtali,  aa  appears  to  be  rrqnhed  by  HatL  iv,  IS. 
(1)  It  is  not  likely  to  have  been  on  the  highway  lo 
DwBasma  (see  above),  for  tha  mountains  are  M  near 
lb*  shore  aa  lo  preclude  this,  while  a  tboroDghfare  still 
(XktaOimghthepbiinatthafootb.  (S)  It  i>  rather 
too  near  tha  hewl  of  the  lake  for  the  scriptDral  notices, 
and  apparently  in  the  wrong  directioD  from  the  [Jain 
af  Ganneaatatfa.  (i)  It  does  Dot  by  any  mean ■  Ki  well 
(ait  the  indicationa  in  Joaaphna  of  the  position  of  the 
spriBfc  of  Capbamanm  and  villat^e  of  Cephamome: 
let  [1]  the  latter  was  near  a  iwaropy  ground  (evident. 
It,  from  the  numerona  springf,  in  the  loamy  plain), 
a'sd  at  no  gnat  distance  from  Tibrriia  (or,  at  farthenl, 
Taricbca);  [3]  tha  fonnuin  was  a  inominent  fraliire 
ta  tile  plain  of  Cennessrrtfa.  which  extended  slung  the 
take  for  three  milee,  apparently  midwar.  To  Iheea  ar- 
tammts  it  may  again  be  rrplled  :  (■  )  The  langnage  of 
the  Evangeliat  respecting  the  proximity  of  the  bound- 
vy-!ina  is  not  to  be  taken  so  strictly,  since  none  of  the 
flacM  in  quealion  were  really  sitUHtrd  on  the  border. 
(»)  There  la  room  enongh  lor  a  rnad  along  the  ahore 
bjTd  Bboi,  Ibr  tbs  ibortcat  route  to  the  head  of  the 


H  CAPE  TOWN 

lake  aetoally  lies  tbrongb  It.  (c)  The  Scripture  do- 
ticai  moat  in  qneatlon  relate  to  the  miracle  of  the  feed- 
ing of  the  five  thousand,  the  acene  of  which  ma;  bare 
been  on  the  shore  souch-east  of  Bethsajda, beyond  Jor- 
dan, and  Id  that  case  Christ's  return  lo  Capamaom 
may  have  been  from  the  south  ttarongh  the  plain  of 
Gennesaretb.  (d)  The  niiaadventnre  of  Josepbua  may 
bave  happened  at  tha  mouth  of  the  Upper  Jordan,  aod 
the  place  into  which  he  was  bime  was  a  "village" 
merely,  not  a  large  cily  like  Capernaum,  sllbough 
the  name  of  tha  lutter  may  nsloriilly  bave  Included 
adjacent  localitier,  ns  we  know  it  was  extended  tO  the 
entire  plain. 

On  ihe  whiile,  however,  later  archBDlogisU  incline  lo 
the  slle  of  Khan  Minyeb,  where  cxienrive  ruins  hare 
ncenllybeendiicorerei1,BclhBaia*(q.v.)being,parhap, 
lobe  located  at  Tell  HUmt  and  Ihiaooncluiian  iigreat- 
ly  oonflrmed  by  the  almost  certain  posiiiou  of  Chorazin  at 
Bir-Keraieh,  a  liule  to  tlie  N.W.  (jec  Jottnud  Sue. 
LU.  OcL  IBM,  p.  1GS  *q. ;  July,  185j,  p.  BM  sq.  i  BibL 
^ocra,  April,  18a5,p.!6Seq.;  Loiid.AII>aiam,feb.2t, 
Marcb3],lBC6j  £(wJ.H.Ji>*1.1867,iv).  SeaCuoBUin. 
C>petB,  William.  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  South,  waa  bom  in  St.  Tbomat'i 
Tarbh,  S.  C,  Jan.  ^e,  1790.  In  1B0S  he  cnlerad  tha 
sophomore  class  at  the  EoDlh-Carolina  College,  but 
left  college  before  Ibe  time  of  graduation,  and  began 
the  atady  of  law.  He  entered  the  itinerant  minisli; 
in  the  EoulbXarollna  Conference  in  1RD9,  and  located 
in  1816.  He  waa  readmitted  lo  Ibe  Conference  In  1R18, 
ind  was  fint  elected  to  General  Conference  In  1830, 
and  was  aent  aa  deleirate  tram  the  American  Ualhod- 
L-t  Church  lo  the  British  Wtsleyan  Conference  in 
1fi!8.  His  Bubsrqornt  posts  of  du^  were,  profeator  of 
Evidences  of  Christianity  in  ColumbU  Collate,  1W; 
editor  of  the  Soulhcra  Christisn  Advocate,  lf86-40i 
nilssionsry  secretary  of  the  aouthem  dlvlalon  of  Ibe 
Methodist  Epiacnpal  Church,  1840-44 ;  raperinlendent 
of  cDloted  missions  in  the  Southern  Statea  in  1844. 
In  May,  1844,  Dr.  Capers  attended  the  General  Con- 
frrenea  held  at  New  York  aa  one  of  the  delegate*  of 
the  SoBlh-Carolina  Conference.  Tbia  wa*  the  year  in 
which  the  great  anti-slavery  agitation  in  tha  Method- 
i!^t  Etdacopal  Cbuicb  came  to  ila  crisis  in  the  division 
of  that  body.  Dr.  Capera  took  the  Suuthem  view  of 
the  question,  and  from  that  time  dll  the  close  of  bia 
life  he  waa  idenlilled  with  the  Methodist  E[dscopal 
Church  S<^ulh.  At  the  General  Confereuce  of  that 
Cburch  held  in  1H4  ha  was  elected  bishop.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  waa  »pent  in  the  diichargo  of  the 
bishop's  office,  which  he  nilprt  with  pre-eminent  digni- 
ty, diligence,  and  fucceas.  Dr.Cspere  came  of  a  Hu- 
guenot Dunily.  and  bis  father  did  gallant  service  in  Ihe 
Revolution.  His  house  was  one  of  Lhebomesof  Asbuiy 
and  tbo  early  Methndbt  preacher*.    In  Ihe  ministry  hia 


and  hia 


Hfolnei 


ilaritye. 


ftontly  i. 

aanctifled  by  the  unction  of  Ibe  Holy  Gboat,  and,  thoDgb 
generally  smooth  and  graceful,  «m  at  times  powerful, 
and  even  overwhelming.  He  waa  always  refined  snd 
elevated  In  thought  and  life,  and  labored  with  earnest 
fidelity  fur  bis  Master's  cauae.  Hia  activity  of  mind 
and  prrsevFrance,  together  with  the  weight  ofhia  mor< 
al  power,  gave  bim  great  Influence  in  his  Conference 
and  in  the  Church.  He  died  In  Anderron,  S.  C,  Jan. 
m.  1866.  He  left  no  litarary  remain*  except  an  auto- 
Wouraphy  (prefixed  to  Dr.  Wightmin'a  Lifi  </  Co- 
pm) ;  O'trrUtmi  far  lAt  fiegro  Afmoai :  Shtirt  Srr- 
nOM  a<ul  Tn,'.  Tnlri  far  CUidrtn  (edited  by  Dr.  Sum- 

meri.  Nashville,  IRmo) Sommen,  ^tefcAa  of  Eat- 

nenl  Itmtroitl;  p.  7A:  Wightman,  Lift  •/  W.Cipert, 
D.D.  (NBibTtlle,  18G9,  I2mD);  Sprague,  Amalt,  vii, 
460. 

CapA  Towo,  the  capital  of  the  English  poatea- 
alons  at  Ihe  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  erected  into  a  liith- 
op'(*ee  of  the  En^iah  Cburch  in  1847.    The  laa  owea 


CAPHAR- 

lUeziitnicataaiemuiiiflceTiceorMiHBurdeUCoatta. 
The  flnt  biibap  wbi  Robert  Gray,  U.D.,  of  Stockton, 
coTuecrated  at  Westminster,  June  29, 1847,  wbo  ii  etill 
tlie  iacambeat.  The  biihop  of  Cape  Toirn  is  the  me- 
tropolitan of  the  Anglican  dioceeea  in  Soath  Africa,  a( 
irblch,  Id  1867,  there  were  thn  rolloiriDg,  beaidea  Capa 
Town :  Natal,  eaUbltahsd  ISGB ;  Hauritiui,  1854 ;  Gra> 
ham'i  Town,  1856]  St.  Helena,  1862;  Onn^  River 
SUte,  1863;  Central  Africa,  18G8.  Tho  Watleyan 
miuions  in  the  diatrict  of  Cape  Town  embraced,  in 
1866, 10  circnilB,  S5  ihapela,  12  other  preaching-placoa, 
9  minionaiies  and  aaelstant  miaalonariea,  Wl  aubordi' 
nata  paid  and  nnpud  agents,  1510  member?,  211  on 
trial  for  membership,  2680  scbolara  in  Sunday-achoola, 
and  6988  attsndaata  on  public  worship.  The  Baman 
Catbolica  have  at  Cape  Town  ■  vicar  apoatoUc  (biihop 
in  putibna),  whose  dtoceae  rmbracea  sboat  half  a  doi 


Gaphar-  (the  Latini»d  rorm  of  the  Ileb.  pnfix 

~IB»,  X(/or',tbe  "conatructform"ufX(jp4jr',  I^B, 
from  tbe  root  of  the  aame  form  algniiying  "to  cover," 
GeaeniDa,  TtefoB-.  p.  707),  one  of  the  numerons  words 
•mploysd  in  tbe  Bible  (and  still  oftener  in  later  w 
rabbinical  Hebrew)  to  denote  a  village  or  collection  of 
dwellingi  amaller  than  a  city  (Rsland,  PalaiL  p.  S16). 
See  Ih^  Stanley  proposes  to  render  It  by  "hamlet" 
iPalttL  App.  §  8T),  to  distingniah  its  aocnrrencea  from 
those  of  ChavBoi,  Ckitmr,  BasM,  and  other  similai 
'Word*.  As  an  appellative  it  is  found  only  three  Umea . 
I  Chron.  xxvii,  2S,  Cant,  vli,  11,  and  1  Sam.  ri,  18  (ii 
the  laat  tlie  pointing  being  different,  Ko'pher,  *1D!S) 
but  in  neither  istbere  anything  to  enable  nstoBs  any 
special  fbrce  to  tbe  word.    In  names  of  pUcea,  itoccnis 

In   ChEPHAR-AmHOKAI,  ChkPHIBAII,  CAfHAR-t 

VA,  and  those  here  following;  also  CAPeH^fAuif 
PABCirnA.  etc.  Bnt  the  nnmber  of  places  compounded 
therewith  meatloned  in  the  Talmud  shows  that  thf 
natna  became  a  much  commoner  one  at  a  time  subse- 
qnent  tn  tbe  Biblical  bbtorr.  See  the  words  bsgin- 
ning  witb  KapRAB..  In  Arabic,  the  correaponding 
local  epithet  Kiifi'  is  in  frequent  UM  (see  the  lists  in 
Boblnson's  AWurold,  ill,  Append.). 

Capbarilbla  (Kafapa0ic),  a  town  of  Idumna, 
with  a  very  strong  wall,  surrendered  by  the  cittiens 
to  Cereal  is,  tbe  general  of  Vespasian,  after  a  siege  thus 
rendered  unexpectedly  short  (Joaepbos,  War,  It,  9,  9). 
Reland  (PalaH.  p.  684)  thinks  it  the  Kephar-BiA  (q. 
T.)  of  the  rabbins ;  but  Schwars  refers  it  to  the  Kt- 
jAoT-Atmt  (D13X'1B3)  of  the  Jerusalem  Tah 
(SivAtdr.  ii),  and  finds  it  in  the  well  near  Gedor.  in 
WadySnrar  (meaning  apparently  that  marked  on  Van 
de  Velde's  Map  a  little  south-east  of  Ekron),  which  he 
Bays  is  still  called  "tho  Spring  of  Abia."     This  poai- 

Caphtttath.    See  KcFHAn-AxKo. 

CaphorbarUoha  (prob.  Ibr  ri3^3  "^'S,  village  of 
Hating;  but  diSferent  from  the  "valley  of  blessing" 
[see  Berachah],  named  in  !  Chron.  ii,  SG),  «  place 
mentioned  by  Jerome  (_Ep.  86)  aa  overlooking  the  des- 
ert o(  Sodom,  and  traditionally  held  to  be  the  place 
where  Abraham  inleiceded  with  Jehovah  for  the  guilty 
cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  XTlii,  IS;  iix,28).  The  name 
also  occQrt  (in  various  forms)  in  several  other  ancient 
notices  (Reland,  Poliol.  p.  685).  It  is  probably  the 
modem  Beni  .Vain,  an  eminen™  on  very  high  ground, 
three  or  four  mites  east  of  Hebron,  commanding  an 
eitenaive  view  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Robinson.  Seiaarchit, 
ii,  189).  The  tomb  of  Lot  has  been  shown  there  alnce 
the  days  of  Uandeville  (7>iir.  p.  68). 

CapharcotJa.    See  Capahcotia. 

Capliaidagon.     See  Bcth-daoon. 

Capharaooho.    See  Kbphar-Akko. 

CaphaietaBa,  a  village  of  Samaria,  the  native 
place  of  Hie  heretic  Henander,  according  to  Juitin 


2  CAPHETHRA 

Martyr  (Kurwopinila,  ApoL  II),  bnt  Euaebloa  (_Eci*. 
BiU.  ill,  36)  dtea  the  name  somewhat  differcDtty 
{JiaTtapaTTaia),  and  Theodoret  (pompemd.  Bant.  Fi^. 
il)  has  CAoftrn  (Xo^O ;  so  that  tbe  pUoe  is  altogMb- 
er  donbtful. 

CapIuirEamila  (prob.  viBagt  tflKe  eamd),  ■  vil. 
Uge  sud  to  have  been  altnated  SO  milaa  from  jertua- 
lem ;  tbe  native  place  of  the  pmbyter  Luciati,  wbo 
wmte  the  memoir  concerning  tlie  reoxina  of  St.  St^ 
pfaea,  about  the  fifth  centur}-  (BeUnd.  Pabut.  p.  688) ; 
bnt  thought  by  Cotoidcus  (Hm.  p.  S84)  to  be  the  aania 
of  a  person,     a—  Ca""  *«»*'■' HA. 

Caphammim.     See  Cafbrnaok. 
.    Caphatarla.    See  Capharorsa, 

Capluirona,  a  place  {ILanpofaa  for  Kafapof>. 
aa)  named  \^  Ptolemy  as  a  town  of  Iduni»4  west  of 
the  Jordan,  aud  thought  by  Reland  (Jhdiat.  p.  690)  to 
be  the  Cofluvaria  (or  Ceperaria)  placed  in  the  ^«i. 
imgrr  Tailt  between  Jerusalem  and  AsbluloD.  Sea 
CEfBBARiA.  It  is  possibly  the  same  with  Capbab- 
Zachabia  (q.  v.). 

Caphaiaftba.     See  AnnPAT^ti. 

Caphaiaal'ama  (Xa^pmrXa/ui  v.  r.  Xafapati' 
papa,  sppsr.  for  K^^E^  '^DS,  "village  of  peace"),  a 
place  where  Nicanor's  troops  were  cut  to  pieces  by  Jo- 
das  HaccabEos  (I  Hacc  vil,  81).  Josephus,  in  the 
parallel  account  (.Int.  xii,  10,  4),  catla  it  a  village 
(ffw^ij  Via^pfraXafia).  Reland  suggests  (PtJatf.  p. 
690)  that  it  may  have  been  the  aame  with  tbe  Capiar 
Gimala  (q.  v.)  where  the  presbyter  Lnclan  was  bom, 
or  the  Qipliar-imtUa  mentioned  in  his  writings.  Ho 
also  adduces  an  allusion  ^om  the  Talmud  {Abada  Sa- 
ra, folio  44,  col.  4)  to  a  wine-growing  village,  KrjAar- 
Salan  (DSC  "^CS),  donbtleas  the  aame.  From  the  fu- 
gitives In  the  above  battle  having  taken  refuge  in  the 
"city  of  David,"  it  would  appear  to  have  been  near 
Jerusalem ;  hence  It  Is  possible  that  it  was  tho  village 
near  SUoain  (q.  v.).  the  AraUc  name  of  which  b  Krfr- 
tdwm.  Ewald  places  it  north  of  Ramla,  on  the  Sa- 
maritan boundary  (ffssci.  Itr.  iv,  868,  note),  but  this  is 
quite  arbitrary. 

Capbar-SoTach.     See  Sorer. 

CaphartSba.     See  Kei>uab-Tebi. 

Capbar-Zacharlse  ("  villam  of  Zacharias"),  ■ 

plare  mentioned  by  Soiomen  (Hut.  Eed.  ix.  17)  aa 
Iving  In  tbe  region  of  Eleutheropolia,  and  apparcotly 
Visited  by  Willibald  on  hla  way  from  Qaza  to  Hebron 
(Travtlt,  p.  20.  Bnbn).  It  seems  to  have  been  differ- 
ent trom  the  Dath-Zacharias  (q.  v.)  of  the  Apocrypha 
(1  Mace,  vi,  S3)  and  Josephus  (Anl.  lii,  9,  4).  'it  is 
probably  the  modem  Kr/r  Zetaria  (Bobinson,  lit- 
taarelia,  Ii,  84),  a  village  on  the  north  aide  of  Wady 
Surot,  opporite  Tell  Zacharia,  about  half  way  between 
Jerusalem  and  Ashkelon  (Van  de  Velds,  fiarratipr,  ii, 
192).     See  Cafhabohsa. 

Caphen'atha  (Xa^ivoBa'),  a  place  apparently 
cIcH  to  and  on  the  east  side  of  Jemnlem,  which  was 
repaired  by  Jonathan  Uaccabsus  (1  Mace,  xii,  97). 
The  name  seems  to  be  derived  from  KP^3B3,  fcip*- 
mtka',  the  Cbaldee  word  for  lit.  unripe  dale  (Baxtart, 
La..  Tidm,  col.  lOTl),  and  thns  haa  a  remarkable  corre- 
-pondonce  with  tho  names  of  Bethany  (house  of  dales), 
Bethphage  (honse  of  fies),  and  of  tbe  Mount  of  Olives 
itself,  on  which  the  three  were  situated— all  testifying 
tothe  andpntfraitfulnesB  of  the  place  (comp.  Schwarz, 
/We*,  p.  256). 

Caphetbra  (Ra^3(ia),  a  preEentions  little  town 
(il'Hi^oToXijfviai')  in  Upper  Idumaa,  apparently  not 
Ikr  ^m  Cspharabis  (q.  v.),  taken  and  burnt  by  Cm«- 
li^  the  general  of  Vespasian  (Josephns,  ICar,  iv,  9,  S). 
Tbe  name  occurs  with  considerable  variety  in  the 
texts  (Ko^nn/iic.  etc.,  Htidiwn,  in  loc.),  and  Petrus 
Apollonloa  {Dt  ercid,  Bieroi.  iii,  65)  gire*  It  simply 


CAPHIRA  1( 

u  CVp>i»nt,  fram  wblch  it  Kems  ponibis  th«t  tin 
■cripduml  CHEi-HtBAU  (q.  v.)  may  be  intended. 

CapM'ia  {Kafiipa),  ■  pl«c«  nhoM  inbabitBDti 
rAmntd  fmn  Babylon  (.1  E«lr.  v.  19);  evidently  the 
CBirUKAit  (q.  T.)  of  Iha  Hebraw  text  (Em  ii,  S6). 

Capb'thorim  (1  CbroD.  i,  1!).    See  Caphtorin. 

C«ph'tor  (Heb.  KapUm',  ^'ints  C^Fi^S  In 
Dent.],  ■  diapitt,  M  Id  Adim  in,  1,  etc. ;  SepL  Kav- 
iraiaaa,  VbIk.  dippuJixwi),  ■  marititne  country  thiice 
in*Dtloii«d  u  Um  ptimitivg  aeiC  of  the  Philirtlnes 
(DcDt.  U,K;  Jei.  xlvii,!;  Anwi  is,7\  who  arc  once 
called  CaphUvim  (Deal,  ii,  SS),  u  of  the  ume  nee  u 
tba  Hixnita  people  ofthtt  ume  (Gen.  i.  U ;  1  Chnm. 
L  13).  Ttien  hiu  b«D  >  great  divFraily  ot  opinion 
with  regard  to  the  exact  ■ilualion  of  that  country  (>ee 
Kwmie,  Omnm.  V.  T.  p.  441).     See  Caphtobim. 

1.  The  i^sneral  opinion  that  Caphthor  wu  Ciippado- 
cu  (not  the  dly  Cappadocia,  or  Cupilom  in  Pbtenicla, 
*M  Schnlti,  Ijtit.  V,  466)  i>,  upon  the  whole,  fonnded 
iDdce  on  the  ancient  veralons  of  the  Bible,  loch  ai  tlie 
Septaaziiit  and  Ibe  TarKUmi-,  Ihan  on  any  ■ound  ar^. 
neat  (Me  Bochirt,  nahg,  It,  S3 ;  Miller,  Syntagm. 
ntrmmml.  p.  167  iq. ;  Straiwt,  ad  Zejiiamak,  p.  47). 
Agaiitit  thia  opinion  have  lieen  urged :  (1)  The  anlhor- 
itr  of  Joaephua  (.1  irf.  i,  6. !),  who  wrma  to  eeek  Caph- 
bw  (DnwvlwTe  belveen  E;{7pt  and  Ethiopia ;  (J)  that 
Ibe  Capfatorici  came  originally  fhnn  Egypt,  tiom 
vbicfa  Cappadoda  la  ao  far  removed  that  it  eoeroa  high- 
ly inprobable  that  an  Egyptian  colony  abould  Ant 
Ian  emigrated  thither,  and  then  again  removed  to 
PalntiiH,  still  more  remote;  (B)  that  Caphtnr  and 
Cappadoda  are  Tery  diaslmilar  namea  (hut  see  Hceren 
ia  the  Commentt.  floe.  Gait,  xiii,  3S;  Jalilonnky,  OpuK. 
fii,  1  K). ;  Geaenini,  Thaaitr.  p.  709 ;  Kfinler,  Erldnlrr. 
p.  I5T  *q.)  even  in  soand;  (4)  that  Caphtor  ii  (Jer. 
xlvii,4)de*ignaledaa  an  island  (^M),  though  ^!t  aonie- 
tiiDea  al»  algninea  a  mast.     See  CAPPADOa.i. 

S.  Otbera  again,  as  Calmet  {Dinerl.  mr  rOrigite 
At  FUlitimi,  p.  3S1),  and  still  more  Lackrnucher 
(OtMT.  /•«,  p.  2,  II  aq.),  have  tried  to  proTa  that  Iho 
PhOiatiiiea  derired  their  origin  from  tho  island  of 
rVM  (ao  RaaeuraQller,  AUenk.  II.  11.  S6Si  iil.  385; 
Uoven,  FU».  i,  18;  Lengerke,  Kn.  i,  191;  Ewald, 
Gaek.lir.i,ata;  Turb,  <:«.  p.  243 ;  YiiUig.Zu  Zffh. 
B,Si  Bertboia./ir.Crei'i.p.lS?!  Knobel,  Cm.  p.llO; 
DcUtofh,  Gat.  p.  ISO;  Font,  Handict.  a.  y.\  because 
—0)  Caphtor  la  with  Jeremiah  an  island;  (0  the 
^opar  name  of  the  Philiitines  is  D^PIS,  Kcm/L:m'. 
"Cl>erethiteii"(EKk.  ixv,  16;  Zrph.il,"&:  1  Sam.  X 
14):  (n)  a  city  Apttra  exuted  in  Crele  (Strabo,  x,  479 
Plinj.  It,  »).  The  Sept,  however,  ovidenay  maliei 
■  distinctkin  betwnn  the  Csi^torim  and  Cberethim 
■v  la  it  imbable  either  that  a  iimall  island  like  Crete 
abeold  be  able  to  send  forth  thn*  early  ao  larira  a  body 
of  estiffranta  aa  maat  hare  landed  on  the  territoriea  of 
the  AtIdi,  ao  aa  to  ha  able  to  expel  them  and  take  po*- 
*e«an  of  Ibeir  eoonby,  or  that  the  rhaniclani  would 
altov  a  taabring  nee  like  the  Cretans  to  ecttto  in 
thtii  -vicinity  (•*•  H6ck,  Kr,la,  p.  W7).     See  Ckete. 

S.  By  &r  more  probable  ii  (Talmet'i  previona  opin- 
ioa  (found  In  tba  flnt  ediUon  of  hi*  Commrml.  on  Gn» 
lit,  but  wbich  be  afterward  recalled),  tbat  Caphtor  is 
Ike  ititad  ol  Cjipnit.  From  tho  geographical  situation 
nf  that  bland.  It  ina*  have  brrn  known  to  the  Egyp- 
tiaoa  at  a  very  early  period,  and  Iher  may  have  sent 
eafaalea  thither,  who  aRrrward  removed,  from  anme 
raasBa  at  other,  to  the  FDuthem  cowl  of  Palestine  lior- 
dnlDK  on  Kcypt.  Swintnn  (/■*  r.  Cil.  Oxon.  ]  T60,  p. 
TD,  Bfi)  BTtnally  fbnnd  on  that  Islsnd  an  ancirnl  Phoe- 
■kiao  coin,  wilh  the  inacriptkin  whirh  be  read  "  Kab- 
dar"  (~i^32),  not  very  nnlike  Kaphlnr;  but  in  the 
AOgemiim  lit.  Zritttg  (Uips.  10S&,  I.  44fl)  It  has  been 
tau>»J  that  Swlnton  waa  mistaken  in  the  reading  of 
ttet  taBcription  (see  Qwenlus,  Um.  Fitmt.  il,  Sfl>). 
flliiiiiaiiil  to  tbb  idcntifteatioD  alM>  ia  the  bet  that  the 


CAPHTOR 

Cyprians  are  elsawhera  (Gen.  i,  4)  called  Chittim  (« 

).     See  Ctfrdb. 

4.  A  slill  more  probable  identification  ia  with  cer- 
tain parts  of  F-gs^ :  either  (1)  the  coast  of  the  Egvp- 
tian  Dt\ta  (Stark,  Gaia,  p.  76) ;  (2)  DatmMa  (Saadias, 
Arak.  Vtri.,  which  haa  "Dimyet;"  Haine,  Ota.  Bae. 
11,  0, 10) ;  or  (S)  part  of  Maneco  west  of  Eirjpl  (Qaa< 
tremira,  Jour,  dri  Sanau,  1846,  p.  265).  The  posHion 
of  the  conntT}',  since  it  was  peopled  by  Hiiraites,  may 
naturally  be  supposed  to  be  in  Egypt,  or  near  to  It  in 
Africa,  for  the  idea  of  the  south-west  of  Palestine  Is 
excluded  by  the  migration  of  the  Philistluea.  In  Jer. 
ilvii,  4,  the  expression  IIBB?  ^N  ("  country  of  Caph- 
tor") has  a  wider  signification  than  an  insular  location; 
for  the  term  "^X  denotes  any  maritime  land,  whether 
coast  or  island,  as  in  the  expreasion  Gentile  Mom 
(D^ilin  ->;!<,  Gen.  z,  S\  by  which  the  northern  cooaU 
and  the  iaiande  of  the  Hedllerranean  seem  to  be  in- 
tended, the  fomwr,  in  part  at  least,  being  certainly  in- 
cluded. It  most  bo  remembered,  however,  that  the 
Nile  is  spoken  of  aa  a  sea  (p^)  by  Nsfaam  in  the  de- 
scription of  Ko,  or  Hiebes  (Hi,  8).  It  is  also  possible 
that  the  expression  in  Jer.  merely  refen  U)  the  rrari- 
time  position  of  the  Phllistmea  (comp.  Eiek.  xxv,  16), 
and  that  Caphtor  la  here  poetically  used  for  Capiito- 
rlm.  Fortter  IFpi^.  ad  JUidafl.  j,'.  17  sq.)  thinks  that 
the  Caphlorim  had  lived  on  tba  ^ptian  coiM.  si  ma- 
where  abont  Damietta  (comp.  Benjamin  of  Todela,  p. 
1!1,  Dobn).  From  hence  he  supposes  a  colony  of  that 
people,  and  their  brethren  and  easterly  neighlxir*.  the 
Catiiildm,  had  gone  forth.  In  the  period  between  the 
flnt  wars  of  the  worid  (described  in  Gen.  xir)  and  the 
birth  of  Isaac,  and  settled  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Palestine,  under  the  name  of  Philiiliiiet,  after  having 
expelled  the  Avim  (q.  v.),  who  lived  about  Oaia. 
But  in  Bubiwquent  times,  Foraler  thinks,  these  new 
Philistines  bad  again  eent  a  colony  who  conquered  the 
province  of  Lapethui,  in  the  island  of  Cyprua.  This 
colony  he  identifies  with  the  Ethiopians,  who  lived, 
according  to  Herodotus  (vii,  88),  upon  the  island. 
"Following  out  these  snggeftions,  Reginald  Stnart 
Poole  (in  the  Eneyiiopadia  Britam'ra,  8th  ed.,  article 
Eajpt,  p.  419),  after  a  conjecture  in  Heinii  Diaeni. 
.laer.  p.  310  rq.,  has  pmpoeed  to  recognise  Caphtor  in 
the  ancient  Etiyptian  name  Coptm  (KomSc),  which, 
if  literally  transcribed,  is  written  in  the  hieroglyphics 
A'fWH,  probablv  pronounced  Kabl  (Brugscb,  Grtgr. 
Irueir.  pi.  xxivlii,  No.  899,  900),  whence  Coptic  Krp- 
to,  Arab.  Kn/t  Tbe  aimiUrity  of  name  is  ao  great 
that  It  alone  might  satisfy  us,  but  <be  correspandFnce 
of  Alyvjrroc,  as  if  AJa  ytirroc,  to  IIPlDa  -K,  nnlesa  ■« 
nfer  to  the  Philistine  coast,  seems  ^ncloetve.  We 
must  not  suppose,  however,  that  Caphtor  was  Cnptos : 
it  must  rather  bo  compared  to  the  Coptite  nome,  prob- 
ably in  primitive  agea  of  greater  extent  than  under 
the  Ptolemiee,  for  the  number  of  noBMa  waa  in  the 
cauno  of  time  greatly  increased.  Tbe  Caphlorim 
stand  last  in  the  list  of  the  Uiimite  peoples  in  Gen. 
and  ChroD.,  probably  as  dwellers  in  Upper  Egj'i't,  tbo 
names  next  before  tbem  lieing  of  Egyptian,  and  tbe 
earlieat  names  of  Libyan  peoples.     See  EoYPT. 

"The  migration  of  tho  rhillstines  is  mentioned  or 
alluded  to  in  all  tbe  passages  FpeskingofCaphtorortbe 
Capbtorlm.  It  thus  uppean  ta  have  been  an  event  of 
Rreal  importance,  ond  this  suppoaitlon  receives  sujiport 
from  the  ftalemcnt  in  Amos.  In  the  lista  ofGen.  and 
Chmn.,  as  the  text  now  stands,  the  PfaUistinM  are  aaid 
to  have  cnme  forth  from  tbe  Canluhhu  —  '  the  Caslu- 
him.  whence  came  forth  the  Philistines  and  the  Cuph- 
torim'  —where  tbe  Heb.  tbrhids  ns  to  suppose  that  the 
Philistines  end  Capfatorim  both  came  from  tbe  Carlu. 
him.  Here  there  seema  to  have  been  a  transpo.'  Ition. 
for  tho  other  paaaaees  are  as  explicit,  or  more  so,  and 
their  fbrm  doee  not  adroit  of  Ibis  explanation.  The 
pniod  of  the  migratioD  must  have  been  very  remote, 


CAPirrouiM 


I  mlnady  «tabll>hed  in  Fiim- 
tid«  in  AbraluiD'a  time  (Gen.  xxi,  32,  34).  The  evi- 
dence of  ths  E^ptian  monumaDU,  irbich  is  Indirect, 
tends  to  the  unia  concluiion,  bat  tiku  oi  yet  futhei 
b.ick  in  time.  It  luda  ut  tu  Bnppoea  tluit  the  Philis- 
tinea  and  kindred  naUone  were  cugnate  to  the  Egrp- 

tijaii,  bot  so  iliSerent  trom  them  in  manner 

mu't  have  separated  befure  the  character  « 
tiuna  of  the  btter  had  attained  that  deve: 
wliirh  they  continued  Ihroujfhoui  the  perlo 
th.'ir  monUDientg  belong.  We  flnil  from  the  sculp- 
tures afRameses  HI  at  Medinet  Abd  that  the  E^p- 
tijns  about  1200  B.C.,  were  at  irar  witb  the  Philis- 
tine*, the  I'ok-iijru,  and  the  SbayiaUna  of  the  Sea, 
and  that  other  Shayralani  served  tham  u  mercena- 
rlof.  The  Pbiiittines  «nJ  Tok-karu  were  phyiicaUy 
ea;jnate,  and  had  the  aame  distinctive  drem ;  tbe  Toh- 
kirii  and  Sbayratana  were  also  piiysically  cosnito, 
and  fonfht  together  in  Ihe  sume  ships.  Tbere  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  the  Tok-karu  are  the  Carians,  and 
tha  SbayTatao.t  have  bean  held  to  be  the  Cherethim 
of  the  Bible  and  the  earlier  Crebtns  of  tbe  Greeks,  in- 
luhiting  Crete,  and  probably  the  coast  of  Palestine 
alM  (^EiKsdnp.  BrU.  s.  v.  Ej^ypl,  p.  Ki).  Alt  bear  a 
Bre:iter  resemblance  to  the  Egypfians  than  does  any 
other  gTODp  of  forei^  peoples  represented  in  their 
•culptDres,  This  evidence  points,  therefore,  to  tbe 
epr^od  of  a  seafdring  race  co^^nate  to  the  Egyptians  at 
a  very  remote  tim3.  Their  origin  is  not  alone  spoken 
of  in  the  record  of  the  migration  of  the  Pbiliiitines,  but 
in  the  tradition  of  the  Phcenicians  that  thev  came  from 
the  Erythnean  Sea  [see  Abahia],  and  we  must  look 
for  the  primsval  seat  of  tbe  whole  race  on  the  coasts 
of  Arabia  and  AlHca,  where  all  ancient  authorities  lead 
us  mainly  to  place  Ihe  Cushites  and  the  Ethiopians. 
See  CnsH.  Ths  difTerence  of  the  Philistines  from  the 
E  -ypdans  in  dress  and  manners  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
evident  on  the  Egyptian  nionnments.  From  tbe  Bible 
we  learn  that  their  laws  and  religion  were  likewise  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  Egypt,  and  we  may  therefore  con- 
sider our  previous  supposition  as  to  the  time  of  the 
sepjrjtion  of  the  penplet  to  which  they  lielong  to  lie 

that  they  left  Ciphtnr  not  long  after  tbe  first  arrival 
of  the  Misralle  tribes,  while  they  hod  not  yet  attained 
thatattachmenttotbeaoil  that  afterward  so  eminently 
I'hanctoriied  the  doscendjnts  of  those  which  formed 
Ihe  Egyptian  nation.  The  words  of  tbe  prophet  Amoa 
(ix,  7)  seem  to  indicate  ■deliverjnce  oFihe  Philistines 
trom  bondage.  The  mention  of  tbe  Ethiopians  there 
is  worthy  of  note ;  they  are  perhaps  spoken  of  as  a  do- 
KTaded  people.  The  Intention  appears  to  be  to  show- 
that  Israel  wai  not  the  only  nation  which  had  been 
providentially  led  Oom  one  country  to  another  where 
it  might  settle,  and  tbe  Interponition  would  seem  to 
imply  oppnedon  preceding  the  migration.  It  may  1« 
remarked  that  Manetho  speaks  of  a  revolt  and  return 
to  allegiance  of  the  I.ibj^ns,  probably  the  Lehalum, 
or  Lnblm,  (Vom  whose  name  Libya,  etc.,  certainly 
cime,  bi  the  reign  of  the  Hrst  king  of  the  third  dynas- 
ty, NecherAphSs  or  NecherAchie,  in  the  earliest  age  of 
E«TI«i»n  history,  B.C.  cir.  S600  (Cory,  ^nc.  Frao.  2d 
eO.  p.  lOti,  IDiy    bee  PHlLlBTlltK. 

Caph'torim  (Heb.  JTi^orini',  fi^'^hea ;  Gen.  x, 
14,  Sept.  ra^upiti'/i,  Vul^.  CapUorim;  l>eut.  ii,  23, 
KoiriroJoKf,  Cappaiota,  A.  V.  "  Caphlflrims  ;"  1 
Chren.  i,  !2,  Xof  opitifi  v.  r,  Kn^&opifi>.  CnpKlhonn, 
"  Caphthorim"),  the  inhabitfinta  of  Caphtor  (q.  v.). 

CapiatrontiB,  Johansks  {Giomam  di  CnpittraHo\ 
a  Franciscan,  was  horn  at  Capistr.ino,  in  the  Abnusi, 
June  S.1, 1^5.  Political  troubles,  during  which  be  was 
inipri»ned,  led  him  to  quit  the  world,  and  to  assume  Ihe 
Franciscan  habit.  Ho  led  a  life  of  extreme  austerity, 
sleepine  only  three  hours  a  d'ly,  and  eatint^  but  once 
daily,  without  touching  flesh,  (tor  thirty-six  years.  He 
was  made  Inquisitor  at  Bonie,  Ofpeciully  aj^aiait  the 


i  CAPITO 

Fratricelli  (q.  r.) ;  and  Cave  states  that,  "beading  tba 

nrrny  of  Crusaders,  as  they  were  called,  be  endJavored 
'  to  root  out  heresy  by  fire  asd  sword,  and  actually 
\  burned  to  the  gnmnd  eighty-six  villages  of  the  Fratri- 
celli in  Campania."  Pope'  Eugenins  IV  sent  him  in 
'  143!)  aa  nuncio  to  Sicily,  and  employed  him  at  the 
I  Council  of  Florence  In  seeking  to  effect  a  union  be. 
tween  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  In  lUS  Nich- 
'  alas  V  sent  him  on  a  crusade  into  Bohemia  and  Hun- 
'  gaiy  aninat  the  Hussites.  After  this  he  stirred  up  t 
crusade  against  Che  Tarks,  and  in  145G,  putting  hlD> 
self  at  the  head  oflDO.OOO  men,  raised  for  the  relief  of 
Bel^ada,  (hen  besieged  by  Hohammed  II,  be  carried 
the  Btandnril  in  the  ver}-  foremost  of  Ihe  fight,  and  ob- 
tained a  complete  victory.  He  died  Oct.  S3, 1456.  at 
Villach,  in  Carinthia.  Alexander  VII  beatifled  him 
in  16M,  and  he  was  canonised  by  Benedict  XIII  in 
1724.  Among  his  works  are;  (I.)  Dipitpa  H  cancHii, 
live  Eeclairr,  avelorilatr,  against  tbe  Fathers  of  Basle 
(Venice,  16S0,  4to) ;  and  in  the  Tmctatiu  Jvii  (l\M. 
lAei,  torn,  xiii.pt.  i,  p.  32);— (2.)  Kptevlum  cUncorMm: 
—(3.}  Sptcalam  e/mKmtuc  .'—(4.)  Dt  Canoae  pavlaUi- 
ali  (all  throe  in  the  Tract.  Jv.)  :—',b.)  De  Eirommmi. 
aittone;  JUatrmiMioi  Judido  Uiiivertatt;  AnIjeMila, 
etc.  — Cave,  Hitl.  lit.  vol.  il,  App.  p.  163;  Hoefer, 
J\«ir.  Biog.  ahtirate,  viii,  680 ;  Baillet,  yit$  Jet  SmmtM, 
£3  Oct ;  Gieseler,  Oi.  HiHory,  period  ill,  §  1S2 ;  Wetier 
u.  Welle,  Kirtktn-LtziioB,  ii,  Si4. 

CapltaMon  or  Poli^taz,  om/mgAeJtm.  Moms 
ordained  (Exod.  xxx.  13)  that  every  Israelite  should 
pay  half  a  shekel /or  U  cv/,  or  person,  as  a  redemp- 
tioUf  "  that  there  might  t>e  no  plague  among  the  peo- 
ple, when  they  were  numbered."  Many  interpreters 
are  of  opinion  that  this  payment  was  designed  to  take 

this  payment  of  the  half  shekel  per  head  being  evaded 
when  David  numbered  his  sDbjects,  God  punished  the 
neglect  with  a  pestlleiice  (S  Ssm.  xilv,  1).  But  it  is 
more  generally  thought  that  Moses  laid  this  tan  on  all 
tbe  people,  payable  3-early,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
tabernacle,  for  the  sacriflces,  wood,  oil,  wine,  flour, 
habits,  and  subsistence  of  the  priests  and  LeviCea.  In 
our  Savioor's  time  the  tribute  was  punctually  paid. 
See  DiDBACHHA.  The  Israelites,  when  returned  fhim 
Babylon,  paid  one  third  part  of  a  shekel  to  the  Temple, 
'    '       "    iblcd,prDl>ably,at  that  lime,  by  poverty,  from 


™(Neh 


Thel 


tbe  Jews  In  general,  sod  even  the  priests,  except  wmi- 
en,  children  under  thittien  years  of  age,  and  slaves, 
wen  luble  to  pay  the  half  shekel.  The  collecton  de- 
manded It  in  the  beginning  of  Nisan,  Imt  used  no  covi- 
pulalon  till  the  Passover,  when  they  either  constrained 
its  payment  or  took  security  for  it.  After  tbe  d^ 
stmction  of  tbe  Temple,  tbe  Jews  were  compelled  to 
par  the  half  shekel  to  Ihe  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitoli- 


Caplto.Woi-FOAso  FABHicitiH,  an  eminent  coad- 
jutor of  (Ecolsmpadlns  and  Bucer  in  tbe  K^formslion. 

afterward  thonlogv,  and  became  D,D,  at  Freiburg, 
15(16.  His  father's  name  was  KflpfKtein,  Rnd  he  was 
a  blacksmith,  whence  tbe  name  Fabricius.  For  a  whUe 
he  was  lecturer  in  the  University  of  Freiburg,  and  In 
!61!  he  liecame  parish  priest  at  Bruchsal,  where  be 
studied  Hebrew  with  a  converted  Jew,  made  the  ac- 
qalnlanco  of  (Ecolampadius,  and  was  led  to  the  study 
of  Lather's  writings.  Called  to  the  cathedral  nC  B 1- 
sle,  he  then  became  Intimate  with  Era-imus;  and  In 
bis  lectures  to  the  iitudents  on  Romans  he  showed  re- 
formatory tendencies.  In  IBW  he  becsme  chaplain  to 
Albrecht,  elector  and  archbishop  of  Mayenco,  wliom  he 
defended,  gently,  against  one  of  Luther's  attacks,  on 

1522)  sharply  rebuked  Capita  as  a  time-server.  Stang, 
end  perhaps  convicted,  Capito  abandoned  Hayenoii 
(IbtSi,  and  took  up  a  piebend  there  which  Lw  X  had 


CAPITULARIES  11 

n  hba.  At  Strutmrg  Caplto'g  prudson  led  him  to 
ermta  the  tea!  ol  Zell  sad  Dtber  rsfurinira;  but  be 
•SOB  became  hlmxlf  ardeat  and  eameBt  la  tha  cauH. 
Fracn  that  time  od  he  wu  ooa  of  the  most  efficient  of 
aU  the  coadjutota  of  Luther.  In  1524  be  married.  In 
ISM  be  took  part  in  prepariuK  the  Con/eaio  Tttrapoiv- 
Has  (^.  v.).  Uii  timidity,  however,  afteti  drein  on  him 
Ibe  repKittcbei  ofLuthet.  In  158fi  he  had  an  Interview 
with  Calvin,  at  which  be  endaavored  to  bring  abont 
nth  *.  modification  of  the  Generaii  viewa  on  the  lub- 
}bc1  of  the  Lord's  Snpper  u  might  lead  to  a  better  an- 
dentandinic  with  the  Latberena.  He  died  of  the  plagne 
in  1541.  Ha  wrote  many  vorka,  among  them  a  Vila 
a-juiampadii.  Eiutrratiima  I'o  il<Aacuck  ft  Hotan 
(SiTiub.  I52«  and  15S8),  end  Sttpomio  dt  nuu,  nu- 
r>'iniiniii  ^jitte  wtagiairatuM  n  rrUffitmem  (1697),  Capito 
WM  B  verj  learned  man,  and  wu  in  advance  of  his 
contrmporariea  alto  In  toleration.  See  Banm,  Capilo 
■hI  BtOMtr,  Slraabury'i  Rt/ormatom  (8d  voL  of  /.»■ 
tn)  mmj  wagevaUtt  Sdri^lm  da-  Voter  drr  Tt/am. 
Kiirie  [Elberfeld,  1860]);  Adami,  ni.  Tbrolog.  41; 
Henoir,  Beid-E<tryhlop^ie,  li,  Mil ;  Hlddlaton,  Kvan- 
fJieal  Bioyrapkf,  i,  147  ;  Bibiiolk.  Sacra,  Jan.  18GI. 

Capltnlaiiea  (ai}Htiita.  cEuiptere),  a  term  applied 
eapeciall]-  Xa  the  atatutea  of  the  Frankiab  king*  made 
Id  tha  awtmbllee  of  biabopa  and  iorde  of  the  kingdom, 
a>d  called  tapitida  beeauM  pnblithed  in  cbaplen. 
The  bUbopa  redoced  into  the  fonn  of  articles  auch  nilei 
ai  they  deemed  oeceeury,  tiken  for  the  most  part 
fnm  tba  canona.  The  temporml  lords  also  drew  up  en 
tbalr  part  ordinances  taken  from  tbe  civil  laws  and 
iMtuuia,  which  the  king  afterward  ratified  and  conflrm- 
■d.  TIhm  cafdtnlariea  were  In  force  IbroUfihout  the 
hingdom.  Those  beet  known  are  the  ca|utulara  of 
Charlemagne  and  Lotiij  le  Debonnaire,  which  were 
Orst  collected  br  Ansq^is  (q.  v.)  A.D.  837.  The  work 
b  divideid  into  fiwr  boaki^  to  which,  abont  84G,  Bene- 
dict, a  deacon  of  Majenca,  added  soma  wUch  Ansegis 
had  omitted,  together  with  the  capitulars  of  Carlomin 
and  Pepin.  In  the  eighth  and  fallowing  centuries, 
bbbopa  were  accustomed  to  give  tbe  Damn  of  capito- 
laiies  to  tbe  mlei  which  thej  draw  np  from  tbe  can- 
Boa  at  coancils  for  tbe  regolation  of  their  dtocesei. 
Soeh  cspltnlnriee  had  no  force  bevend  the  particular 
dfcieeM  for  which  they  wera  made,  except  they  were 
eonflriDed  hj-  a  provincial  synod,  which  made  them 
Mnding  on  the  whole  province.  Other  prelatra,  how- 
ever, BDDetime*  adopted  the  capitnUrlei  of  particular 
bishops  An  edition  of  the  early  cafMnlaries  was 
pffnted  by  Balnae  (Parir,  1677,  t  vob.  4tii),  reprinted 
aad  n^dited  by  Cbiniac,  1780;  tha  latest  and  best 
•diliDii  Is  foand  in  Perti,  tfoMUt.  Gtrm.  Hill.  (f>ywi), 
U  I,  U  (Hanover,  1835-1837).— Famr,  Etd.  Did.  s.  v. ; 
Heraop,  Rad-EiKjIdopadie,  ii,  563. 

Capnla.     See  Beuculih. 

Cappado'da  (Kainrnfocr'a,  explained  by  Herod. 
*il,  72,  as  Penic,  and  lately  thoDght  by  Laaaen  to  be 
foand  on  inscriptions  In  the  form  Kalpad)iMla ;  bat 
Bentey,  Mmalmamat,  p.  117,  Interpret!  u  Kofpaiak- 
ja,  "fwovince  of  good  borees"),  an  ancient  and  tha  . 
CHternmoet  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bonnded  on  the 
BsMh  by  Pontna,  on  tha  eatt  by  the  Eupbntea  and 
Armenia  Minor,  on  the  aonth  l^  Mount  Tsnrut  (be- 
yond  which  are  Cllicia  and  Syria),  and  on  tbe  west  hy 
Phrygia  and  Galatia  (Strabo,  lil,  p.  B83  *q. ;  Ptolemy, 
».  S;  niny,  »i,  8).  The  country  it  monnUinons  and 
Bbauds  in  water,  and  wu  celebrated  for  tbe  produc- 
tioo  of  wheat,  for  iti  line  pastnres,  and  for  its  eicel- 
lent  breed  of  bnn<es,  asset,  and  theep  (Strabo,  xfl,  636 : 
SoUd.  47).  The  inhabitants  ware  notorious  for  (heir 
ddfiaa*  and  rice  (JtidxjT.  Peluj.  1,  281;  iv,  197;  Jnt-  , 
tin.  xxiTili,  S ;  nimp.  Porphyrog.  Tim.  t,  !).  They 
•we  called  "Svriant"  (comp.  Jablon'ky,  Dt  tiriffmi  \ 
Ifona.  hi  hit  fpne.  ill,  1  nq. ;  Geaen.  Hon,  Pirn.  p.  tl)  . 
in  the  age  of  Hetodntut  (i,  79;  v,  49).Bnd  even  in  Str*. 
bo'i  daya  tbey  bore  the  name  of  AipKLinppoi,  or  "White 


CAPPEL 


Syrians"  (xii,  p.  644),  In  c 
dualling  beyond  tbe  Tanms,  whota  coniplexioa  was 
darkened  by  the  sun  (Strabo,  xvi,  7B7).  By  the  an- 
cient Interpretcn  (tee  Philo,  Oj<p.  ii,  67fi)  they  were 
thought  to  be  meant  by  "the  land  of  Capbtor"  (q.  v.) ; 
but  the  ancient  name  of  Capptdocia  was  Katpami  or 
Katapatuta  (Rawlintwn,  Joum.  of  lit  Atial.  Soc.  i.L 
1,  9G).  Cappadocia  wat  snbjugatad  by  tbe  Fenians 
under  Cyrui,  but  after  tbe  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  it  bad  king*  of  ita  own,  sKhough  tributary  to 
the  SeleucidiB.  Ita  geo|^phictl  iimite  on  the  we>t 
sad  north  wera  variable.  In  early  times  tba  name 
reached  as  fur  northward  ■■  the  Enxine  Sea.  The  re- 
gion of  Cappadocis,  viewed  in  this  extent,  constituted 
two  satrapiea  nnder  the  Pertisnv,  and  afterward  two 
independent  inonarcblee.  One  wat  Coppadocia  on  the 
PontDF,  tha  other  Cappadocia  near  tbe  Taurus.    Here 


. oftbe  t 


tua  and  Cappadocia.  See  Poktcs.  Several  of  tbe 
monarcha  who  reigned  in  Cippodocia  Proper  bore  the 
name  of  Arisrathea  (q.  v.).  Ona  of  them  i>  mentioned 
in  1  Mace,  iv,  2S.  Tha  U>t  of  these  monarcha  wia 
called  ArcbeUaa  (tee  Joseph.  Aal.  xvi,  4,  6),  He  waa 
treacborousl.v  treated  by  the  emperor  Tiberius,  who 
reduced  hia  kingdom  to  a  province  A.D.  17,  Including 
what  was  anciently  called  Lesser  Armenia  (Tacit.  A  an. 
ii,49;I>ioCatB.]vii,  17).  Christianity  was  very  early 
propagated  in  Cappadocia,  fur  the  apottle  Peter  nsmps 
It  in  addretsing  tbe  Chriitian  churcbei  in  Aaia  Ulnar 
(1  Pat.  i,  I).  Cappadocians  (prop.  Kairvofonc  ako 
Kamraiitni)  were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  tbe  day 
of  Pentecost  (Acta  ii,  9).  The  Jewish  eommunitv  in 
thit  region  doubllesi  formed  tbe  nucleus  of  the  Chris- 
tian; and  the  former  may  probsblv  be  traced  to  tbe 
tirrt  introduction  of  Jewish  culonisCa  into  Asia  Minor 
by  Seleucus  (Josaphus,  Ant,  xii,  8,  4).  Tha  Roman 
period,  through  tbe  growth  of  large  cities  and  the  con- 
struction of  roadf,  would  afford  incTBOted  facilitipi 
for  tbe  spread  both  of  Judaism  and  Chrittianity.  It 
should  bo  otuerved  that  Cappadocia  waa  easily  ap. 
proached  from  the  direction  of  Palestine  and  Syria  by 
means  oftbe  pass  called  tha  Ciiician  Gates,  which  led 
■    "     ~  "         'low  cosat  ofCillda, 


ectfd,  a 


.  under  t 


perort,  by  good  roads  with  tbe  district  beyond  tba  Eu- 
phrates (see  Praey  (^hpadia,  s.  v.;  Smith,  Diet,  ef 
CUm.  CtoffT.  B.  v.).     See  As-     ■" 


Coin  ef  Cappadocia. 
Cappadocia  was  one  of  the  seven  provinces  assl^ed 
to  the  diocese  of  Pontut,  at  ita  erection,  by  Conttantine 
tbe  Great  and  Constantiat.  Under  the  emperor  Va. 
lent  [he  province  of  Cappadocia  wsa  divided  into  tha 
provinces  of  Cappadocia  Prima  and  Recunda,  which 
last  wat  hy  the  emperor  Jnstinlan  subdivided,  the  new 
province  being  styled  Cappadocia  Tertia,  and  having 
for  its  metropolitan  see  Mocistns,  or,  as  it  wu  thence- 
forward atviad.  Justinianopoiir.  Tbe  chief  see  of  tha 
Fecond  Cappadocia  waa  Tyana,  and  of  tha  first.  Cc<a- 
rea.  which  last  church  waa  tha  mother  and  head  of  the 
whole  Pontic  diocese.     See  Cxbabu. 

CjippeI(CAFPBLLra),  Jaoqaoa,  a  laamad  French 

Protestant  divine,  was  born  at  Rennet  In  March,  1970, 

of  an  ancient  and  honorable  family,  which  |milnc*d 

many  tbeologlana,  jniiits,  and  statesmen  Id  tbe  llf- 

ith,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  canturiee.    He  be- 

e  pastor  at  Sedan,  and  in  IG99  professor  of  He> 

r  at  the  academy  there,  and  afterward  of  thaolo- 

py,  which  post  ba  bald  nntil  his  death,  Septambar  7, 

Itli.    Among  hh  nnmaroas  writings  are,  Im  Lmtt 


CAPPEL  1( 

di  BAtI,  til  rUUain  du  Suge  Somfnn  (Swlun,  IGIS, 
Sva)  i  Hiilona  EecUtiailira  Cnluria  qumqite  (SeduD, 
1622,  4to).  After  hia  deatb  ippaind  his  QbiirvaHima 
m  N.  T,  txe&piia  j4  d.  c<  Apjcaitffu.  pncaranie  fnitn 
Cadomo)  Caj^dla  (AmM.  1(>77,  Ho)  -.—Obtmalumu  m 
tibroi  VW.  Ttt.  (^  L.  Ccppal'a  Commailarii,  AmiL 
1689,  fol.).  A  lilt  or  hia  works  U  girtn  by  Klcaron, 
Ixii,  40fi.— Hosier,  JVow.  Bioy.  GMrjlt,  vlii,  61G; 
Hug,  la  FntKee  PmaUmtt,  i.  t. 

Cappel  (CAPPELLnaX  Loala,  yonngar  brother  of 
the  foregoing,  wu  bom  ne«r  Sedan,  October  16, 168G. 
In  1609  tbe  cburch  In  Bordeiui  provided  fundi  for 
bim,  and  he  apent  four  yeara  in  travel  and  study  in 
EDgland,  Belgium,  and  Ganaany.  In  161S  ha  became 
professor  of  Hebrew,  Bad  in  ISSB  (with  Amyraldug  and 
FUcibub)  was  profeiaor  ordivlnity  at  Saumur.  He 
wu  a  piaiu  ChriitiaD,  a  moat  learned  theologlin,  and 
a  thorough  Protegtant  in  a  Ucoa  of  great  truJ.  Be- 
side* his  tbaological  and  exegetlcal  writings,  he  is 
chlellv  memorable  for  hii  controTeray  with  Bailorff 
CDnceming  the  antiquity  of  the  vowel  poi 

(1623  i  repriated  in  tbs  appendix  to  hia  Conm.  el  Sola 
CritKiE,  Amat.  1689).  It  wu,  that  tbese  points  wen 
iDvented  by  tbe  Jaws  of  Tiberiai  aonie  aix  handred 
years  sabsequsntly  to  the  death  of  Christ;  whareaa 
BoxtortT  held  them  to  be  coeval  with  the  language. 
The  o)nnIoa  of  Cappellus  has  since  been  generally  re- 
ceived. His  greatest  work  was  the  Criliea  Sacra,  coo. 
tilning,  among  many  other  learned  and  valuable  dis- 
settatlnns,  a  collection  of  various  readings  and  errora 
which  had  crept  Into  the  text  of  tba  Bihie.  He  was 
occnpied  tbirty-alx  years  upon  this  work,  which  the 
Protestants  so  much  disliked  that  they  hindered  the 
impression  of  it,  and  it  was  not  given  to  the  public  un- 
til 166D,  when  John,  hit  son,  who  Joined  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Church  of  Rome,  obtained  leave  of  the 
kinit  to  print  it.  Bnxtor(r(the  son)  criticised  it  sharp- 
ly, and  also  bitterly  attacked  Cappellus  for  hia  theory 
of  tbe  vowel  pcdnts  in  his  TrtKtatu*  df  Punclnnm  OrL 
g'me,  etc.  (Baml,  1618 ;  Sd  part  1651,  tto).  Cappellua 
replied  in  a  Juita  difttuio  (printed  in  later  editions  of 
the  Crimea  Sacra).  He  brthar  published,  on  the  text 
aH\\e  Q.T.,DialrSade  MTU  tt  Aatiqidt  Ebraonim  li- 
tem (Amat.  1845, 12mo),  in  reply  to  Buitorif.  A  new 
edition  of  tbe  CrU.  Hoc.  appeared  at  Italia  (1775-86)  in 
»  vols.  8vo.  In  1610  he  visited  OxfoH.  He  died  at 
Saumur,  June  18, 1658.  Among  his  other  works  are, 
JliiloHa  ApodoSca  Uinttrata  (Geneva,  16U,  llo;  and 
in  tba  l^ndon  edition  o(tiaCritimSacra,lWKiy.~-Spi- 
eUrgmmpoil  aussem,  a  collection  of  criticisms  on  tlie 
Mew  Testament  (Geneva,  1633, 4to]  -.-De  critica  nuper 
a  H  fdUa  ad  lta>,  vinna  D.  Jacob.  Uufnnm,  A  rmaca- 
Mtn  n  Hibtntia  Bpite^uni,  l^iitoia  Apologel.  (Salm. 
16A1,  4to);— CbmawWani  tl  Kola  Critiea  m  Vet.  Tnl. 
(Anut.  1689,  (bl.).  A  full  list  is  given  by  Haag,  1^ 
FrmaPr«aliutU,^lm\  in  Nieeron,  voL  ixii  j  and 


,  of  his 


CrMca  »  V.  T.  (Amst.  1689,  fol.),  which  also  glvaa  hi- 
ographlcal  akatchH,  under  the  title  De  CappeUmvm 
Cenle,  of  tba  distingniahad  members  of  the  Cappel  fam- 
ily. His  Correspondence  with  Usher  is  given  in 
Parr's  Collection  of  Usher's  Letters.  He  also  wrote 
Chroaolvpa  Saera  (1656,  4to),  reprinted  among  the 
prolegomena  of  Walton's  Polyglot  —  lloafer,  A'ouo. 
J)i>^.  Giiterale,  viii,  616 ;  llent^,  Real-Eneyklopad:e,  ii, 

Captain  is  the  rendering,  in  tbe  Anth.  Vers.,  of 
numerona  Hob.  and  several  Greek  words,  of  which  the 
fallowing  only  raqnire  special  elocidstion.  For  the 
*73.  jtort",  rendend  "captains,"  2  Kings  xi,  i,  19, 
see  Chbbsthttbs, 

(1 .)  A*  a  pnrely  mflitaty  title,  captain  answers  to  -i^^ 
sar,  in  the  Hebrew  army,  and  jiXfapx«C  (irAioiu)  in 
the  Roman.    So*  Abni.    Tbe  "captain  oftha  guard" 


CAPTAIN 

CffTporoTtJdpOTC)  spoken  of  in  Acta  zzvlii,  16   w»» 

tbe  Pnetorian  prafiet.     See  Crbcihoumt,  p.  SIS,  b. 

(3.)  'I'^xp,  iaUm',  which  Is  occaalonallj  renderad 

\Iilain,  applies  sometimes  to  a  military  (Joah.  x,  S4  ; 

Judg.xi,6,ll;  Isa.xxli,Sj  Dan.  li,  18),  sometimea 

civil  command  (e.  g.  Isa.  1, 10 ;  UI,  6) :  its  ndicml 

«  is  divitiim,  and  hence  dititio»  withont  lefervnca 

le  means  employed :  the  term  illustrates  the  doabia 

office  oftbe  SCUi,  siicfticf',  or  ({ie(iifar("  Judge").     Sea 

(8.)  V-iti,  (AofuA'  (Exod.  xlv,  7;  xv,  *;  1  Sam. 
xxili,  8;  IKlngaix,  »;  !  Kings  lx,35i  x,  16;  xv, 
Sil  IChron.xi.lli  xil.lH;  8  Chron.  vill,  9;  "lord," 
i  Kings  vil,  !,  IT,  19;  Eiek.  ziiii,  23;  "  prince:," 
Eiek.  xiiil,  16),  prop,  a  tUrd  man,  1.  e.  one  of  tbrM, 
Gr.  TpuirnriK:,  a  higher  order  of  soldiers,  wiio  foagbt 
from  chariots,  duirii>l-iiiarrior§  (Exod.  ziv.  7;  iv,  4; 
I  Kings  ix,  ffij  iynPirm.  wopn^riro.,  Horn.  Iliad, 
xiiii,  S!i  Eurip.  fappfic.  679);  employed  also  for  the 
body-gustd  of  kings  (1  Kings  Ix,  33;  3  Kings  x.  S5; 
1  Chron.  xi,  11 ;  xii,  18).  The  Sept.  has  rpun-drai,  i. 
e.  according  to  Origen  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (in  tbe 
Colour),  "soldiers  Oghting  trom  chariots,"  and  po 
called  because  each  chariot  contained  lArrt  soldiers, 
one  of  whom  managed  tbe  horses,  while  tbe  other  trso 
fought  (comp.  Ewald,  GeidL  Iir.  li,  81).  For  although 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments  nsnally  bat  one,  or  at 
most  two  appear  in  the  war-chariots,  yet  occasionally, 
as  certainly  in  the  Asajrian  bas-nliefs,  in  addition  to 
the  driver  and  the  warrior,  an  armor-bearer  or  unibrcU 
la-bearer  la  depicted  as  standing  in  tbe  chariot,  who 
mi)(ht  properly  lie  termed  termtriuM,  or  a  Mrd  mam. 
Seo  CHAniOT.  It  is  true  the  Hebrew  army  did  Dot 
originally  conaict  of  cavalry,  although  chariots  wciw 
in  use  among  the  Canaanlles,  and  the  first  occurrencea 
of  the  term  C''bd  an  in  connection  with  tbe  E|^p- 
tlans ;  but  at  a  later  date  a  chariot-squadron  was  or- 
inniied  (1  Kings  x,  36;  comp.  ix,  9;  v,  6;  >  Sam. 
viil,  4).  Consequently,  it  ti  not  strange  that  amoDV 
tbe  battalions  of  Dsvid  and  Solomon  (3  Sam.  xxili,  8) 
there  should  be  named  as  ■  prominent  hero  the  leader 
of  these  iliaSihm  (-l?Vrll  y*vn,  or,  l»lher,  B-'tiirrj; 
comp.  Geeeniua,  IMrgtb.  p.  fiSS;  BSttlcher,  Sprc.  p. 
SS  sq. ;  Ewald,  Gramm.  liib.  5th  ed.  $  IB3,  c.  177  a). 
Solomon's  chariot-men  C<^£3d)  are  mentioned  (I 
Kin;tBii,33-,  3  Chron.  viii,  9)  aj  next  tothe  pnefects 
of  his  chariot-force  (iSSTI  ^?4^)<  After  the  timea  of 
Solomon  there  certainly  were  cfaariot^ombatants  (esse- 
darii)  as  myal  officers  in  tbe  nortbem  kingdom,  and 
in  the  reign  of  Jehu  runners  and  charioteers  (a'"3"in 
D'^atrni')  Ibrmad,  as  It  were,  the  king's  Pr»torlan 
cohort  (2  Kings  x,  85);  and  the  chief  of  these  Preto. 
rians  (called  by  eminence  tJ-'^'Kri  or  TlVan  C^lj) 
was  among  the  most  noble  of  tbe  regal  attendants  (q. 
d.  adjutant-general).  Accordingly,  Joram  had  an  ot- 
ficer  of  this  title,  "  on  wbow  hand  the  king  leaned" 
(2  Kings  ^il,  9, 17, 19) ;  Jehu's  charioteer  was  Bidkar 
(3  KlnRS  ix,  26);  and  Pekah  bold  thia  eminent  office 
under  i'ekahiah  (2  Kings  xv,  36).  Others,  however 
(after  Dmniua),  hold  that  the  d''bl3  was  merely  the 
third  officer  in  rank  after  the  king,  or  commanded  a 
third  partoftbc  army  (comp.  the  Roman  rsrfiaru).  So 
the  Greek  gloasarlsts  (ap.  Dmsina  ad  Eitck.  and  in 
FragM.  Vrt.  inlrrpr.  Gr.  p.  145;  Schleusoer,  ftW.  Thf 
Maar,  a.  v.  rpurrnnif;  Duftesne,  Gloiiar.  s.  v.;  see 
Roseomttlkr,  Scholia  ad  Exod.  xiv,  7).  See  CHttr 
or  Thukk. 

(4.)  The  "naptiln  of  the  Tampla"  (ffrpnr^yic  roB 
iipov),  mentioned  l.y  Luko  (AcU  iv,  1 ;  v,  U)  in  con- 
nection with  the  priest',  was  not  a  military  officer,  but 
superintended  the  guard  of  priests  and  l^vtlea  win 
kept  watch  by  night  in  the  Temple.  Tba  "  captains" 
mentioned  Luke  xxii,  4,  were  probably  his  subalterns 


CAPTAIN  II 

TVaoffif«  ippcan  to  hare  exbtsd  from  an  earlj  data; 
tba  "print*  thatkapt  lbs  door"  (S  Kingsxll,  9;  xxv, 
18)  an  dcKiibed  by  Jowpbni  (JiK.  x,  8,  9)  u  "tbs 
oScara  Ktunling  tha  Tampla"  (roi^  fuXdooovrat  ™ 
itpir^iliitHii):  a  DDIlce  occurs  Id  S  Mace,  lii,  4,  ofa 
^nrfcct  <rf  the  Templo  (xpoffranjc  roi  jtpov) ;  thil  of- 
fcer  ii  (tjled  (mmniTic  or  captain  brJoaepbui  (Ant. 
ii.G,S;  trw,  ri,  6,  8);  «ndii)theMiahna(J/iddbfA, 
LI^jTZnin  B'!<,"tbe  capUioofthemonnUinof 
the  Tcupla  i"  tih  dutv,  u  deacribed  in  tha  place  luat 
fDotod,  WW  to  visit  tin  posU  daring  the  night,  and 
M*  tluit  the  leDtriea  wcra  doing  tlielr  dut;  (comp.  1 
Chnm.  ii,  11;  a  Chnm.  xxxi,  13;  xiiv,  8,  9;  Jot. 
XX,  1).     See  TEMPLt. 

The  nuk  or  powar  of  an  Iiraalitiah  ca^dain  was  des- 
ignated bjr  the  number  of  men  under  hie  command,  aa 
captain  of  fifty,  or  mptain  of  a  thousand  [comp.  CeH- 
Tubioh]  ;  and  the  commander  or  chief  of  tha  whole 
«rmj  wai  callod  Ib«  capt^n  of  the  host  (q.  v.).  The 
diriiioiis  of  the  army  wcr*  regulated  In  some  meunre 


>7  CAPTIVE 

b^  the  dlviaion  of  fjimili»,  as  the  headi  of  famtliai 
were  usually  officers.  Captains  of  hundredn,  or  larger 
companies,  wen  probably  what  would  la  called  In 
modem  phrase  slaff-officera,  and  formed  the  council) 
of  war.  See  Wad.  SometimBB  dladnzuishcd  men 
who  were  not  Hebrew!  were  promoted  to  high  atations 
in  the  army  (Dent,  f,  lb;  1  Chron.  xiii,  1 ;  S  Chroa. 
XXV,  6:  2  Sam.  xxlll,  89).     See  OFriotB. 

God  is  called  Captain  ("  Prince")  nf  ikt  Han  (^tj 
X^Sn,  Dan.  viil,  11),  not  as  equivalent  to  "  Lcrd  of 
HoaEi,"  but  because  be  !■  the  head  and  protortor  of 
bis  people.  So  in  the  K.  T.  our  Lord  li  oiled  Captain 
of  hli  people'i  salvation  (ripJCITuc  rSc  Bwttipiai  ai-. 
Tu,y,  Ueb.  ii,  10),  becaoHi  ha  ii  the  beginner,  saurco, 
and  antbor  of  their  salvation,  tbe  head  of  bis  Church, 
which  he  condocta,  with  and  in  himself,  to  bleuednesa 
(comp.  Josh.  T,  14).     See  Jehotab. 

CaptiTe  (properly  "^Sd,  aicU';  Gr.  ai'xiiaXuTBf) 
is  distingBiihed  tmn  a  prisoner  (q.  v.)  nr  one  In  bond- 
age (q.  v.).    See  CAPTlvtrr.    Various  indignities  and 


captive 


ant  with  halters  as  if  for  execution  (1 
Kiaii  XX,  St).  See  BEHiaTcK.  On 
HUH  occssiona  particular  diatricts  ware 
marked  out  with  ■  line  for  dntractlon 
(1  Sam.  viil,  2).  The  victnn  set  their 
bet  epon  the  neehi  (q.  r.)  of  tbe  cap- 
tured kingi  and  noblea  (Joeb.  x,  24), 
t*  mutilated  their  persons  by  cutting 
off  their  thrnnha.  Iocs,  or  ears  (Jndg.  1, 
T 1 1  Sam.  Iv,  1 ! ;  Extk.  sxiii,  3b) ;  and 
BDKtimei  they  put  out  tbeir  eyes  (q. 
V.)  hr  pasaioK  a  red-hot  iron  ovot 
them,  or  literally  scooped  or  dug  them 
mt  of  th^  sockets  (!  Kings  xxv,  7 ; 
tw.  1x1. 1).  Tbeae  cruelties  are  sHll 
[taclised  Pttder  some  of  the  despotic 
teveranwnts  of  the  Euteru  coualilea. 
See  rtsiSHMKiiT.  It  was  the  harba- 
mm  coatom  of  the  conquerors  of  those 
tim»  to  (uapend  their  nnhappjr  cap- 


Dt  AHjTiaiu  nii7ingi;apu< 


,™..irnOOglC 


CAPl'IVE  1 1 

tlTU  hy  tbs  hand  (lam.  v,  12),  and  ■!»  to  mikc  Ibem 
bow  dcnm  thit  Uw^  alight  go  over  them  (lu.  11,  2S)  ; 
lometlinea  they  wen  tbrowa  amoni;  thonu,  wen  aawn 
■sunder,  beaten  to  pieces  vith  thnibing  inatroments, 
or  hitd  iinpoeed  upon  them  Uie  eeverest  and  most  libo- 
rtou*  occnpationi  (Jndg.  viii,  7;  S  Sun.  lii,  SI;  1 
Chnn.  sx,  3).  The  soldien  who  wen  taken  vera  de- 
prired  of  all  their  propertj-  and  Hid  naked  into  urri- 
tnde.  When  (he  cit?  wu  taken  bj  assault,  all  the 
men  mre  slain  ;  the  iToroen  and  children  were  csiried 
away  captive,  and  sold  at  a  very  low  price  (Isa.  ix, 
lil,  i;  xlvli,  Sj  iChnin.  nvm,9-IS;  Psa.  xUv,  13; 
Mic.  I,  II J  Joel  iii,  S).     See  SieOB.     Sometimes  tho 


Evacuation  of  ■  capturad  CIV.  F™™  I1i«  AitjrUt 
conqueror  stripped  the  wntcbed  prisoners  naked, 
shaved  their  heads,  and  made  them  travel  in  tiut  cod- 
GLtion,  BJcpoHd  to  the  heat  of  a  vortical  Ban  bv  day, 
and  the  chilling  cold  of  the  nighl.  Nor  were  iomen 
exempted  from  this  treatment  (Isa.  ili,  IT).  To  tbem 
this  was  the  height  of  indignity,  as  well  aa  of  crnei^, 
especially  to  those  deacribed  by  the  prophets,  who  had 

Ing,  and  all  the  superfluities  of  ornamental  di 
even  whose  faces  had  hardly  ever  been  exposed  to  the 
sight  of  men.  Women  and  chlldrea  wen  also  expoaed 
to  treatmeDt  at  which  humanity  shudders  (Kab.  iii,  6. 
C;  Zech.  xiv,  i;  Esth.  iii,  IS;  S  Kings  viii,  13;  Fi 
cxixvU.9;  l9a.xili,16,I8;  2  Kings  xv,  16;  Hob.  xi  . 
16 :  Amos  i,  IB).  Sometimes  the  people  were  carried 
into  captivity,  and  transplanted  to  distant  eoualrles: 
this  was  the  cue  with  the  Jews  (Jer.  xx,  S;  xxxix, 
9,10;  xl,7;  2 Kings xilv.  12.16).  In  some  cases  tho 
conqaertd  nations  were  menly  made  tributary  (2  Sam. 
viii,  6;  3  Kings  xiv,  14).  To  be  tribuUry,  however, 
was  considered  a  great  i)^ominy,  and  was  a  source  of 
nproach  to  the  idol  deities  of  the  countries  who  wen 
thus  subjected  (3  Kings  xlx,  8,  IS).  It  was  likewiae  a 
custom  anong  the  heathens  to  carry  in  triumph  the 
images  of  the  gods  of  such  nations  aa  Ihev  had  van- 
quished (Isa.  xlvi,  1,  2;  Jer.  xlviil.  7;  Dan.  xi,  8; 
Amos  i,  16).  Still  farther  to  show  their  absolute  su- 
periorit}',  the  victorious  sovereigns  need  to  chsnge  tbe 
names  of  the  monarchs  whom  they  snbdned  (3  Kings 
xxiv,lTi  3Chron.xxxv,3],33:  xxxvl,4;  D«n.i,7). 
The  conqaerors,  however,  wen  not  always  destitute 
of  humanity.  In  many  instances  the?  permitted  the 
conquered  kings  to  retain  their  authority,  only  requir- 
ing from  them  the  promise  of  good  faith  and  the  pay- 


11  AMTrlan  PmnHlon  of  CapUveL 


Captivity  (properly  some  form  of  tho  root  Kl'^, 
thabak',  to  taix  capfive;  ^ut  frequently  expreased  by 
other  Heb.  words).  The  experience  was  sn  freqnenl  aa 
lo  have  become  a  metaphorical  expresNon  (-Tub  Kill.  10). 
The  bondage  (q.  v.)  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  and  their  suli- 
jugation  at  difl^ut  times  by  the  Philistines  and  other 
nations  [see  JuixiEa],  are  sometimes  inclnded  under 
Ihe  above  Utlo;  and  tho  Jews  themselves,  perhaps 
with  reference  to  Daniel's  vision 
(cb.  Tii),  reckon  their  national 
captivities  as  fbar— the  Babylo- 
nian, Median,  Grecian,  and  ifo- 
man  (Etsenmenger,  JiMdechti 
JiiJailluim,i,74S).  Buttbepop- 
ular  distinction  nraally  confines 
the  term  to  the  conquest  and 
dispersion  oTthe  "  ten  northern" 
tribe*  by  tbi  AssfriaDB,  the  sob- 
sequent  deportation  of  tbe  rc- 
muning  "two  tribes"  by  the 
Babylon  ians,andtheGnal  diam  p- 
„  tion  of  the  entire  Jewish  politv 

'  "™"™™"-  by  the  Romans.     See  CAmvE, 

The  word  Caplhils,  as  applied  to  the  people  of  Isra- 
el, baa  lieen  appropriated,  contrary  to  the  analogy  of 
our  langnage,  to  mean  Expatriation.     Tbe  violent  re- 
moval of  the  entire  population  of  a  city,  or  sometimes 
even  of  a  diEtrict,  Is  not  an  uncommon  event  in  au- 
dent  history.    Aa  a  measure  of  policy,  no  objection  to 
It  on  the  ground  of  humanity  was  felt  by  any  ana, 
since,  in  fad,  it  was  a  very  mild  proceeding,  la  com- 
parison with  thst  of  selling  a  tribe  or  nation  into  ala- 
veiy.     Every  such  destiuclion  of  national  exiiteace. 
even  in  modem  times,  is  apt  to  be  emiiittered  by  tho 
simultaneous  disruptaon  of  religious  bonds;  but  in  the 
ancient  world,  the  positive  sanctity  atlriliuled  to  ape- 
cinl  places,  snd  the  local  attachment  of  Deity,  made 
expatriaUon  doublj-  severe.     The  Hebrew  people,  for 
instance,  in  many  most  vital  points,  could  no  longer 
obey  their  sacred  law  at  all  when  pcrronally  removed 
from  Jerusalem ;  and  in  many  others  they  wen  forced 
loiHy  It  by  reason  of  their  chance  of  circnmstan- 
Two  principal  motives  impelled  conquering  pow- 
Ihus  to  transport  families  in  the  mass:  first^  tbe 
desire  of  rapidly  filling  with  a  valuable  populaUon 
built  for  pride  or  for  policy ;  next,  the  dc- 
i  to  break  up  hostile  organiiations,  or  dan- 
DOB  reminiscences  of  past  greatnesc.      Both  might 
ledmee  \»  combined  in  the  same  act.     To  attain 
former  object,  the  skilled  artisans  would  In  partic- 
r  be  cartied  oiTt  while  the  latter  was  bptter  effected 
by  transporting  all  the  families  of  the  highest  birth. 
md  sll  the  well-trained  soldiery.     The  Greeki  nsed 
tho  special  epithet  livdowoaTOi  for  a  population  thus 
moved  (Herod,  vj,  93,  passim). 

I.  ASSIRIAN  CAPTIVITr  OF  "  IsBAEL." — 1.   lU  Oc- 

rrrnrr.-'ThekinKdom  of  Irrsel  was  invaded  by  three 

'lur  successive  kiun  of 
L-ria,  Pnl  or  Sardan*. 
palus,  according  to  H.  Raw. 
linvon  iOutline  B/Aofriim 
llitlnrti,  p.  H  ;  but  comp. 
'i.  Rawlinson,  Berodoha,  i, 
,66).  imposed  a  tribute,  B.  C. 
ir.  763,  upon  Menabrm  (1 
Chron.  v,  2fi,  and  3  Kings 
IV,  19).  Tiglath  -  PilescT 
arricd  away,  B.C.  cir.  738, 
the  trans-Jordsnlc  tribes  (1 
Chron.v,36)  and  the  inhab- 
'-  >nu  of  Galilee  (3  King* 
r,  39 ;  compare  Isa.  is,  I) 


CAPTITITY  1( 

U  AnyriA.  SluhiuntMr  twice  Invaded  (!  Kin  i^  xvli, 
S,  S)  tlw  kingdom  which  Tcnuined  to  Hoahe*,  took  3^ 
nana,  B-C.  TSO,  after  a  aiege  of  three  jxan,  and  car- 
tiad  laiael  awaj  into  Auycia.  See  Hoshea.  In  an 
iaasipdon  interpreted  by  Rawlinsan  (HtradotuM,  i,  47S), 
the  esptnni  of  Suosria  la  claimed  by  king  Sargon  (lea. 
XK,  1)  u  hU  own  BchliTBniaat.  The  citlu  of  Samft' 
ria  were  oceapied  by  people  aent  from  Babylon,  Cn- 
(teh,  Ark,  Hamath,  and  Sepharvaim ;  and  Halah,  Ha- 
bw,  HaTK,  aod  the  river  o(  Goua  Iwcioie  the  loata  of 
tba  exiled  laraelitei.     See  IsbasLh  kihodom  of. 

Tbe  tbeory  of  thit  hiitory  ia,  that  In  the  time  of 
tbcaa  eonqii^ias  monucha  AsBrria  was  npidlj  riidng 
into  power,  and  to  a){grandiiB  NlDereh  wai  probably 
a  fiut  object  of  policy.  It  ta  thererore  credible,  aa 
Tiglatb-Pileaer  had  receivod  no  particular  proTt>catlon 
Itam  tbe  Inaelito,  that  be  carried  off  those  maaaea  of 
pepolatjon  to  atock  hia  ha|^  city  with.  Uii  succeaa- 
or  3halDMiiM**T  made  the  Iiraalltiab  kiiif;  Hoaheatrlb- 
■tary.  When  tba  tribute  waa  withheld,  he  attacked 
and  fcdnccd  Samaria,  and,  by  way  of  poslahmetit  and 
of  premUon,  tnuuported  into  Aaayria  and  Media  its 
kioK  acid  all  the  moat  Taloabla  popnlation  remaining 
to  tba  ten  trlbea  (!  Klnga  xnl,  6).  That  he  did  not 
caiTT  off  all  the  peaaanta  i>  probable  fMm  the  natnre 
of  tlM  caae ;  Hengatenberg^  howoTcr,  malntaina  the 
csDinry  (fitmuimaiitt  oftka  Failalaich,  1,  TI  aq.  Edlnb. 
tr.).  The  fkmiliea  thai  removed  were  in  a  great  meas- 
nre  aetlled  in  very  diatant  dtiea,  many  otttMm  proba- 
Uy  Bot  tai  tmta  tbe  Caafdiin  Sea,  and  (lialr  place  waa 
aap^ied  by  colonial  bom  Babylra  and  Suiia  (i  Einga 
xrii,  t'l).     See  AaarniA. 

1.  Ontditioit  of  tke  Aayj-iim  CqptRn.  —  Tbii  was 
jaelably  not  eiaentially  di^nnt  in  its  eitemal  cir- 
cnmataneea  bum  that  of  their  Judaite  brethren  snb- 
aeqaently  daring  the  exile  in  Babylon.  (See  below.) 
Wa  haow  uMtiing,  except  by  inference  from  the  Iwolc 
otTobIt  (q.  v.),  of  tbe  religiooa  or  aocial  itate  of  the 
tsaelitiah  exilai  in  Aatyria.  Doabtleia  the  conitant 
polky  of  aereobien  anccaaiive  kings  had  effectually 
eatnnged  tbe  people  fhnn  that  religion  which  centred 
in  tbe  Temple,  and  had  tedncad  tbe  number  of  bithfol 
men  below  the  7000  who  were  revealed  for  the  conso- 
latien  of  Elijah.  Some  prieala  at  leaat  were  among 
tlwn  (2  King!  xvii,  2S),  though  It  ia  not  certain  that 
tfaeae  were  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (1  Klnga  xil,  SI).  The 
people  bad  been  nurtured  for  S60  veora  In  idolatry  in 
tbefr  own  land,  when  they  de|«rted  not  (!  Kinga  xvii, 
B)  ftom  the  hub  of  Jeraboam,  notwithatanding  tlw 
proximity  of  the  Temple,  and  the  aacceuion  of  in- 
•pired  pinpheta  (!  Kingi  xvii,  IS)  among  them.  De- 
|«ived  of  tbaaa  checka  on  their  natural  inelinationa  (! 
Kings  xvii,  Ifi).  torn  from  their  native  soil,  deatitute 
ef  a  hereditary  iiing,  they  probably  became  more  and 
BMre  cloaely  asalmliated  to  their  heathen  neigbbora  in 
Uedla.  And  when,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  a 
coDtory,  they  were  joined  by  the  Arst  exilea  from  Je- 
raaalem,  very  ft*  bmilies  probably  retained  sufficient 
bith  in  tbe  God  of  their  fathera  to  appreciate  and  fol- 
low the  inatmction  of  Eiekiel.  Bat  whether  they 
wan  many  or  few,  tiieir  genealogies  wen  proViahly 
tatL,  a  fnaion  of  tbetn  with  the  Jewa  took  place,  Israel 
eeaaing  tocnvy  Jndab  (l»a.  xi,  18);  and  Eiekisl  may 
have  aeen  bia  own  lymbolical  pri^beey  (xixvii,  IS- 
IS) pntiy  talfllled. 

lis  utlon  tbna  tnnaported  by  the  monarehs  of 
Aai^Tia  and  Babylon  wen  treated  with  no  unneo»- 
KiT  hanbaeaa,  even  under  the  dynaaty  that  captured 
IbHB.  So  far  were  they  from  the  condition  of  towb- 
laca  (which  the  word  "captive"  suggests),  that  ttie 
book  of  Suaanna  repreeenti  their  elders  in  Babylon  as 
retaining  tbe  power  of  life  and  death  over  their  own 
peopla  (i,  SB),  when  Daniel  was  aa  yet  a  very  young 
Ban.  The  antbority  of  that  book  cannot  indeed  be 
fuewJ  aa  to  tba  cbnnology,  yet  tba  notlcei  given  bv 
Eaekld  (xlv,  1 ;  xx,  1)  concur  in  tbe  general  tmct  that 
they  Kill  bald  an  inlamal  Juriadictlon  over  their  own 


i9  CAPTIVITY 

memben.  At  a  later  time,  under  tba  Seleudda,  we 
have  distinct  proof  that  in  the  prindpal  dtiea  tbe  Jewa 
wen  governed  liy  an  officer  (iSvapxricl  of  their  own 
nation,  as  also  In  Efiypt  under  tbe  Ptolamiei.  The 
book  of  Tobit  exhibits  Israelitei  in  Media  poasessed  of 
slaves  themselves  (viii,  IB);  the  book  of  Daniel  tells 
na  of  a  Jew  in  eminent  political  station,  and  that  of 
Esther  celebimtea  their  power  and  consequence  in  the 
Persian  empire.  Under  the  Seleucida  [see  Aktio- 
chub]  they  were  occasionally  important  as  garrison, 
soldiers ;  and  it  may  t>e  suspected  that,  on  the  whole, 
their  lot  WIS  milder  than  tbat  of  the  other  conqatred 


imong 


rhich  th 


3.  EttHtual  Fate  oflht  Kriia  v>  Jnyna.— Many  at- 
tempts have  been  mads  to  discover  the  ten  tribes  eX' 
istiug  as  a  diatinct  community.  Jeaephos  (^Ant.  xi,  6, 
S)  believed  that  In  bia  d-iy  tbey  dwelt  In  twge  multi- 
tudes somewhere  beyond  the  Euphrates,  in  Araareth, 
according  to  tbe  author  or2  Bad.  xiii,  <G.  Rabbinical 
traditions  and  fables,  committed  to  writing  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  assert  tbe  same  fact  (Ugbtfoot,  For.  Btbr. 
in  1  0>r.  xlv.  Appendix),  with  many  Diarvelloua  am- 
pliflcatlons  (Eisenmenger,  tml.  Jud.  vol.  ii.  ch.  x; 
Jibn,  Hebron  CammaHemM,  App.  Lk.  vi).  Tbe  imag- 
ination of  Christiaa  writers  has  sought  them  in  the 
neighborhood  of  tbeir  laat  recorded  habitation  ;  Jewish 
features  have  been  traced  In  the  Affvbsn  tribes;  m- 
mon  are  beard  to  this  dcy  of  a  Jewish  colony  at  the 
tbot  of  the  Hlmalayaa ;  the  Black  Jews  of  Malabar 
ckim  affinity  with  them ;  elaborate  attompta  have  been 
made  to  identity  tbem  with  tbe  Tartara  (G.  Fletcher, 
Iimel  Redux,  Loud.  1677),  and  mon  recently  with  the 
KestorUns  (Grant's  KaUtriani.  M.  T.  1841),  and  in  tba 
seventeenth  century  with  the  Indians  of  North  Ameri- 
ca. But,  tboDgb  history  bean  no  witness  of  their 
pnsent  distinct  existence,  it  enables  as  to  track  tba 
footsteps  of  tba  departing  race  In  foot  dinctions  aftet 
the  time  of  the  Captivity:  (1.)  Some  ntumed  and 
mixed  with  the  Jewa  (Luke  il,  BS;  Hiil.  iii,  6,  etc.). 
(2.)  Some  were  left  In  Ssnuria,  mingled  with  the  Sa- 
maritans (Ezra  vi,  SI ;  John  ir,  IS),  and  became  bitter 
enemies  of  the  Jews.  (8.)  Many  remained  In  Assyria, 
and,  mixing  with  tbe  Jews,  formed  colonies  through- 
out the  East,  and  were  recognised  as  an  integral  part 
of  the  Dispersion  (see  Acts  ii.  9 ;  xxvi,  7 ;  Bnchanan'a 
Ckrittiim  Rtrarcin,  p.  !1S),  for  whom,  probably  ever 
since  tbe  days  of  Ein,  tbat  plaintive  prayer,  tbe  tenth 
of  the  Sknumdi  Em,  has  been  daily  offered,  "Sound 
the  great  trumpet  fbr  our  delivennce,  lift  np  a  iMnner 
for  the  gathering  of  our  exilea,  and  unite  us  all  lit- 
gather  ftum  the  fonr  ends  of  the  eartb."  (4.)  Most, 
probably,  apoatatiied  In  Assyria,  as  Prideaux  (snb 
ann.  S7T)  supposes,  and  adopted  the  nsages  and  Idola- 
try of  the  nations  among  whom  they  vera  planted, 
and  became  wholly  swallowed  up  in  tbem.  Disserta- 
tions on  Ike  Ten  Tribes  liave  been  written  by  Calmel 
(OiinniflUain  fMUrat.vo].  Iii  and  vi)  and  others  (the 
btest  by  J.  Kennedy,  I^nd.  185^) ;  also  innumerable 
essays  and  disquisitions  scattered  b  the  works  of  trav- 
eller*, and  In  tbe  pages  of  varions  periodicals,  mosUy 
of  a  highly  fanciful  character.  Every  scriptural  inti- 
mation respecting  them,  however,  goes  to  show  that 
tbey  shared  the  nltlnule  history  of  their  bntbren  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judab  transported  to  tbe  same  or  ad- 
joining parts.     See  below. 

II.  Babtloriak  Captivitt  ot  "  Jddah."^ — 1.  Tft 
AriT  — Sennacherib,  B.C.  T18,  is  stated  (Ranlinson, 
OuaiiK.  p,  84;  but  comp,  Demetrias  ap.  Clem.  Alex- 
and.  SIramata,  i,  SI,  Incorrectly  quoted  as  confirming 
the  statement)  to  have  carried  into  Assyria  SOO.OOO 
captives  f^om  the  Jewish  dtiea  which  be  tooli  (S  Kinga 
xvlii.  13).  Nebuchsdnesasr,  early  in  his  reign,  B.C. 
6WT-.5fi2,  npeatedly  Invaded  Judna,  and  finally  be. 
sieg>d  Jerusalem,  carried  away  tbe  Inhaliltanti  to 
Bsliylon,  and  destroyed  the  city  snd  Temple.  Two 
distinct  deportations  are  mentioned  in  S  Kings  xziv, 
14,  and  XXV,  111  one  in  S  Cbron.  xxxvl,  !0;  three  in 


CAPTIVITY  11 

Jcr.  Ill,  S8,  M,  >nd  one  In  Dui.  i,  S.  The  two  prlad- 
|m1  daportMioDi  wen,  (I)  tbit  which  took  pUu  B.C. 
S[ie,«heD  Jehdachm,wiUia]lt>i«nolilH,w>ldMn,uid 
trtiaeera  wsr«  carried  «»ay;  Knd  (i)  that  which  fol- 
lowed th«  dutrnction  of  the  Temple  and  the  captnrs 
of  Z»deki«h,  B.C.  688.     " 


IS  miij'  hare  beea  the  contribationi  oTa  panic-  \ 

ular  clau  or  dlitrict  lo  the  general  captlritj ;  or  tbfj 
may  have  taken  place,  under  the  orden  of  Nebtichad- 
ni-zur,  befure  or  efur  the  two  principal  deportatiooi. 
The  third  tslocatcdbythadate  in  B.C.  6«!.  The  cap- 
tirit}'  of  certain  selected  children,  B.C.  607,  mentioned 
liy  Uoniel  (i,  8,  B),  who  wai  one  of  them,  maj'  have  oc- 
curnsd  when  Nebuchadnezzsr  (q.  r.)  wia  colleaguo  or 
lieutfniuit  of  hia  father  NabopuiaMar,  a  year  before  he 
rel.j:nod  alone.  The  captivity  of  Eiekiel  (q.  v.)  dates 
^Wm  B.C.  6SS,  when  that  prophet,  like  Morttecai,  the 
unde  of  Eather  (il,  6),  accompanied  Jehoiachin. 

There  is  a  difficnity  in  tha  statement  with  which  the 
book  of  Daniel  opens,  which  is  generally  Interpreted 
to  mesn  that  in  llie  (A'VJ  fear  of  Jehoiaklni,  Nebu- 
chadneiur  besieged  and  captured  Jeriiulcm,  partially 
plundered  tha  Temple,  and  CATried  oiT  the  first  portion 
of  the  people  into  captivity,  amon^  wbotn  was  Daniel. 
The  text,  however,  does  not  explicitly  say  to  much, 
aithoaich  Bach  is  the  obvloos  meaning;  but  if  this  is 
the  only  Interpretation,  wa  find  It  in  direct  collision 
with  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  (which  assign 
to  Jeholakim  an  rltvtn  years'  reign),  as  also  witli  Jer- 
emiah XIV,  I.  The  sUtement  in  Daniel  partly  rests 
on  3  Chion.  zxxvi,  G,  which  is  itself  not  in  perfect  ac- 
cordancv  with  2  Kings  sxiv.  In  the  earlier  history, 
the  war  broke  out  during  the  reign  of  Jeiiolakim,  who 
died  Itefore  its  close ;  and  when  liis  son  and  successor 
Jehoiachin  had  reigned  three  months,  the  city  and  its 
king  were  captured.  But  in  the  Chronicle*,  the  same 
event  is  made  tj  happen  twice,  at  an  Interval  of  three 
months  and  ten  days  (2  Chron,  sxxvi,  9  and  9),  and 
even  thus  we  do  not  obtnln  accordance  with  the  re- 
ceived interpretation  of  Daniel  i,  1-8.  It  seems,  on  the 
'whole,  tho  easiest  snpponition  that  "tho  third  jKnr  of 
Jeboilii'fH"  la  there  a  mistaks  for  "the  third  moitIA  of 
JebolaMiK."  Mengstenbcrg,  however,  and  Divemick 
■lefend  the  common  readia^:,  and  think  they  reconcile 
it  with  the  other  acconnta ;  which  may  not  nnrauson]!- 
bly  be  done  by  understanding  the  date  in  Dan.  i,  T,  to 
refer  to  the  itUing  imt  of  Nebuchadneaiar  on  the  C-im- 
pilgn  in  qnestion.     See  Jedah,  KiyoDOM  of. 

There  has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  how  the  TO  years  of  captivity  spnken  of  by.lercmiab 
(uv,  1! ;  jciix,  10)  are  to  be  estimated.     Aptausiblo 

the  first  Temple.  B.C.  &SR,  to  the  finishing 
and.  B.C.  blS;  but  the  words  of  the  text  so  ppecify 
"the  punishing  of  the  king  of  Babylon"  as  the  end  of 
the  TO  year«_which  gives  us  the  date  B.C.  bSa— that 
many,  with  Jahn,  cling  to  the  belief  that  a  Ant  captiv- 
ity took  place  in  the  third  year  of  Jehc4akiin,  B.C.  605. 
But,  in  fact,  if  we  read  Jeremiah  himself,  it  may  ap- 
pear that  In  ch.  xxv  he  intends  to  compute  the  TO 
years  Itmia  the  time  al  n-Urh  he  tptakt  (vcr.  1,  "in  tho 
fonrthyearof  Jcbobkim,"i.f.  B.C.  604);  and  that  in 
xxlx,  10,  tile  number  "seventy  years"  is  still  kept  tip, 
in  remembrance  of  tho  former  prophecy,  ilthouKh  the 
lanKUOge  there  lued  is  veri-  lax.  There  seem,  in  (act, 
to  be  two,  if  not  more,  coordinate  modes  of  comput- 
ing the  period  in  question,  used  br  tho  sjcred  writen^ 
one  ciriJ^  and  extending  from  the  Hrst  invasion  by 
Nebuchadneaiar  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus  B.C.  COS-SSK), 
and  the  other  ffeirth^ical,  from  the  Iraming  of  the 
Temple  to  its  reconstruction  (ll.C.  6»«-517).  Sea  Suv- 
KXTt  Yeaks'  CaftIVity. 

S.  fCi  £rfn<.— Jeremiah  dates  hy  the  years  of  Neb. 
DchodneiKar's  rtien,  and  estimates  that  in  bi>  seventh 
year  3023  were  carried  ofl;  In  his  eighteenth  832,  and 
in  his  twenty-third  only  74S,  making  in  all,  as  the 
writer  ia  careful  lo  note,  4600  (Jer.  Hi,  28,  etc.).     Tha 


0  CAPTIVITY 

third  removal  ha  ascribes  to  Nebuaaradan,  the  Baby- 
lonian general.  That  some  misundentanding  here 
exists,  at  least  in  the  mimbfrf,  appears  undeniable ;  for 
4600  persons  was  a  very  petty  fhution  uf  the  Jewiab 
people;  and,  in  fact,  42,360  are  stated  to  have  returned 
immediately  upon  the  decree  of  Cyrus  ( Eire  il,  61).  In 
!  Kings  xxiv,  S-IS,  we  find  18,000  carried  off  at  once, 
in  the  third  month  of  king  Jehoiachin,  and  In  tbe  eighth 
year  of  Nebuchadoeaiar,  which  evidently  la  tho  aamo 
as  tho  firat  removal  named  by  Jeremiah.  After  thir, 
the  vassal  king  Zedokiah  having  rohelied.  his  city  la 
beleaeucred,aiid  finally, in  his  eleventh  year.liredaced 
by  NehnciudnezEar  in  person ;  and  in  tho  » 


(S  Kings  XIV,  8),  Nebuiaradan  cirries  away  aU  the 
popnlation  except  the  peasants.  Perhaps  we  need  not 
wonder  that  no  miDtlon  ia  made  in  tbe  book  of  Klnga 
of  the  tbiid  deportation,  lor  the  account  of  tbe  destrnc. 

sion.  Tho  first  expatriation  was  directed  to  swell  the 
armies  and  strengthen  the  towns  ofthe  conqueror;  for 
oflhel8,000lhencarriod«way, 1000  were  "craftsmen 
and  smiths,  all  streng  and  apt  for  war,"  and  TOGO  of 
the  restarc  called  "mighty  men  of  Tslnr."  (Vettbera 
Is  an  uncertslntv  about  versea  14  and  16  in  i  Kings 
xxlv.  Prebohly  here,  as  well  as  in  Jer.  Uil,  kadi  of 
famHitt  only  are  soonted.)  It  was  not  until  tho  re- 
bellion of  Zedaklah  that  Nabnchadneiiar  proceeded  lo 
the  extremity  of  breakbig  up  tho  national  existence. 
As  the  Temple  was  then  huiiit,  with  all  the  palaces 
and  the  city  walls,  and  no  govemnient  was  left  but 
that  of  tbo  BalylonlaD  satrap,  this  latter  date  is  evi- 
dently the  true  era  of  the  ca|rtlvliy.  rrerioualy  Zed. 
ckiah  was  tributary,  hut  so  were  Joaiafa  and  Abai  long 
before ;  tliB  uatioiial  existence  was  sUll  aared.     See 


3.  }U  eoiKparaliiie  MiibirMi. — The  captive  Jews  wrra 
probably  prostrated  at  tir<t  by  their  great  calamity, 
tUI  the  glorious  vision  of  Ezckiel  (1, 1)  in  the  fifth  year 
ofthe  captivity  revived  and  reun'ted  tliom.  Tbe  wishes 
oftheir  conqueror  were  satisAed  when  he  had  di:>played 
his  power  by  transporting  tbem  into  anather  land,  and 
gratified  bis  pride  by  inscribing  on  the  walls  of  the 
royal  palace  his  victorious  progress  aod  tbe  number  of 
bis  captives.  He  could  not  have  designed  simply  to 
increase  the  population  of  Babylon,  for  bia  Assyrian 
predecessor  had  sent  liabylonian  colonists  into  Sama- 
ria. One  political  end  certainly  waa  attained  — thn 
more  easy  govemmont  of  a  people  sepsrated  from  loral 
traditions  and  associations  (roo  Gesenius  on  Isa.  xxvi, 
16.  and  compare  Gen.  xlvii,  21).  It  was  also  a  great 
advantage  to  the  Assyro-Bjbyionian  king  to  remove  , 
,  from  the  Egyptian  bmdor  of  his  empire  a  people  who 
'  were  notoriously  well  affected  toward  Giypt.  Tho 
I  captive*  wen  treated  not  aa  slaves,  but  as  colonirts. 
'  There  was  nothing  to  hinder  a  Jaw  from  rising  to  tho 
highest  eminence  in  the  otite  (Dan.  li,  48),  or  hoUing 
the  most  confldential  office  near  the  person  of  tbe  kin  ; 
(Neh.  i,  11 ;  Toblt  i,  1.1,  2i).  The  advice  of  Jeremiah 
(xxLi,  &,  etc.)  was  generally  followed.  Tha  exiles  in- 
creased In  nnmben  and  in  wealth.  They  obaerved 
thBMDsaiclaw(Eslb.ili,8;  Tobitxlv,9).  Theykept 
up  distinctions  of  rank  among  themselvea  (Eiek.  xx, 
3).  And  though  the  assertion  in  the  Talmod  he  nn- 
snppotted  by  proof  that  tliey  assigned  thus  early  to 
one  of  their  couDtrvmen  the  title  of  Head  ofthe  Cap. 
tivUy  (or  captain  oir  the  people,  2  Esd.  v,  16),  it  is  cer- 
tain that  they  at  least  preserved  their  genealogical 
Ubles,  and  were  st  no  loss  lo  tall  who  was  the  rightful 
heir  lo  David's  thmne.  They  had  neither  place  mr 
time  of  national  gathering;  no  temple,  and  they  ofllir. 
rd  no  sacrifice.  But  the  rita  of  circumcision,  and  tbalr 
laws  respecting  food,  etc.,  were  observed ;  their  prieala 
were  with  them  (Jer.  xxix,  1);  and  possibly  tbe  piac. 
ties  of  erecting  synagogues  in  everj-  'ity  (Acts  xv,  M) 
waa  begun  by  the  Jews  in  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
The  captivity  is  not  irlthont  contampomieou*  liters 


CAPTIVITY  111  CAPTIVITY 

aim.  In  tbe  ipocrTpIul  Look  DfTobH,  which  it  gtin- 1  (ion  torraMm  "hi*  &lhan'  lepiilcbna,"  udlhe  mill 
taSy  bclNr«d  to  be  i>  mbttura  of  poMicil  fletioD  with  |  of  hb  uative  citj,  ajid  is  unt  to  JtruHlcm  with  Urge 
hirtorlol  iHta  teconied  by  &  eoirtcniporary,  ws  htre  i  poirnn.  Thii  \t  the  criua  which  decidsd  tha  niUonil 
■  picture  of  dio  inner  lifo  of  ft  funilT  of  tba  tribe  of  Testuratioa  of  the  Jewiih  people;  for  bcfoni  th^  tity 
K«{i)rt>li,  emong  tba  eaptivti  whom  Shklmuuer  wu  fbrtiBcd  the}' bid  no  defence  (gaiDit  the  now  con- 
bnMigfat  to  NlncTeh.  The  lyociTptial  book  of  Biracb  firmed  enmit]:  of  their  Samaritan  Deigbbon  j  sod,  in 
■eenia,  in  Hr.  I^vard'i  opinioii,  to  have  been  wriltea  lad,  before  the  walhi  could  be  built,  vereral  princea 
by  COM  wbo>«  afea,  like  tboae  of  Eieklet,  ware  familiar  around  were  able  to  oEer  great  oppoiitJon.  Set  Sas- 
wkh  the  pgantic  Ibrma  of  An^'rian  acaipture.  Sev-  uai.i^t.  The  Jawiab  popaUtion  was  overwhelmed 
enl  of  the  Paalnu  appear  to  expreu  the  lentimeuta  of  with  debt,  and  bed  geDerally  mortgaged  their  liltta 
Jew*  who  were  either  partaken  or  witneuee  of  tbe  eatitea  to  the  rich  ;  but  Nehemiah'a  influence  ancceed- 
ABTiiaii  captivlt;.  Ewald  awlgna  to  thii  period  Paa.  ed  in  bringing  about  a  genenl  forfeiture  of  detir,  or, 
iBi,  xliii,  lixiiT,  xvii,  iti,  ilix,  iili,  i»v,  xxiviii,  '  at  least,  of  interest  i  after  which  we  maj-  regord  the 
lizxHii,  il,  lux,  cix,  li,  ixxi,  ixv,  ixiiv,  Izxxii,  '  new  order  of  things  to  iiave  lieen  finally  eitablithcd  in 
xtT,  cEs,  cxii,  cxiili,  exxx,  czxxL  Alio  in  Pu.  Judcs.  See  Kehemiah.  Fmm  tbia  time  forib  il  ia 
Ixn  we  aeem  (o  have  the  worda  of  an  Israelite,  dwell-  probal.ie  that  numeroui  hmiliei  returned  in  small  par- 
ing pertiapa  in  Jodasa  (2  Chron.  xv,  9)  xxxi,  6),  who  tica,  *■  to  a  secare  home,  Bntil  all  the  wute  land  in 
h*d  Men  tlie  departure  of  bla  countrymen  to  Aaayria ;  .  tbe  neigbborhood  was  reoccupied. 
and  in  Pm.  cxxxvii  an  outpouring  of  the  lint  intense  '  The  greet  maaa  of  tbe  Israetitith  race  nevertheleca 
f»lingx  of  a  Jewish  exile  In  Baliylon.  Bat  il  la^m  i  remained  in  the  lands  to  which  they  bad  bern  srat- 
tbe  three  great  prophati — Jeremiah,  Eiekiel,  and  Dan-  ^  tered.  Previous  to  the  captivity,  many  If raellles  had 
ill — that  we  IcBm  most  of  tbe  condition  of  the  cliildren  i  aettled  in  Egypt  (Zecb.  x,ll;  Isa.  xIx.lB),  and  many 
of  tha  captivity.  Tbe  distant  waralDgB  of  Jeramiab,  [  Jews  anemard  fled  thilher  trtan  Kebuiaradan  (Jer. 
adriaing  and  cheering  them,  tbilowed  them  into  As-  i  zli,17).  Othen  appear  to  have  ettaUiahed  Ibemseivct 
tyria-  There,  for  a  few  years,  they  bad  no  prophetic  in  Sbeba  (see  Joat's  CrKkirltit,  etc.),  where  Jewish  in- 
IC^da:  till  aoddenly  tlM  vision  of  Eiekkl  at  Chebar  I  floence  liecame  very  powerful.  See  SxXBa.  Among 
(in  tbo  immediate  vicinity  of  Nineveh,  according  to  those  that  rrtomed  to  Jodsa,  aboat  £0,000  are  apecl- 
I^yard,  or,  according  to  othcri.  near  Carcbemisb  on  lied  (comp.  Eira  ii  and  Meh.  vii)  aa  belonging  to  the 
Iba  Eapbratea)  aasnred  them  that  the  glory  wliicb  ^  tribes  of  Jndah,  Beiijainin,  and  Levi.  It^sbecnln- 
GOed  tba  Temple  at  Jensalem  waa  not  hopelessly  <  ferred  (Prldeaux,  sub  ann.  5£E)  that  tbe  remaining 
wiAdiawn  ftom  tbe  outcast  people  of  God.  Aa  Jere-  12,000  belonged  to  tbe  tribes  of  Uisal  (comp,  Eara  vi, 
mkh  warned  them  of  coming  noe,  so  Eiekiel  Uught  17).  Also  from  the  fact  that  out  of  the  twen^-foor 
Itwin  how  to  bear  that  which  waa  come  upon  them.  ,  counea  of  priests  only  four  returned  (Ear*  ii,  S6),  it 
When  Exekieldied,  aftar  pasabg  at  least  twenty-seven  haa  been  inferred  that  tbe  whole  pumber  of  exilea  who 
veara  (Exek.  xxix,  17)  In  caplivl^,  Daniel  survived  chose  lo  contiBne  in  Aaayria  was  about  six  time*  tbe 
eran  beyond  the  Return ;  and  thonfch  his  high  station  i  number  of  Ihoae  who  returned.  Those  who  remained 
and  aacetk  \itt  probably  secluded  lilm  bow  l^qnent  I  Erth,  viii,  9, 11),  and  kept  up  tbeir  national  distlnc- 
familiar  intcrcontae  with  bia  people,  be  fliled  the  place  tinn,  were  known  aa  The  Dispersion  (John  rii,  Sa ;  1 
of  chief  interpreter  of  God's  will  to  Israel,  and  gave  ,  Pet.  i,  1;  James  I,  1);  and  in  course  of  time  they 
the  moat  eonapicnova  example  of  devotion  and  obe-  aervcd  a  great  purpose  in  diiTnsing  a  knowledge  of  the 
dienea  to  hii  laws.  ,  true  God,  and  in  afiVirdlng  a  point  for  tbe  commence- 

4.  TV  Sttleratic* /ram  SoiyW— Tbe  first  great  ment  of  tbe  eSbrU  of  the  evangelists  of  tbe  Christian 
CTOit  in  the  Return  Is  the  decree  of  Cvma,  B.C.  526  faith.  See  below,  and  comp.  REITo&aTiOH  (of  He 
(which  waa  poasibly  ftmmed  by  Daniel ;  sea  Hilman,  :  Jari). 

ZfulLB/ynea^ii.B),  Incenseqnenceof  which  49,S6a  Jews  I  i.  Efftcu  of  Ihe  Captirily.—lbB  exile  wu  a  period 
at  Babyhn  retnmed  under  ShexhliaiEar,  with  73117  of  cbanm  in  the  vernacular  langntga  of  tbe  Jews  (see 
slavea,  beaidea  cattle.  Thia  ended  in  their  building  Neb.  viii,  8.  and  comp.  CbAldee  Lakocaok)  and  in 
tbealtsr,  and  laying  tbe-fbundation  of  tbe  second  Trm-  ,  the  nstional  character.  The  Jews  who  returned  were 
pie.  fifty-three  yean  after  the  destmctiDn  of  the  flrst.  remarkably  &ee  from  the  old  sin  of  Idolatry  i  a  great 
Tbe  prognaa  of  tbe  wurk  was,  however,  almost  imme-  ,  spiritual  renovation,  in  accordance  with  tbe  divine 
dialely  stopped;  for  Zenibbabel,  Joshua,  and  the  rest  promise  (Exek.  xxxvl,  21-I8),  waa  wntupbt  in  them, 
abrni^y  refaaed  all  help  from  the  balf-heathen  inhab-  A  new  and  deep  feeling  of  reverence  for  at  least  tlie 
itaoU  of  Samaria,  and  soon  felt  tbe  eStcta  of  the  en-  letter  of  the  law  and  tbe  inatitntlona  of  Hoses  wis 
mity  thna  induced.  That  tbe  mind  of  Cyms  waa  probably  a  result  of  the  nligloUB  service  which  was 
rhaaged  by  their  intrigues  we  are  not  informed,  but  performed  in  tbe  synagogues.  At  the  same  time  their 
be  waa  prebkbly  abeent  in  dialant  parts  through  con-  theoeophical  and  dBmonologicsl  views  were  developed 
lianal  war.  There  ia  tome  difficulty  in  Eira  iv  a*  to  by  their  conUct  with  Oriental  syttcma,  and  perbapa 
Ibe  Mune*  Ahasnems  and  Artaxerxee,  yet  the  general  by  tbe  polemics  thereby  engendered,  and  especially 
Cicta  an  clear.  When  Darius  (Hystsapis),  an  able  by  their  review  of  tbeir  own  religious  resources,  and 
and  generous  monaich,  aacended  the  throne,  the  Jews  '  tbeir  more  careful  study  of  the  didactic  portions  of  the 
aeon  obtained  his  favor.  At  this  crisis  Zerubbabel  O.-T.  Scriptures;  certain  it  Is  that  fhmi  this  period 
waa  in  chief  authority  (Sbeahbusar,  if  a  different  per-  we  can  date  not  only  a  fuller  angelology  ^seeAKOXL], 
km,  perbapa  lieiuc  dead),  and  under  him  the  Temple  bat  also  mora  subtle  pbitosophical  distinctiona  [see 
vaa  rce«nn>«nced  in  the  second  tnclflnlsbedin  the  sixth  PKii.oiopHr],  and  in  particular  a  nwre  distinct  rrcng- 
yem-  of  Darius,  B.C.  S20-517,  Although  tiiis  must  be  nitlon  of  Ihe  groat  doctrines  of  the  Immortality  of  the 
reckoned  an  era  In  the  history,  it  is  not  paid  to  have  soul,  and  even  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  which 
been  accnrnpanied  with  any  new  immigntion  of  Jews,  we  sul>te(inentiy  find  so  unqoeetioned  by  the  orthodox 
We  pata  on  to  "  tha  seventh  year  of  king  Artaxerxea"  Phariseea.  See  Sects  (op  ibe  Jews),  All  this  was 
(Longimanus),  Eira  vii,  7.  1,  e.  B.C.  499,  when  Eira  the  natural  consequence  of  tbe  absence  of  Ibe  ritual 
come*  Dp  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem,  with  the  king's  servioa  of  the  Temple,  wblcb  broagbt  out  Ihe  more 
aaineDdatOTy  letters,  accompanied  by  a  large  body  spiritual  elements  of  Uosaism,  and  thus  was  tbe  na- 
ef  his  nation.  The  enameratinn  In  Etr«  viii  makes  tion  better  prepared  fbrtha  dispensation  oftb*  GospcL 
them  nnder  IMM)  males,  with  tbeir  families;  perhaps  A  new  impulse  of  commercial  enterprise  and  activity 
■mounting  lo  5000  panons,  young  and  old  :  of  whom  waa  also  implanted  In  them,  and  developed  in  tbe  daya 
IIS  an  leeooatad  aa  having  beatben  wives  (Eara  x,  of  Ibe  Ditpenion  (sea  James  iv,  13),  which  tbey  bare 
IH  43).  In  the  twentieth  year  of  tbe  same  king,  or  continued  lo  foel  avta  to  the  present  time.  In  fine, 
8.C.  Ui,  Heboniah,  Ma  eap-bearar,  gain*  hit  permit-   an  innovation  waa  ell^cted  upon  the  nairow  and  oo^ 


CAPTIVITY  1 

tided  ootSops  of  JodAinn  by  thfl  uiodAtioEU  of  tht  ex- 
ile, whieb,  »ltbaiiKh  it  resolud  io  the  dgfectlon  of 
many  tntia  ths  natiaiud  faith  (bat  of  these  few  eued 
to  return  to  their  naUve  lud),  yet — like  the  eu-Uer 
Sojourn  In  Eg7pt  (with  which,  in  the  glowing  plctnrei 
of  prophecy,  it  wu  often  compared) — ended  in  the  col- 
oniiMion  of  Palestine  with  ■  flvih  and  loore  thor-l 
onghly  coltored  popalaUon,  yet  more  Mrupulousif 
deTotad  tlian  erer  to  the  theocmUe  culttu,  who  volun- 
teered with  idoDs  »*1  to  laj  anew  the  IbundAtiona  of 
the  Halirew  polity. 

6.  TAe  Ditpermim,  4  Aiaviropii  (!  Mb«.  i,  !7 ;  Jamei 
!,1;  IPaLi,!;  Johnvil,SS;  Jo«p!iu>,  Jnt.  xil,  I,  S, 
etc.  i  Sept.  for  r\'^^,  which  it  aUo  renderg  diroici'd, 
liiTOvaaia,  eixiu^«"i'i''),  it  the  collective  nsnM  given 
to  all  tboee  deicendaats  of  the  twelve  tribei  (James  I, 
1;  rb  iuiSitapi\ov,  Acta  xzvi,  7)  irho  lived  without 
the  couflnea  of  Paleitine  (>'(u,  1  Cor.  v,  18,  etc. ;  n*^^ 
B;i?,  fi^  "¥''"<  Talmndic  Mithta),  during  the 
time  of  the  aecood  Temple.  The  number  of  eitlea, 
mostly  of  the  tribe  of  Jadah  and  Denjamla  (Eira  i,  6, 
etc.),  who  availed  themHlves  of  the  permlHlOD  of  Cy- 
nu  to  return  from  their  captivity  in  Bkbylon  to  the 
land  of  their  fithen,  icareely  exceeded,  if  indeed  it 
reached,  the  number  of  50,000  [the  total  stated  both  in 
Ezra  and  Nehemlah  ii,  exclugivg  of  (be  slaves,  43,860; 
but  the  aam  of  the  iUmi  Rivan—wlth  illgbt  dilTer- 
encBS— in  both  documents,  &lli  short  of  80,000].  Old 
Jewish  antbontles  aoe  in  this  surplus  Israelites  of  tfa; 
ten  tribes  (comp.  Btder  Olam  BcAbok,  cb.  xxix),  and 
among  these  few  bat  the  lowest  and  humblest,  or  auch 
as  bad  yielded  to  authority,  were  to  be  found  (camp.  ^ 
hna,  Kidiulki*,  iv,  1;  Gem.  Ixxl,  1).     The  grentj 


4)  were  the  gifts  they  sent  regolarl)'  for  the  aniipart 
of  the  holy  place  (gold  Instead  of  stiver  and  coppsr, 
TOt.  SIttk.  G.  2),  and  Mill  more  liberal  were  the  mono- 


tary  . 


oivalen 


Inilkol 


mdned  s. 


impire,  prafctring  the  now 
homes  in  which  they  enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  na- 
tive-born SDtiJecta,  and  where  thcj  had  in  many  catca 
acquired  wealth  and  bonora,  to  Iho  dangers  uid  diffi- 
culties of  a  recoloniiation  of  their  former  country. 
But  while,  by  the  bands  of  the  des|dHd  minvity  who 
had  bravely  gone  forth,  was  to  be  recreated  not  only 
the  Temple,  the  visible  centre  of  Judalnm,  but  also  the 
still  more  Imposiog  and  important  edifice  of  the  Jew- 
ish law  and  Jewish  culture,  to  the  much  larger  section 
which  remaned  behind,  and  gradually  diffused  itself 
over  the  wlwle  of  the  then  known  world,  It  was  given 
to  participate  In  the  intellectual  life  and  the  progrsss 
in  civilization  of  all  the  nations  with  whom  their  lot 
was  cast.  To  the  Dispertion  is  thaa  due  the  cosmopol- 
itan element  In  Judaism  which  has  added  so  vastly  not 
only  to  its  own  strength  and  durability,  but  also,  geo- 
gmphloally  at  least,  to  the  rapid  spread  of  Christianity. 
So  far,  however,  from  the  diipersioo  paving  the  way 
for  the  new  faith  by  relaxing  the  rigor  of  Jewish  law, 
written  or  oral — as  hss  been  assumed  liy  some — one 
of  the  strongest  tiea  by  which  thesa  voluntary-  exiles 
were  bound  to  Palestine  and  Jerusulem  consisted  in 
the  very  regulations  and  decisions  on  all  rilnal  and 
legal  points  which  they  received  from  the  supreme  re- 
ligious anthorities,  either  brought  back  by  their  own 
delegates,  or  transmitted  to  them  by  special  messen- 
gers from  the  Central  Court,  ths  Sanhedrim  (Aolaj 
xxviii,  21).  Generally  It  might  be  said  of  the  whole 
n'mpoTO^M  Phllo  (^■I'ort.  §7)  mid  of  that  of  Egypt: 
that  while  they  looked  upon  the  country  in  which  they 
had  been  bom  and  bred  aa  their  homo,  atlll  they  never 
ceased,  so  long  as  the  Temple  stood,  to  consider  Jem- 
calem  aa  the  splritaal  metropolis  to  which  tbelr  ejes 
and  hearts  wore  directed.  Many  were  the  pilgrimages 
undertaken  tbither  frcm  their  faT.4listant  lands  (Acts 
ii,  6,  9-11 ;  Joseph.  War,  vi,  9,  8,  etc.).  The  Talmud 
(Jer.  Mig.  iil,  76 ;  comp.  Jst.  Mrg.  c.  !)  speaks  of  do 
less  than  880  synaeognes  in  Jerusalem,  beadea  the 
Temple,  all  belonging  to  different  commnnities  of  tbe 
DispeniMi  (comp.  also  Acts  vl,  9).  Abundant  and  fkr 
•zoseding  tbe  normal  tox  of  half  a  shekel  (_aliek.  vil, 


ixirpa,  P^ilo),  for  vows,  etc.,  wbich  Sowed  fnim  all 
countries  into  the  sacred  treasury.  The  Sanhedrim 
again  reflated  the  year,  with  all  Its  sabdivieinia, 
thronghont  the  wide  circle  of  the  Dispenion ;  the  fact 
that  tlie  commencement  of  the  new  month  had  been 
officially  recognised  being  announced  aitbor  by  ho»- 
con-lires  to  the  adjoining  conntriee,  or  by  meFsengera 
to  places  more  remote.  That,  in  general,  there  exist- 
ed, as  far  as  circumstance*  permitted,  an  uninterrupt- 
ed Intercourse  betvreen  the  Jeirs  abroad  and  Ibose  in 
Palestine  cannot  be  doubted.     Probably,  owing  to  thia 

hive  existed  dnring  the  time  of  the  second'  Tein|de  ; 
tbe  youth  of  the  Dispersion  naturally  preferring  to  tb- 
sort  to  the  Tountaln-bead  of  learning  and  religious  In- 
struction In  the  Holy  City.  The  final  destruction  of 
the  Temple  and  Jeru'satem  was  thus  a  blow  hardly  l»a 
sensibly  felt  by  the  Dispersion  than  by  their  brethren 
of  Jerusalem  themselves.  From  that  time  forward  no 
visible  centre  bound  the  widely-scattered  memben  of 
ths  Jewish  nation  together ;  nothing  reoudned  to  them 
but  common  memories,  common  hopes,  and  a  conunoo 
faith. 

(a.)  Foramost  in  the  two  or  three  chief  sections  into 
which  the  Dispersion  baa  been  divided  stands  tbe  Bab- 
ylonian (I'irip  Eu^panj*.  Josephus,  Ami.  xv,  B,  1),  em- 
bracing all  the  Jews  of  the  Persian  empire,  into  every 
part  of  which  (Esth.  ili,  8)  _  Babylonia,  Media,  Per- 
ils, Sosiana,  Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  etc. — they  pene- 
;rated.  The  Jews  of  Babylonia  proper  prided  Uiein- 
wlves  on  tbe  exceptional  purity  of  their  lineage — a 
boast  unifbrmiy  recognised  throughout  the  nstion. 
What  Judna,  it  was  said,  was  wllh  respect  to  the  Dis- 
persion of  other  counlries^-^as  pnie  flour  to  dough — 
that  Babylonia  was  to  Judna  (Jems.  Talm.  Kid.  vi,  1). 
Herod  pretended  to  bsvs  sprung  lh>m  Babylonian  an- 
cestors (Joseph.  Anl.  liv,  1,  S),  and  also  bestowed  tha 
liigb-prieathond  upon  a  man  ttvta  Babylon  (Joseph. 
Ant.  XT,  2, 1).  In  the  messages  sent  bv  the  Sanhe- 
drim to  the  whole  Dispersion,  Bsbylonis' received  the 
precedence  (^ftmA.  11);  although  it  remained  a  stand- 
ing rpproach  against  the  Babylonians  that  they  bad 
held  aloof  ttom  the  nalional  cause  when  their  brethren 
returned  to  Palestine,  and  thus  had  canscd  Ibe  weak- 
ness of  the  Jewish  state  (roma,  9>i  as  indeed  lli-ing 
in  Palestine  under  any  circumstances  is  enumerated 
among  the  (ei3)  Jewish  ordinances  (Nachmanldea, 
Catm.  to  Maimonides'f  Seplitr  ffammiiBolk).  The 
very  territory  of  Babylonia  waa,  (br  certain  ritual 
purposes,  considered  to  be  as  pum  as  Paleotine  itself. 
Very  llUle  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  Bahylonlan 
Diatpva;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  ita 
condition  was,  under  Penian  as  well  as  under  Selen- 
cidlan  and  Parthian  rule,  at  moat  limes  other  than 
flourishing  and  prosperous;  each  as  we  Und  that  it 
was  when  it  offered  Hyrcantu  "honors  not  inferior  to 
those  of  a  king"  (Joseph.  A1.  xv,  !,  3).  Of  Alexan- 
der ttie  Great,  Josepbas  records  expressly  that  be  cdd- 
linned  the  former  privileges  of  tha  Jews  in  Babylonia 
(Joseph.  Am.  xl,  B,  6),  notwithstanding  their  Urm  ro- 
fusal  to  assist  lo  rebutldhig  the  temple  of  Beloa  st 
Babylon  (Hecat.  ap.  Joeeph.  Ap.  i,  Sa).  Two  great 
cities,  NIsibis  in  Mesopotamia,  and  Nehardea  on  the 
Euphrates,  where  the  moneys  intended  for  transmta- 
sion  lo  Jernsftlem  were  depodled  (Joseph.  Aa(.  zvili, 
9, 1,  3,  4,  etc.),  as  was  the  case  also  at  Apamea  In  A^ 
Ulnor,  Laodlcea  in  Pbiygia,  Pergamus  and  Adr». 
myttium  m  jEolla— seem  to  have  l>een  entirely  their 
own,  and  for  a  number  of  years  they  appear  even  to 
have  enjoyed  the  nndispoled  possession  of  a  wbide 
principality  (i*.  B).  Great  calamities  however,  befell 
them,  both  about  this  time  under  Ulthridates  {ib.  9), 
and  later  under  Cailgula,  thtougb  the  jaaloosy  of  the 


CAPTIVITY 


113 


CAPTIVITT 


OlMka  and  S7ri«iis ;  uil  at  boUi  of  tbaia  apoctu  they 
(■ngratad  in  Urg*  Damben.  Whctbtr  HMy  had  in 
tboH  tJmsB,  u  wH  BftErmrd  tha  eu^  ■  uidverullf 
mcognifled  sthnvch  mt  their  hiudj  is  opan  to  doubt, 
■Ubongh  SeAr  Ohm  Salta  enumentw  tb«  nimes  of 
fiftnen  gBneTatloni  of  loch,  down  to  the  thin)  eentuiy. 
Tb*  ttM  which  linked  Bibylonia  to  Palestine  were 
psbap*  cloacr  thui  ia  tbe  cue  of  any  other  portioa  of 
the  Divparaion,  both  on  acoouat  of  their  greater  prox- 
linltr,  which  eoabUd  tbem  to  cDDimiuiicate  bv  lieacon* 
(Hetb-Biltin  being  the  lut  HUioQ  on  the  huntlen ; 
Katk  liuMk.  U,  7),  and  of  Ibeir  rommon  Aranuiic  idiom. 
Thit  this  DbpendoD  wu  not  withont  an  inflneDce  on 
th>  dcTclopaient  of  the  ZoTouttian  nllglon  (comp. 
Kpi^Kel,  Jmtr.  to  Zmdartita),  which  in  lla  torn  a\cain 
ladaancod  Jodabm  (and,  at  a  later  ttagc,  Gnoatlciam), 
can  hmiiXj  be  doobtsd ;  at  the  ume  time,  it  wai  Bab. 
yloo  which.  i/Cei  the  final  dastmctlon  of  the  Temple, 

a  long  titas  the  apirlttul  centre  of  tbe  Jewlah  race, 
and  was  the  a«at  of  the  prince  of  the  Diaspora  (Resh 
Gelntha).      See  BabtloM. 

(t.)  Tb*  eacoDd  great  and  pre-emiaentlj  Important 
(^ronp  of  tbe  Dispersion  we  find  la  Eftypt.  Of  tbe 
origiaat  Inmigiatioos  fhim  Faleatlne  (comp.  Zech.  x,  ; 
11),  and  of  tboae  which  look  place  in  tbs  times  of  the  I 
last  klnff  of  Jndah  (Jer.  xli,  11,  IS),  we  have  no  more  I 
nrtain  ti«cea  than  of  those  nnder  ArtaxerxM  Ochus  | 
(Jonphoa,  Ap.  1,  ele.).  It  mu  only  after  Alexander  I 
the  Onat,  who  Ant  settled  BOOO  J.:wlsb  stddiers  in  tbe  | 
Thcbala,  and  peopled  a  third  of  bis  newly-founded  I 
citf  Alexandria  with  Jewi,  and  Plolemieoi,  the  son  of  j 
I^gos,  altar  him,  who  increased  the  namber  of  Efiyp.  | 
tian  Jews  by  fresh  importations  from  Palestine,  that 
the  Egyptian  Dispersion  began  to  spread  over  tlia  whole 
ceontry,  from  the  Libyan  desert  In  the  north  to  the 
tnandarhfl  of  ElhiopU  in  tbe  south  (I^ilo,  FL  ii,  523), 
orer  tho  Cyrensica  and  parts  of  Lltiya  (Joseph.  AtU, 
Sri,  7,  3  ^  and  along  tbe  borders  of  the  African  coast 
of  tbe  Ueditarranean.  They  enjoyed  eqaal  ri^-hts 
with  tbeir  felIow-eab)ects.  both  EgypUan  and  Greek 
(iffavoXirfia,  Joseph.  Ap.  11,  4,  etc.),  and  were  admit' 
tad  to  the  highest  offloes  and  dignities.  The  free  de- 1 
Telopmeat  which  was  there  allowed  them  enabled 
Uwm  to  r«ach,  under  Greek  auspices,  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  aciance  and  art.  Tbeir  artists  and  workmen  ' 
were  sent  for  to  distant  countries,  as  once  the  Phnni- 
dans  had  been  (.Tama,  ill,  8,  a. ;  Eradt.  10,  i).  In  j 
Greek  strategy  sad  Greek  ststeemanahip,  Greek  learn'  ' 
lag  and  Greek  reflnement,  they  war«  ready  disciples,  j 
From  tbe  number  of  Judao41reek  fragments,  histori- 
cal, didactic,  epic,  etc  (by  Demetrins,  Halchns,  En- 
pidemus,  Artapan,  Ariataus,  Jason,  Etechielns,  Pbilo 
theQdar.Tbeodotlon.elc,;  collected  in  Haller, /"nyiii. 
HUt.  Grmc.  iii,  MT-SBO),  which  bare  survived,  we  may 
easily  conclude  what  an  immense  literalurs  this  E^p- 
tiiD  Dispersion  mast  have  possessed.  To  them  is  ow- 
loj  likewise  tbe  Greek  translation  of  tbe  Bible  known 
as  the  Septnagint,  which.  In  Its  turn,  while  it  estranged 
tbe  people  more  and  mon  from  the  language  of  their 
Cithers,  the  Habnw,  gave  rise  to  a  vast  psendo-epi- 1 
graphical  and  apocryphal  literature  (Orpbica,  Sybil- 
linea,  PeeudotAoelea ;  poems  by  Linus,  Homer,  He- 1 
tlod  :  additions  to  Esther,  Kara,  tbe  Maccabees,  Booh  | 
of  Wisdom,  Banich,  Jeremiah,  Saaannah,  etc.).  Most  I 
momentous  of  all,  however,  was  that  pecnliar  Greco- ' 
Jewuh  philosophy  which  sprang  from  a  mixture  of 
Hellenism  and  Orientalism,  and  which  played  such  a  , 
praminent  part  in  the  early  history  of  Chris^nity. 
Tbe  administrative  government  <tf  this  H^ptisn,  or,  | 
ncber,  African  Dispersion,  which,  no  leas  than  all  other 
btancbet,  for  all  religious  porposB*  looked  to  Jerusa- ' 
km  aa  tbe  bead,  was,  at  tbe  time  of  Christ,  in  the 
kaads  of  a  Gerooria  (SuthA,  SI,  i ;  Pbllo.  Fl.  il,  6, 
IS),  coariating  of  seventy  membeia  and  an  ethnarch 
(sbbBRh),  chosen  fMoi  their  own  body,  of  priestly  < 
liMage.    Tbaaa  lat  at  Alazaodria,  when  two  of  tbe 


ten  divisions  of  the  dty,  situated  on  the  Delta  (lb* 
rite  best  adapted  tor  navigation  and  commercial  pur- 
poses),  were  occupied  exclusively  by  Jews  (Josephna, 
Ant.  xiv,  7,  2).     Of  tbe  splendor  of  tbe  Alexandrine 

temple,  there  Is  a  glowing  acconat  In  the  Jerus.  Talm. 
{Sale.  10,  t)  ;  and  when,  in  consequence  of  the  Syrian 
oppression  In  Palestine,  Onias,  the  son  of  the  last 
high-priest  of  the  Une  of  Josbna,  had  fied  to  E^pt, 
where  Ptolemy  Pbilometor  gave  him  an  extensive  dia- 
trict  near  Heliopolis,  a  new  temple  (Beth  Chouyo)  had 
arisen  at  Leontopolis  (Joseph.  A»t.  xiii,  S,  !,/),  B.C. 
180,  which  bade  Wrto  rival  the  Temple  i^  Jerusalem. 
Such,  Indeed,  was  tbe  influence  of  the  Jews  in  Egi'pl, 
whom  PhUo  (.ft.  a)  in  his  time  estimates  at  a  million, 
that  tbis  new  temple  was  treated  with  consideration 
even  by  the  Sanhedrim  (liauiih.  109,  a).  Their  con- 
dition. It  mij  easily  l<e  inferred,  was  fiaurishjng  botb 
under  the  Seleacldlan  and  Romun  sway,  bat  under 
Caligula,  and  still  more  under  Nero  (Joseph,  ifor,  11, 
lu,  7),  they,  like  their  brethren  in  other  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire,  suflfered  greatly  from  sudden  outbnrsta 
of  tbe  populace,  prompted  and  countensnced  in  some 
inslaDcaa  by  their  rulers.  From  Egypt  the  Diaspora 
I  spread  southward  to  Abyssinia,  where  some  remnants 
'of  it  still  exist  under  tbe  name  of  the  fafasta,  and  in 
:ill  likelihood  eastward  to  Arabia  (Mishna,  Sk/A.  vi,  6), 
where  we  find  a  Jewish  kin^om  (Yemen)  In  the  south 
(Tabari  ap.  Stlv.  de  Sacy,  Mem.  deF Acad.de  later,  p. 
78),  and  a  large  Jewish  settlement  (Chalbor)  in  He^ 
in  the  north.     See  ALExa>i>BiA. 

(c.)  Another  principal  section  of  the  Dispersion  we 
Und  in  Syria,  whither  they  bad  been  bninght  chiefly 
by  SsleueaaNicator  or  Nicanor  (Joseph.  ^iK.vil,  8,1), 
when  tbe  bsttle  of  Ipsns,  B.C.  301,  had  pnt  Mm  in  pos. 
session  of  the  coantriea  of  Syria  Proper,  B^ylonia, 
Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Phmnlcia,  Palestine,  etc  Under 
his  and  his  successon'  fostering  rule  they  reached  tbe 
highest  degree  of  prosperity  (/.  c),  principally  at  Antl- 
och  on  the  Orontes,  and  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  and 
other  great  cities  founded  by  Seleucus;  and  the  priv- 
ileges which  tbis  king  had  ttestowad  upon  them  were 
constantly  condrmad  up  to  the  time  of  Josephus  (Ami. 
xll,  8, 1).  Antlochus  Eplphanes,  or  Epimanea,  as  ha 
was  called,  seems  to  have  been  tbe  only  Syrian  poten- 
tate by  whom  the  Syrian  dispereion  was  persecuted; 
and  it  was  no  doubt  nnder  his  rei^  that  they,  in  order 
to  escape  from  his  cruelty,  began  to  emigrate  in  all  di- 
rectionB — to  Armenia,  Cappadoela  (Helena,  the  Jewish 
queen  of  Adiabene,  Joseph.  AvL  xx,  2),  Cyprus,  and 
over  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor;  Phrygia  and  Lydia 
alone  poHossed  Jewish  colonies  of  a  previous  date, 
plantad  there  by  Antlochus  the  Greek  (Joseph.  AtU. 
xil,  S,  4).  Hence  they  dispersed  themselves  through- 
out the  islands  of  the  jCgean.  to  Macedonia,  to  Greece, 
where  they  Inhabited  cbleUy  the  seaports  and  the 
marts  of  trade  and  commerce.     See  Stria. 

(<i.)  Although,  to  uae  tha  words  of  Josephna  (^fif. 
xiv,  7,  !),  the  habitable  Klobe  was  so  full  of  Jewe  that 
there  was  scarcelyacomer  of  the  Roman  empire  where 
they  might  not  L«  fbund— a  statement  fully  confirmed 
by  tbe  number  of  Roman  decrees  bisned  to  various 
parts  of  the  empire  for  their  protection  (Joseph.  Auit 
xiv,  10  B<|.)— there  Is  yet  no  absolute  proof  of  their 
having  ncquired  any  fixed  settlements  in  the  metrop- 
olis itself  anterior  to  tbe  ^me  of  Pompey,  who,  after 
the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  carried  back  with  him  many 
Jewish  captives  and  prisonara  to  Rome,  B.C.  63. 
These,  being  generally  either  allowed  to  retire  from 
the  serTice,or  ransomed,  remained  there  as  LAertvii, 
and  in  time  funned,  by  tbe  addition  to  their  number  of 
fresn  Immigrant!  from  Asia  and  Greece,  a  large  and 
highly  Influantial  community,  which  occupied  chiefly 
the  Trjnstlberine  portion  of  tbe  city,  together  with  an 
Island  in  tha  Tiber.  Their  prosperity  grew  with  th^ir 
nnmbers,  and  suffered  but  short  interruptions  under 
Tiberin*  (SneL  Tih.  c.  36).  The  expulsion  under  Clan- 
dins  (Suat.  CU  2S)  and  CalignU  (Joseph.  AM.  xviii,  19 


CAPTIVITY  11 

■■(10iitr>d[cted(DteC*M.lx,S;  Omtiu,  vli,  8).  They 
luUt  namBraiu  BfiugO|{ue«,  founiled  Khoolt  (even  a 
»horl-lis«d  KtAemj').  mads  promlyMi,  and  enjoyed 
the  full  advantage*  or  Koman  citiient  (in  tha  decnes 
ttMJ'  an  itjled  ruXirai  'I'tufiaimv,  raAiTai  it/iiripoi 
■I.,uJaioi,  Jowpb.  AlU.  ilv,  I0>.  The  connection  be- 
tween the  Roman  Duperaion  and  Palesline  waa  veiy 
doM,  eapecially  (o  long  ■■  tbe  foung  priacee  of  the 
Herodbn  tiouae  were,  in  a  manner,  oblCcid  to  live  In 
Borne.  There  la  no  doulit  that  to  the  Influenn  ortbls 
powerflil  body,  whose  namb«r,  origin,  atraiige  ritea 
and  cnatome,  attracted  no  small  share  of  pnblic  notice  ' 
(Tacitus,  SoetoaiiiF,  Cicero,  Juvenal,  Horace,  Martial, 
Juatinlan,  etc.,  poMiiai),  and  to  their  access  to  the  im- 
perial court  was  due  the  amelioration  of  the  condition 
of  tbe  Jewish  people  throughout  every  country  to 
which  tho  iway  o(  Rome  extended.  It  waa  also 
throngh  Rome  chiefly,  both  before,  and  adtl  more  after 
tho  final  destruction  of  Jemsalem,  tliut  the  stnam  of 
Jowish  emigrstlon  was  poured  over  the  greater  port 
of  Europe.  Ofthe  world-wide  infiueuve  of  the  Jewish 
Dispersion  on  Christianity,  which  addressed  ibielf  flrst 
of  oil  tt>  the  former  as  a  body  (Acta  xiii,  46 ;  ii,  9, 11). 
farther  mention  will  be  fonnd  under  the  article  Jews. 
Tbe  most  important  original  authoritieB  an  tbe  Dis- 
persion are  Joseph.  A<U.  xiv,  10;  xW,  7;  Apioit,  ii,  5; 
Pbllo,  Lrg.  ad  Caiun;  id.  Flacaim.  Frankel  has  col- 
lected the  varloos  points  together  in  an  exhaustive  es- 
Bsy  in  his  UimaUichrifl,  Nov.  Dec.ISG.'l,  p.  409-11,  449- 
6t.  Comp.  Jost,  Cadt.  d.  Jadentlt.  p.  B3G,  BM  i  Ewald, 
Guclt.  d.  Volktt  fir.  iv.     See  Dibpehhed  Jews. 

III.  Si^tg^enl  Stala  ofCaptaits.—l.  The  extennl- 
nutlon  suffered  by  the  Jewish  inhabitants  of  Palestine 
under  the  Romans  far  better  deservta  tbe  name  of 
captivity;  for,  after  the  massacre  of  coantlesi  tbou- 
aunds,  the  captives  were  reduced  to  a  real  bondage. 
According  to  Josephus,  in  his  detuled  account  (War, 
especially  vi,  9,  3),  1,100,000  men  fell  In  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  by  Tibu,  and  97,000  were  captured  in  the 
whole  war.  Of  tha  latter  number,  the  greatest  pert 
were  disblbuted  among  tbe  prDvinces,  io  be  butchered 
in  tbe  ampbithestres,  or  ca*t  there  to  wild  beasts ; 
olhers  were  doomed  to  worii  as  public  alaves  in  liigypt. 

private  tnndage.  See  JERDSAI.EH.  S.  An  equally 
dreadful  deetruction  fell  upon  tbe  remains  of  tbe  na- 
tion, which  had  once  more  assembled  in  Judsa,  under 
the  reign  of  Hadrian  (A.D.  133),  which  Dion  CasaiuB 
eoDcisely  relates ;  and  by  these  two  savage  wan  the 
Jewish  popnlation  must  have  been  e^ctoally  extirpa- 
ted from  tbe  Holy  Land  itself,  a  result  which  did  not 
fbllow  fh>ni  the  Babylonian  captivity.  3.  Afterward, 
a  dreary  period  of  fifteen  huEidred  years'  oppression 
crushed  in  Europe  all  who  bore  the  name  of  Israel, 
and  Christian  nations  have  visited  on  Arir  besd  a 
crime  perpetrated  by  a  few  thousand  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem,  who  were  not  the  real  forefathers  of  tho 
European  Jews.  4.  Nor  in  tbe  East  bas  their  lot  been 
much  more  cheerinic.  With  few  and  partial  excep- 
tiona,  they  have  ever  since  been  a  despised,  an  op- 
pressed, and  naturally  a  degraded  people,  tliough 
from  them  have  spread  light  and  truth  to  the  distant 
nations  of  tho  earth.     See  Jeh's. 

IV.  Mnapkncal  Vut  af  the  Ttm  •' CapUm/^."— 
"Children  of  the  captivity"  is  a  common  figure  of 
speech  denoting  those  who  were  in  captivity,  or  per- 
haps BomolJmes  literally  their  posterity  (Eira,  Iv,  1). 
'•Tum  again"  (Pan.  cxxvi,  1),  "turn  away"  (Jer. 
xxix,l-t),  "turn  h«ck"(Zeph.lii.  SO),  or,  "bring again" 
(Eiek.  xvl,  68)  "  the  captivity,"  are  figurative  phrases, 
all  referring  to  the  Jewish  nation  in  bondage  and  thdr 

litlon  to  indlHduila  (Job  xlUi,  10) ;  "The  Lord  turned 
tha  captivity  of  Job,"  i.  e.  he  rpleased  him  ftom  the 
nnusnal  sufltrings  and  perplexities  to  which  he  had 
been  In  bondage,  and  caused  him  to  rejoice  again  in 
the  BlvoT  of  God.     "He  led  capUvity  captive,"  or 


4  CAPUCHINS 

"ha  led  captive  those  who  had  led  othen  captive" 
(£ph.  iv,  9),  is  a  flguntiva  allusion  to  the  victory 
which  our  blessed  Itedeemet  achieved  over  ain.  the 
world,  desth.  and  hell,  by  which  our  mined  race  are 
brought  Into  bondage  (Psa.  Ixviii,  18 ;  Rom.  viii,  21 ; 
Gal.iv,24;  Heb.iI,lG;  SPet.ii,19;  Col.ii,]&).  See 
Exile. 

Gapncbins,  monks  of  the  strictest  obeervsnce  of 
tbe  rule  of  gL  Francis,  called  Oipucliiiu  on  account  of 
the  great  pointed  cnpucioH  (or  cowls)  wbicb  they  wear. 
Matteo  di  Bssehi,  an  Obtervantina  friar,  of  the  con- 
of  Monte  Falcone,  in  the  duchy  of  Urblno,  in  It- 
sly,  was  tbe  founder  of  this  reformed  order  in  1G26. 
Pretending  that  tbe  Franciscans  were  no  longer  strict 
followers  of  St.  Francir,  as  they  won  a  different  cowl, 
did  not  let  their  beard  grow,  and  had  mitigated  tbe  vow 
of  poverty,  he,  with  the  pope's  permission,  and  accom- 
panied [ly  some  others,  retired  Into  a  aolitary  bermit- 
*ge  of  the  Camaldoll  near  Masrado.  The  tefomird 
monks  were  much  persecuted  by  the  Franciscans,  who 
drove  tbem  from  plsce  to  place.  In  16S8  Pope  Clem- 
ent VII  allowed  them  to  put  then  selves  nnder  the 
obedience  of  the  Conventuals,  and  to  take  the  tiUe  of 
Friars  Hermita  Minors,  with  the  right  of  electliiK  ■ 
vicar  general.  Their  first  establishment  was  at  Col- 
menione,  near  Camerino.  In  lli!9  they  held  the  fin: 
genera!  chapter  at  Alvacina,  and  drew  up  the  rule  of 
the  new  association,  which  received  alttrations  and 
additions  in  1G::S  snd  ISIS.  It  enjoins,  among  other 
things,  that  tbe  Capuchins  shall  pertbtm  divine  service 
without  singing:  that  they  shall  say  but  one  man 
each  day  in  their  convents ;  that  they  shall  obterve 
hours  for  mental  prayer  morning  and  evening,  days 
for  disciplining  themselves,  and  days  of  silence ;  that 
they  shall  always  travel  on  foot,  and  avoid  ornament 
and  costly  furniture  In  their  churches,  contenting 
themselves  with  having  the  cortains  of  the  attar  of 
stuff  and  the  chalices  of  tin.  Pope  Paul  III,  in  i6i&, 
gave  them  the  name  ol CapteMm  tifttt  CrJcr  oft'iiiin 
Minor,  and  subjected  them  to  the  visitation  and  cor- 
rection oftheConvenlnala.  In  the  same  yet,r  tbe  tuo 
founders  snd  first  vicars  general  of  tbe  order,  llatlco 
di  Baschi,  and  his  friend  Ludovico  di  Fosiombronc, 
were  excluded  ^rn  the  order  for  disobedience.  Tbo 
fourth  vicar  general.  Ochino,  one  of  the  most  fami^ua 
preachers  of  Italy,  became  a  ProteftaDt  In  ]G^8.  Tor 
a  time  tbe  whole  order  was  fbrbiddrn  to  prcicb,  tnii 
threatened  with  suppression,  but  tbeir  snbn.iFtion  end 
humble  petitions  averted  this  danger.  From  this  lima 
dates  the  development  of  their  pecnllsr  character,  their 
rapid  spread,  and  great  Influencein  the  romish  Church. 
A  severe  asceticism,  a  designed  neglect  of  both  mind 
and  body,  and  a  coarse,  cunning  etoqnence,  made 
them  tbe  favorite  preach- 

of  tbe  people.     The  order 

has  never  produced  great 
scholars,  but  has  been  Join- 
ed sometimes  by  princes  (e. 
g.  Alfonso  di  Esta,  duke  of 
Hodena)  and  by  statesmen 
timd  of  the  world.  lnI5T3 
tbe  order  was  introduced 
into  France,  in  1606  into 
l^pain,  and  In  1G19  their  su- 
perior was  perm  itted  to  take 

the  last  century  they  cot 


ccount  the  mlssionsriea 
1  Brazil.  Congo,  Barharr, 
I'vpt,  and  the  East. 

in  1868  tha  order  bad  SO 
rovincea,  4  custodies,  and 


CAPUCIATI  n 

t  TimUtM  genenl  in  partiiia  utfidtTuM,  witli  kboat 
11,300  nwoitMn.  A  province  mtut  have  it  lent  1 
(oai^etc  conveot*.  Hoows  wilb  Itti  than  four  monk* 
m  oJlol  raidmcti^  The  grMUit  number  of  pros- 
nea  wu,  nntil  1B6U,  In  IUI7 ;  bat,  together  with  other 
PHButic  commonitiM,  neirlj'  lU  (be  nmreDU  of  the 
Cftpochins  lUTe  since  l>een  eappresied  hj  tba  Kovera- 
mcBloftbekiiucdomaf  Itily.  It  hu  alio  convent!  or 
nwleiicel  In  Fruiee,  SwitxerUod,  AoMri*,  Pniuit, 
KVtril  otlwT  Oeimon  itite*,  Belgium,  Hollind,  Ire- 
land. Eoglana,  PoUnd,  Turkaj,  Greece,  India,  the  Sey- 
chfUn.  ud  Seotfa  AiDerio.  In  moat  of  tb«M  coun- 
trin  the  nnmber  of  conveata  is  on  the  Increue.  The 
nMdiu  (oitb  leaa  than  fonr  canventa)  are  In  Ire];ind, 
Cnatia,  Ldcu,  and  WeMphiliB.  Tba  Utter,  which 
ompriiea  rrniuia.  Hano'^r,  and  Heaae-DarmMadt, 
S£],  The  OrM  coDveot  in  Eaglmd 
I  liy  Viacount  ^eldlnK-    Tba  rUa- 


■op.lj.r 


Abjiaiala.  Patna,  Bombay,  ud  Agra.  In  Sooth  Amer- 
ica they  have  Borne  reeidencea,  and  are  penetrstintE  more 
aad  nora  into  the  interior.  Aboot  600  membera  are 
naplejed  aa  fbreign  miiaoDarifs,  aad  there  U  a  Mmi- 
mj  tat  preparing  clnBen  joung  Capachini  tat  foreiBD 
Buuiani  io  Rome. 

Tlian  b  iikewin  an  order  of  C*pncbtn  nous  {CapU' 
(iiara  or  Capucma).  alao  known  as  A'aiu  of  lit  Pamn, 
iattitDted  irr  Maria  Loranza  Longa,  the  widow  of  a  no- 
IJe  KeapoHtati.  Tbdr  first  eiUhlisliment  wis  at  Na- 
|Jei,  in  l&.'W,  when  they  took  the  third  rale  of  St. 
Pnacia.  They,  however,  loon  quitted  this  for  the 
man  rljcid  rale  of  St.  Clara.  Of  thla  order  only  a  few 
nnrenti  afe  left,  moat  of  them  in  Italy  and  Switzer- 
liwl,  with  a  few  In  Fnnce,  Bavaria,  and  South  Anier- 
1*.  See  Amtalrt  Sacr.  hit.  or£m$  mHiiinuR  3.  Fratt- 
nai.9ia(7iynrwn'iMWfi^iam»r(I.ugil.  1888);  Waddini;, 
.laania  erd.  Maur.  t.  iri;  Fehr,  Geict.  der  Moieki- 
ordnt,  m^  Bairiim,  i,  806. 

CapnclBti  or  Capc-tiati  :  (10  A  eect  whicii  arow 
■boot  AD.  11X6,  named  from  a  rowloresp  wblchtbey 
*ort  a*  a  badK*.  U  wai  fonnded  by  one  Durand,  m- 
pMed  to  hare  been  a  carpenter  (others  uy  a  butcher), 
who  poblished  that  the  Virgin  hid  appea-ed  to  him 
■nd  i(ivea  Um  her  image,  and  tliat  of  her  Son,  with 
thii  iueripdon ;  "  0  Lamb  of  God,  that  talc»t  away 
Ibe  liBB  ef  lbs  world,  tcrant  ns  peace!"  adilini;  that 
>he  directed  him  to  take  tbe  image  to  tbe  biahop  of 
Pay,  la  order  that  he  might  form  a  society  of  all  thoM 
■be  desired  to  restore  peace  in  church  aiid  atnto;  who 
•hoold,  in  token  of  their  belDn.dai;  to  such  a  society, 
■car  ■  white  hood,  or  cnpnche,  with  a  leadon  image 
like  the  pattern.  Many  peraoiu  in  Burgnudy  joined 
fn  sect.  They  were  put  down  bv  Hugo,  I>tsh0|)  of 
Aaitn*.  (3.)  Some  of  the  Wicliffltea,  in  England, 
(.lie  obtained  tiie  n«me  of  d^meiali  about  the  year 
W7.  because  they  refoted  to  nncoTer  their  heads  be- 
fm  tbe  Hoat.— Mo^heim,  Ck.  Hiit.  cent,  ill,  pt.  il,  ch. 
',  1 16;  Bergier,  DUi.  <le  TUnhgie,  U  8G1. 

Car.    Sea  Bkth-cab  1  Cabkj  Cart. 

Can  (or  Kabah),  Jowpli,  son  of  Slmi 


6  CARACALLA 

the  title  B""as?ib,  in  his  Q"'3Bri  -"SUJ  (Brntl.  18*7), 
and  Parthanialka  (Leipzig,  IS55).  Fragments  of  bit 
commentary  on  TheProphti>(n^irZZ  C'^IB)  are  given 
by  De  Bossl  in  his  Kuril  LtclimJi  (Parma,  1789)  ; 
^■  ^5  y:ip,  by  Leopold  DukM  (Eiliogen,  1846); 
S-^Jio;^  -"T^;,  by  Geigcr  (Bresl.  1847).  FragmenU  of 
tbe  commentaries  on  EttAer,  Sulk,  and  Lamentatioiu 
have  been  pablished  by  Dr.  Adolph  Jellinek  (L.eipiig, 
1BS6),  The  commenlaty  on  IjoaeMatiatit  hu  boon 
printed  In  Naples,  1847,  and  reprinted  in  the  coUectlan, 
C'Sjri  ""^S?  (Metz,  18J9).  The  commentary  on  JJ> 
is  reprinted  in  Frankorn  SloaaUchrifi  fir  GrxAichlt 
and  WUumclwfl  dn  Jud-alhum  (1856  -58).  His  com- 
mentar}- on //oMa  was  published  in  BreBbiu,18Gl.  So: 
Fant,ifiUiDfArca  Judaea,  11,170;  Kitto,C^rlop.i,m. 
Cars,  Simeon,  t>en-Chelba,  aleo  called  R.  Simeon 
had-Danban,  a  celelnted  Jewiah  commentator,  lived 
In  tbe  eleventh  centnry.  Ha  was  a  brother  of  the 
celebrated  Hanachem  ban-Chelbo,  and  received  the 
name  Kara  (X^^)  in  the  synagogue  for  bia  lesson  on 
the  Sabbath,  and  tht  name  had-Darehan  ftam  his  col- 
lecting and  ex|daining  Cf^"??)  the  MIdrashlm.  Cara 
Is  tin  author  of  the  celebrated  JalhU  (aipV;),  a  col- 
lection of  Midrashim  on  almost  every  verse  of  the  Old 
Testament.  He  brought  together  a  catena  of  tradi- 
tional eipoeitions  from  upward  of  Hfty  different  works 
of  all  ages,  many  of  which  are  of  great  value.  Ten 
different  editions  of  this  work  appeared  between  152G 
and  1R05;  one  of  the  beet  and  most  convenient  1>  that 
published  at  Frankfort  on  the  Uaine,  1E87,  folio.  See 
Rapaport  ia  the  Hebrew  annual  called  Ktrtm  Chimed 
(ipn  0*^3,  vii,  4,  etc.);  Znnz,  DU  Gotlu liaulliditlt 
Voitrd^ iferJwJm(p.20G-30S);  SIclnschneider, Cido- 


(Berlin,  18fi2-fl3,  col.  2600,  3604  ;  Kitto,  C^chp.  i,  444). 

Caiaba'slon  (KopnjJnrriuv  V.  r.  'Pa,3a«iui', 
Volg.  Jfanmirt),  a  name  given  (1  Ejdr.  ix,  84)  aa 
one  of  the  "sons"  of  Mean!  (Bani)  that  divorced  his 
Gentile  wife  after  the  exile,  and  apparently  corrc- 
pponding  to  the  Ckhli^ii  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hebrew  te>it 
(Ezra  X,  35),  althoogb  the  list  is  hero  greatly  corrupt. 

Caracalla   or   Caracallds  (properly  MABcirg 

or.  Ho  was  son  of  the  emperor  Septlmlus  Severos, 
and  WB■bDmatLyon^.A.l>.  188.  The  name  Caracalla 
never  appears  on  medals,  but  was  a  nirkname  from 
his  long-hooded  tank,  made  in  the  ftishion  of  the 

.  Gauls,  and  so  called  in  their  language.      "After  bis 

Ifjtbet's   death,   A.D. 

1 211,  lie  ascended  the 


d  Jewish  a 


on  Cara  I , 
le  O.  T.,    r 


(q.v.).a 

lind  in  the  north  of  Prance  towanl  the  end  ot  lue 
rltTmtb  ccDtai;.  Following  the  example  of  his  un- 
'\t,  Usnaebem  ben-Clielbe,  Joseph  Cara  abandoned  the 
•Tlagnrieal  mode  of  inten^etation  ot  which  his  own 
taher  waa  a  great  defsader,  and  devoted  his  talents  to 
1  Klnpla  and  grammatical  interpretation  of  the  Blbll- 
al  Hit.  His  commentariee,  which  extend  over  near. 
1r  the  whole  Old  Testament,  are  dUlinguuhed  f  rr  lo~- 
'ni  Kqucnce  aod  lucid  diction,  but  of  moat  of  them 
r>i(iMntB  only  have  thus  far  been  printed.  His 
<Wea  Bpni  RasU's  comineatary  on  the  Pentateuch 
l^'^^i'rn  e^D)  hare  meetly  been  printed  by  Gci;^ 
l2altrl^.  ir,  138-40  [Stnttg.  1B39];  lee  his  Batriga 
trjU.  Lit.  p.  17  [ib.  IMriX  Md  aoma  of  tbun  under  | 


crwtard  caused  to 


racalla 


directed    his     cruelly 

against  nil  the  sdbe- 

rents  of  Geta,  nf  whom 

twenty   thousand    of 

both  sexes — Including 

the  great  Jurist  Papin- 

Unus  -  were    put  to 

death.      Innumerable 

acta  of  oppressbn  aikd  rc^bery  w 

supplies  for  the  unbounded  exti 

pot,  and  to  pay  hie  soldiers.     In  his  Cimoui  constil 

tion,  he  bestowed  Roman  citizenship  on  all  his  li 

subjecta  not  citiiens — who  formed  tha  majority.  es| 

eially  in  tlu  provinces— but  simply  in  order  to  lev] 


CARACCIOLI  1 

giMtcT  unonnt  of  tixea  od  taleuu  nnd  bgrit^u, 
which  were  psiil  onl;  by  citliena.  In  bit  dHnpugna 
he  imitated  at  ona  time  Alexander,  at  anottier 
Sulla;  while  bl>  main  otjjecC  va>  to  oppreai  am 
iaiut  the  provinces,  which  hid  been  In  a  great  mej 
■jpared  by  the  tyranny  of  former  emperors.  In  !17  ha 
Vaa  assassinatad,  at  the  initit^tion  of  Hacrinns,  pre- 
lect of  the  Prattorians,  by  odb  of  his  TBteniu  named 
Hartlalls,  on  the  6th  of  April,  !17,  on  the  way  from 
EdossB  to  Carrhn.  Hietoriana  piiat  tlie  life  nfCara- 
calla  in  the  darkest  colon.  AmanK  the  building*  of 
CaraealU  in  Rome,  the  balhs— Thormn  Caimcalle— '' 
near  Porta  Copena,  were  most  celebrdted,  and  Clieir 
riins  an  still  maKniDcent."  Csraulla,  cruel  to  man. 
iind,  was  yet  indifferent  to  reli^on,  and  during  his 
reign  no  new  persecutions  were  devised  a-ninet  tho ' 
Christians.  Spartianus  {Vila  Cttracaili,  i,  TOT)  tells 
slory  of  hia  lieing  greatly  affected,  at  seven  years  o 
age,  on  hearing  that  a  Jewish  boy  had  been  paniahed 
(br  hia  religion.  From  a  passage  in  Tertaliian  (/id 
tieapulain,  cap.  4)  it  ia  Infeired  that  Caracalla  had  • 
Christian  nurse.— Chambers' a  Knryr:,:  Laidner,  Worla, 
vii,Sll>-SlS;  Gibbon,  D«c.  and /'a/f(ed.Hilman),ch.vi. 

Caraccloli,  Galeazio,  nurquia  of  Vico,  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  diatingaished  followers  of  the 
Kefbrmation  In  Italy.  Bom  in  Naples,  in  151T,  of  a 
noble  family,  which  bad  given  worriars  to  the  field 
and  carding  to  the  Church,  he  began  life  with  the 
moat  brilliant  proap^cls.  ilHrried  at  twenty  to  Vi 
ria,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Novera,  he  had  by  her 
children.  In  \M1  he  heard  Peter  UartjT,  and  after 
a  long  and  painful  invcsligation,  in  aptte  of  the  c" 
tressin;  conviction  that  he  wonld  bare  to  leave  fa 
ilv,  fVienda,  home,  and  wealth  in  abandoning  Ror 
he  became  a  Proteatant,  and  in  15&1  escaped  to  Gene- 
va. Hia  bther,  his  uncle  cardinal  Caraffa,  bis  wife, 
and  hia  children  aoaght  for  many  years  to  change  hii 
purpose,  but  in  vain.  In  Geneva  he  acquired  the  en- 
tire confldence  of  Calvin,  who  dedicated  to  bim  his 
Commentary  on  1  Corinthians  (edit.  Tholuct,  p,  205). 
Ha  died  in  great  peace,  168G.  Hia  life,  hy  Balliano, 
will  be  found  in  the  Maafam  Ildntticum,  vili,  1748,  p. 
eiOi  and,  abridged,  in  Gerdea,  Sprdmat  Italia  Ite/or- 
nala  (Lagd.  Bat.  i;65,  4lo).  See  M'Crie,  nr/oniuUtDn 
«■  /(a^,-  Henog,  Ra^EncgUopidit,  ii,  574. 

Canutes.    See  KAnAiT>». 

Caromuet  (Jma  de  /yAtmti),  a  Spanish  theolo- 


6  CARAVAN 

gian,  was  bom  at  Madrid,  Uay  S3, 1606.  He  boeame 
a  Clstardan,  and  after  aevenl  preferments,  aimng 
which  was  the  abbey  of  Uelroae,  in  SeotUod,  was 
made  vicar  geneisl  of  the  archbishopric  of  Fragn« 
When  the  Swedes,  in  1648,  besieged  the  dty,  Cais- 
muel,  forgetting  his  episcopal  character,  set  binuelf  at 
the  head  of  >  body  of  ecclesiastics  on  the  battle-field. 
His  services  ware  rewarded  by  the  emperor  with  a  col' 
lar  of  gold.  In  1667  he  waa  made  bishop  of  Campag- 
na,  in  Naples,  which  he  resigned  in  167B,  but  afterward 
became  bishop  of  Vigevano,  In  the  Milanese,  w  hei«  he 
died,  Sept.  B,  IGSS.  He  was  "  a  man  of  vast  but  ilV- 
dlgeeted  learning,  with  an  iU-reicDlatsd  iniatiinatlon. 
'  theolog}'  iThmlagia  Moralii,  Louvain,  IS4S, 


fol.)  is 


il  that  c 


He  Uagfat  that 
of  the  Decalogue  are  not  Immutalile  in  their  mtare, 
and  that  God  ia  able  to  change  or  dispense  with  them, 
as  in  cases  of  theft,  adntterj',  etc. ;  he  also  held  that 
the  emalleat  degree  of/iro&oMt^Justined  any  orimlnal 
action."  A  list  of  his  numerous  writings  (S7  ml- 
umes)  is  given  by  Nicolas  Antonio,  SiUiufAeca  //up. 
A'ms.— Vim.  S:nff.  Oatimle,  viii,  SC6. 

Caianxa.     See  Carhanza. 

Caravau,  the  Arabic  nnme  for  a  body  of  pilgrims 
or  merchants  travelling  in  the  EasL  Orientals  wbo 
have  occasion  to  Journey — whether  for  pleasure,  relig- 
ion, or  prolit— usaally  do  ao  in  companie^  for  the  take 
of  society  as  well  as  protection.  Hence  tiie  meet  mot- 
ley associations  may  take  place.  They  often  conaiit 
of  hundreds  of  persons,  mostly  mounted  on  camels, 
which  (Including  those  for  baggage)  fttquentlyamoant 
to  several  thousands.  Such  spectacles  are  common  in 
all  parts  of  Turkey,  Peraia,  and  Arabia,  especially 
through  the  sandy  deserts.  They  march  at  Hnt  dis- 
orderly,  but  after  a  short  period  of  practice  with  great 
regularity,  mostly  by  night,  in  companies  which  are 
each  kept  together  hy  a  large  beaciin-fire  on  the  top 
of  its  own  peculiar  tundaid.  Mnch  time  ia  consumed 
in  packing  and  unpacking;  but  when  this  oonfosed 
scene  of  preparation  ia  over,  they  travel  with  grvat 
unifbrmity  (see  Ezek.  xii,  S)  from  about  eight  P.ll. 
till  about  midnight  (Lake  xi,  S,  G).  In  the  cooler  sea- 
sons they  journey  by  day.  only  lialtlng  for  a  brief  re- 
past at  noon.  S«ven  or  eight  honn  ia  the  usual  day'* 
stags  (Homeraann,  p.  ISO),  or  about  17  to  20  milu. 
See  Travbllrr. 


b/Goot^lc 


CARAVAKSERAI  i: 

1.  Ctimmtrciat  Cararan.—'Tlu  vrlint  of  then  on 
taoord  b  that  to  wbieh  JoMph  «ru  Kild  (G«n.  ixzvii), 
coBfBtias  of  bhmulltM  (nr.  £S),  VidluUa  (Tcr. 
»).  uid  HaduiUia  (nr.  SS,  Hob.),  who  wan  on  the 
hixb-road  thrsngli  Dotban  to  the  mart  ot  Egfpt  vitb 
Ibe  ipiea  of  IndU  and  Hadraiiiaat(  Vincent,  Coamtrct 
uJ  .Vatiyalim  qf  Oe  Amiaii,  ii,  S6S).  Snch  ofton 
aviil  Ikemiclvea  at  tba  ptwent  day  of  tbe  awoad  dau 
of  carjvaas  mantlDned  balov.     S«  Coumkrci. 

).  StJv/iont  Caravaiu. — Such  coropanin  of  pil^mi 
pua  ngnlarlj  along  Die  ranto  (hence  termed  the  Ilnj) 
la  Mecca,  taox  each  year;  one  from  Cairo,  conaiatin); 
of  Birbars,  a  aeoood  of  Tnrka  from  Danuucus,  a  third 
af  Peniina  fmn  Ibbylon,  and  the  fburth  of  tho  Ara- 
bians and  Indlaiu  rrotn  Zibith,  at  the  month  of  the 
Bed  Se*.  They  are  under  the  itricteat  diecipline,  a 
chief  or  boM  baing  la  command,  and  five  officii  hav- 
ing mpKtiTelj  charge  of  the  march,  the  bait,  tbe 

liat.  Tbe  Ajfieer-,  or  Koide,  U  alao  an  indiapenaable 
eonpanion — a  penon  not  only  well  aoqiiainted  with 
the  roots,  the  welli,  the  hostile  or  friendly  trlbea,  and 
othar  tteturea  on  tbe  route,  but  alao  aliilled  Id  tbe  ligai 
of  tbe  weather,  and  an  individual  of  geaeral  sagacity 
aod  ddelity.      See  PlLoRIM. 

TheM  lai^  travelling  rouKi  llloitrate  many  fsa- 
lana  of  the  exodni  of  the  Iiiaelltea  tram  Egypt. 
They,  too,  had  their  leader,  MiMei,  and  were  divided 
Into  twelve  compiQiaa,  euch  with  ita  chief  (Num.  vii), 
asd  ringed  under  iti  diatinctive  IwDnoT  (Num.  i<,  2). 
They  aet  oat  in  tumult  (Eiod.  lii,  11),  but  were  aoon 
r(rdBc«d  to  almost  military  order,  atarting  at  the  blast 
at  trumpeta  (Hum.  x,  S,  6),  under  the  guide  of  the  Aery 
pillar  (q.  v.).  Hence,  too.  the  anxiety  of  Mo9«  la  «- 
nr«  tba  •arTicea  of  Hobab  (q.  v.)  ai  guide.     See  Ex- 

Tba  proeeaidoni  of  Iineiitss  to  their  lutional  fe ati- 
ral*  at  Jcmaalem  were  probably  made  up  very  much 
after  tha  ealavan  style,  villages  and  acquaintancaa 
trtnlliag  togetbar  by  companiaa.  Hence  the  yonth- 
til  Saviour  was  not  mlwad  until  the  party  hailed  at 
nlghl  (Lake  Ii,  44)  at  a  place  which  tradition  flies 
ahout  three  miles  fnm  Jerusalem  (Munro,  Summer 
RatUr,  i.  3K)i  (br  the  flrst  day' •  journey  is  alwaya  a 
■brvt  one.      See  Cabataksibai, 

CuawaiUSial,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  building  for 
tha  accnrnmodallDD  of  strangers  in  aeqneitared  pLices, 
whDe  UoK  is  the  iun]l  deaigaation  of  a  ^milar  itmc- 
ton  aitoated  in  or  near  lowna.     See  Khah. 

In  tba  d^ys  at  tbe  earUer  patiiartht  tbere  aeema  to 
hive  been  no  auch  provision  for  trjvellen,  for  we 
flud  Abraham  looking  oul  for  their  entertainment 
(G«n.  ixili),  and  tbe  visiton  of  Lot  proposed  to  lodge 
la  the  street,  appirontly  as  a  matter  of  course  (tien. 
xii,  !%  Juat  ai  modem  Orientals  often  do,  wrapped  In 
tbeir  hykea,  although  in  Arab  towns  generally  the 
Stranger  I*  conducted  by  tbe  ahelk  to  the  maml,  where 
be  Is  provided  tat  tbe  night  (I^  Roqne,  Dt  la  Palo- 
(MW,  PL  1£4.  In  Egypt,  however,  there  seems  to  have 
bead  Bome  such  building  <Oen.  slit,  27),  probably  only 
a  mde  shed.  The  hmkeepera  in  that  country  wen 
■sually  women  (Herod.  11,  S«),  just  la  in  tbe  days  of 
tk*  Hebrew  spies  (Joah.  11, 1);  appannlly  vomea  of 
earv  vtrtne  (Hsb.  li,  SI;  James  ii,  26),  if  not  abao- 
lolely  coartMsni.  See  Hablot.  In  the  times  of 
Cbrist  and  bli  spoetlee,  Inni  must  have  been  common 
in  Palestine,  yet  the  frequent  InjunctloD  contaloed  in 
tbe  Epiitla  ta  entertatu  strangers  (e.  g.  Heb.  xiii,  J; 
Bom.  xil,  S)  show  that  they  were  very  inadequate  in 
their  urangements.  See  HosFrrALmr.  They  an 
amtioned  in  Ibe  N.  T.  under  two  namea,  iravioxiXov, 
ar  tonae  fbr  tbe  leceptbiD  of  all  kinds  of  gueals,  where 
tta  good  Samarltui  took  the  wounded  stranger  (Luke 
>,  S4) ;  [mfaBblj  a  boUding  like  tbe  modem  comfort- 
ba  and  mitiimlBhed  onea  on  the  graat  Eastern  mntea 
•r  travel,  with  a  boat  (or  Janitor),  however,  wbo,  on 
■rgast  McaaiDilii  will  (bmlah  aupplka  to  tha  sick  and 


7  CARAVANSERAI 

daititale.  Tbe  other  word  ii  EanrXo^ia,  properiy  the 
upper  room  reserved  in  large  housei  br  ituesu  (Hark 
xiv,  14;  Luke  xzU,  11),  and  also  applied  to  the  place 
when  the  nativity  occurred  (Luke  ii,  7).  Tbe  tradi- 
tion connects  this  event  with  a  cave  (Justin  Martyr, 
DiaLe.TTyph.f.fm;  Origtn,  coKf.  Ce2>.),  andtheepot, 
as  such,  is  atili  pointed  ant.  See  Bbthlebem.  llut 
this  la  opposed  to  all  the  clrcumstancea  and  nsages  <if 
the  case.  Tbe  exact  distinction  between  this  and  tbe 
pnvioui  term  has  been  matterafdiapute,  but  the  edit- 
or of  the  Piaoruil  Bibk{nota  in  loc.)  suggeaU  the  mo^t 
probable  explanation,  that  the  abible,  in  tho  retirement 
of  which  Hary  brought  forth  tbe  Saviour,  was  one  ot 
Ibe  stalls  running  along  the  outside  of  the  building, 
behind  the  apartments  destined  tor  the  gueata ;  and 
that  the  "  manger"  (q.  v.),  or  fiirvii,  waa  not  the  crib 
or  contrivance  for  this  purpose  known  to  us  (for  such 
are  not  used  in  the  East),  but  simply  tbe  projection  of 
the  floor  of  the  gneat-room  into  tho  cattlc-ahed,  which 
was  probably  lower  on  the  ground  (see  Strong's  Har- 
ly  imd  EipM.  oflkt  Cotpki,  p.  14).     See  tyK. 


Oriental  "  inns,"  whether  called  khans  i 

not  at  all  comparable.  In  point  of  comfort 
and  convenience,  with  modem  hotel  accommodations, 
nor  have  they  the  least  leaemblance  to  the  character 
and  appurtenances  of  a  respectable  tavern.  Akhan  is 
always  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  town: 
and  caravanserais,  of  various  aliea  and  degrees  ofcom- 
pleteneas,  an  generally  disposed  at  regular  stages  aloni; 
public  nads,  especially  the  mercantile  and  pilgrim 
thoronghfares,  according  to  the  character  of  the  coun- 
try. They  have  usually  been  built  by  rich  merchants 
for  trading  purposes,  or  by  wealthy  devotees  aa  an  act 
of  nligiooB  munificence.  At  a  distance  Ihey  resem- 
ble a  castellated  fort,  but  on  a  nearer  approach  an 
found  to  be  a  slm|>le  quadrangular  building,  enclosed 
by  a  high  wall,  usually  about  100  yards  on  each  side, 
and  about  !0  fljet  high,  resting  on  a  stone  foundation. 
In  tbe  middle  of  tbe  front  there  is  a  large  arched  en- 
trance, with  a  porter's  lodge  on  one  or  botb  side*,  and 
apartment*  for  tha  better  class  over  it.  surmounted  by 
a  dome.  Tbe  interior  1*  an  open  apace  for  cattle,  bag- 
gage, etc.,  with  a  well  or  fountain  In  tbe  middle. 
Along  the  sides  of  this  inner  court-rard  are  piattaa 
opening  every  few  yards  into  arched  receseea  a>  al- 
coves for  travellers,  having  an  inner  door  communi- 
cating with  a  small  oblong  chamber,  sometimes  light- 
ed at  the  brtber  end,  but  entirely  destituU  of  forai- 
tnre,  ahelrea,  or  closets.  Theae  cella  an  intended  for 
dormitories,  but  travellers  usually  prefer  the  open 
door.way,  which  is  either  paved  or  level  and  bard 
earth,  and  raised  two  or  three  feet  above  tho  general 
area  of  tbe  court.  These  aels  of  rooms  have  nocommn- 
nication  with  each  other,  but  in  the  middle  of  (he  thiec 
sidea  there  is  a  large  hall  for  general  assemblages ;  at 
the  end  of  each  side  is  a  staircase  Sir  ascending  to  the 
flat  roof  for  enjoying  the  breeze  and  the  landscape. 
These  lodging-chambers  an  thus  usually  on  (be 
ground-fioor ;  but  in  tbe  few  boildings  whkb  bavo 
two  storiea,  the  lower  rooms  ara  used  for  servandi, 
storage,  etc.,  while  the  upper  stofy  serves  for  the  trav- 
ellers themselves.  Sometimes  alao  the  porter's  lodge 
aSnrda  a  supply  of  commodities  for  their  uae,  and 
cooks  are  occasionally  found  In  sttendance.  Gener- 
ally, however,  the  accommodations  arc  of  the  most 
wretched  deacription— ban  walla,  rooms  filled  with 
dirt  and  vermin,  and  no  conking  apparatus  to  he  ob- 
tained (br  love  or  money.  The  traveller  roust  do  all 
hia  own  wnrk,  and  even  fumiafa  bis  owi 
Uia  bagpige  moit  mpply  his  bad,  hfi  t 


CARBUNCLE 


CARCHEMISH 


LB  hu  himnlf    I 


ba  hit  covering.     He  li  nauallj  obliged  to  coDleot '  kidm  rlco,  dried  rawini,  dstei,  ini],  above  ill,  toBt*- 

*    '      '    '"        •    •   -••       '-    ■  ixiei,  with  a  njMlw  ind  »  wooden  moitir  to  pound 

em;  (II  t hit  it  in  iddition  (o  tiich  more  tubalan- 
il  proTiiioni  m  ha  mtj  prefer  dt  c*n  convenienllv 
nr.  The  poner  in  tiiendtnee  -ctn  only  be  relied 
mil  b)  show  him  faig  chamber,  and  perhipi  funiieh 
m  with  ■  key.  Iir  ease  of  eicknee*,  howerer,  the 
,ler  it  generally  able  to  adminiwer  aimiile  renie- 
PI,  and  mty  eren  wE  a  brolien  limb.     See  Caka- 


:h  cold  food  OJ 

broaght.      Hit  DUtflt  ahould  therefore  consiit  at  leait  [ 

of  the  following  article! :  a  carpet,  a  mattresi,  a  blan-  i 

ket,  two  aaucepant  with  lidt.  contained  within  each  c 

other :  two  dishes,  two  pUtes,  etc.,  a  cnffee-pol,  all  of  < 

well-tinned  copper;  alio  a  tmall  wooden  box  for  aalt  r 

and  pepper,  a  ronnd  leather  table,  which  he  tuipenda  1 

from  hit  eaddle,  amall  leather  bottlea  or  liaga  for  oil,  i 

melted  butter,  water,  a  tiader-box,  a  coeoauut  CU{^  i 


Interior  of  a  ' 
CxTbiiiiola  la  the  rendering  in  the  Anth.  Vera,  of 
the  following  Heb.  and  Gr.worda:  1.  mp»,  ohfaf*', 
only  Isa.  liv,  12  (Sept.  tpiaraXKec,  Vulg.  [topi.]  iculp- 
fui),  aome  ^tariHitg  gem  (from  rn^,  to  infiaiM).  2. 
np-ia,  ftors'trtt,  only  F.iod.  xxvili,  17,  and  iiii», 
10,  iu  the  third  In  the  fiiat  row  of  the  hlgh-prieafa 
breastplale  (SepL  aitapaySat,  Valg.  imaragdul,  \.  e. 
eitiBrald) ;  or  Ppia,  hartiaA' ,  only  Eiek.  uvui,  IS 
(Sept.  iviyiLOv.  Viilg.  imaragdta).  From  the  etj-mol- 
og}-(p^a,  tojiiut),  weaammethat  astoneofabright 
conitcant  color  is  meant.  Kaliach  tranalatea  it  ma- 
ragd,  or  emerald,  and  says  it  is  a  sort  of  precious  co- 
randitro  of  strong  glasa  lustre,  a  beautiful  KTeen  color, 
with  many  degrees  of  shade,  pellucid  and  doubly  re- 
iraetive.  Plinv  enomerates  twelve  speciea  of  emer- 
nld.  They  arc  not  rare  in  Egj-pt  (see  Braun.  de  ym. 
Saerrdatt.  p.  &I7  tq.).  8.  'Avipa^,  lit.  ■  coal  ot  Are, 
Tebit  liii.  17 ;  Ecclns.  xxxii,  5.  1.  The  carbuncle  la 
thought  by  many  to  be  denoted  bj-  the  word  T|B},  "o'- 
pidc  ("emerald/'  Exod.  xxviii,  18:  xxxix,  U  ■  Ezek. 
xxvii,  16  ;  xxviii,  13).  See  Enr.RALn.  Under  the 
name  "  carbuncle"  are  comprehended  several  brilliant 
red  stones  of  the  clay  tiimily  which  reaemUe  a  glow- 
ing cool,  anch  at  tbe  niby,  the  garnet,  the  spinel,  but 
inrtknlarly  the  almaitdin,  that  is,  the  noble  Oriental 
KJmpt,  a  transparent  red  atone  with  a  violet  ahade 
and  atrong  glass  lustre.  Protiablr  it  li  not  eo  hard  as 
the  rul>y,  which,  indeed,  ia  the  most  beautiful  and 
i-09tly  of  the  preeioua  atonet  of  red  color,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  so  hard  that  eoKravinga  cannot  easily  be 
made  In  it  (RosenrnQlier,  AllrrA.  Iv,  I,  B4).  In  the 
pr?senl  state  of  our  knowlod.K  reapecting  the  ancient 
Ileinew  mineralogy,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  with 
precision  what  partlcuUr  gem  is  denoted  liy  either  of 
these  tennt,  althongh  they  all  evidently  were  preeiout 
stones  of  a  brilliant  Hsiy  hue.     See  Gkm. 

Cai'caa  (Ileb.  S?^S,  Karlat',  comp.  the  Sanscrit 
larbara.  tectri ;  Sept.  Oagiii  v.  r.  eafiafia,  Vulg. 


"■),* 


CTorcAas),  the  last  named  of  the  aere 
("chamberlulna")  in  the  harem  of  Ahasui 
oi),  who  wore  directed  to  bring  queen  Vat 
royal  convivial  party  (Eath.  i,  10).     B.C.  1 

Caroaae  (T'l)},  l^H?,  ^\^},  "^J?,  ' 
dead  body  of  a  man  or  beast  (Jcah.  <riii,  211 ;  ita.  xiv, 
19 ;  Heb.  iU,  17,  etc.).  According  to  the  Motuc  Uw, 
any  Israelite  became  ceremonially  unclean  until  tbe 
evening  (end  in  turn  rendered  whatever  be  touched 
unclean,  Hag.  ii,  14  ;  camp.  Num.  xix,  !S),  by  (unwit- 
ting) contact,  under  any  circumstancoe,  with  a  dead 
animal  of  the  "unclean"  clars  (l.ev.v,  i;  xi,  8  aq. ; 
camp.  Deut.  xiv,  8),  or  with  any  "clean"  animal.  In 
case  it  had  not  lieen  regularly  slain  according  to  tbe 
prescri  lied  mode  (l^r.  xi,  S9  sq.).  The  eating  of  any 
(clean)  beast  that  had  died  an  accidcnUl  or  natural 
death  was  still  more  strictly  forbidden  (Lev.  xxii, 
8;  comp.  Eaek.  iv,  14 i  xliv,  SI);  but  it  mi):bl  bo 
told  at  food  to  a  foreigner  (Deut.  xiv,  S).  Carrion 
was  douldless  buried  or  linmed.  On  the  sepulture  of 
peraona  found  dead,  ace  IIomclDe.  Ad  nnlmried  car- 
case (Jcr,  ixxvl,  TO ;  Tto.  Ixxix,  S)  was  considered  by 
the  ancicnia  the  height  of  indignity  and  niiafortuoe 
(Vir.-il,  ^«.  X,  5G9).  See  BdHial.  The  Levitical 
enactments  respecting  all  dead  todiet  evidently  had 
their  origin  In  sanitary  reasons  in  a  climate  so  Uallc 
to  pestilence  (Michaelia,  Um.  Itecit,  iv,  SOD  tq.).  On 
tbe  incident  of  the  beehive  in  the  rkeleton  (Judg.  xiv, 
B),  tee  Hkk.  On  the  allusion  to  the  vulture'e  tcent 
for  putrid  Heih,  Ualt.  xxiv,  38  (Loder,  Dt  cad-irm 
Judaico,  ab  it  failii  Konumu  diaeti-pmdo,  ArgenU  IT  I  & ; 
Rcchenberg,  I>t  adngio  CkrUti,  etc,  Upa,  1696),  aee 
Eaolk. 

Car'cllamla  (1  i:tdr.  i,  26).     See  CARCHEMian. 

Cat'cbemlali  (Heb.  KarktmM',  D'>i3S';iZ,  prob. 
fart  ofChemtak;  Sept.  Xapfiiis  V.  I.  iopxa/iiic  in 
Jer.,but  omits  in  Chron.  and  Ita.,  Xapto/ivt  in  1 
Eadr.  I,  6).  mentioned  in  Isa.  x,  9  among  other  placet 
i  in  Syria  which  bad  been  tubdued  h;  an  AtaTrian  king. 


CARDINAL  11 

pn>lMbl7  Tlgbtb-pUcMr.  That  Carchemlab  ym  > 
(iTOiistKild  OS  th«  Euphiatn  appears  from  the  title  of 
>  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  aguDst  Ejiypt  (xlvL,  2): 
"  Agiinit  the  (nny  of  Phsntob-necbo,  king  of  Egypt. 
vhkh  lar  on  the  rirer  Eaphrater,  it  CBrrhem<ah,  and 
*bich  Nebucludneziar,  the  king  of  Babylon,  over- 
ihiH,  in  tba  fourth  f«ar  of  Jehoiakim,  the  urn  of  Jo- 
eUh,  king  of  Jndab."  L  e.  B.C.  606.  According  to  2 
Cbnm.  sxnT.  W,  llecho  had  artTanced  with  big  ally 
Joiiah,  the  father  of  Jebolaklm,  against  the  Babyloni- 
an*, on  the  Enpfaritw,  to  Uke  Canbamlah,  B.C.  609. 
Tbrte  two  circurastances — the  poettian  of  CarchemiFih 
on  Ibe  Eaphmtee,  and  lt>  being  a  frontier  town,  ren- 
tier it  protiahle  (see  Layard,  Km/vr/i  and  Bubj/lim,  p. 
299)  that  the  Hebrew  Dame  point!  to  a  dtv  which  the 
Grsaki  oUled  Kipicqinav,  the  Latlna  CTdUHn,  and 
the  Arab*  KtritBftl'  CSchaleani,  Index.  Gtogr.  ».  v. ; 
RUl«T,  Erdk.  xl,  696) ;  for  thia  too  lay  on  the  woMeni 
tnok  of  the  Enphratei,  where  it  is  joined  by  tbe  Cba- 
bofsa  (comp,  Bochart,  Fkaitg,  iv,  SI;  Cellaril  NmU. 
ii,  71S  aq. ;  Uicbwlia,  Sv^ilem.  p.  1362  sq.).  It  vaa  a 
large  city,  and  pnrnianded  by  strong  walls,  which,  In 
the  tiina  of  the  Homana,  were  occa«ianftl1y  renewed,  aa 
this  wa*  tba  ramotMt  ontpoat  of  their  empire,  toward 
th*  Enphntn,  In  the  direction  of  Persia  (Ammian. 
HuMll.  sxiii,  6 ;  Zoiim.  iii,  13 ;  Procnp.  BrU.  Pen.  11, 
5 ;  camp.  Prooop,  ^Hd'f.  1,  B ;  Plolomy,  t,  18,  6).  Car- 
rhemiah  b  named  In  the  cnnelfotm  inscriptions  (q.T.), 
wbkb  abow  it  to  have  been,  from  abont  B.C.  1100  to 
B.C.  860.  •  chief  dty  of  tbe  Hlttttea,  who  were  mas- 
ten  of  the  whole  of  Syria  tuna  the  borders  of  Damas- 
coi  to  tbe  Euphrates  at  Bir.  or  Bireh-jik:  It  is  also 
mentjonetl  on  tbe  Egyptian  bleroglypbical  acnlpturea 
(Lanrd,  id  tap.  p.  SOS,  638).  At  the  point  where  the 
(Uubor  (Ibe  ancient  Chebar)  joins  tbe  Euphrates, 
there  are  large  monudt  on  b<rtb  banks  of  the  former 
riTer,  marUng  tbe  sitsi  of  old  cities,  or  perhaps  of  dif- 
ferent aectiooB  of  one  great  cl^.  The  mound  on  the 
right  bank  b  crowned  with  a  modem  Arab  village. 
tlUtA  AlKt  Strai,  or  "Father  of  Palacea"  (Cheaney, 
fapL  Erf.  I,  IIB).  It  stands  an  a  narrow  wedge- 
ibaped  plain,  in  the  fork  of  the  two  rivers.  This  ror- 
rtspoods  exactly  to  Piocopius's  description  of  Circe- 
riam.  who  uya  tbat  Its  IbrtiHcatinna  had  the  form  of  « 
triangle  at  the  junction  of  the  Chabnr  and  Enphratei 
(BtO.  /Vn.ii,  ft).  This  seems  to  be  the  true  site  of 
I'archemisb.  It  wa*  visited  by  Benjamin  of  Tudels 
in  the  twelfth  century,  who  found  in  it  two  hundred 
Jew*  (£aHf  Tramlt  m  Pal.  p.  98).  According  tc 
m,  bowerer  (following  tbe  Syriac  and  Arabic 
aioiu),  it  lay  Tory  much  higher  op  the  Euphmu^  oc- 
capving  nearly  the  site  of  tbe  later  Mtdtug,  or  Hierap 
•Ua.  Dr.  Hinks  maintains,  fhim  his  reading  of  tbi 
Anyrian  Inaerlptiona,  that  Uie  true  site  of  Carchemiah 
is  ■■  or  near  Bir,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  tbe  Euphra- 
tea,  and  about  100  milea  higher  np  than  it  la  generally 
thonght  to  he  (_Jimr.  Sae.  IM.  July,  ISM,  p.  4I»).  Still 
less  prehahle  Is  the  snppoeltion  that  It  ia  the  Civ^fit 
of  Heradotns  (see  Keinii  Diiterlt.  8aer.  AmsL  1726,  | 
23).     Sm  Calheh. 

Cardinal  (nrdiaaUM,  principal ;  from  eardo, 
hinge),  the  title  of  an  eminent  class  of  dignitaries  i 
the  Roman  Church,  so  styled  as  if  the  a:t]e  or  hin^ 
•n  whkh  the  whole  govemment  of  Ibe  Cbarch  tumi 
or  as  tbey  have,  from  the  pope's  grant,  the  hinge  an 
■EDVemment  of  tbe  Romish  Church.  Pope  Eugenii 
IV  slates  the  derivation  from  tardo.  a  binge,  as  fo 
lows ;  SinU  ftr  enrdinm  ccJmtHr  odian  dbmui,  ita  ii 
per  km  Sedct  Apottaiica,  totiMi  Effifma  oteium^  quifacil 
rt  n^mlidar  (see  Dof^esne,  s.  t.  car^nalii). 

I.  Carditnl  PritMU,  tic,  —  In  early  days  the  name 
rardinal  was  uHd  with  great  latitude  in  tbe  Roman 
Church,  tu  flrrt  definite  application  nu  to  Ibe  prin- 
cipal pleats  of  the  parishei  of  Rome  i  the  chief  priest 
•fa  parish,  next  to  a  bishop,  being  presbyter  cardina- 
£s  1°  distinguish  bim  from  the  Mbn  priests  who  had 
DO  chsTcb.    It  la  DDCtTtain  whan  the  term  was  first 


1  CARDINAL 

ipplied,  but  It  seems  that  Stephen  IV  (770}  was  the  fini 
who  selected  seven  bishops  out  uf  the  number  of  the 
see  of  Rome,  and  gave  them  tbe  title  of  cardinal,  oblig- 
ing them  to  say  maaa  every  Sunday  in  St.  Peter'a. 
Leo  IV,  in  a  conncil  of  Rome  held  In  858,  calls  them 
jirtt^glerai  no  canlinit,  and  tbeir  churches  parodtiat 
canHmJti.  At  a  snbeequent  period  the  prieao  and 
deacons  of  other  cities  of  importance  assumed  the  title 
of  cardinal,  to  dlatinguiab  (hem  ^m  other  priests  and 
ins  over  whom  they  claimed  supremacy ;  but  tbe 
popes  subsequently  ordained  that  none  but  those  whom 
jy  had  cboaen  should  be  honored  with  that  title, 
nong  those  whom  the  popes  thus  appointed  were  the 
ren  bishops  tubarbicarii,  who  took  their  titles  from 
pIscoB  in  tbe  neighborhood  of  Rome.  These  biahops 
were  called  hebdutaadarii,  because  they  attended  the 
pope  for  *  week  esch'ln  bis  turn.  Iliese  cardinals 
took  part  with  the  Roman  clergy  in  the  election  of  the 
pope,  who  was  generally  chosen  from  Ibeir  nomber. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  edict  of  Nicolas  II,  A.D.  1069 
(see  below),  that  the  body  of  CBrdinsIa,  as  such,  bad  a 
proper  existence  as  a  recognised  branch  of  Iho  ecclesi- 

S.  CcWfcye'/Carcfitinlt.— "The  college  ofCardinsls, 
in  its  origin,  was  nothing  else  than  the  council  which, 
according  to  the  canons,  every  metropolitan  was  obliged 
to  conault,  and  In  which,  during  s  vacancy,  all  the 
melropolilan  powers  resided,  via.,  the  synod  of  pro- 
vincial bishops,  and  the  chapter  of  tbe  metropolitan 
chorch ;  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  this  college 
would  share  In  (ha  sDpremo  glory  of  the  see  of  Rome, 
in  the  same  proportion  as  every  other  chnrch  partici- 
pated in  the  honor  of  its  particular  metropolitan.  It 
was  not,  however,  for  a  long  time  that  the  canlinslate 
attained  to  Its  present  excessive  and  usurped  degree 
of  power  and  dlgnitv.  In  the  Synod  of  Rome,  under 
Benedict  VIII,  in  1016,  the  canllnalF,  priests,  and  dea. 
cons  sUll  sl)cned  after  tbe  bishops,  and  tbe  cardinaU 
bishops  after  other  bishops  uf  older  standing  In  tbe 

change,  for  Humliertua,  bishop  of  Silva  Candida,  who 
was  a  cardinal-liisbop  of  the  Bee  nf  Rome,  tack  preco- 
dence  at  Constantinople  of  the  archbishop  of  Amalfi ; 
and  from  that  time  we  perceive  the  cardinal-bishops, 
and  aoon  even  the  priests  and  deacons,  arrogating  to 
themseh-cs  that  precedence  over  all  other  eccleBlaalieal 
dignitariea  which  they  now  possess.  This,  however, 
wss  not  done  without  reabtance.  Thus,  in  1440,  tbe 
arcbhiabop  of  Canterbury  refused  to  allow  to  the  car- 
dinal-archbishop of  York  the  precedence  which  he 
claimed ;  whereupon  Pope  Eugenloa  IV  wrote  to  the 
former,  reprehending  him  for  his  conduct,  and  declar- 
ing that  tbe  cardinalate  bad  been  Ins&tnted  by  St. 
Peter  himself,  and  that  the  dignity  of  tbe  cardinahs 
who,  with  the  pope,  governed  the  L'nivet*al  Church, 
and  sat  Id  judgment  npon  bishops,  was,  past  all  doub^ 
greater  than  that  of  even  patriarchs,  who  had  jorisdic* 
tion  over  only  a  part  of  the  Church,  and  from  whom 
there  lay  an  appeal  to  the  see  of  Rome.  Tbe  same 
dispnte  occorred  between  the  cardinal-bishop  of  Cra- 
cow and  tba  primate  of  Gnesna  in  1-149.  Aa  time 
went  on,  these  arrogant  pretensions  of  the  college  in- 
creased :  we  fltid  tbe  cardinals  saying  to  Pope  Pins, 
CardinalapamRigibatliidifri;  so  the  cardinal  of  Ps- 
vis.  in  several  places.  Cardinattvi  .  .  .  njm  digialat 
cmlrfrrtHr  Rrgilmt.  In  1661  the  cardinals  of  Lorraine 
and  Guise  refused  to  give  precedence  to  the  princes  of 
the  blood  royal.  To  such  an  excaM  had  this  arro- 
gance and  liraspingat  dignity  attained  in  (he  sixteenth 
centurv,  that  (he  biahope  at  the  Cotincll  of  latenn, 
under  Leo  X.  in  151S,  came  to  the  resolution  either  to 
keep  away  altogether,  or  to  negative  every  propo^ 
tion.  until  their  grievances  were  redressed. 

"Tbe  Council  of  Rome,  under  Nicolas  II,  10t9, 
grants  to  the  college  of  Cardinals,  or  rather  (can.  I)  to 
tbe  eardioaUbisbaps,  the  principal  voice  in  the  electioa 
of  the  pope;  and,  acCMding  to  Peter  Damianna,  tin 


CARL\.  i: 

Mndplei,"  which  ctoaed  a  gtiU  holler  punalt  of  Cn- 
giU.  Cugill,  CunoDD,  and  others  iloir  prepared  whit 
la  known  m  the  "  Suqnhir  Declaration,"  Liecauu  it 
wu  affixed  to  the  maTket-<Tou  at  Sanqahar,  June  22. 
1680.  Cargill  wa>  declared  a  traitor,  and  a  price  set 
on  hU  head.  Id  Septomber  ha  publicly  "excommu- 
nicated" the  king  ajid  othen  U  Torwood.  Hunted 
tram  place  l«  place,  be  preached  hie  lust  Krmon  on 
Duntyre  Common,  July  10, 1681,  and  waa  arrested  the 
Mme  night  at  Covington  Hill.  He  was  tried  and  con- 
demned, tha  casting  vole  being  giren  by  the  duke  of 
^e>'^^'  '"^  afterward  bttterly  repented  this  act. 
CugUl  was  executed  at  Edinburgh,  July  27, 1681._ 
Hatheiington,  Bitlory  of  lie  ClmnA  of  Haitland,  vol.  ii, 
ch.  ii ;  Bioffraph'a  Pntbj/lerirma,  li  (Eilinliurgfa,  2d  ed. 
1856) !  BUtory  of  lie  CoratiuHeri  (Presbyterian  Board, 
Phlla.),  vol.  ii,  ch.  iil;  Hook,  Ecclti.  Biagraphg,  li,  1S6. 

Ca'iia  (Kapio),  the  tauth-wectem  district  of  Aab 
Minor  (q.  v.),  washed  on  the  S.  by  tiia  Mediterranean 
and  on  the  W.  Ijy  the  .£ga«n  Sea,  and  indented  by 
many  bays  and  creeka.  On  the  N.  by  Lydia,  east- 
ward wem  rhiygia  and  I.ycia,  here  sepiraled  by 
mountainous  landmarks,  y^t  withont  anr  fixed  bound- 
aiy,  irhich  continually  fluctuated  on  ibe  N.,  where 
the  river  MBinder  formed  not  ao  much  the  political  as 
the  natural  border  (Straba,  xli,  577,  678;  comp.  xlil, 
028).  The  S.W.  angle  of  this  region,  having  been 
settled  by  Dorian  colonies,  waa  aometimea  distinguiah. 
ed  thim  Caria  by  the  name  of  Dor!,  (Pliny,  v,  29). 
Mountain  rangea  ntretched  through  Its  entire  territfirj-, 
jutting  out  into  promontoriea  at  the  aea;  yet  conaideT- 
able  plains  intervened,  which  were  well  watered,  and 
fmitfUl  in  grain,  oil,  wino,  etc.  Tha  inhabitants,  com- 
posed of  various  mined  races  (among  which  were  some 
of  Shemitlc  stock,  Berthean,  Iir.  GrtcA.  p.  193  aq.), 
wen  engaged,  at  least  on  the  shore,  in  navigation  and 
piracy  (Herod,  li,  152;  Thucyd.  i,  *,  8;  Straho,  xiv, 
662).  A  Jewish  colony  Is  referretl  to  in  the  Apociy- 
pha  (1  Mace,  xv,  22,  3.1)  as  being  bvorably  addressed 
by  (he  Romioa  in  a  decree  which  names  the  principal 
towns  HalicamaaauB  (the  birthplace  of  the  hialoriiin 
Herodotna),  Cnidua  (mentioned  in  Ada  xxiil,  7),  to 
which  may  be  added  Miletus  (comp.  Acta  xx,  16-28) ; 
and  the  aime  pnaaa^e  ullndea  to  the  fact  that  the  Ca- 
tiana  wore  then  (B.C.  IBO)  endowed  with  the  privilege 
of  Roman  eitliienship  (tjvy,  xlix.  1A),  after  having 
been  for  some  time  subject  to  Rhodes  (comp.  Ptolemy, 
V,  9;  Mehi,  i,  16;  Forbiger,  AItt  tjtoffr,  il,  204  aq'. ; 
Hecren,  /tfaes,  I,  i,  168  aq.).  Somewhat  later  (KC. 
IBCT)  CarEa  became  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire 
(see  Smith'a  Dirt,  of  Clam.  Geogr.  s.  v.).  Some  aoti- 
qoariana  (see  Vorhmgge,  De  nam.  plur.  Btir.  p.  68) 
liave  discovered  tha  Carians  In  the  O.  T.  under  the 
name  Karim  (D^'IS,  3  Klnga  xi,  4, 10),  mentioned  in 
eonneclion  with  the  Aotnai  (C^X^,  S  Sam.  xx,  2S)  as 
the  lifoguarda  of  the  Jewish  kings ;  but  these  terms 
ace  rather  to  he  taken  as  appellatives,  ejacvftniKn  and 
Fovritrt  (GeseniuB,  Thaaar.  p.  67lj.  See  CllBBB- 
TitrrEand  Peletiiite. 

Carlntllia  and  Camiola.  The  province  of  Ca. 
Tinlkia  (German,  Kanlhtn).  since  1S»B,  baa  been  an 
appanage  of  the  dukea  of  Austria.  In  olden  times  it 
waa  included  in  Slavonia,  and  during  the  wars  witli 
Germany  the  Urat  seeds  of  Cbriadanity  were  aown. 
The  princes  of  CarinChia  had  become  Christiana  hy  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  yet  the  maw  of  Ibe  peo- 
ple did  not  embrace  it  before  the  lulter  part  of  the  ninth 
century.  In  Camiola  ((iermin,  A'ra'n).  which  is  also 
■  duchy  of  Austria,  Christianity  was  earlier  propaga- 
ted. FortUDBtna.  deacon  of  Hermagoraa,  flrsi  bishop 
of  Aqnileia,  is  aaid  to  have  first  introduMd  It  In  Lai- 
bach,  and  Dp  to  I4i3  Lalbaeh  waa  an  archdeaconn'  of 
Aqnileia. 

At  the  ReformaCion,  Litther'a  doctrine  spread  Ta|dd- 
ly  through  these  two  provincea,  and  Primus  Traber  (q. 
v.),  who  Hrst  promnlgatod  them  there,  became  cinoa 


2  CARLETON 

of  Laibach  in  1631  \  yet  be  had  afterward  to  leave  llw 
country  and  retire  to  Wnrtamberg,  from  whence  b« 
supplied  bis  countrymen  with  evangelical  booka  and 
tractl,  partly  in  Slavonic  and  partly  In  Latin.  In 
1566  almost  Che  whole  population  of  both  provincca 
had  adapted  the  Refumution,  and  Truber  went  back 
in  1561,  taking  with  him  the  first  printer  there  had 
been  in  the  country,  John  Mandel  (Jlanlins).  In 
1587,  a  letter  of  prince-bishop  Thomas  Chrun  to  the 
pope  shows  that  but  one  twentieth  of  the  population, 
and  that  among  the  lower  classes,  adhered  to  Roman- 
ism. Yet  wunt  of  unity  among  the  minieters,  and  a 
growing  tendency  to  indulge  in  acholaatic  and  dog- 
matic diacussiona,  opened  Uie  doors  again  to  Rome, 
and  in  1679  some  of  the  ministers  were  driven  away. 
The  Roman  Catholic  element  steadily  incrcaaod  until, 
in  I5D8,  all  the  Protestant  mlnistcn  were  commanded 
by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  It  to  leave  within  fourteen 
days.     In  ICOI  the  same  command  wss  isaned  for  the 

Moat  preferred  the  latter  alternative,  and  went  into 
Bohemia,  Hun^r}-,  and  Germsny.  This  state  of 
things  continued  until  the  promnlgation  of  the  cele- 
brated edict  of  toleradon  by  Joseph  II  in  I7f>I. 

The  denominational  statistics  of  the  two  provinces 
were,  according  to  the  ofBclal  cenaua  of  1880,  as  fi>l- 
lows:  CuruMWa  — Rumen  Catholics,  881,027  ;  United 
Greeks,  gj  Non-united  Greeks,  1;  Luiherana,  17,460 : 
Reformed,  56.  Ciimio/.i— Riiman  Caihulics,  480.079; 
United  Greeks,  201 ;  Non-nnited  Greek^8lg;  Luihpr- 
ans,a81i  Reformcd,123;otheraccta,4.  There  are  three 
bishoprics :  lat,  the  see  of  Lilhach,  auffragsn  of  the  di. 
ocese  of  G5rz,  with  SOS  livings,  83  cures,  60  benefices. 
676  secular  priests,  and  44  regular  priests ;  2d,  the  ree 
of  Gurk,  lielonging  to  the  archbishopric  ofSalibcrg, 
contains  204  livings,  73  cueneies,  11  bfices,  and  counts 
421  secular  priests,  and  17  regular  priests ;  3d.  the  ree 
of  Lavant,  suffragan  of  Salil>nrg,  with  169  livings,  43 
cures,  171  benefices,  406  aecnbr  prieata,  and  72  regular 
prieats.  In  Camiola  there  are  also  5  conventa,  occu- 
pied by  67  monks,  and  2  by  66  nunsj  in  CarinUiIa 
there  are  70  of  the  litter,  and  8  convents. 

The  Lutherans  an  subject  to  the  Superintendent  at 
Vienna.  Thev  have  in  tlie  district  of  Klagenfurth  2 
drcuitfl,  wiUi  2  miniatera;  and  in  that  of  Villach,  14 
dialricts  and  14  ministers.  The  latter  diatricta  are : 
1,  Oriach,  1415  peraous;  i,  Blelbere,  lOOO;  8,  Dom- 
liaeh.  606;  4,  Ksentratten,  06Sj  6,  Fefremitt,  S2I :  C, 
St.  Peter,  1624;  7,  Fresach,  1600;  8,  St.  Ruprecht, 
1429;  9,  TrebeBing.1260;  10,  Fresdorf,  881 ;  II,  Wat- 
schlg,  II68;  12,  ZUn,  1586;  1^  Welsbriach,  11TB: 
14,  Gnesau,  900 ;  16,  Feldkirchen,  800.— /)e  comtrtiotie 
CaranUaarm  (anonymous) ;  Waldan,  d.  Gadiiekit  rt. 
Proltil.  i.  Oultmick,  ac^ermark,  Kamlhen  ■.  Kraiu 
(Anapach,  17SS,  2  vols.);  Henog,  RfoJ-KHtykkjiad:*, 
vil,  208,  from  which  Ibis  article  Is  condensed. 

C>rl«tOii,  GeoRoR,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Chicherter, 
was  bom  at  Norham,  North omber bind,  1550.  He  was 
ducated  by  Bernard  Gilpin,  by  whom  be  was  sent  to 
Edmund  Hall,  Oxford,  where' he  graduated  A.B.  In 
1580.  and  A.M.  In  1686.  He  remained  in  the  college 
us  fellow  and  master  until  1616.  In  1617  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Uandaff.  In  1618  ha  was  sent  by  James  I, 
with  Drs.  Hall,  Davenani,  and  Ward,  to  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  where  ho  defended  epiacopacy.  On  bia  return. 
the  States  sent  a  letter  to  king  James  highly  cooi- 
menrlin'.!  him  and  the  rest  of  the  divines  for  their  vir- 
tue, lenming,  piety,  ud  love  of  peace.  Ho  waa  ad- 
vanced  to  the  see  of  Chichester  in  1619,  of  which  be 
continued  bishop  until  his  death  in  1628.  He  was  a 
man  of  solid  Judgment  and  various  reading,  particu- 
larly in  the  btben  and  schoolmen ;  a  strenuous  oppo- 
nent of  Rome,  and  a  steady  Calvinisl.  He  wrote 
Tilha  Examatd^hmA.  1611. 4lo)  -.^SkiH  Dinetioiit  to 
lafM  Iht  »rtK  CTurdl  (I-ond.  1616.  1!mo):— Otiinmi* 
Ecclaiai  CaiknUea  conrni  TridmSitot  (Londnn,  161S, 
Svo)  ■.—Beroid  Ckiracltra  (Oxfhrd,  1603,  4to> :—  Itu 


CARLISLE  123  CARMANIAN 

B.  Gilfim  (in  Bato,  CalUction  oJUitf,  Lond.  16B1),  and  |  ful,  and  Uiat  the  spliit  wu  Bufflciant  for  tha  fllainbw- 
•ereml  otbei'  worki. — Middleton,  Eiamgilical  Biogra- 1  tion  of  tba  faithful.  The  fermeat  incnaied  niitll  Wlt- 
^,  ii.45S:  Hook,  fiecJ.  Biografkji,  iii,  440;  JVnc  and  tamlie^  wu  in  ■  ■tomi,  Ihi  Univenitj-  in  danger  of 
Ctwrnt  Biog.  Ji^iimary,  iii,  1G3.  ',  diuolotioii,  and  the  tjroid  HeUnctbon,  although  coun- 

n-  tM  t     ,^  -I    •.     •.         -^     -     n      ,.,,,.■        lenaucinir  all  the  reuoDable  ttept  of  Carlitsdt,  waa 

b.1.,^  IS  ih.  ,n„<.n.  of  ih.  -"ll.-'"?  of  >  o;l-  A  ,„  „,  c„l.,«lf.  M...!..  Wbra  LUh«  ntdmj 
monaatery  was  commenced  here  aLout  1093,  and  after-  i  £__  .i   .«  _.i  j  ,v     j  i.  _  .w -  _ 

3i^«,  b,  k,„g  „„^ ,, ...  j..^  .....^  rw^r^'Sz  XI  ^.:  sr/."^;! 

miQot  of  arehbbhop  Thuntan,  erected  It  into  a  ca-      .     ,,       ;,    ,.^j..   ,.       j    _,  -.- 

E^^W  ■on,,™.!  .C  A.g...!™  .•».»,,  .«d  "bo,  ~  j,  ,b.„d...J  bbi  .c«l.>.J<:.l  boom  ..d  d» 
.^t  rf  .kO«,8  th*  bUbop     Tb.  pn.,,  .,.  d»   g^  «;     *  H.  ■«>.  ,.blUb.d 


MlTad  In  January,  1M0,  and  lUi  Kite  >i 


kr,  asHrting  the  < 


lomamMiiiauBan   praiMnaunH.  BH,      '""  "' ™°"   (fvity  of  the  human  will  in  relation  to  predeatined 

cmBpomo  of  part*  of  Cuoiherland  nnd  Wortmorelaml,    '         ,_  .    i„     .  i    >i.    . .    _    . 

.  *:.        ,      '  ,         .      .  ,  .  L  grace,  and  goon  went  almo«t  to  the  verge  of  Bpoitasy. 

X,?'ib1?'Sl^"^d1b™""i.*r "■.™'  Z I  »^-"  -'•"""  '■"•'"' '" "'"  "  "■•  'S'"  ■" 

ttJli*    »or  ^™,  and  tbr»  m  dot  '"n™-     ibB  ,.^    ^^^        .,  „nd  treated  with  rontempt  Lu- 

™rfta"!m.         "  '  ■»""-    tb«-.i.i.id.t.,l.bf.,tb..„k.™bf.tb.„.    Af»r 

hla  banlabment  from  Witlcmlierg  he  obtained  the  pat- 
Carlstadt  or  Caroloatadt.  an  eminent  bnt  vio- 1  torate  of  a  church  at  Orlauiande,  in  Saxony,  hut  after 
lent  i»a4)uloT  of  lather.  Hi*  name  wu  Andrew  |  bla  diacuulon  with  Luther  the  elecbir  Lanished  him 
BoDEisrKis,  but  be  tooii  hit  Bamame  from  hla  native  alw  from  the  itate.  Hence  be  vent  la  Straabarg,  and 
place  in  Franconia.  The  data  of  hia  birth  ia  unknown.  puUiihed  several  writings  on  the  Eaebarjtit,  in  which 
He  itndiad  theoli^cy  and  tha  canon  law  at  Kome.  In  he  oppoMd  Lutber'i  doctrine  of  the  real  (>pirituBl) 
lHH  he  want  to  Wittamberg.  and  after  taking  aeveral  presence,  and  coincided  with  Zwingle'a  vJewf,  which 
academic  degreaa  and  obtaining  a  great  repuLition  for  wore  also  those  of  (Ecolampadius,  and  are  now  held  by 
•cfaolastle  learning,  he  was  in  1&13  made  professor  of  moat  Protentants.  On  account  of  these  (enals  ha  waa 
UMotogy  and  archdeacon.  Hit  Intimacy  wllh  Luther ,  dismissed  from  Orlambnde  in  1624,  and  from  thia  date 
began  in  151S.  When  CarlsUdt  came  back  from  a  stay  until  1534  he  wandered  tbrouich  Germany,  pureaed  by 
rt  Buna,  about  151G.  and  found  that  Luther'*  opinions  !  the  persecuting  ojdnioni  of  both  Lutherans  and  Papists, 
were  sabTtsting  sehols-itkifim  in  the  UniTersity,  he  at  j  and  at  times  reduced  to  great  straits  by  indigence  and 
fnt  opposed  them  riolently,  but  afterward  devoted  nnpopulsrity.  But,  although  he  always  found  srmpa. 
himasif  to  Biblical  study,  and  became  one  of  Luther's  .  thy  and  hospitality  among  the  Anabaptists,  yet  he  is 
BoM  laalou*  adherents.  By  some  of  his  eontempora.  ,  evidently  clear  of  the  charge  of  complicity  with  U&nt- 
ries  kia  aradltlon  I*  at  this  time  highly  spoken  of,  but  ler't  rebellion.  Yet  he  was  forliidden  to  write,  hla 
HaUoctbon  denied  him  either  soand  learnings  Renins,  |  life  was  sometimes  In  danger,  and  he  exhibits  the  mel- 
V  pMy.  In  escaping  from  scholas^cism  ha  seems  to  ancboly  speetacla  of  a  man  great  and  right  in  many 
hara  gma  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  mysticism.  In  .  respects,  bnt  whose  rasbuess,  ambition,  and  insincere 
tha  edehralcd  LeIpaie  Disputation  (Jane  27,  IBIb)  he  laal,  together  with  many  fanatlcil  opinions,  bad  put 
ditpated  with  Eck  (q.v.)  upon  "human  freedom  and  him  under  the  well-foundad  but  Iroimderata  censure 
dliina  grace."      Lather,  being  drawn  Into  the  debate,    of  both  friends  and  fbrr. 

sarpi  seed  the  other  disputants,  and  (torn  this  time  j  By  these  severe  reverses  the  intempente  lealot 
the  breach  between  Carlstadt  and  the  great  reformer  was  humbled.  In  1630  Bucer  sent  him  with  warm 
openly  manifested  ilsalf.  Tha  next  year  (liSi>)  be  commendations  from  Strasburg  to  Zurich,  where,  in 
pobliabed  a  treatise,  fie  ttmomeii  Seriptunt,  which,  al-  ,  1G3S,  he  became  a  second  time  pastor  of  a  church.  In 
though  defaced  by  Utter  atUcki  on  Luther,  was  nev-  1534  ba  was  made  professor  of  theology  at  Basel,  and 
crtbaleea  aa  able  work.  sa(tln:c  forth  the  great  princl-  minister  of  Si.  Peter's,  and,  bating  a  dispute  with  My. 
t^  of  PnMaetantism,  vis.  the  paramount  authority  of  conins,  be  lived  in  comparative  qolet  and  comfort. 
Scnptore.  He  also  at  this  time  contended  for  Ihe  au- ,  Ha  died  of  the  plague  on  Christmas,  IMI.  It  cannot 
Ibsrity  ef  the  epsstle  of  St.  Jamas  again*t  Luther.  On  |  ba  denied  that  in  many  respects  he  was  apparently  in 
Ike  publkatiaB  of  the  bull  of  Leu  X  against  the  re-'  advance  of  Luther,  but  his  error  lay  in  bis  haste  to  snb- 
tirnrn,  Carlttadt  showed  a  real  and  honest  courage  .  vert  and  abolish  tha  external  forms  and  pomie  before 
in  staDding  firm  with  Lntber.  Hit  work  on  Papal .  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  doubtless  his  own,  were 
Smelilii  (1S20)  attocka  the  Inbllibility  of  Ihe  pope  on  {vepared  liy  an  Internal  change.  Biographies  of  bim 
(ha  hui*  of  the  Bible.  In  I&Sl,  during  Luther's  con- .  are  numeioue,  and  the  Reformation  no  doubt  owes 
fiDement  in  the  Wafthnrg,  Carlaladt  lud  almost  sole  him  much  of  good  for  which  he  has  not  the  credit,  as 
eoBtrol  of  tbe  reform  movement  at  Wittembe^,  and  It  was  overshadowed  by  the  mischief  be  produced, 
waa  sapcnoe  in  the  University.  He  attacked  niona-  See  FOssll,  ^odnoi  Sxi^ou'eM  (Fnnkfnrt,177e);  Jl- 
ckian  and  celibacy  in  a  treatise  dt  tatibatu,  mimacluilH  '  ger.  Aid.  Bodaulnii  crn  CarUadl  (Stattgardt,  1S66, 
WnbiWe.  Hit  next  point  of  assault  was  the  Jfoo,  gvo);  Hoahebn,  CA. //i«.  iii,  24,  S'2, 140;  Merle  D'Ao. 
aad  a  riot  of  stadentt  and  yonng  cllixens  against  the  Ugni,  Bill.  <■/ Itefarmalttm.  iii,  179  sq. ;  Herxop,  Ami- 
nut  aoon  followed.  On  Chriatnus,  1521,  he  gove  the  £acyUi^l<{i<.  ii.  HSa  sq.;  Ranks,  ffutorf  n/U«  if'/c/r. 
lacrwneM  in  both  kinds  to  the  laity,  and  in  German  i  natiait.  pt.  li,  p.  ]<t3 ;  DtHner,  GacladUt  d.  I'rot.  Tkta- 
aad  in  Janoaiy,  ISii,  he  married.     Hia  headlong  taal    log'e,  1867,  p.  121  sq. 

ltd  him  lo  do  whatever  he  came  to  believe  right,  al  Catma'lliMl  (Vulg.  (7itmini(Bsu,  for  the  Gr.  text 
■ace  and  arbitrarily.  Bat  he  toon  ootnn  Luther,  and  is  not  extant),  an  inhabitant  of  Carmania  (occurring 
•M  of  hia  gnat  nMakes  was  In  putting  tha  O.  T.  on  In  tha  Bible  only  In  !  Rwir.  XT,  DO,  where  the  Carma- 
^  ma»  foodng  aa  tbe  New.  On  Jan.  !4, 1622,  Carl-  nlans  are  predicted  as  the  ravagrrs  of  Assyria),  an  ex- 
■tidt  oMained  the  odopttoo  of  a  new  church  constitu-  tensive  province  of  Asia  along  the  nortbem  side  of  the 
liia  at  Witlemberg,  wklch  It  of  Intereit  only  as  the  Porsisn  Gulf,  extendini  from  Carpella  (the  present 
bit  PratNtant  orpinliatian  of  the  Beformation.  lu  Cape  Bomoreek,  or  else  C.  lask)  on  tha  E.  to  the  river 
litt  be  gave  way  to  a  fanatjcitm  against  academic .  Btgradas  (now  Kabend)  on  tbe  W.,  and  comprebend- 
leafing,  IntiaUog  that  acadamlcal  degraea  wore  sin-  Ing  the  modem  coaat-Une  of  Eirmoa,  including  Larii- 


CAIiME  134  CAEJIEL 

tan  and  Hoghmtin.  Set  Pebiia.  It  wu  nigged,  |  place*;  and  trota  tba  curtoni,  wbEcb  appaar*  Id  uto 
but  ffuitrut,  atad  inhabllMt  by  a  varlike  race  (nee  b«D  prevalent,  of  rawrting  tbither  on  Daw-moon  and 
Smilb't  Diet,  of  Claa.  Gtogr.  i.  v.).  Thpy  are  de. :  aalibaths  (g  King!  iv,  S8),  tUece  Mcm  to  b«  gTOODda  for 
icrilied  by  Stnlw  (iv,  p.  T27)  aa  wonhipping  Arei  b«lieviag  tbst  fiom  very  Buly  times  It  was  conaider- 
alone  of  all  Ibe  godi,  to  whom  they  ucrlliced  iiii  a».  |  ed  a  ucred  apoL  In  later  tiniea,  Pythagoru  waa  led 
None  of  them  married  till  be  bad  cut  off  the  bead  of  ,  to  It  by  that  reputation,  accurding  to  hia  biottrapber 
an  enemy  and  presented  It  to  the  king,  who  placed  it '  lamblichua  (lie.  Pj/lluig.  c.  B,  p.  40,  43,  td.  Kiefl.), 
«n  hi*  palace,  having  first  cat  out  (he  tongue,  which  «bo  himself  visited  the  monnlain ;  Veepaaian,  too, 
wai  chopped  up  into  amall  pieces  and  mixed  with  came  tliilher  to  consult— io  we  are  told  by  Tacitus 
meal,  and  in  thia  condition,  afUr  being  tatted  by  the  (//iff.  ii,  T),  with  that  mistore  of  bet  and  &'ble  which 
king,  was  givea  to  the  warrior  who  brought  it  and  to  '■  marks  all  tlie  hestheo  notices  of  Palestine — the  oncle 
hia  fumily  to  eat.  Nearchua  says  Ibat  most  of  the  of  the  god,  whose  name  waa  the  aame  as  that  of  the 
customs  of  the  Carmanians.  and  their  language,  were  mountain  itself;  an  oracle  without  image  ■  r  ten^ple 
Persian  and  Median.  Airian  gives  the  same  testimo-  (see  t^mith's  Did.  «f  Clauical  Geogr.  r.  t.  Carmelaa). 
ny  (M.  B8),  adding  that  they  used  the  aame  order  of  But  the  circamrtancea  that  have  made  Ibe  name  of 
battle  as  the  Persians.     See  Asia.  !  Carmel  most  EamiUar  are  that  here  Elijah  brought 

C«'m4CX«p;..iy.r.X«ppO,  given  (l&dr.v.  Si)  •"■""',""',!,"  jUejiance  to  Jehov.h,  and  slew  the 
a.  the  family  h^d  of  1017  Jois  who  iet.med  from    P"?'""  "^  ""  '"''S'.''"'  ^"'*«  '^'^\^tZ  '?,'"*  *"; 

V.  ■       .  "1      J  I  received  the  visit  of  the  Lereared  mother  whose  son 

Car'mel  (Heb.  Kamif,  Voil,  pari;,  aa  in  laa.  x,  he  was  soon  to  restore  to  her  trms  (!  Kings  Iv,  !6, 

18;  iivi,IO;  a![|i,17;  x.«il,16',i6;  Jer.ii,7;  xlviii,  ««■)     See  Elibha.     The  lint  of  th«e  three  events, 

B3  [also  2  Kings  lii,  88;  2  Chron.  sivi,  10,  in  both  withont  donbt,  took  place  at  the  eattcm  end  of  the 

which  paasages  the  A.  V.  incorrectly  Mkes  it  for  a  ^^V>>  "  »  »l>«  '»"«<1  'UMtdhtah-k,  near  the  rained 

proper  name,  "Carmel"];  hence  ynh,  as  a  garden  -ri'lig"  of  el-Manaurab,   firat  dcEcrilwd  by  Van   de 

fruit.  Lev.  ii,  W  i  nxiii,  14 ;  2  Kings  Iv,  4S).  the  name  Velde  (Jouiti/,  i,  824  fq.).    Ibe  tradition  pnservcd 

of  a  noted  promontoiy  (oflin  with  the  art.  [aa  in  sev-  'n  the  convent,  and  among  the  Druses  of  the  neigh- 

eralofthe  above  occuriBnces  of  the  appellation],  *at-  '■"""('  villages,  the  names  of  the  pUces,  the  distance 

Karmd;  Vc-^sn,  q.  d.  At  orchard,  Amos  i,  2 ;  i.,  B ;  f""  Jexroel  the  n.ture  of  the  locality  the  prcence 

T       ,     ar    ■;.''.     -1  I,    III    4iii.  i-         1111      1   I.  of  the  never-lailing  frriotTi  "11  ""favorable  (see  Stan- 

Jer.  iv,  26  .-^Cant.  vii,  6 ;  fuSly '  •  W t.  Carmel,  ■■  far  &,*-  ,„,_  ^  .^.  ^  p^^^_  ^  g^^  ,^_ .  ,  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^ 

Kamuf,  Si«-I3n  in,  q.  d.  gaTd,n-<«Mnt,  1  Kmgs  j,^  [_  jjg  ,q_j.  Th,  „„,^  „„  ^^Ich  the  tradition- 
xviii,19,  20;  or  witliout  the  art.  Isa.  xxsiii,  9;  Nah.  arj- alruclvre  aiands  commands  a  noble  view  over  the 
1,4;  Josh,  xix,  26),  and  also  of  a  town;  both  donbt-  whole  pluin  of  EedrKlcn,  from  the  banka  of  the  KIshon 
less  BO  called  from  their  verdant  fertility.  For  details  down  at  the  bottom  of  the  steep  declivity,  sway  to  the 
nf  both  see  the  Mtmoirt  accompanying  the  Jf I'p  liiely  distant  bill  of  Gilboa,  at  whose  base  stood  the  royal 
issued  by  the^PaLExpbr.  Fund."  |  city  of  Jeireei.     To  the  8M)  prophets,  ranged  doubt- 

1.  (Sept.  nsoally  \6piaiKot  [so  Joscphus,  A«l.  v,  1,  less  on  the  wide  upland  sweep,  just  beneath  the  t(r. 
!9, etc;  Tacitus.  "Carmelus,"  Bitl.  ii,  78;  also  Sua-  race,  to  the  multitudee  of  people,  many  of  whom  may 
toniue,  Vttpat.  5,  Ij;  but  Kop/iiiXiov  in  I  Kings  xrili,  have  remained  on  the  plain,  the  altar  of  Elijah  would 
ID,  20;  2  Kings  li,2n;  iv,  26  [so  JoMphud,  ^  nf.  xlli,  I  be  in  full  view,  and  they  could  alt  see,  in  the  even  in  K 
6,4],  andXipfuXin  Josh,  xii,  22).  A  prominent  bead-  twilight,  tliat  "the  Ureofthe  Lord  fell,  and  consumed 
land  of  lower  or  central  Palestine,  bounding  soutlierly  the  liumt-sacrifico,  and  the  wood,  and  the  stones,  and 
the  Bay  of  Acre,  and  tunning  out  boldly  almost  into  the  dUFt,  and  licked  up  the  water"  (ver.  B8).  The 
the  wares  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  which  it  stretch-  people  then,  trembling  with  fear  and  Indignation, 
es  in  a  straight  line,  bearing  about  S.S.E.  for  a  littje  seiied,  ot  Elijah's  bidding,  the  pro|^Pts  of  Baal  j 
mora  than  twelve  miles,  when  it  terminates  suddenly  "and  Elijati  brought  them  down  to  Ibe  brook  Kishon, 
by  a  bluff  somewhat  corresponding  to  its  western  end,  and  slew  them  there."  On  the  lower  declivities  of  the 
litesking  down  abruptly  into  tlie  bills  of  Jenin  and  nwunlain  is  a  mound  called  Tell  cI-KhfIs,  "the  Hill 
Samaria,  which  form  at  that  part  the  central  mas*  of  ofthe  Priests,"  which  probably  marka  the  very  scrne 
tiie  country.  The  average  he  iglit  Is  about  ISOO  feet ;  ofthe  execution.  May  uot  the  present  name  ofthe 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  on  the  north,  runs  the  ,  Kishon  itself  have  originated  in  this  tragic  event  i  It 
linnk  Klehon,  and  a  liltie  furtlier  north  the  river  Be-  j  is  called  Nahr  il-MohiUa,  "the  Rircr  of  Slaaghter." 
lus.  Mount  Carmel  conslRls  ratber  of  aoveral  con-  The  prophetwentupapainlothealtir,  whicbwasneor, 
nected  bills  than  of  one  ridge,  l>eing  at  the  W.  end  i  but  rvit  upon  the  snmmit  of  the  mountain.  While  be 
abnuteoo,  and  at  the  E.  about  I60U  feet  above  the  sea.  '  prayed,  be  said  to  hia  aervant,  "Go  op  now,  and  louk 
The  hi».'heat  part  ia  some  fonr  miles  from  the  E.  end,  toward  the  ses."  The  sea  is  not  visible  from  the  ter- 
at  the  village  of  Esfieh,  which,  according  to  the  meas-  |  race,  but  a  few  minutes'  ascent  leads  to  a  peek  which 
nrements  of  the  English  engineers,  is  1728  feet  above  commands  its  whole  expaoae.  Seven  times  did  tho 
the  sea.  The  foot  ofthe  northern  portion  approaches  ,  servant  climb  the  heigbt,  and  at  last  saw  the  littio 
the  water  closely,  but  ftnher  south  it  retires  nmre  in-  cloud  "  like  a  man's  band"  rising  out  of  tlie  sea.  See 
land.  The  slopes  ale  steepest  on  tlie  northern  side  Ei-tjah. 
toward  the  Kisbon  (q.  v.).  j      According  to  the  reports  of  meat  travellers,   the 

Curmel  fell  within  the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Asber  mountain  well  deacrres  Its  Hebrew  name  (see  al  ov«). 
(Josh,  xix,  26),  which  was  extended  as  far  south  aa  Hariti  deecriljes  it  as  "a  delightful  region,"  and  sayi 
i)0T  (Tantura),  probably  to  give  the  Asheritos  a  share  the  good  qusiitv  of  its  aini  Is  apparent  from  the  fact 
ofthe  rich  com-itTOwing  plain  of  Sharon  {comp.  -lose-  that  many  odoriferous  plants  and  (lowers,  as  hracinths, 
phuB,^B(.v,  1,  22;  H'nr,iii,  9,1).  The  king  of  "Jok- I  JonquilB,  tazettus,  anemones,  etc.,  grow  wild'opcm  tho 
neam  of  Carmel"  was  one  of  the  Cunaanitish  chieh  monntain  {TTnmU.  p.  274  sq.).  Otto  von  Richter 
who  fell  before  the  arms  of  Joshua  (xil,  22).  There  is  {Wallfakritv,  p.  64)  gives  a  glowing  account  of  ita 
not  in  these  earliest  notices  a  hint  of  any  sanctity  at-  ,  licanty  and  varied  sceneri'.  Mr,  Came  also  sayii, 
taching  to  the  mount ;  but  from  the  Aicts  that  an  altar  i  "  Ko  mountain  in  or  around  Palestine  rvtains  its  an- 

Baal  worship  into  the  kingdom  (1  Kings  xviil.  SO);  lages  and  rome  scattered  cottages  are  found  on  it;  its 
tiiat  Elijah  chose  the  place  for  the  assembly  of  the  groves  are  f^w,  but  luxuriant ;  it  la  no  place  for  crags 
people,  such  aascmbUes  being  commonly  held  at  holy   and  predpicea,  or  rocka  of  the  wild  goats ;  but  ita  lor- 


CARMEL  12 

bra  is  covatad  wiih  a  rich  *nd  consUnt  verdnre"  {Ltt-  < 
»),  li,  119).  "TiMn  ii  not  n  Howgr,"  h7»  Vbd  di ' 
Vclda,  "that  I  faava  leen  in  Galilee,  or  on  the  plaini  | 
■long  the  coait,  that  I  do  not  Hud  here  on  Carmel .  .  . 
■dll  tlM  ftagrant.  lovely  mountain  that  he  was  ot  old" 
(.VivrBivt,  1,  S17.  8).  "  Ills  whole  mountain  aide  wa* 
dnmed  *itb  blauonu,  and  floirering  shrub-i,  aad 
fragrant  berU"  (Uartineiu,  p.  Saaj.  So  lBalih(ixiv, 
1)  allBdei  to  "  the  szrellenc)'  (aplendid  omamenu)  of 
Camwl."  So,  on  account  of  the  graceful  form  and 
mdant  beaaty  of  tbe  tummit,  the  head  of  the  bride  in 
Cant,  vil,  B  is  compared  lo  Carmel.  It  wb>  alw  celo- 
brated  (br  lU  pasture*,  and  is  thereforj  ranked  iritb 
Hidian  in  Isa.  ixxiil,  9 ;  Jer.  I,  19 ;  Amos  i,  2 ;  Mic. 
[4;  Nah.  i,  4.  Us  conS]Hcuoiu  position  ii  also 
idwiUitbstofTabDr(Jer.iilvi,l8).  I  la  great 
ttenttoa  ia  referred  to  in  Amoa  ix,  B.  A  roucb  less 
Roving  account  of  Carmel  Is  given,  bovrover,  by  many 
tiarellsa  vhose  vi^t  baa  been  later  io  the  year — to- 
ward the  «nd  of  summer  or  in  autumn — and  who  con* 
relied,  drj", 


with  irhich  ordinaiy  traTcIlan  are  most  fhmiliar,  and 
from  which  they  talie  their  impreaaioni— is  more  bleak 
than  tha  eastern.  Its  aidee  are  steep  and  rock}-,  scant- 
ily corertd  with  dwarf  shrnbs  and  aromatic  herbs, 
aud  luTing  only  a  few  Mattered  treea  here  and  there 
IB  the  glens  (CnKxnt  and  Craa,  i,  54  sq.). 

The  structure  of  Carmel  ia  In  tbe  main  the  Jura  ibr- 
matioD  (upper  ontite),  which  ia  prevalent  in  the  centre 
of  WMem  Paleadne— a  soft  while  limestone,  with 
nodales  and  veins  of  flint.  Ai  usual  in  limestone  for- 
matisoa,  it  aboaoda  in  eavu  ("  more  than  2000" — Hla- 
tin,  ii,  46),  often  of  great  length,  and  eatremeiy  tortu- 
ous. See  Cavk.  At  the  west  eod  are  found  ctulk 
and  tettiiry  lirtcda  formed  of  fragments  of  chalk  and 
flint  (Bnssagger,  in  Kitter,  Erdk.  xvi,  TI2).  On  the 
nonh-«aat  of  the  mount,  beyond  the  Nahr  el-Mokatta, 
platonic  mcks  appear,  breaking  through  the  depo»Eed 
■iralaL.  and  ftwming  tbe  tieginning  of  the  basalt  forms- 
tbn  which  runs  through  the  plain  of  Esdnelon  to  Ta- 
bor and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Ritter,  ib.).  The  round 
Soaea  known  by  the  names  of  "  Lapides  Judaic!"  and 
*'E^iah'■  maloni"  are  the  bodies  known  to  geolo^fists 
as  "geode*."  Their  exterior  ia  chett  or  flint  of  a 
li^tiah  browD  color ;  tbe  Interior  la  hollow,  and  lined 
with  cryatala  of  qnarti  or  chalcedony.  They  are  of 
tin  fom,  and  often  the  riie,  of  the  large  water-melona 
of  tbe  East.  Formerly  they  were  easily  obtained,  bat 
ate  now  rery  rarelv  found  (^tien,  il,  151, 1S4 ;  Pai- 
kinvn'a  Organic  Remamt,  i,  922,  4fil).  The  "olives" 
ire  more  common.  They  are  tbe  ffnaW  spines  of  a 
kind  of  echinna  (CUaeit  gUnd)frra)  frequent  in  these 
rtnta,  and  in  size  and  shape  are  exactly  lilie  tbe  ^nit 
(ParkioMin,  iii,  4&).  The  "applea"  are  probably  tbe 
thell*  irfthe  eidnru  itself.  For  the  legend  of  the  orighi 
•f  Ihesa  ■■Eruita,"  and  the  position  of  the  "field"  nr 
"garden"  of  Elijah  in  which  they  are  found,  sen  Mis- 
fia,  Ii,  61,  S5.  The  whole  ridge  of  Carmel  is  deeply 
fsTTDwed  with  rocky  ravines,  filled  with  such  dense 
jon^  as  scarcely  to  be  penetrable.  Here  Jackals, 
wolves,  hj-enos,  and  wild  awine  make  their  lairs,  and 
woodcocks  And  excellent  cover;  while  in  the  open  for- 
est i^adea,  partridga,  qmila,  and  haras  sport  sbout. 
In  the  aides  of  th?  mountain,  especially  ronnd  tbe  con- 
vent and  overhanging  the  sea,  are  great  namban  of 
cavaa  and  grottoes,  formed  partly  by  nature  and  part- 
ly \ty  art  and  iodnstry  in  tbe  soft  calcareous  rock. 
Carmel  at  one  period  swarmed  with  monks  and  her- 
mits, wbo  burrowed  in  these  comfortless  dene.  Cu- 
riaot  trsditjons  cling  to  some  of  them,  in  part  con- 
firaad  by  the  Greek  inncriptlons  and  namea  tiiat  may  ' 
Kill  be  tiatad  apoo  their  walls.  One  of  them  ia  called 
the  "  Cave  of  the  Sons  of  the  Piophebs"  and  is  said  to 
be  that  la  which  tbe  pions  OhadJah  hid  the  prophets  ' 
bea  the  fary  of  the  InfamoDa  Joiebel  (1  Sings  zviii,  | 


5  CARMEL 

4).  In  one  tract,  called  the  Monks'  Cavern,  there  are 
as  many  as  400  caves  adjacent  to  each  other,  furaisbed 
with  windows,  and  with  places  for  sleeping  hewn  in 
tbe  rock.  A  peculiarity  of  many  of  these  cavema  is 
mentioned  t>y  Shall  iLeitmg,  v,  1H7,  H8i).  tbat  the 
entrances  into  tbem  are  so  narrow  that  only  a  single 
peraon  can  creep  in  at  a  time;  and  that  the  C4tema 
are  so  crooked  that  a  parson  ia  immediately  out  of 
sight  unl«s  closely  followed.  This  may  serve  to  iiius- 
trats  Amna  ix,  S.  To  theae  grottoes  the  propbeU  Eli- 
jab  and  Elisha  often  resorted  (t  Kings  xviii.  19  sq., 
i%;  SKings  11,36;  iv,2fi;  and  comp.  perhaps  1  Iiin,{s 
xviii,  4, 13).  At  the  present  day  is  shown  a  cavern 
called  the  cave  of  Elijah,  a  little  below  the  Honks' 
Cavern  already  mentioned,  and  wtilch  Is  now  a  Hoa- 
letn  sauctoary.  Upon  the  north-west  sammit  ia  an 
ancient  astablishment  of  Carmelite  monks,  which  or. 
der,  indeed,  derived  its  nanio  from  this  mountain. 
See  Carhklitrs.  The  eider  is  said  in  the  traditions 
'of  the  I«tin  Church  to  have  originated  with  Elijah 
himself  (SL  John  of  Jerus.,  qnoted  in  Mislln,  ii,  49), 
but  the  convent  was  founded  by  St.  Louis,  and  its 
French  origin  is  still  shown  by  the  practice  of  unfurl- 
ing the  French  flag  ou  various  ocea*iona.  Edward  I 
of  England  was  a  brother  of  the  order,  and  one  of  Ita 
most  bmoua  gnierala  was  Simon  Stokes  of  Kent  (see 
tbe  extracts  io  Wilson's  BiUt  Limdi,  ii,  246;  fur  the 
convent  and  the  singular  legends  connecting  Mimnt 
Caimel  with  the  Virgin  Mary  and  our  Lord,  see  Mis- 
lin,  ii,  17-fiO).  By  Napoleon  it  was  used  aa  a  hoapiul 
during  tbe  siege  of  Acre,  and  after  his  retrejt  was  de- 
•troyed  by  the  Arabs.  At  tbe  time  of  Irliv  and  Mun- 
glea'a  visit  (1817)  only  one  friar  nmained  there  (Irl.y, 
p.  SO).  The  old  convent  waa  deatroyed  l>y  Abdallah 
Pasha,  who  converted  the  malarial!  tb  his  own  use; 
but  it  has  of  Lte  years  been  rebuilt  on  a  somewhat 
imposing  scale  by  the  aid  of  coatributions  from  Eu- 
rope. Carmel  is  known  by  the  name  ot  JiM  Kurmul 
In  Arabian  writers.  At  present  it  seems  to  be  called 
by  the  Arabs  Jebd  Mar  Etgat,  from  tbe  convent  of 
^iaa  near  Ita  nOTtbem  end.  (See  generally  Ptul.  a 
S.  Trinitate.  Onaital.  Reimitickniib.  iii,  I,  p.  15e  aq. ; 
Relind,  I'alatl.  p.  32  sq. ;  Usmesveld,  i,  349 ;  Schu- 
bert, Aaur,  iii.  206 ;  Robinson,  Raeareia.  iii,  IIW,  1S» ; 
Thomson,  LohI  oad  Booi,  i,  498;  Porter.  Mundfoot 
/ur  Sgria,  p.  8T1 ;  Triatram,  Land  ofltrari,  p.  496,) 

2.  (Sept.  Xip/iiX  in  Joab.,  h  Kdp/iT)Xoc  in  Sam.  and 
Cbron.)  A  town  in  the  moantainoUH  countrv  of  Ju- 
dah  {Joab.  xv,  65),  tbe  residence  of  Nabal  (1  Sam. 
xxr,  !,  6,  T,  40),  and  tiie  native  place  of  David'a  fa- 
vorite wife,  "  Abigail  the  CanneUtesa"  (1  Sam.  xxvii, 
8 ;  1  Cbron.  i'li,  1).  This  waa  doubtless  the  Carmel  at 
"place"  (*1^,  aitmi:  compare  2 


i,  18,  "Absalom's  place 


e  tho  n 


word  is  need)  after  his  victory  over  Amalek  (1  Sam. 
XV,  12).  Tlds  Carmel,  and  not  the  northern  mount, 
most  also  have  been  the  apot  at  which  king  Uuiah 
bad  his  vineyards  (2  Chron  ixvi,  ID).  In  tbe  time 
of  EnsebiUB  and  Jerome  it  waa  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
garrison  (tMomast.  s.  v.  Ki>p/»|Xoc,  Carmelun).  The 
place  appears  in  the  wars  of  the  Crusades,  having  been 
held  by  king  Amalrich  against  Ssladin  in  1172  (Wil- 
liam of  Tyre,  Dt  Ji'Uo  Saen,  3U;  in  Getia  Dti  per 
Fnmcoi.  p.  OSS).  The  rains  of  the  town,  now  Kur. 
BHi),  Btill  ramain  at  ten  miles  below  Hebron,  in  a 
slightly  south-east  direction,  close  to  those  of  Main 
(M»on),  ZIf  (Ziph),  and  other  places  named  with  Car- 
mel in  Josh,  ir,  55.  lliey  are  described  both  bv  Rolh 
inson  (AU.  Ra.  ii,  195-201 ;  Bib.  Satr.  1843.  p.  OH)  and 
by  Van  de  Velde  (Aforn^w,  ii,  77-79),  and  appear  to 
Iw  of  great  extenL  They  lie  aronnd  the  semicircular 
head  and  along  the  shelving  eidea  of  ■  little  valley, 
which  Is  shat  In  by  rugged  limeatona  rocka.  The 
house*  are  all  in  ruins,  andtbeir  sites  are  covered  with 
heaps  of  rubbish  and  hetin  stones.  In  ttte  centre  ot 
the  valley  ia  a  laq^e  artificial  reaerroir,  fupplied  by  a 


CAUMKLITE  i: 

foDnUIn  unong  th«  nsighboriTig  rockf.  This  Is  meii- 
tioDed  in  the  iccnunt  of  king  Aniallich'i  occupation 
of  the  pUc«,  (ad  noir  tpvea  tbe  mine  of  Katr  tt-Bir. 
tth  to  ■  rained  cutle  of  grsat  (Crengtb,  eltualed  weat- 
wiTd  of  tixe  reurvotr,  on  higli  ground,  ths  most  re- 
markable oliject  in  tbe  place.  Ita  wille  ire  ten  feet 
thick;  their  iloping  laiemeDt  and  bevelled  mafoniy 
are  evidently  ot  Jewiih  origiD,  proLialily  the  work  of 
Herod.  The  Interior  wai  remodelled,  and  the  upper 
part  rebuilt  by  the  Saracena.  Buide  it  aie  the  mint 
of  a  mawive  round  lower.  Around  and  aniong  the 
ruina  of  tbe  locality  are  the  fouodationa  of  aereral  old 
chnrchea,  alkowing  that  tite  town  had  at  one  period  a 
large  Chriatian  pupulation.  (See  Seetzen,  Rtue,  iii,  S, 
9;  Porter.  HiMdiook/ar  Syria,  p.  ei ;  Schwan,  Pa- 
ktl.  p.  106.)     See  Cakhblitk. 

C«T'mollt«  (Hob.  Karmli',  '^^^I).  the  deaigsa- 
tion  of  Nabal  (SapL  KafifiqXioc.  I  Sam.  xivii,  8 ;  xii, 
6;  2  Sam.  U,S)  and  bia  wife  Abigail  (Sept.  Xnp/iqXin. 
A.V.  "Carmelileaa,"  J  Sam.  ill,  B;  1  Chron.  iil,  1); 
aa  aleo  of  one  of  David'a  wairlora,  Ueirai  (Sept.  Kap-  | 
/iiiXioCi  3  Sam.  xxlii,  35)  or  Hezro  (Sept.  Ka|>/iuri,  1 
Chron.  il,  S7);  doubtleis  aa  being  InhabiUnta  of  Cab- 
MEL  (q.  T.)  in  Judab  (Joih.  xv,  55). 

C&miellWB,  tbe  imnaalic  order  of  "St-Mar^  of 
Mount  Carmel,"  It  waa  fonndnl  ai  an  awocintlon  of 
hermila  by  Berthold.  count  of  Llmogea,  about  1156,  on 
Mount  Carmel,  and  received  ita  flnt  rule  in  1209  ^om 
Albert,  patriarch  of  Jeruaalem,  to  vhoae  dioceae  Mount 
Carmel  belonged,  which  rule  waa  aanctioncd  br  Pope 
Honorlne  III  in  1334.  The  rale  waa  (bunded  on  that  of 
St.  Baail,  and  enjoined  that  the  prior  be  elected  unani- 
ntoualy  or  by  majority ;  to  hare  placei  in  deierta,  aep- 

celU  meditating  by  day  and  night,  excepting  when  at 
lit  hoar*,  in  eburcli,  etc. ;  to  hare  atl  thinga  common ; 
no  flesh  allowed  aare  to  the  aick ;  fast  fhim  Holyrood 
to  Eaater  ereri'  day  except  to  the  aick',  to  otraerre 
chastity,  t4)  labor,  and  to  keep  alienee  from  after  Com- 
pline till  Prime.  The  habit  waa  at  flrat  while,  as  well 
as  the  mantle,  of  which  tbe  bottom  wsa  laced  thicli 
with  yellow  bnnda,  an  ornament  auppreaaed  by  Hono- 
rius  IV.  They  then  aeaumed  the  robe  of  the  Minima, 
and  a  while  mantle.  The  Carmelltea  were  slao  known 
by  the  name  of  Barred  or  Borrj  Frian  {Frtrri  Barrel), 
becau  se  of  the  iorrtddreas  of  black  and  white  which  tbe 
Saracena,  when  Ibey  took  poBaeaeion  of  the  East,  com- 
pelled them  to  wear,  instead  of  the  white  drera,  white 
bein^  with  them  a  mark  of  dietluctton.  They  came  to 
Europe  in  I2S8,  and  had  seven  eatablishmenti  in  Eng- 
land. The  firat  General  Chapter  waa  held  in  1245  in 
England,  after  nhicb,  through  the  activity  of  their 
general,  Simon  Stock,  and  the  protection  of  Innocent 
IV,  they  spread  with  great  rapidity.  From  Innocent 
IV  tber  received,  in  1247,  a  new  rale,  which  waa  bet- 
ter BOiied  for  their  new  situation,  and  whit'h  clatsed 
them  among  the  mendicant  orders.  Instilled  by  the 
deaire  to  excel  their  rivals,  they  invented  tbe  mont 
abanrd  legenda.  They  pretended  that  tbe  prophet 
Elijahhadbeen  the  founder  oftbeir  order  and  tbe  Vir- 
gin Mary  a  member,  wherefore  they  called  themaelvra 
FriUra  Briila  Maria  de  MiMe  Carmde.  The  anccet- 
aion  of  the  Renerala  of  tbe  order,  accordini:  to  their 
historiana,  baa  never  lieen  intempted  since  the  proph- 
et Elijah.  They  were  duly  caatigaled  and  ridiculed 
for  such  pretensions  l>y  the  Jeauitu,  and  particularly 
by  the  learned  Bolbindiat  Papebroch.    Still  the  Churcli 

posed  Pilence  on  both  partiea,  and  the  fables  of  the 
Carmelites  can  be  read  in  their  liturgical  books  to  tbia 
day. 

The  great  scbEam  of  tbe  14th  csntnry  split  also  the 
order  of  the  Carmelites,  and  completed  their  corrup- 
tion and  dlBOrganizatlon.  Several  attempts  at  a  ref- 
ormation were  madp,  of  which  that  of  Thnmas  Con-' 
nec.^,  who  laid  the  fanndstion  of  the  Con^rci^Cton  of 


:6  CARMELITES 

Mantua,  waa  tbe  most  aucceasTnl.  Thonus  Umaelf 
(a  celebrated  penitentiary  in  France  and  Id  tbe  Keth- 
erianda}  was  burned  in  Rome  as  a  beietic,  but  his 
congregation  soon  extended  widely,  and  received  tbe 
privilege  of  electing  a  vicar  general.  Pope  Engenin* 
IV  mitigated  the  rule  of  Innoo    " 


I  all  tb 


neliU 


raceptl 


le  Con- 


gregation of  Mantua,  on  tbb  mitigate  rale  aa  s 
liaais.  For  tbe  same  purpose,  the  general  received 
from  Pins  11,  In  14.i9,  the  authority  to  proceed  with 
regard  to  fast-dayi  according  to  their  own  jiid^menl. 
In  14C2.  generii]  John  Eoreth  tried  to  Introduce  a  great- 
were  approved  by  Pope  Paul  li,  but  the  author  was 
poiaoned  by  discontented  monka  in  1471.  The  same 
Soreth  established,  in  14112.  the  first  convent  of  Car- 
melite nana,  la  1476  Sixtus  IV  eatablltbed  the  Ter. 
tiariana  of  the  order.  They  received  a  rule  in  IK  5, 
which  waa  reformed  in  1678. 

The  Diiealceale   Carmelites    receWed  their    naire 
from  going  barefooted,  and  took  their  riae  in  the  IClb 
Tbey  professed  ths  order  as  reformed  liy 


Therei 


Ivila,  i 


Spain,  who,  deebing  a  s: 


the  Carmelites  (farther  mitigated 
ly  Eageniaa  IV  in  14SI)  alTordcd,  abont  16C3  estab- 
lished a  new  house  at  Aviia  under  ber  refoinwd  rate ; 
and  in  1a77  the  Discalceats  were  exempted  tiBtn  the 
jnrisdicllon  of  the  Mitigated  Carmelilea.  Tliey  were 
divided  into  two  distinct  bodies,  those  of  Spain,  who 
were  composed  of  six  provinces  under  one  general,  be- 
ing the  atrideat.  The  others  had  reventeen  provinces 
in  France,  Italy,  PoUnd,  Germany,  Persia,  etc  It  is 
a  rale  with  them  that  in  every  province  there  aball  be 
a  hermitage  attached  to  some  one  monastery,  in  which 

after  three  weeks  return  to  tbe  monastery,  and  arc  re- 
placed by  twenty  other  monka.  Their  manner  of  life 
is  very  austere  (Landon,  Eccl.  Dictionarg,  s.  v.). 


The  Spanish  congregation  has  become  nearly  exiinrt 
in  consequence  of  (he  suppression  of  oil  the  monastir 
orders  in  Spain.  In  1S4B  no  more  than  fourteen  con- 
vi-nls  belonging  to  It  were  left  in  South  America. 
Their  procurator  general  lived  in  the  general  house  of 
the  Italian  congregation  M  Rome.  At  the  aame  date 
the  Iialian  congregation  counted  63  convents,  with 
aboutiiOOmeml*rs,  In  Italy,  France,  Belgium.  Hollartd, 
Austria,  Bavaria,  Ireland,  Poland,  and  Turkey.  The 
Mitiicatrd  or  Cnlceate  Cannelicei  bad  conventa  hi  Tta- 
ly,  Austria,  Bavaria,  Ireland,  and  Poland,  whk  about 
600  membera.  In  1860  tbe  Carmelite  monks  altogeth. 
er  numt>ered  13.^  hou!«a  in  lUlv;  12  in  Germany,  Hoi- 
land,  and  Belgium ;  12  in  France,  8  In  Ireland,  i2  In 
Eoatern  Europe  (Poland,  Oallicia,  Rnasis,  Hnngsr^-X 
6  in  Asia,  17  in  Me:tico  and  South  America,  and  a  tevr 


CARMEUTESS 


l«  Spiin.  The  ninnber  of  nnmha* 
ilBDt  4O00.  Since  theo  tbe  nambei  h**  Iwen  reduced 
br  Cbs  mppreMkai  oT  ■  aumber  of  coDvenU  in  lulr. 
fba  Carmelite  nnni  of  tbe  refonn  of  Ttuire»  lud,  in 
1M9,  aboot  90  boiuei  in  Itily,  Fnnce,  Belgium,  Eng- 
l..il  Iceland,  Bararia.  PcuHla,  Aurtria,  Poland,  Nortb 
Aneiica  (at  Baltlmon),  Snnth  America,  iDd  India :  60 
rftfacK  fonvcdts  wen  in  France.  In  I860,  Spain  and 
PonoKal  liad  15  hotuei;  Italy,  IS;  France,  71;  Gei^ 
MMT,  Holland,  and  Belginm,  !8;  Great  Britain  and 
lRUnd.lS;  Poland,  9;  America, T;  A«Ia,l)  altogetfa- 


o'lliced  to  cater  a  convent,  but  can  pas*  tfaeir  nOTitiate 
<■  tbe  world,  Tbey  have  msny  inrtitotions  in  France, 
pnudpallir  derated  to  leubing  and  the  mining  of  the 
ikk,  and  hare  once  a  year  a  gnMt  gathering  at  Ay- 
nschn  fi>r  the  porpoee  of  a  cenimon  apiricuil  rrlreat. 
Thm  i*  alto  a  congngition  ofCarmeliliM  in  the  arch- 
dkmw  of  Sew  Orleana,  D.  S.,  who  leach  fiiur  schoola. 
—Manning,  IJfi  of  SI.  Terna  (Txiad.  IWiJ),  p.  161  M). ; 
Fehr,  GfdiKht  der  Hdiu-hardtn,  I,  S56;  il,  SJl ;  P. 
Xar{  nm  keO.  Akf,  Jakrivdi  dtr  Kinhe  (Ratlibon, 
IMS). 
Car'maUtaaa  (1  Sam.  zsvii,  S;  I  Chron.  ili,  1). 

Cw'ml  (Heb.  Karm',  "^-IJ,  aM-drair,  oUwr- 
win  noAfa;  Sept.  Xapfii,  but  Xapiui  In  Exod.  vi,  U\ 
tk>  name  of  thno  men. 

1.  Tbe  tait  named  of  tbe  four  eona  of  Renben  (Gen. 
iln,9l  Eaod.  *i,  14).  RC.  IBT!.  Hie  dexcendanU 
•en  caned  after  bbn  CABMiTKa  (Nam.  kxtI,  6). 

2.  A  »n  of  Hezron  (Jadab'*  grandson),  and  father 
at  B<a  (1  CbroD.  W,  1) ;  elaewhera  called  Calbb  (U, 
!>■>  or  CuBLinat  (ii,  9)-     B.C.  poet  1866. 

3.  Tbe  HMi  of  Zimri  or  Zabdi,  and  father  of  tbe  trai- 
ler Acban  (Joeh.  vii,  I,  1  Chion.  11,  7).  B.C.  ante 
UlS.  Some  hare  erroneoualj  identlAed  hloi  with  tba 
pncedinK;  hut  the  namea  in  1  ChroD.  iv,  2,  en  ctU 
inWj  in  direct  eaccewion  of  father  and  son  from  Jn- 
dah. 

Cai'intte  (Heb.  Cami',  ^B^3  fur  ^»^^I,  Sept. 
Xaoiil),  tbe  patrDnjmlc  of  tbe  descendants  of  the  Beu- 
benitt  Canni  tNum.  i»vi,  6), 

flamahaTi,  JamEA,    D 

CaUrfie.was  bom  No7.  16,  1775.' n< 
kBd  Co_  Pa.  In  Norember,  1798,  he  enlered  the  junior 
dea  in  ibe  college  of  New  Jersef,  *nd  received  the 
ftnt  degree  in  tbe  arts  in  September,  1BO0.  He  read 
tkealc^  tinder  John  H'MilUn,  D.D.,  in  WesUm 
PeuurlTania.  In  1801  be  returned  to  Princeton  as 
tUdr,  end  resigned  his  tutorship  in  the  fUl  of  1808. 
Ht  was  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  New  Brunswick  at 
Kukenridge  in  April,  1804,  and  preached  in  the  vicin- 
ilTofHackct«»to*n,OKfurd.«ndKro*lton.  Junuarv 
1, 1805.  be  WB*  ordained  pantor  of  the  united  churches 
<f  filiilesborongfa  and  Utica,  N.  T.  In  February, 
U14,  be  moved  for  hi*  health  to  Georgetown,  D.  C., 
ud  opened  a  school,  teaching  there  for  nine  }'eir*. 
In  Kay,  I8fB,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  college 
<iSm  Jerae;,  waa  iDRUgurated  on  tbe  Sth  of  August, 
l"ta,  and,  after  a  service  of  thirty  j'ears,  reeigned  in 
lBj.1,  and  bis  connection  with  the  college  waa  dia- 
wlved  June,  1864.  He  Wat  Id  dlDennt  capadtlee  can- 
aected  with  the  college  for  tbirty-flve  yeant,  vii.  two 
ytan  sa  a  student,  two  as  a  tutor,  and  thirty-one  as 
tnsideat.  "His  chancter  waa distlnicniibed  by  mild- 
iwa.  joined  to  flrmness  and  viicor;  bis  learning  was 
nteoslTe,  and  hi*  practical  ability  in  the  oidinary  af- 
Un  ef  lih  exceedingly  acute.  His  labors  were  very 
■•Al  In  every  deputment  of  actlHty— as  a  man,  a 
(^rietlan  clencyinan,  the  brad  o(  ■  moat  important  ed- 
""■Vtiel  fauUtutim,  and  an  eOclent  eo-opentoT  in 
MMrona  achamea  of  benevolent  (atcrptiae."     He 


-At»  Tort  On. 


CARNIVAL 


died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  March  8, 1869.- 
aerw;  Wllcon,  Pmb.  Atmmac,  I860,  p  68. 

Cu'Dititat  (Kapvalv  V.  r.  KopveV,  Vnlg.  Coma- 
iM),  a  krge  and  fortified  city  bi  tbe  country  east  of 
Jordan— "the  land  of  Galaad"— containing  a  "tem- 
ple" (ru  f'tufog  iv  K.).  It  was  besieged  and  taken 
.  by  Judas  Maccabeus  (1  Mace,  v,  36,  43,  44).  Cnder 
the  name  of  Cahsioji  (tu  Kopvi'oi)  the  same  occur- 
rence is  related  in  2  Mace,  zii,  21,  26,  the  temple  being 
called  tbe  Atabqateiom  (ru  'Arapyanloy).  Tbta 
;  enables  us  to  identil^  it  with  AsuTEROiH-Kan^rAUi 
(I.  v.). 

CaiQEtl  (napninit),  fleahly,  sensual.  Wicked  or 
unconverted  men  ere  represented  aa  under  the  domi- 
nation of  a  "cantal  mitid,  wblcb  la  enmity  against 
God,"  andwbich  must  issue  in  death  (Rom.  vlil,  6,  i). 
Woiidly  enjoymenta  are  carnal,  because  they  only 
minieCer  to  the  wants  and  desire*  of  the  animal  port  i>f 
man  (Horn,  xv,  27 ;  I  Cor.  Ix,  11).  The  ceremonial 
parts  of  the  Mosaic  dirpensation  were  canul;  tbey  re- 
lated immediately  to  the  kodlaa  of  men  and  beaata 
(Heb.  vii,  16;  ix,  10).  Tbe  weapona  of  a  Ckriotlan'a 
worflire  are  not  carnal ;  tbe;  are  not  of  human  ori^n, 
nor  ire  they  directed  1^  human  wisdom  (2  Cor.  x,  4). 
SeeFLKUt. 

CunvlUui.    See  Sabdids. 

Ckmesecchl.  Pibtro,  in  Italian  refomter  and 
nui^T  of  tbe  16tb  century,  waa  horn  In  Florence,  of  a 
good  family.  Hi*  education  and  culture  g^ned  him 
the  eateem  of  tbe  best  scbolan  of  tbe  time,  such  oa 
Sadotetns  snd  Bembo.  He  became  secretary  and  pro- 
tbonotary  to  Pope  Clemen 


itltw 


le  Cbur 


Cameieccbi  rather  than  by  Clement."  At  Naples  he 
imbibed  the  Keformed  doctrine  from  Taldes  (q.  v.), 
and  in  1546  be  waa  accused  as  a  heretic  and  cited  to 
Rome.  Throuttb  tbe  favor  of  Paul  IV  he  escaped,  bnt 
sought  safety  In  France,  where  he  remained  at  tbe 
court  of  Heniy  VI  until  1662,  when  he  thought  he 
might  return  to  Italy,  and  took  up  his  abode  st  Padua. 
In  16£7  be  waa  aummoned  to  Rome;  but,  failing  to 
appear,  he  was  excommunicated  as  a  heretic,  April  G, 
15fi9.     Hus  IV,  on  his  accesi^ion,  removed  tbe  senleaca 

part  of  Camesecchi.  When  ll'as  T  became  pope, 
Cameaecchi  apprehended  danger,  and  took  refuge  with 
Cosmo,  grand-dake  of  Tuscany,  who  basely  sutrendend 
him  on  a  demand  In  the  pope's  own  M'riting.  He  waa 
tried  by  the  Inquisition,  adhered  steadfastly  to  tbe 
faith,  and  was  condemned.  On  Oct.  8, 1567,  he  was 
lieheaded,  and  his  body  afterward  was  consumed. — 
M'Crle,  R'/ormalam  m'llalg,  chap,  v  (and  authoritiea 

Canilola.    See  Cabistuia. 

Cai'don  (S  Mace.  lii,  31, 16).    Snt  Carhaim. 

CamlTal,  a  period  of  festivity  In  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  beginning  on  the  day  cfter  tbe  Epiphany ,  and 
ending  at  tbe  commencement  of  Lent,  on  Ash  Wednpf- 
diy,  resembling  the  LupercalU  of  the  Komans  snd  the 
Tule-feasts  of  the  Saxons.  Some  derive  the  word 
from  earn  (cansit),  flesh,  and  rak.  to  lild  adieu,  I.  q. 
fareKtS  lofirilt;  otbera  from  the  Italian  ronsr,  flesh, 
and  aBollarr,  to  swalkiw.  In  medlKval  Latin  It  is 
called  mnHfrmnifn,  carnitpriviam.  The  Carnival  owes 
its  origin  to  tbe  pagan  festivals,  and  pious  Bomsn 
Catholics  themselves  have  teatifled  their  sense  of  tho 
scandal  which  this  Season  occasions.  In  Rotne  the 
Carnival  is  observedwlth  revelry,  masquerades,  feasts, 
and  grotesque  proceaakm*.  The  Greeks  hare  a  slmi> 
lar  period,  which  they  call  'ATojfpiait,  Apoerret;  it 
com|>rehends  the  week  preceding  their  I..ent,  dnring 
which,  a*  Uarlnna  says,  "  iinusipita;iie  ;>ro  /acalliitl 
no,  lautt  rt  epipari  amvimliir."  A  good  account  of 
the  Roman  Carnival  I*  given  In  Appletoh'a  Cj/etfjxrdla, 
U^  447.    See  alao  Nicolai,  Commait.  Je  A'fti  Eacrima- 


n,  £cci.  Diet.  > 


CAROB 

Karwn  (Belnat  1679, 4to) ; 

tiaaamR  (Jena,  1699,  «M)i 

Caiob.    Sec  Hmk. 

Caro),  ■  hymn  sung  by  thi  people 
"  The  CbriBtmEii  carol  mwy  bo  traced  li 
Cliurch.     Tertullian  (adem.  GtniU.  39)  sUtes 
"'"■"■  ■    nsry  for  tho  Chi'  " 


primi 


pUce  In  tbe  middlB  > 


,  able  t 


upon  them  lo  praiH  God 
ikrtpCurei  or  of  their  own  invcntlnti.  Durand  also 
Infumu  OB  (_Rtl.  vi,  86,  S)  thM  it  was  uiu.l  fiir  tbe 
blrhops  on  Chriatmaa  day  to  mike  sport,  and  even  to 
ning  with  tbeir  cler^' ;  and  tfaia  coatom  waa  an  Imita- 
tion of  the  Gloria  i*  ixediU  it  tha  angeU,  ■>  we  l«m 
from  Jeremy  Taylor — "These  blewed  choriilers  hatl 
auDg  their  Chrialmu  orol,  and  taught  the  Church  a 

fy  of  thia  feetivity,"     For  the  popular  caroli  of  Eng- 

bara,  Book  of  Dafi,  ii,  717  aq. — Eadie,  £cctn.  JHcTiat- 
ary,  t.  v. ;  Sandya,  fAruTnuu  Canli.  Anciinlami  Mod- 
em (Lond.  1S3B,  Bvo).     See  HTXTERiEa. 

Caroline  Books  (^Libri  Carolini  or  Cpui  C-roli- 
tBim),  four  booka  written  againat  decrees  of  il 
Council  of  Nice  on  the  adoration  of  imagta,  contained 
in  the  Cnpituhrt  Prolixum  of  Charli 
books  were  drawn  up  under  the  direction  of  Charle- 
magne, but  their  preparatioD  haa  been  a.<cribed  to  An- 
gtlrom,  biahop  of  Uetx,  Aogilbert,  and  to  Alcuin. 
Boger  de  Hoveden  directly  namea  the  laat,  and  the 
moat  probable  opinion  ii  that  Alcnin  wan  the  writer. 
At  all  ovenW,  thev  were  written  before  the  Svnod  of 
I'rjnkfort  in  794,  and  wore  pub. 
liehed  in  tbe  name  of  Charlemagne 
dnrinff  tbe  aitting  of  that  council. 
In  the  prerace  the  emperor  declarea 
tliat  he  bad  nndertaken  the  work 
"Zelo  Dri  tt  rtritatii  thidio,  cum 
eoHjU&EnCia  rnrni  lat  aaeerrfafnin." 
The  great  principles  of  theaa  boidu 
■re  the  followliig: 


8  CARPENTER 

(Va;  Oieaaler,  Chrek  Hitaiy,  per.  Hi,  g  1!i  Henoft 
RtaUEwyklopidit,  vU,  4X9 ;  iandon,  £ccfu.  A'd.  a.  v. 
See  IiuaB-woBBBir. 

Caiolostadt     Sn  CaBUTAiiT. 

Carpenter,  the  rendering  in  tbe  Auth.  Ven.  of 
the  Heb.  m'^n,  duiitiih'  (2  Sam.  v,  11)  1  Chion.  xiv, 
1 ;  laa.  xllv|  13,  etc.),  aa  alao  of  Its  Gniek  equivalent 
rix"-'-  (>'«"■  "'"i  55 1  Mark  vi,  8 ;  I  Eedr.  v,  14  ;  B^- 
clua.  xxTTlii,  17,  etc.),  a  Koneml  name,  applicable  to 
an  artiHcer  In  atone,  Iron,  or  copper,  ti  well  aa  in 
wood.  See  Artificer.  The  Hebrewp,  at  a  very 
•arly  period,  appear  to  have  made  consideralile  prrg- 
rsH  in  these  arti  (Exod.  zxxv,  fO  3£).  Sn  Abt. 
Of  their  works,  bowevei,  we  have  do  exlating  remains ; 
but  by  a  reference  lo  tbe  antiquitiei  of  Hg>'pt,  the 
country  where  Ihelr  proficiency  was  acquired,  we  may 
obtain  a  aatisfaclory  notion  of  their  general  char«i:ter. 
See  HANDirBAFT.  Toole  of  variooa  kinda  uted  in 
carpentiy,  tt  met,  hammen,  aawa,  planer,  chiaela, 
end  cenCre-bita,  are  repreaented  on  the  andent  Dion- 
unienta,  and  to  moit  of  them  w*  find  alluaicua  in 
Scripture  (1  3am.xiii.lU,S0;  Judg.iv,  £li  laa.  x,  13; 
xliv.  13).  Then  appears  but  little  difference  between 
these  implements  and  those  of  our  time.  See  TcaiiEK. 
The  ancient  Ej^-ptiaDS  were  acqnainlrd  wllh  the  art 
of  veneering :  this  proves  that  they  knew  the  uae  of 
glue.  They  had  chairs  and  couches  of  verv  graerful 
form  (comp.  Gen.  xliil,  83;  I  Sam.  iv,  IS).  Among 
tbe  works  of  tbe  Egyptian  artists  are  found  uUee,  bn. 
reaua,  wardrobes,  and  coffers;  leveral  of  tbe  latter, 
probablv  deaigned  for  jrwel-caae*,  rival  in  LeaatWke 
caskets 'of  j/old  and  rilvrr.     See  Uecuamc. 


(pH.eiMli,13):  CiOioei 


calhillcic  adf^rrj  pmen 

:m :  rinlppe  mm  ad  peni 


irti 


Moderr 


Wooden  Lcck.ni 


m  InsKiiuK  n™  »> 


™  '"I'M"  *"*"'r''  s-nc"^  I     Carpenter,  Cbarles  W^.,  a  Uethndi^i  EpLicopal 

., .  . ,...,.„..i  l^lJi;  S^iiCu""!™  .  "in"'",  was  l.nm  in  Kew  York,  Pec.  Ifi,  179?.  where 

t-em  pme  onnnn  h  jp  cwlull'atU  aponi  in  Inugliilbii-  eollrt.  \  hta  parents  were  memlien  of  the  John  Street  ChnTrll. 
tent;  rtsuit,  Dt  on  Manci™  In  tonim  nwiwlribiu  ret  pntltu  I  Ho  cnlrred  Columliia  Collei-e,  but  was  compelled  I  j 
rJ!i),"Ji',™'^A?m7™ill.w"nr"l'H'w"\"r"™"^  I  '"  ''*'"''  *"  ''''"  ^'"^  graduation.     He  was  cotiTert- 

■donnwi  In  eo  ae  >iiblirentur  mi<Eniim  tldtt  linbcrp  emolii-  ^  '"  *>■■  rigl'teenlh  year,  and  was  licensed  br  Intw 
iiH>niDiii,»  qinl  opwIhUK  tint  rn>i]i>«l  |i<Finnin>.  Nam  ml  bom  Oarretiain  to  preach  In  18]!.  He  ente'm]  the 
f  ■"«"' '"'•*"^'"  '"'"iST'S  '*"■  '"'°^,'"'  '"  •*™','!  Itlnetant  mini.trv  in  the  New  York  Conference  in 
!7n'S"i  T;ji;rM^.  iJi'itU  u^;  JX.^"  i^'dHtSm"^  '*"■<•  '■"»  !»  ^^^  <*  ""  "•■'•««".  >  y  ">e  weakne»  rf 
nenDt,  qnl  nihil  allwl  In  hb  prvter  Id  quod  vMenl  veiie-  r  bia  hrallh,  to  gn  tn  Savannah,  where  be  waa  enKni-oM 
taotiir  et  adonat.  in  huxineu  for  ten  ymre.     During  this  time  he  laJ 

The  Candinn  Ixviks  were  flrat  printed  by  Jean  du  I  bnred  as  a  local  preacher,  and  was  ordained  deace 
Tillct.  Iiiahop  cf  Heaux,  under  the  asaumed  name  of  ,  IRSO.  and  elder  in  IKi.  In  IS-^S  he  retnnHd  to  t 
Eriphilus  or  Rliaa  l>bil;i-n>  (Paris,  IM!!,  8vn).  at  Co-  '  Knrtii.  and  waa  nadmltted  into  the  Kew  York  Confix 
logneinlSSB;  by  Goldaslna,  1608 ;  and  in  his  C  wti- !  enre.  in  which  he  filled  In-portanl  appointments, 
Hitlm.  /mperiol.  torn,  i ;  and,  lastly,  by  Heumsnnus  at  pastor  and  presiding  elder,  until  1^  when  be  i 
Hanorer  (1T31.  8vii).  under  the  title  Avgiuli  Cnnrit't  compelled  by  111  health  to  berome  anpeminDm 
/fiamlltcmiSCnnirn.~]'t\mtr.Trfal.niHcClMrtA,\ne  died  May,  1^5^  at  Flattehill.  K.  T.  He  waa 
ptiv,  ch.  X,  j  ij  Bergier,  /Hrt.  dr.  Tkfoliig't,  B.r.y»-I  vety  anirorm  character,  good  Ut«rBr^-  scquirunei 


CARPENTER  1: 

mA  Brest  lovdineu  of  dkpmitlan.  As  ■  minictar  he 
wm»  able  and  aonnd,  and  hia  inflaence  wu  great  and 
daiaMa.  Us  waa  wveral  timra  delagate  to  tbe  0«n- 
<ml  Cmlerena),  and  aa  pnaldlng  elder  bli  admhilt- 
tratiTe  talent  wu  renurkalile.  Ha  wu  aecnlai?  of 
tW  Nev  YoA  Conrennce  for  Hvaral  yean,  and  in 
■D  pasta  he  waa  rOciant  and  ineceuftil.  Hia  death 
ra  Jojfn].— «™nn  n/  Conferatcet,  y,  IM  ;  Spragoe, 
AwmaU,  Tii,  663;  W%btinan,  U/e  of  Bit/top  Cigtert, 
p.ni, 

Carpontov  Colas,  a  minister  of  the  SlethodlM 
^tMOpal  Church,  vai  bom  In  WeBtcbetter  count;, 
N.  T..  March  IT,  1T84.  His  parents  were  earnest 
■rthodista,  and  he  wai  earefull}'  trained  In  religion. 
At  nTaDteen  ho  was  converted,  and  began  at  once  to 
eitnrt  hia  young  nai^liors.  In  1809  be  was  admitted 
an  trial  In  the  New  York  Conference ;  ordained  deacon 
b  1811,  and  elder  Id  ISIS.  He  ailed  varioui  impor- 
tant appiHDtnienla  In  tbe  New  Toric  Conference  until 
Igfi,  when  the  Troy  Conference  was  organiled,  and 
ht  mnained  in  it.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  piosid- 
if  elder  of  the  Troy  Diatrict,  in  wbicb  tenice  ba  la- 
bored acceptably  antil  his  death,  Feb.  IT,  18M.  In 
direct  ippeala  to  the  heart  and  conscience  ha  had  tew 
tipnion.— Spragae,  A  imaU,  vii,  4G6 ;  ifnwfri  o/  CM- 
Jmmett,  1801.  p.  V83. 

Caip«Ilter,  Iiant,  LL.D.,  an  Engliih  Unitarian 
minister,  wu  linn  SepL  S,  17B0,  at  KidilarmiDtter,  and 
ednoted  at  Northampton  and  Giatgo*.  In  IBOa  ha 
beeame  paator  of  a  Unitarian  congregation  at  Exeter, 
Bad  in  ISIT  removed  to  Bristol,  where  he  remalnad  aa 
pastor  and  claaalcal  teacher  till  IS89,  when,  hia  health 
Uling.he  aadartookaCanlinenla]  tonr.  While  giring 
tn  ■  ttaanhJnat  from  Naples  to  Leghorn,  be  fell  over- 
board and  was  drowned,  in  the  night  of  April  5,1810. 
Dt.  Carpenter  waa  an  Industrious  writer.  His  pnblt- 
catioDi,  incladmg  poathumoua  ones,  amounted  to  torty- 
fiwr.  The  mora  Important  are :  Inlmbtriioit  (o  fAe 
C^nfrnpky  of  Ht  Ww  Talamfiil  (Ibno,  18(15):— Uni- 
imrimiat  lie  Doelriiu  of  At  Ca^(l!mo,  1809}:— ^a 
KnmmaliiM  tf  tAe  Ckargrt  made  ugaiiut  tTmlarianUm 
by  Dr.  Uagce  (9™,  18iO)  :—A  fformoajF  of  Ike  GotptU 
pre,  1835,  of  which  a  second  adition,  under  the  title 
•f  Ja  ApmuKad  HanHong  afUie  GotptU,  was  published 
in  1838) ;  —  BoTmoiu  om  PraetiaJ  Stbjeett  (Mt'o,  1840, 
pDMhDBMMs)  ^~£«enrat  on  lit  Ser^im  Doctrine  nf 
AlmrmaA  (13mo,  ISIS,  poMhamons).  He  wu  a  con- 
tribotor  la  Keea'a  Cydopadui,  and  to  tbe  Unitarian 
Josraali.  There  is  a  memoir  of  him  bv  hia  *on.  the 
Ber.  R.  I.  Carpenter  (Loud.  1840).— £i^A  Cydop^ 
dM.t.r.1  Darling,  Oeftyodia  S<iAo9n9iiUeii,  i,  &8S. 

Caipocivtaa,  a  Gonatlc  of  Alexandria  In  the  sec- 
•od  ceulaij,  probably  during  the  rrign  of  Hadrian 
(A.D.  117-138).  Of  his  personal  history  little  Is 
hnowB.  Clement  of  Alexandria  apeaka  of  hia  son 
Epiphanea,  who  died  at  aeventeen,  and  was  honored 
*•  1  god  at  Sama,  In  Cephallenia.— C1emcn>,  Strom. 
&.  4»;   Lardner,  Iforb,  vtil,  S9S.     Saa  Cabpocka- 

CaipooratlaDB,  Gnostic  heretica  of  the  second 
HBtory,  to  named  flram  Carpocratea  of  Alexandria  (q. 
*.).  In  common  with  the  Gnoatica  generally,  they 
held  the  existence  of  one  Snpreme  Principle,  tba  Pri- 
■al  Being,  or  Uona*,  toward  which  all  finite  things 
art  Miring  to  return.  Tbey  taught  tbat  the  viaible 
wvid  was  formed  by  angels,  Interior  to  the  Father 
(Efsphan.  Uimt.  xxrll,  c.  xl;  Iren.  Bttrn.  I,  2fi). 
TVj-  regarded  Christ  u  a  religirms  Geolna,  bom,  in 
the  ofdinary  course  of  nstnre,  of  Jo«pb  and  Mary,  hut 
aa  baring  excelled  other  men  not  only  hy  the  bolineaa 
•Kd  rirtD*  of  hb  life,  but  by  tbe  wonderful  elaadclly  of 
U>  Brind  (tirrayoCy  whicb  retained  the  remembrance 
rf  what  ha  bad  seen  when  circling  in  the  train  of  the 
Fither.  ney  admitted  that  he  had  been  eduoleil 
aaoBi  the  Jewa,  bat  bad  despised  them,  and  had  there- 
fai  obl^iied  tfa«  power  to  surmanct  hii  aaflbriDea, 
11.-6 


!9  C-\UPZOV 

and  alterwanl  aacended  to  the  Father  (tren.  Hixr.  \ 
IS).  The  Carpocratbna  boasted  of  resembling  Chrial, 
and  even  allowed,  hi-potbetically  apeaking,  that  if  any 
person  bad  a  purer  soul,  or  daipiaed  in  a  (jreatar  de- 
gree the  things  here  below,  he  might  excel  him.  Tbey 
bad  statnes  and  images  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and 
also  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  other  emi- 
nent men,  whom  they  are  aaid  to  have  honorad  with 
snpsrstitlous  rites  in  the  temple  of  Epiphanea  in  Ceph- 
allenla.  Carpocratea  maintained  the  tmnsmigration  of 
the  aonl,  which  must  perform  all  to  which  it  waa  des- 
tined before  it  can  obtain  rest.  In  support  of  hia  doc- 
trine he  cited  the  worda  of  onr  Lord,  "Verily  Ihon 
Shalt  not  depart  hence  antil  thou  hut  paid  tbe  utter- 
most brthlng."  Those  souls,  howerer,  which  are 
deeply  impreaaed  with  the  remembrance  of  their  for- 
mer existence,  are  enabled  to  defy  tbe  inllncaca  of  the 
spirits  governing  thla  world,  and,  aoarlng  to  tbe  con- 
templation of  the  Supreme  Being,  finally  reach  a  atate 
of  eternal  rest.  In  proof  of  this,  Carpocratea  addnced 
tbe  examplea  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  Aristotle 
among  the  heathen,  and  Jeans  among  the  Jews.  To 
the  latter  he  ascribed  eztroordinBry  atrengtb  of  toal, 
which,  animated  l>y  tba  remambroDca  of  its  former 
existence,  sosred  to  the  highest  flights  of  contempla- 
tion, and  enabled  him  to  obtain  a  divine  power,  by 
which,  in  working  miracles,  he  set  at  naught  the  spir- 
its of  this  world,  coat  off  tbe  thraldom  of  tbe  God  of 
tba  Jewa,  and  overturned  the  rallglon  which  tbia  god 
bad  devised.  Every  boman  soul  was  supposed  by 
contemplation  capable  of  becoming  equal  in  every  re- 
spect with  Jesus  ChiisL  Tbe  Caipociatiana  are  stig. 
maUsed  on  account  of  the  consequences  whicb  tbey 
drew  ttom  tbeir  principles.  They  are  charged  widi 
assarting  that  there  waa  nothing  good  or  evil  in  itaalf ; 
that  the  distinction  between  right  and  wrong  wu  not 
real,  but  depended  merely  on  human  opinion— on  aa- 
seitlon  whicb  appears  inconsiatent  with  their  view  of 
the  inaracter  of  Christ,  and  which  was,  perbapa,  ap- 
plied, not  to  moral  dntirs,  but  to  poeitive  ritea.  Tliey 
are  also  said  to  have  taught  the  oimmunily  of  women; 
a  doctrine  which,  together  with  their  ootiona  of  a  pre- 
exlatent  atate,  and  of  metempsycboaia,  may  ba  traced 
to  Plato,  in  whose  writings  Carpocratea  and  hia  aoD 
Epiphanea  (hy  whom  the  opiniona  of  this  sect  were 
much  amplifled,  and  to  whom  extraordinary  honor 
wu  paid)  were  bmiliarly  versed  (Clement,  ^rvm.  iii, 
42S).  Aa  the  fhiit  of  these  lut  opinions,  tbey  ore 
repreeented  as  baring  Indulged  in  the  grosseat  licen- 
tiousness, and  u  having  given  occasion  lo  tbe  dread- 
ful calumnies  h}-  which  the  eariy  Christiana  were  tt~ 
Bailed.  Tba  reproach  of  licentiousness  is  not  confirmed 
by  Iranaus,  who  is  the  oldest  source  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  Carpocratiana.  Epiphanlus  says  the  Carpocra- 
tians  re)ected  tba  Old  TesUmant.  It  appears  not  cer- 
tain that  tbey  rejected  any  part  of  the  New  (Euseb. 
Ect.  Hid.  iv,  7;  Epiphao.  //iet.  xxvli).  — Joremie, 
Oora  Bit.  IM  ;  Neooder,  Ch,  Bitt.  i,  419-151 ;  Lard- 
ner, Work;  viil,  891-408!  Domer,  Feno»  of  Ciril, 
div.  i,  vol.  i,  p.  180  i  Hase,  Charck  BUb^,  §  78 1  eepe- 
ciaUy  Uoaheim,  Cuaiatntaria,  etc.,  cent,  li,  §  50. 

C«T'pna  (Koproc,  perhaps  for  capWDcyHtrt,'  en 
the  accentuation,  aee  Wlner'a  GTammar,  Gib  ad.  p.  49), 
a  CbrlftUn  at  Troaa,  with  whom  the  apostle  Paul 
atatea  that  be  left  a  cloak  (!  Tim.  iv,  18)  j  on  which 
of  bis  journeys  it  la  uncertain,  but  probably  in  pasaing 
through  Asia  Minor  aflar  hU  ftrat  captirity,  for  the 
last  time  before  hia  martyrdom  at  Rome,  A.D.  Gl. 
According  to  Hlppolytna,  Carpns  was  bishop  of  Bery- 
tus.  In  Thrace,  called  Berrhna  in  tba  Synaptii  da  Vita 
St  Uarit  Pnfketanm,  which  posaes  under  tba  name 
of  Dorolbens  of  Tyre. 

Caipiov,  tbe  surname  of  a  family  which  waa  one 
of  the  moat  dlatlagiiisbedotthL  17th  century  for  theo- 
logical learning.  The  Arat  embent  man  of  the  name 
waa  BenedUtt  CBTpiov,  proftesor  of  Uw  at  Vlttaa. 


CARPZOV  i; 

bcTK,  who  iliti  In  IflU ;  and  the  litMl.  Johino  B«n*- 
dikt  (the  rnurtb),  died  u  prafe»or  at  UalmaUdt  in 
180S.    Tba  moat  Importuit  *r« : 

CARPZOV,  JOHANN  BENEDIET,  barn  M  Boch- 
illi,  June  21,  1607,  who  b«ama  •rchde«eon  of  St, 
'I'hnmns'a  church  >(  Leipzig,  and  wii  made,  in  1643, 
lirofuaor  exIraonliriBnuis  and  in  1646  rr^fimir  i.rdi- 
nariiu  of  tbeologr  at  Uipiig.  Ha  died  OcL  S2, 1667, 
He  vu  noted  for  plat)'  u  well  u  ft*  teiming.  Hia 
ch'itt  vriaaei  Mn,  De  Slmvitanun  PaHilenlia  H^pdg, 
IMO,  lto):->//a%ettnat  (1666;  enlarged  I17  hi*  too. 
J.  B.,  1689,  4ta)  -.—liagogt  n  lAni  Ecd.  Luihtr.  Bfm~ 
bo&Mi,  completed  after  hia  death  Ij;  Oleuini  (1065; 
1675,  4to).  Id  view  of  tbia  booli,  Gaaa  calla  Carpior 
the  "tint  Twll}'  diatiuguiebad  laborer  in  SynlwUca" 
(CeiaicJUe  d.  Pnt.  DogmatUc,  I,  ITS). 

CARPZOV,  JOHANK  GOTTLOB,  the  moat  ami- 
nent  of  the  binllj,  wu  bom  at  Dreaden,  Sept.  S6, 
lerg,  and  atodied  ancceadvelr  at  Wlttaaberg,  Laipiig, 
and  Altdorf.  Id  1702  be  became  almoner  to  tha  Sax- 
on ambuaador,  and  in  this  capacity  bad  the  opportn- 
nitjr  of  travel  in  Holland  and  BaglUHl,  which  he  naad 
to  adTSntage  for  hia  cnlCare  in  the  Oriental  langiugea. 
Ha  waa  engaged  in  paitonl  woA  at  DreKten  from 
1704  to  1708,  In  wlilch  jeer  ha  waa  called  to  St.Tham- 
u'a  church  in  Leipiig.  Rii  atndlea  took  a  wide  range, 
bat  hii  chief  bent  waa  toward  Hebrew  literature  and 
lihtlolagy.  In  1719  he  waa  made  profeuor  of  Orien- 
tal literature  at  Leipiig,  which  uSce  he  BUed  nntil 
1780.  whan  be  became  general  superintendent  at  LO- 
beck,  where  he  died  April  7, 1767.  Hia  writinn  Ibrm 
an  epoch  in  the  blitor;  of  Biblical  crltldain.  He  waa 
a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Uonvlant  and  PlelUU,  and 
wrote  a  hlitorioo-polemlcat  tnatiaa  againat  the  Hota- 
Tiani  (mentionad  below).  Hia  meet  Important  worka 
are.  liuptU.  ik  vet.pUloi.  tmU.  circa  naltavm  Iki(l.pt. 
1GSS,  ita):~Diip.<iepliralilaiipcrtimanm  in  uma  Dti 
utnitia  (Lpi.  ITJO,  4Ia) : — Inlndaetio  ad  IJbret  Camm- 
HXu  VtL  Tttl.  (Lpi.  1741.  M  ed.  4to)  -.—Cnlica  Saera 
Vtl.  Ten.  (pt.  1,  Ttxt.  Origiml:  pt.  li,  Vrrri/mn:  pt.  iil, 
Greaptudo  criticam  G.  IfAufnni  rJKn'Ui  (l.pa.  17-^8, 
41a>  ■.—SaSgiomt.UititnitAiaig  itr  Bihnkkit  v.  Uik- 
riaakra  Br&dtr  (Lpi.  174i,  Sro)  —Apparattu  IliM-Crit. 
Aiiii^i'itim  rt  eodieit  taeri  tt  paUit  Ilebraie  (Leipzig, 

1718,  4to) Eracb  a.  Graher,  Atlgt».  KtiefUopadif,  a. 

T.  j  Hoefer,  ffouv.  Bitg.  Gmhale.  vill,  84!. 

CABPZOV,  JOHAXN  BENEDIKT,  bom  In  Leip- 
iig, ITttO,  became  profeaaor  of  pbilosophj  at  Leipzig  la 
1747;  proftesorofGreekBtHe1metldt,n48.  Hepnb- 
liabed  Uber  duel,  thiol.  pK/ieru  (1768)  -.^Saera  Exer. 
atiOiimtt  M  EpM.  ad  Bebr.  (17(>0)  •.—Slndura  in  Ep. 
dd  Am.  (1756)  :—«e|Mn<iru*£pu«.CaM.  (1790).  Hia 
repnta  aa  a  pUloloj^t  was  veiy  great.  He  dkd  April 
28,1803. 

Ctm-  (in  aoma  editions  "car")  la  an  Angllciied 
(brm  of  the  term  x°l>^  fy-  '-  lo^)!  occurring  only 
In  1  Eadr.  r,  bb,  aa  the  name  of  aomathing  given  to 
tba  Pfamnieiana  for  fumlahiog  cedar  to  rebuild  the 
Temple.  Bratachneider  (Spieilrg.  p.  !;0)  thinks  we 
ahouid  read  x^V"lt"i<  ^  '■  "«>>•>]' ;  perbapa,  bowever, 
the  word  b  almpiv  a  coTTopUon  Ibi  appa,  earn  (see 
Fritiache,  Haiidb.  in  loc). 

CttnanSH,  BartoloK^  de,  an  eminent  Spaniab 
theolngian  and  ptalate.  was  born  at  Miranda.  NsT^rr^ 
in  1603,  of  noble  parenU.  Having  Mudled  tbeiilngy 
st  Alcala,  be  entered  the  order  of  Dominicans  in  IfiSO. 
He  afterward  was  profeaaor  of  tbeoloify  at  Vailadolid. 
In  1M6  Charles  V  aent  bim  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where  he  vindicated  the  rights  of  lilshope.jHra  dinno, 
againat  the  papal  pretenaions.  Philip  of  Spain  took 
him  (1564)  to  England,  where  qnaen  Hary  appointed 
bim  ber  confaMor.  and  charged  him  with  the  re-estah- 
r»bment  of  the  Roman  Chuich.  Tbia  otTIre  he  dia- 
cbargad  "  with  a  leal  more  worthy  of  a  Spanish  in- 
quidtor  than  ofa  minister  of  Jeana  Chritt,"  and  was 
nwardad  with  the  archbisbopric  of  Toledo  In  1608. 1 


On  antaring  hia  dloeasa  ha  pot  forth  a  eateeliEaBi, 
which  hia  enemies  made  a  ant^ect  of  attack.  Itwaa 
censured  by  tbe  Inquisition,  bat  aanctianad  bj  the 
of  tha  Council  of  Trent.     A  more  haav; 


;haige  awaited  him.  A  report  was  circalalad  that 
Cbaries  V  had  not  died  Id  the  "faith  of  the  Church" 
and  that  tbia  was  owing  to  the  arehbisbop  of  Toladn, 
who  had  instilled  Into  his  mind  "heretical  opinions." 
Carranxa  was  sailed  by  tbe  Inquisition  and  Imprisooed 
In  1699.  After  eight  years'  duress  in  Spain  he  waa 
transferred  lo  Borne,  where  Has  V  kept  him  ten  yaara 
longer  Immnred  in  tbe  castle  it  St.  Aagelo.  tn  IG76 
be  was  linHlly  acquitted,  but  waa  auapended  fTom  hia 
apiscopil  functions  for  five  years,  and  was  compelled 
lo  reaide  in  the  Dominican  cloister  of  Delia  Minerva 
at  Rome.  He  lived  only  aeventeen  doys  afterward, 
dying  Hay  2, 1B76.  He  wrote,  (1.)  CommaUariBt  (»• 
bn  it  CateA-imo  C^iMuimo  (Antwerp,  1558,  fol.):— 
(J.)  Swmaa  C<meiliontm  (Venice,  1S46,  8vo):— <8.)  Dt 
arcroariii  raidmtia  Epiic,  el  aUor.  pailonim  (V'enice, 
1647);  and  several  piactlcal  treatises.  —  Bieg.  Cn^. 
vii,  199;  Burnet,  tlul.  of  Engl.  Rrformatnm,  iii,  SSI ; 
Bayle,  DiaiiHKDy,  a.  v. ;  Ecliard,  Script,  ord.  Pnrdica- 
lonm,  s.  T. ;  Hoefer,  ti'aUB.  Biog.  GaiiraU,  viii,  864 ; 
Dupln,  Ecda.  Wntert,  cent.  ivL 

CanlaEe-  Vehiclas  answerins  to  this  term  in 
modem  usage  were  not  known  to  tbe  ancients.  Sea 
Cabt.  In  the  English  Bible  this  word  stamla,  ther»- 
Ibre,  as  tbe  Incongruons  nnderiog  of  severnl  totalt^ 
dilTerant  terms.  In  1  Ssm.  xvii,  20,  the  Hebrew  word 
hSUrp,  maptdak'f  readared  '*  trench"  in  our  varaion, 
and  "  place  of  tha  carriage"  in  the  margin,  pnbaNy 
signillea  a  wogo^rmtparl,  ■  balwark  formed  of  the 
wagons  and  other  vehldas  of  tha  army  (1  Sam.  xxvi, 
5,7).  In  Jodg.  xviii,  21,  tba  original  is  mSSX,  teb>- 
dxl'i  and  means  weallk,  \.  e.  booty.  In  lai.  xlvi,  1, 
"carriage"  stands  for  nx^isi,  ntiaah',  a  load  for  a 
beast  of  burden.  la  1  Sam.  ivii,  22,  tba  word  1^3, 
Ui',  "  carriage,"  pniperly  means  imp'/emttiti,  tqu^ 
aaUti  aad  in  laa.  i,  W,  impitmaiU  0/  tear.  In  Ada 
xxi,  15,  the  phrase,  "we  took  up  our  carriages"  (dwo- 
aKivatopat),  abould  be,  "  we  packed  up  onr  baggage" 
Soe  VfAaas. 

Can1Ar«B,  Lncia  he,  bom  at  Cluvilj,  near  Ad* 
gera,  In  1862,  was  flrat  a  soldier,  but  In  16H9  enter*] 
tha  congregation  of  the  Oratory.  He  died  at  Paris 
June  II,  1717.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  Cowmen- 
Ittire  IJliral,  or  "Literal  Commentary"  on  tha  whole 
Bible,  which  la  so  managed  that  hia  comments  are  in- 
troduced into  the  text  (translated)  in  italic  charactan. 
They  are  for  tbe  most  part  In  the  words  of  holy  Scrip- 
ture itself,  which  la  thus  made  to  be  Its  own  interpret- 
er. This  work,  which  was  carried  through  at  the  r»- 
quest  of  Bossuel,  Was  completed  in  twenly-foor  12me 
volumes  (1701  to  1716).  It  has  idnce  ftma  throngh 
many  editloaa,  and  is  mntk  used.  It  Is  the  only 
French  version  antboriied  in  Italy. — A'o^nipiie  Cm- 
certelif,  vii,  219. 

CuToU,  Daniel  Lynn,  D.D.,  a  PrMhs^terian 
inlnliler,  was  born  In  Fayette  county.  Pa..  Hay  16, 
1797,  and  graduated  at  Jefferson  Colleg^  1828.  Hav- 
ing completed  hia  theological  coarse  at  Princeton,  he 
was  llcenaad  in  IBffi,  aad  supplied  the  churchos  of 
Shrewsbur7  and  Mlddlekivn  Point.  Thenoe,  after  • 
brief  sojourn  at  Princeton  and  Nawbuiyport,  ha  re- 
moved  to  Lltchneld,  Conn,,  where  he  was  inataUed  Id 
1827.  He  aupplied  the  First  Praabytetlan  Church, 
Brooklyn,  In  1829.  hut  hia  health  soon  obliged  him  ta 
resl-'n,  and  in  1835  he  waa  appointed  to  the  ptwddency 
of  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Va.,  which  he  held  for 
tbrve  yeara.  On  retiring  be  took  charge  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Chnrch  In  the  Korthem  Liberties  of  Phlb 
adelphia,  and  sabsequently  became  aeeretary  of  the 
Cnlonitation  Society  of  the  aUte  of  New  York  till  1841^ 
when  be  was  obliged  to  give  up  all  acUve  atnk*. 


CARROLL 


B*  Umi  Kov.  £8, 1851.     Ha  pablbl»d  Saumi  <IM0- 
:,  t  voU.  ]3nio>,  InaldM  deUcbad  wnnani  and  ad- 

CaZTOll,  Joba,  D.D.,  fint  Remsn  Catholio  ireh- 
Uiliop  in  tlie  UniUd  SUtea,  wu  bom  (t  Uppv  lUrU 
hanmgb,  HaTfUnd.  In  17S&.  He  ms  adutaiUd  M  8L 
Ubv'i,  Fnnn,  and  at  tbe  collagn  of  Liage  and  Bru- 
gm,  in  Btlgjam.  In  176)  he  wai  wdained  priaaC,  and 
Wane  a  JeMiL  Wben  the  older  waa  dlMolvad  In 
FnKB  tw  went  to  Enjland,  and  Iwcania  tatoT  to  a 
•oa  af  Lcrd  Stonrton,  with  whoni  ha  Crarallad  on  the 
CaatiiHnt.  Oa  the  braakinit  out  of  the  KoTolutioBarv 
War  ha  nturnad  to  America,  and  took  an  active  part 
OD  the  tifSt  of  tb«  patriot*.  After  the  cloM  of  the  war, 
the  Roman  Catbollc  cler^  in  the  United  SUM*  re- 
i|iiiat<il  from  tba  pope  the  eataliliBhinent  of  a  hlerar- 
tbj,  and  Ur.  Carroll  waa  appointed  vice-itenaral.  He 
fiwl  hia  naidenoi  at  Baltimore.  In  1780  he  «aa 
named  liiabop,  and  in  the  emalnK  }'eJT  waa  conaecra- 
ted.     In  1791  be  ai6tim»d  the  title  of  lilsbop  of  Balti- 

anhbiihop.     He  died  Dec.  3, 1816.  | 

Caralia'iUI  (Heb.  Kankaa.  >U^nx,  pmbablp  of 
Ptraian  derivation  ;  eomp.  mod.  Pera.  Kanhm,  "  ipoil- 
er,~  or  Zend  Ktra%-i,  Santcr.  ATmlaa,  "black;" 
9fiifL.  baa  bat  rhree  namei,  of  which  the  first  b  'Ap«- 
•tuBc;  Valg.  Ciarmna).  the  flrst  named  of  tiie  leven 
"piWea"  or  chief  emira  at  the  coartof  Xeriei(Ahaa- 
aara)  wbeD  Taehti  rifuned  to  preaent  baraelf  at  tbe 
nnl  basqaet  (Eatfa.  1, 14).     B.C.  483. 

Canan.  Albkahder,  LL.D.,  a  Bapttat  ninlatrr, 
*aa  bora  in  Scotland  about  177E,  bn(  early  remored  to 
Irelaad.  U*  began  hta  pahlic  life  at  Tubbennore  aa  a 
minister  in  connectiun  irith  the  Frealij'terlaD  Synod  of 
Lister,  bat  baring  changed  hia  opinions  as  to  Church 
gBTKnmant,  and  adoptad  (he  views  of  the  Indepand- 
•ati,he*eccd.-diiil8C0.  Embracing  Independent  Bap- 
tist Tiewi,  be  formed  a  socletr  at  Tulibermore,  of  which 
ba  nanaiaed  pulor  to  the  time  of  bia  death.  Ho  wrote, 
in  tSOS,  bia  firOKXH  for  trjarating  /mm  lie  Sipiod  of 
t'lMtr;  and  afterward  produced  numerous  boolta  and 
pinphletf — oa  baptism  and  otbar  lubjecta  of  conliD- 
nnj-~whicb  are  highly  eataemed  by  the  Baptists. 
Tbcngb  a  atrenuous  advocate  of  immersion,  ha  was 
Bet  a  "cloae"  communioniat.  Aftra  many  yean  01 
tece*MBt  aetitlty,  paatoral  and  literary,  ha  died  at 
BfUast,  Ang.  14,  1844,  from  the  effect!  of  a  fall  into 
iba  lletiey  al  liTerpno]  a  few  days  brtorr.  [>r.  Car- 
■n  waa  an  earncat  and  often  biller  coiiltuvfniBlial. 
lib  dogmaiism  and  araogaiice  detract  greatly  from 
the  eflect  of  hia  argomenta.  He  la  often  right,  often 
wrna^;  bat,  wbetbor  right  or  wrong,  he  ia  equally 
•^-onadenl.  Besldei  a  number  of  paoipblctv  re> 
news,  etc..  he  pabliahed  The  Gad  of  PraMinet  llit  Cod 
t/lit  aiA  (I'^mn)  z—TlM'ia  -/ Imipiraiim  {18mo) :—  | 
rki  Kmouiitjf  n/Jena  (ISsau) -.—Tit  f-iuiiaa  My- 
Irry  (»ro):—EiaMl<uaum  nf  At  Prin^ipla  of  BibUmi 
of  ErtKili,  Stuart,  Aaaiim,  etc.;  — a 
■  Ugarti  of  Spteek,  and  a  Trtatite  on  lit 
A>b  mJ  D<Jti  n/otf  tm  le  read  lAe  SarijUuTte  (N.  Y. ' 
laU,  Hmoy—Uoftiim,  ia  ill  Mode  and  SulgKlt,  nli 
oSiaA  oftlia  Ufe  of  DT.Carwm(^Vha».  IKil.  bib  tA. 
»n\-i»m\»»i>o.C<idopadiaofaiogr,^!  lit]A,  Hit. 
mij  of  Urn  Pnibjitriait  CktirA  in  Ipebaid.  iii,  44». 

Cantkiaa,  W11.1.TAX,  a  Scotch  divine  and  politl- 
ctan,  vai  bora  in  1CI9,  at  Cuthcart,  near  Glaagow, 
and  coBpleied  bia  atodiei  at  tbe  Cniversitiea  of  Lon- 
ten  and  UtrechL  While  it)  Holland  he  waa  Intn- 
dacad  to  tbe  prince  of  Orange,  who  honored  blm  with 
Ui  eeaBdence.  After  hia  return  to  England  be  be- 
eaaa  connected  with  the  party  which  alrore  to  ex- 
dade  JaBHa  lh>m  the  throne,  and,  on  ■oapidon  of 
bi^  ana  of  the  Rye-honae  cnnipiiatora.  In  was  aent 
te  Scotland,  and  potto  the  lortore  of  the  thnmbucrew, 
which  he  bore  with  nnthrinking  flrmnewi.  On  bis  llli. 
vatiao  b*  went  back  to  lloUand,  and  became  one  of 


il  CART 

the  prince  of  Orange's  chaplains.  He  BceoDpaidac 
William  to  England  in  1688,  and  was  appidnted  king's 
chaplain  for  Scotland.  Ha  waa  aoheequently  of  graat 
aervice  in  producing  a  reconciliation  between  tbe  Scot- 
tish Presbyleiians  and  William  ill.  A  General  Aa- 
aembly  being  about  to  convene,  at  which  it  was  under- 
stood that  Ibere  would  be  DpporiUon  to  Ibe  oalb  of 
allegiance,  the  king  had  delivered  to  a  meaaanger  dia- 
pstcbea  directing  the  peremptory  enforcement  of  the 
act.  It  is  said  that  Carstares  aaauined  authority  to 
stop  the  meaaanger;  and,  presenting  himself  to  the 
king  (who  had  gune  to  bed)  in  the  middle  of  the  night, 
in  the  gnise  of  a  petitioner  for  his  life,  forfeited  by  bis 
having  thus  committed  high  treason,  to  have  prevailed 
on  bim  lo  dispense  with  the  osth.  Whether  the  anec- 
dote be  true  or  not,  there  ia  little  donbt  that  hia  infia- 
enca  obtained  the  dlspenaatlon.  He  became  now  vlr- 
tnally  prime  minister  fbr  Scotland,  and  received  the 
popular  deaignstion  of  "Cardinal  Cantares."  Even 
after  the  doath  of  WUUam,  his  knowledge  of  Scottish 
aBairs,  and  tbe  respect  paid  to  hia  talenti,  left  bim 
with  considerable  inflnence.  In  1704  be  waa  cboaau 
principal  of  tbe  University  of  EdinbDr>ih,  He  died 
Dec.  !8,  ITia.  See  SuOe  Paptrt  aid  Utbrt.  to  wkidt 
ie  pnjUed  lie  lif*  of  Mr.  CarHartt  Oto,  1714) ;  Bit^. 
Cyelopjdiai  Hetheringlon,  CAw«(  »/ fintJawi;  ii,  SI6. 

Cut  (rbiS^,  ogalrA',  ttnm  ^}S,  lo  rattj  Sept. 
u/iofo  [so  in  jndilh  xt,  11],  Yulg!  plauMrum;  also 
rendered"wago[i,"Gen.  xlv,19,  BI,27j  ilvi,fi;  Nnm. 
vll,  3,  G,  7,  8;  and  "chariot"  in  Pai.  xlri,  9  [comp. 
Cart-wiiexu]),  a  vehicle  moving  on  wbeela,  and  nan. 
ally  drawn  by  cattle  (S  Sam.  vi,  G),  to  be  dlstJngnlsbed 
ftnm  the  chariot  drawn  by  hotaea.     See  Chabiot. 

1.  The  carts  which  the  king  of  Egypt  sent  to  atalst 
in  ttanaporting  Jacob's  family  from  Canaan  (Gtn.  xlv, 
IS,  :i7)  were  manifeetly  not  used  in  the  latter  country, 
but  were  peculiar  to  Egypt.  These  carta  or  wagons 
were,  of  course,  not  war-cbiiiota,  nor  auch  cnrriclea  si 
were  in  nse  among  tbe  Egyptian  nobility.    The  read^ 


Oxen,  villi  a  sort  of  Umbndia,  a  IMver.  and  a  Footoun. 
means  of  transport  and  travel  by  [be  Nile  seems  to 
have  rendered  in  a  great  measure  unneceaaary  any 
other  wbefli-carriages  than  those  for  war  or  pleasure. 
The  Bcnlpturea,  however,  enhiblt  some  carts  aa  aaed 
by  a  nomsde  people  (enemies  of  the  E«yptiana)  la 
their  migrations  (camp.  Pigs.  1  and  i,  below). 


utennils.  Tbeee  alao  were  drawn  l^y  two  oxen.  In 
Rossellinl  we  have  found  a  very  curious  reprsKnta- 
tion  of  the  vehicle  used  for  auch  purpoaes  by  tha 
E^ptlans  (Pig.  S).     It  li  little  more  than  a  plafona 


CARTHUSIANS  U 

tc  Couart,  OaneS.  L  Ui,  p.  S47  aq. ;  Landau,  Mamud 
ef  (7o»cib,  p.  Ill;  Manai,  Conn/.  Iv,  S8». 

ITTTT  Hald  In  116,  tgiiiM  PcUgiua  and  Calcatiua. 
Ths  dDCtrlnia  of  Pclaglni  were  condemned  \iy  thla 
conndl  In  *  dacne  irhicb  ma  approTed  b;  Innocent  I, 
blabop  of  Roma. 

XIT.  Held  In  ilS,  at  which  more  thim  SCO  Uahopi 
took  part,  under  the  preaideDcy  of  Anroljua.  Angna- 
Una  etylea  It  "the  Conncil  of  AfMca."  Ita  daereea 
■gainst  PeUgianbrn  were  the  triumph  of  Aat^oildniani, 
iDdflnall;  received  the  general  approval  of  the  Cbnrch. 
Profper  faaa  preaerved  one  oftheie  decrees,  in  which 
the  council  declarea  that  the  grace  of  God  g^ven  to  us 
thiDugh  Jsaiu  Christ  not  only  aaaists  ns  to  know  what 
jarijht,  bat  also  to  practiae  it  In  each  particular  action, 
•o  that  wUhont  It  we  can  neither  have,  nor  think,  nor 
aay,  nor  do  anythuig  which  appertalna  to  hollneea  and 
trua  piety.  The  conndl  agrsed  apon  a  letter  to  Zoel- 
maa,  biibop  of  Rome,  demanding  that  the  aenlencs  of 
condemnation  pasaed  hy  Innocent  I  aialnat  PeUglna 
and  Caleitiue  ahonld  be  enforced  nnlil  they  ahoald 
abjore  their  emra.  —  Hansl,  Conc^.  iii,  BIO;  iv,  877; 
Landon,  Mmmcd  of  CmucHi,  p.  112 ;  Schaff,  Ck.  Hit. 
Ui,798. 

Caitllnslaiw,  an  order  of  monks  Id  the  Komen 
Catholic  Cbnrch,  Giunded  by  St.  Bruno  (q.  v.)  A.D. 
1086.  A  legend  of  much  later  origin  telia  ths  follow- 
iog  atory:  At  the  funeral  of  a  friend  of  Bruno's  in 
loss,  the  dead  man  raised  himself  up,  aayliiK  "By 
the  Jnst  Judgment  of  God  I  am  accused !"  This  was 
repealed  on  the  two  fbliowlng  days,  and  had  each  an 
effect  on  Bruno  and  aiz  more  that  they  Immedialely 
retired  to  tlie  desert  of  Ihe  Chartreuse,  and  there  built 
the  n ret  monastery.  This  alisurd  legend  found  ita  way 
Into  the  Roman  breviary,  but  was  struck  out  by  order 
of  Pope  Urban  VIII.  After  Bruno  had  governed  the 
first  establishment  for  about  six  years.  Pope  Urban 
1 1,  his  former  pupil,  called  him  to  Rome,  and  retained 
bim  there,  although  Bruno  begged  for  parmisdon  to 
return  to  his  brethren.  The  order  Increased  slowly. 
In  1187  they  counted  bnr,  in  11S1  Iborteen,  and  in 
ISM  fifty-dx  houses.  In  1170  tlic  order  was  recog- 
nised by  ihepope.  UarUn  V  exempted  alltbe  proper- 
tj-  of  the  o^r  from  tithes.  JuUua  II  provided,  in 
liOe,  by  a  bull,  that  the  prior  of  the  Grande  Char- 
treuse, near  Gnfnoble,  should  always  be  the  general 
of  the  whole  order,  and  that  a  general  chapter  should 
meet  annually.  At  the  iierinninicof  the  ISth  century 
the  number  of  houses  was  17(1,  of  which  76  belonged  to 
France.  Many  houacs  perished  in  the  French  Revo- 
lution, but  some  were  re-established  after  1815.  Their 
prindpai  establishment,  the  GrsndB  Chsrtreuse,  was 
reoccupied  in  1816.  Id  England  the  Carthushina  set- 
tled <n  1180,  and  had  a  famous  monastery  in  I.ondan, 
rinee  called,  (torn  tlie  Carthusians  who  settled  there, 
the  "Charter-house."  The  order  has  iiivcn  to  the 
Church  several  saints,  three  caidinals,  and  more  than 
aerenty  artlibisbops  and  hiabops. 

Until  11S0  the  order  had  no  vrttten  statutes.  Then 
the  flflh  prior  of  the  CbartreuFc.  Guign,  compiled  tlie 
ConmMwfines  CorfunEi.  Bemaid  de  la  Tour  collected, 
in  I'JW,  the  resolutions  of  all  penersl  chapters  whicli 
had  l-een  held  pince  1141.  Tbie  collection  waa  con- 
firmed by  the  General  Chapter  of  1-J&9,  and  bun  the 
title  !'tatula  antvpui.  Another  collection,  Slatala  no- 
un, was  aildMl  in  1887.  A  third  collectifin,  T<n'a  emn- 
JlU^lio  ttalalaruia,  dates  trvm  the  year  16RD ;  a  fourth, 
Xoai  e^rcHa  Itafulonim  orti'nu  CarluiitniiM,  tnim  the 
year  1581.  The  characteristic  of  the  statutes  of  this 
order  is.  that  it  aims,  in  the  lirrt  place,  at  precluding 
tha  memhers  f*i™  all  intercouric  with  the  world,  and 
even,  as  far  ss  possible,  from  all  Intercourse  with  each 
other;  srenndir,  at  separating  the  prnfii  fhnn  the 
lay  brothers,  who  occupy  In  no  other  otdiT  an  equally 
low  position,  and  are  divided  into  th[«e  classes,  Cbn- 
nn-fi,  DnHoti,  and  Ktddilii  thirdly,  at  separating  every 
■ingle  Calthniisn  monastery  fttim  the  whole  Burround- 


CARTWRIGHT 

he  Chun:h. 

Thus  the  whole  order,  and  each  individual  member,  ia 
like  a  peErifaction  fhtm  the  Middle  Agea.  Tha  monki 
wear  a  hair-cloth  ahirt,  a  white  caasock,  and  oTer  It, 
when  they  go  out,  a  black  duak.  They  nerer  eat 
Bash,  and  on  Friday  take  only  bread  and  wabcr.  They 
are  not  alhiwed  to  go  out  of  their  cells  except  ia 
church,  nor  to  speak  to  any  person,  treD  tbelr  own 
brother,  without  leave  of  their  superior.  Some  of  the 
convents  aro  magnincent,  espedslly  those  of  NapUa 
and  Pavia,  which  have  a  world-wide  renown  for  their 
id  rlchei.  In  1818  the  order  had  8  hoasM 
in  Ital;,  and  i  in  SwiUerland. 


Csnhnrlaa  Muus— m  Home.  Carthusian  Kna-st  fame. 
There  are  also  houses  of  Carthusian  niinr,  Lnt  the 
date  of  thair  origin  ia  not  known.  They  were  alwaya 
very  few  in  number.  Father  Helyot,  the  Iitrtorian 
of  monachlsm,  knew  only  of  the  cxittence  of  five, 
all  of  which  prrlsbed  by  the  French  Revolution,  [n 
1820  they  rc-»U1.1iebed  tl:eir  tiirt  house  near  Gre- 
noble, in  France,  and  this  is  still  their  only  eatabliah- 

A  history  of  the  order  was  commenced  ly  father 
Mbssod,  general  of  the  order,  and  vol.  i  pul.lbbcd 
in  IGB7;  but,  for  unknoiin  reasons,  the  order  forbade 
the  continuance  of  (he  woifc.  See  also  KlortUus,  Tit- 
mnm  Chroitobsictm  S.  OnHnU  CarthviimU  (Taur. 
I6P1);  Corl)ln,  Iliilan  lacrit  dr  Tonfre  drt  Clkartnui 
(Paris,  166S,  4to) ;  Helyot  (ed.  Uigne),  Dirt.  At  Or*t, 
£c%.  1,872;  Fthr,  Ctuhici/e  dfr  M6BduBnbn,i,7a  tq. 

Caxt-irliael  (rpilxiir  afiiiitn'h  a  chariot  wheel 
(Eeclus.  xxxiit,  5).     See  CauT;  Wheel. 

Caitmigtt.  ThciuaB.  a  leomed  Lnd  eminent 
Puritan  divine;  bom  in  Herts  about  ISTG.  lie  waa 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  CamLridge,  where  ho 
became  a  fellow  in  1C60.  A  few  yearn  inarward  he 
was  removed  to  a  fellowship  U  Trinity  Cclle|-e,  of 
which  be  becsmo  one  of  Iho  senior  felUiws.  In  1S64, 
when  Queen  Eliubelh  vbiited  the  University,  ha  ap- 
pears to  have  dintinguisbed  himself  in  the  diS|<utat)ona 
held  before  her  majeat)-.  He  Cook  bis  B.D.  degree  ia 
1607,  and  three  years  afterward  waa  chosen  Ud.v  Mir. 
garct's  dii-inity  professor.  He  was  a  thorough  I'rotc*- 
tant.  In  his  leclnres  he  critidsed  tlie  polity  of  the 
Church  of  England  with  great  acnteupss  and  leaminR. 
It  was  his  cnnviction  that  the  reformation  of  the 
Church  had  not  gone  (kr  enough;  and  be  advocated 
bta  views  with  a  clearness  snd  loldnese  which  nono 
could  miaUfce.  The  following  rtalcment  of  the  ■:»-. 
trines  for  which  he  was  expelled  ftnm  the  Univerrily  is 
(riven  bv  Hook,  in  vindication  oflhereverily  with  whlfh 
CattwrigbC  waa  treated.    It  will  be  lecn  that,  with  a 


CABTWKIGHT  135  CARVE 

tow  mxeep&ma,  thajr  u*  viawa  In  which  mo«t  modtr-  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  Fiah  Street.  After  the  Reatora- 
Ma  maa  In  the  Chareh  of  England  woold  now  BKree  [  Hon  be  vai  mide  domeatic  chaplain  to  Heniy,  daka 
arkh  other  Chrktiwu.  "He  maintained  that,  hi  n-  >f  Gloacoter;  prebendary  of  Twyfori,  is  the  church 
fcrnuDg  tlm  Chimh,  it  ma  neeauarr  to  reduca  ill  of  St.  Paol  i  ot  Cbalford,  in  the  church  af  Wells;  ■ 
thittgalDtha  apaalolkal  inatitntian ;  that  no  one  ought  ebafd^n  In  ordinary  to  the  king;  and  Tector  of  St. 
to  b«  admitted  tnlo  the  Cbrlatlan  minlatry  wlw  na  j  Thomaa  the  Apostle,  London.  In  167!  he  waa  made 
Boable  to  preach ;  that  those  only  irha  mlnlatarad  the  !  prebendary  of  Dnrham,  and  in  1S7T  dean  of  Ripon. 
mrd  ooght  to  pny  pablicly  in  the  Church,  or  admin-  !  His  l03'al^  ns,  In  1668,  rewarded  with  the  btahoprio 
fatn-tbencrameaUj  that  pofJsh  ordinations  wore  not '  of  Cheater.  At  the  RoTolation  be  fled  to  France,  aiid 
Talid;  that  only  cjnaoicat  Scripture  ongbt  to  be  read  !  perfonned  divine  servica  at  St  Germain,  according  to 
pabllcly  in  the  Charcb ;  that  the  public  Iltargy  ought  the  English  rilnal.  for  aach  as  resoTted  to  him.  On 
to  be  so  framed  that  there  niijfht  be  no  private  praying  the  death  of  Dr.  Seth  Wtrd,  kini{  James  nominated 
or  reading  In  the  Chareh,  but  that  all  the  people  should  him  to  the  see  of  Salisbury.  In  Che  spring  of  1686  he 
attend  to  the  prayere  of  the  minister  j  that  the  service  '  went  to  Ireland,  and  finally  died  there,  April  16, 1663, 
of  bnrying  the  dead  did  not  belong  any  more  to  (he  '  He  vrrote  a  Di-iry,  pnbliabed  bv  the  Camden  Society 
mhitiurial  office  than  to  the  rest  of  the  Church ;  that    in  lS43.~Ilotk,  £ccfe(.  Bieg.  Gl,  p.  480  aq. 


onlcal  Scripture, 
•ad  to  all  th:  nauMS  of  God :  there  naa,  therefore,  no 
reaaon  why  the  people  should  stand  at  tlie  rudlug  of 
the  Goepel,  or  bow  at  the  name  of  Jesus;  that  It  was 
as  Iswfnl  to  tdt  at  the  Lord's  table  aa  to  kneel  or  atand ; 
that  the  Lord'a  Supper  ou^ht  not  to  be  administered 
In  pHvat;.  mtr  frap'iMt  odiiitiiMrrid  Sji  •ro.ttn  or  lay- 
asn;  that  the  sign  of  the  cnisa  in  baptism  was  super- 
"'^'   ia;  that  it  was  naaon^le  and  proper  that  the 


CorraJKL  I.  Giova^tki,  born  in  the  year  1400, 
of  an  Illustrious  fsmily  ofADdaluaia,  became  Uahop 
of  Piaceniia,  and  govenxv  of  Rone,  He  was  present 
at  the  Council  of  Riste,  where  be  so  warmly  debpded 
the  lalerett  of  the  papacy  that  Eugene  IV  created  him 
cardinal  in  1446.  Tbe  snccaedhig  popea  sent  him  aa 
their  legate  M  Germany,  Bohemia,  and  Hongary.  He 
died  at  Rome  in  1469. 

BsictAnDiiio,  nephew  of  the  praoeding,  was 


.  "'  '  nil  and  papal  nnnclo  In  Rpain.     He  waa  put  under  the 

tMm  it,  withont  bemi  obliged  to  answer  In  the  child  a  |  ban  by  Pope  Jullns  II  for  having.  In  1611,  at '■ 

—me,' I  will,  ■!  will  not."  I  believe,  etc.,  nor  ought    the  Council  of  Plaa,  before  which  the  pope  w 

if  hb  condnct  toward  the  e 


milian  and  king  Louis  XII  of  France.  Leo  X,  how- 
ever, realored  him  his  dignities  in  161S,  and  ho  waa 
employed  on  Important  miaaiona  by  the  succeeding 
popes.     He  died  bishop  of  Oatla  hi  lS!a.-.Pierer,  Uni- 


IT  persona  under  age 
giving  nnmea  to  children,  it  waa  convenient  to  amid 
pagnnkm,  as  well  ss  the  nimes  and  olScss  of  Christ 
and  angels ;  that  it  waa  pipbtlcal  to  fiirliid  marriages 
atanvparticnlartimeoftheyear,  and  to  grant  licenses  _,^  _^^,^ 

■ttfa^timea  waa  intolerable;  that  private  marriages,  i  J^^z^jJoo^T 
•r  BBch  as  wei«  not  pabllshed  in  the  congregation,  i       _  . 

srera   higlily  inconvenient."  ete.  ,  "•■^"i™**"'        ,  ,,  .  .    «_      .i    ,  „ 

i^).i^..hi^  r^^A.j  ....in-  vn.u^tt  ..-i™.i..  -..     Anth.  Vera,  of  several  Hab.worda  ftom  the  follow] 

Arcnbianon  vinnoai  and  Or.  Wnltgift  lealously  on-  _,  ,  _ ..  ,  ,.  „. 

posad  Cartwright  and  in  1571  he  wu  deprived  of  his  ™"« ;  1.  Prop,  rt^,  tufa  ,  to  car«"  wood  (1  King* 
praf»»Tihlp  and  fellowship.  He  retired  from  Eng-  j  "'i  »t  8*.  M)  |  hence  Trt^B,  mOla'ath,  KMlpture  in 
tamf  to  the  Continent,  bocama  chaplain  at  Antwerp,  |  relief  (I  Kings  vi,  18,  W,  82;  "graving,"  vi,  Bl).  2, 
•Bd  altorward  at  Uiddlebnrg.  At  the  end  of  about  ti^n,  cAorosA',  to  tugriati  whence  noin,  ataro- 
two  jt*n  be  returned  to  England,  and  pabllshed  a    a.',*,  aiWiw  of  wood  or  stone  (Exod.  nxid,  fi ;  *i»v, 

&™rf  ^J---«™  '°/*^^■f*'*^:  ••'J'  VP""'?"  ■  '8).    B.  nrn,  c*^-,  to  *«»,-  whence  n,»mi, .... 

for  nlier  from  tbe  subscription  required  by  the  eccle- 1  ^  *  i     i' 

aiaatfeal  commisalDnin.  Ho  had  a  controversy  of  I  (*«**»*,  careei  CI  Rings  vi,  B6).  4.  nr»,  paUacA , 
psmphleU  with  Whit^tl,  and  was  greatly  peraecuie.l    to  ep-ii ,  in  PicI,  to  (en^rfiire  ("  grave")  wood  (I  Kings 


vii,  86;  8  Chron.  Hi,  7),  gems  (Enod.  xtvUI,  B,  86;  2 
Cbron.  It,  7,  14),  etc  (E.tod.  ixriU,  II;  :xx:<iii,  6; 

Zech.  111,9);  whence  n!irV,;>i:aii'dcA,se>i/p'Br«(Exod. 


I17  thit  prelato.  and  waa  twice  li 

be  obtained  from  the  enri  of  I.ticesler  tbe  msslarsbip 

of  the  new  hospital  at  Warwick.     In  1592  he  waa  I Ib- 

CTated  from  his  second  imprisonment,  and  returned  to  j  xivlil,  11,  21    86-  Psa.  laxiv,  6;  1  Kings  vi,  S9i 

tiM  mistershipofthehnspltalat  Warwick,  where  be      ,^,,^       u      ^    ..  ^t^  ^      t.  Z^sn,  chalab' ,  to  aa 

died.  D-c.  27, 1631  (or  ISifi.  .coordlng  to  Isaac  Wal-  I  f"!    "         B"™>«.    "^"^     "•  -■/^TrZl:  .^j 

r_,-v     r.rtJ-i.j.t  _•.  .  .»...  „f  i...Ti  _— .      B    .  '  into  flgnres;  whence  niBan   ilatalxM  ,  nnvjulwl 

ton).    urtwTight  wjs  a  man  of  great  parts.     Bexa  r  ._  ,.  .   _       .  .i  ''1 ,.  .    . 

wri^te  of  him :  ''  I  think  the  sun  ^  noTsse  a  more  ;  i^^-  '"■  '6)-  «■  Especially,  !>9?,  fiual ,  to  fc»  or 
laoroad  man."  Fronde,  In  his  Ulitarg  af  Englaiid  shape ;  whence  SOB,  pf'ul,  a  "  carved"  or  "  graven" 
(1M6,  vol.  ivX  gives  an  elsborste  panegyric  of  Cart-  '  image  (Eiod.  xx,  4,  and  often).  '.  Tbe  Greek  word 
Wright.  Among  his  writing!  are.  Cammentaria  Pneti-  !  "carve"  in  the  Apocrj-pha  is  yXufui  (Wied,  xill,  IS; 
ta  Bs  talcm  Hiloriam  Ee.aiffslicam  (1810,  4to;  and  by  1  Mace,  v,  68).  See  Eiioa*i-K. 
L-Eltsvlr,  at  Amsterdam,  1G47 ;  Eng.  version,  1660):  I  The  Egyptians  wei*  extremely  fond  of  carving  on 
-  -Ca*mmlarii  im  Pmrertii  SaUnton't  (Amsterdam,  articles  of  fumitnre,  sndalsoln  tbe  decoration  of  walls 
I«3%  4to) :— .Vetoptrosis  H  llimiilia  in  Wtram  Eerlrn-  and  ceilings :  and,  indeed,  there  was  scarcely  a  comer 
(wHes  {ihid.  1647,  etc):— .4  Bndg  of  DMnlly  (London,  in  an  Kgyptian  palsce  deatltnto  of  carved  ornaments. 
1616,  4to)  -.—Dirtel^iTj  for  dmrei  Govrmmenl  (1644,  See  HAxmcRAFT.  Tbe  ebony  and  Ivory  required  for 
4Ca):  — Cjn/nTofioa  o/'(Ae  fibm^  7Va<>Biu«l  (1616,  these  ccsUv  works  were  nlitsined,  either  as  a  trihule 
M.}.  Hu  eiagetloil  wrltinKS  are  stjtl  of  ralae.  Dr.  or  by  tratOc,  from  the  Ethiopian  natlooa.  We  fre- 
Alexaodar  Qa  Kitto'a  Cg^iipaAx,  a.  v.)  says  that  qnenlly  And  both  elephanU'  teeth  and  logs  of  rbnay 
Hraastenber^.  In  his  work  on  Ecclefiastes,  borrows  represented  on  the  monuments  as  brought  to  the  Ejfi-p. 
lantely  fram  Cartwrlght's  Melapliram.  See  Strype,  tian  mnnarchs:  and  we  Icsm  that  Solomon  did  not 
lAJi^Whititifl:  Hook,  fir'.  fik>7ra^.  ill.  479 ;  Neal,  erect  bis  splendid  ivory  throne  until  he  had  opened  a 
Uitiorii  "f  thi  Punfiiu.  1, 172:  11,48.  et  si.;  lii,  404; .  communication  with  the  nsliona  bordering  on  tbe  Red 
Walton's  iw;  Mlddletnn,  Emt^.  BwyrajAj,  11,  826.  I  Se»,  through  bla  alliance  with  the  king  ofTyre.  The 
CBItwH^t,Tllomas,D.D.,  bishop  of  Salisbniy,  arts  of  carving  and  ennaving  were  much  In  request 
waa  bora  at  Northampton  Sept.  1, 1684.  He  studied  In  the  constmction  both  of  tbe  Tabereacls  and  the 
al  Ha:ldaleo  HaU  and  Queen's  College,  OKford,  and,  |  Temple  (Exod.  xxxi,  2, 6 ;  xxxv,  86 ;  I  Kinm  vi,  18, 
aflar  taking  ordan,  became  chaidun  of  Queen's,  and  8&;  Psa.  Ixxiv,  6),  aa  well  as  In  the  ornamentation  of 
Tkar  of  Walihamatow.    la  16G»  be  was  preMhM  of  I  Ibe  priesUy  dresses  (Exod.  xxviU,  9-86;  Zecb.  Ul,  Sf 


CARVOSSO 


181 


I  Cbroo.  ii,  6>  14).  In  Solomon's  time,  Haram  th«  ' 
PtuBBidui  bad  tbe  chisf  can  of  ttaia,  »  of  tbe  largeT 
■rcUtoctural  work*.  That  the  ut  of  cvvlng,  bow- 
ever,  wa*  cnltlirated.  b;  the  Uebreira  thenuelvee  to  ■ 
coDBidersble  extant,  It  evident,  not  oely  fnini  the  cher-  i 
abim,  which  wen  ut  llrat  in  the  TibetnBcIs,  and  af-  ' 
torwarda  in  Solomon'B  Temple,  but  aleo  from  the  Uoiu 
which  wen  placed  on  eacb  aide  of  bit  throne  (1  Kings  j 
X,  SO).  The  cerring  of  tlmlHir  l>  mentioned  in  Exod.  1 
ixii,  S,  and  tbe  prophet  Isaiah  gives  as  a  mlnate  : 
description  of  lbs  proceis  of  idol-making  (xUv,  13). 
The  origin  and  proKreis  of  Aa  art  of  carving,  aa  eon-  j 
nected  with  Biblical  inquiries,  have  been  investigatad 
and  illustrated  with  much  iDgennity  b^  Hr.  Landieer, . 
in  bis  Sabam  Ramrcha.     See  Gxavkm  Imaoi. 

CanrOBSO,  Bu^amill,  a  Methodist  ■niuionarj', 
•on  of  WilKan  CamaKi,  was  born  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, Sept.  !7, 1789.  The  eminent  {detj  of  bis  parenU 
■aved  hto  yonth  from  vice,  and  in  1811  he  wu  con- 
verted.  In  1811  be  entorod  tbs  itinerant  ministrr, 
and  in  IBSO  was  appointed  miidonBr)-  to  New  Sooth 
Wnles.  There  and  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  where  be 
introdneed  Hetttadlsm,  his  Ubon  wore  abnndaot  and 
tueful.  In  1830  be  retomed  to  England,  and  ro-en- 
tered  the  home  work.  Ha  died  Oct.  2,  185(.  Ha 
commenced  the  first  religious  msgsiine  in  Austnlia, 
and  wrote  also  Memoir  of  WiiSavt  CarK«i>(q.  v..  New 
York,  1887, 12mo),  which  has  lieen  soM  by  thousands. 
—  WaUfOH  JfHNiCu  (Lend.  185G),  p.  IS. 

Carroaao,  ^'iUiun,  a  lay  Uathodlst,  one  at  the 
"saints"  of  modem  times.  Ha  was  bom  in  Cornwall, 
EngUnd,  March  11, 17G0.  and  bred  on  a  farm.  In  his 
j-onth  ha  fell  into  the  prevalent  sins  of  the  time,  sach 
ai  cock-fighting  and  Sabbatb-breaking ;  bnt  in  1T71 
he  was  converted,  after  a  severe  mental  itruggle.  In 
1774  he  beeama  a  claas-leader  in  the  Wesleyan  Church, 
and  held  that  nseM  office  far  sixty  yesrs.  His  whole 
lib  was  1  wonderfol  illuatration  of  the  power  of  Chris- 
tian faith,  and  his  visits,  prayers,  and  exhortatlDns 
were  tbe  means  of  hundreds  of  convenions.  He  died 
Oct.  IB,  1SS4.  See  Jfemnir  of  IViOiam  Carwaao,  edited 
t^  hii  son  (N.  T.  ISmo,  a  book  which  has  had  a  vast 
circulation),  and  Steyens,  Uitlory  e/  MtlkodUm,  iil, 
S18,  279,  495. 

Caiwithao,  J.  B.  S.,  a  minister  of  the  Cbntch  of 
England,  was  bom  in  1781.  Having  been  ordained 
deacon  in  1808  and  priest  in  1806,  be  was  in  1810  ap- 
pointed perpetual  curate  of  Ssndhant,  Berlu,  and  in 
1814  perpatnal  curate  of  Frimley,  Hants.  He  died  at 
Sasdhont  vicangein  18SS.  He  published  i)  lloBn/ 
til  Brakminical  Rdi^tm  in  ill  Conjinaatiim  oflh*  Trvtk 
ef  Sacrtd  Uiliny,  ^  a  Seriri  of  DUamrm  prtarkrd  in 
1809  (tond.  1810,  8vo)  -.—Hutory  eflke  Clanxf,  nf  Bug- 
land,  parts  1  and  3  (2d  ed.,  oilb  a  notice  of  the  author 
by  W.  R.  Browell;  A.D.,  Oif.  1849,  2  vols.  18mo):— 
Hitlorg  of  the  duirdtjhm  Ae  Ftmrtk  ta  the  Ttidflk 
CetlUTjf  (with  Rev.  A.  Lyall,  tVom  Ettcgdap.  Uttropai, 
Lend.  IB56,  t2mo;^-^)arUng,  Cgdt/p.  BibOog.  i,  689  { 
BritM  Critic,  tU,  4b. 

Cary,  Lor,  a  colored  Baptist  minitter,  was  bom  a 
iUve  about  1780,  hi  Charles  City  cnnntv,  V>.  Ha 
ioined  the  Baptist  Chnreh  in  1807  at  Richmond,  and, 
having  learned  to  read  and  writr,  be  tield  meetiniis 
with  the  colored  people  so  successfully  Chat  the  Church 
lioansed  blm  to  preach.  By  rigid  economy  he  was  en- 
abled to  purchase  his  own  freedom  and  that  of  bis  two 
children  in  181<l;  and  in  1816,  havnng  become  deeply 
lntereat#d  in  the  missions  to  Africa,  he  succeeded  in 
catablishing  the  "  Itlchmond  African  Mitaionsry  Socie- 
ty." Having  been  ordained,  he  sailed  for  Sieita  La- 
ona  Jan.  23, 1821,  in  company  with  Colin  Teagne,  an- 
other colored  preacher.  He  established  a  school  at 
Monrovia,  and  atlempt«l  to  esUblish  another  at  Grand 
Cape  Mount.  Having  studied  the  diseases  of  the  coun- 
try, be  was  in  1S24  appointed  phyeidsn  to  tha  colony, 
la  September,  1828,  ha  was  appointed  to  the  office  of 


CASAS 

TicMigent,  and  on  Hr.  Ashmum's  retnm  ta  Amarie* 
in  1S28  he  became  acting  governor  of  Liberia.      Ad 

accidental  explosion,  Nov.  8,  1828,  while  he  wu  en- 
gaged In  manofacturing  cartridgee  wherewith  to  de- 
fend tbe  colony  against  tha  attacks  of  soma  slave-deal- 
an,  caused  his  death  on  tlie  10th  of  the  same  montli. — 
Sprague,  Amtait,  vi,  S78. 

Caryl,  Joispit,  a  nonconformist  divine  at  good 
abilities,  learning',  and  Industry,  was  bom  in  London 
in  160!.  He  was  for  some  time  a  commoner  at  Exeter 
Collage,  Oxford,  and  preached  several  y  tare  with  BTsat 
snccessbeforetboHon.Sodety  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  Ap- 
pobitad  one  of  tho  trieis  in  16I>3,  be  was  ejected  In  1663, 
and  afterwards  gathered  a  congregatioD  in  tbe  neigh- 
borhood of  St.  Magnus,  London  Bridge.  Ha  died  Feb. 
7, 167S.  His  principal  work,  showing  great  teaming,  if 
not  Judgment^  la  his  E^ionlioK,  wiOt  Praaicat  Obtrreo' 
lums  on  Ale  Bori  nf  Job  (LaoA.  16JS-E6,  IS  vols.  Ito; 
3d  edit,  i  vols.  fot.  1676-^  abridged  by  Berrie  (Edintk 
1886,  8vd).— Darlinp,  CgrlfiKlia  BiUiograptiea,  i,  G90 ; 
Seal,  BiMlory  n/  tit  Fta-:uaH,  v,  17 ;  v,  631 ;  CaUinr, 
tfonani/BrmiM-i  Uemarinl,  I,  221. 

Caaaa,  BAnTot-oxd  db  La*,  bishop  of  Chiapi, 
Ueiioo,  waa  bom  of  a  nobis  family  at  Seville  in  1474. 
His  fkther  Antonio,  nho  went  to  Hirpsniola  with  Co- 
lumbus In  1498,  and  returned  rich  to  Seville  in  U3», 
made  him  a  present  of  an  Indian  slave  while  he  waa 
pursuing  his  studies  at  Salsjnsnci.  At  nineteen  he 
accompanied  bis  father  to  St.  Domingo,  whence  he  rc- 
tumed  to  Spain,  enteted  ttio  Dominican  order,  and  fit- 
ted himself  for  a  mlssionaiy,  In  l&aG  be  fixed  bis  nr- 
idenceatSt.  Domingo,  and  employed  hiDuelt  in  preaib. 
ing  Chriatianlty  to  tbe  Indians.  Afflicted  by  tbe  cru- 
elties which  the  Indians  endured  fTom  their  conquer- 
ors. Las  Cases  made  another  voyage  to  Spain  in  crder 
to  interest  Charle*  V  in  their  behalf,  and  so  far  ntf 
ceeded  as  to  procure  orders  for  the  oliservsnc*  of  tba 
governors  in  tbe  west,  restricting  tbe  exercise  of  th^ 
powers.  Upon  bis  arrivsl  In  America  be  traveled 
through  Mexico,  New  Spain,  and  even  into  Peru,  notl- 
tyioe  avetywbara  the  imperial  commands.  In  1&S9  be 
again  crossed  the  ocean  to  solidt  aid  of  the  empenr 
in  behalf  of  the  Indians.  After  infinite  ditappoint- 
menta,  tbe  emperor  granted  all  that  he  bad  aiked  for, 
and  conferred  upon  him  tbe  bishopric  of  Chiapa.  In 
;  1M4  he  was  consecrated  at  Seville,  and  returned  with 
a  band  of  miasiooarirs  to  America,  wbera  ha  lai  orcd 
I  with  incaasont  seal  and  boidnees  to  defend  the  natives, 
I  and  at  length  irtired  to  Spain,  when  he  ccntlnned  his 
<  endeavors  in  their  behalf  until  bis  death,  about  1I>C6. 
I  One  of  bis  chief  rpponenla  waa  Sepulveda,  a  cinnn  of 
I  Salamanca,  who  published  an  infsmona  wtrk  juitify- 
I  lug  (be  crueltle*  exercised  upon  the  Indians,  snd  even 
their  murdir.  Las  Cases  replied  l^y  a  writing  entitled 
Brnimma  nlaeion  dt  la  dettnecioii  dr  lai  India*  (Se- 
ville, 1562,  4to).  Chariea  V  forbade  its  [uiilicarioD, 
hot  it  was  printed,  snd  Sepulveda  persisted,  nevcrthe- 
IcM,  in  bis  devilish  doctrine,  endeavoring  in  ail  ways 
to  propagate  (be  notion  that,  by  tbe  laws  of  the  (.'hurch, 
it  was  a  duty  to  "exterminate  those  who  refused  to 
embrace  tbe  Christian  faith."  Cbarles  V  arpolnted 
his  confessor,  the  celebrated  Dimlnic  Soto,  to  examine 
the  soliject.  Soto  made  his  reptrt  to  the  council  of 
Spain,  but  nojudgment  was  ever  pronounced,  snd  tbe 
horrible  massacres  of  the  Indiana  continued  to  sucb  an 
extent  ttiat,  It  is  said,  filteen  millions  of  these  innocent 
victims  perisbHi  In  leas  than  ten  year*.  This  i*  doubt- 
less sn  exsg^emtiDn.  An  inbmaus  calumny  has  been 
circulated  by  soma  historians  against  Las  Cans,  found- 
ed on  the  authority  of  Hsmra  alone,  a  writer  of  no 
credit,  viz.  that  he  first  counimlled  the  Spaniards  to  pur- 

Thie  story  has  been  sufflciently  refnted  by  Origolrp, 
Llorente,  and  others.  The  other  woriii  of  Las  Cases 
are  A'armtio  rt^ioiiiin  /orftomm  ftr  llitpamu  gw)tiam 
itKHtatanm,  etc  (FrankAirt,  ISM,  4ta,  and  at  ToUd* 


CASAUBON  1! 

gta  in  ISa  i  alio  in  Francli,  at  Antwcip,  1«79) ;  Prin- 
Ofim  gaaAoB  ex  guilnit  proctdiiidiai  Hi  »  d4p¥iatione 
oi  lam/t^iaiJam  •<  lirftrtdauiaiHJiatitiam  Imionan,  et«. 
Urn  work!  -on  pnbllihad  at  Savilla,  l&G:!,  Id  fln  puts, 
Mo ;  bat  bia  BiMoria  Gmrrat  it  la*  fudiai  remilDB  Id 
MS.— PnxnU,  ift^orji  of  Maico ;  Grigoire,  ApMgU 
it  Ijm  Catat  (Hsm.  ot  Mar.  and  Polit,  of  ItulitDta  of 
Fnnec,  vol.  Iv) ;  Landon,  Ei-cL  Dictioiuoy,  r.  t.  ;  Ark 
A  Axrw,  1U3,  331 ;  Fonigtt  Quart.  Rtnrw,  Harcli, 
use  ;  Bocfer,  Nona.  Liog.  GMnh,  xiii,  T4S. 

CBunbon,  Isaac,  ont  of  tha  moat  learned  men  of 
hh  on  or  of  any  age,  waa  bora  Feb.  Uth,  1569,  vt 
GdBcra,  wbilhcr  bia  famUy,  originally  of  UanphinA, 
■■d  (D  amid  the  peneeutjons  to  wbicli  tbe  French  Pru- 
laataiitii  ware  aipoaed.  Uia  father,  Arcaald  Casaubon, 
a  alnlatiir  of  tbe  Reformed  Charcb,  retamed  Into 
Ftbbdb,  and  doTotad  himielf  to  the  educatloD  of  bia 
aoD,  wtK^  at  aine  ytan  of  ago,  tpoke  Latin.  In  1&78 
he  went  to  L^aunae,  and  atudled  law.  tfaeulnuy,  and 
the  Qreek  and  Orimtil  lan^^nages.  He  aoon  became 
prolimor  of  Gtwii  at  Gaaeva,  and  murried  the  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  Stephens,  the  celebrated  printer,  and  Boon 
bet^n  to  put  forth  tranabtkini  of  tha  Greek  and  Latin 
viitani,  with  note*  and  cammentiirief.  In  IfiSS  lie  ac- 
cepted the  Greek  profeiaoiahip  at  Montpelller,  but  held 
h  only  nntil  Ia99,  when  he  waa  called  to  Paria  ly 
Hrary  IV,  and  received  the  appointment  of  librariun 
to  the  king.  Henry  appointed  him  one  of  the  Praiea- 
tant  JodKai  in  the  controveny  between  Du  Perron, 
taabopDrEvraux,  andDu  Pieaai*  Mornay,  atFontaine- 
Uean  (IBOO).  The  Boman  CaCholica  made  many  at- 
tenpCa  to  gain  ao  diatlngaUhed  a  convert ;  but  tbere 
doea  not  aeem  to  be  any  reaaon  for  concluding  that 
they  had  even  partial  auccear,  althoogh  it  waa  given 
oqt  that  be  had  wavered  In  a  conference  with  Du  Per- 
ran.  OothedeathofHeurylV,  1610,  Casau lion  went 
ta)  England  with  Sir  Henry  Wotton.  Jamea  I  received 
him  with  distinction,  and  preaented  him,  though  a  lay- 
■■B.  to  a  pnbend  at  Canterbury,  and  (it  ii  uid)  to 
another  in  the  church  of  St,  Peter,  at  Wentminiter. 
He  died  Jniy  1, 1614,  and  waa  baHed  in  Weitminater 
Abbey.      Beiidea  bifl  claatieai  worlts  be  pabiiihed  £r- 

fcrt,  I61S.  and  Geneva,  1661,  tta) ;  fN'onin  n^ta^uHtitm 
Crwrva  (Geneva,  1687. 16mn,  with  nutea ;  reprinted  In 
amCnUdSieri);  DilibertaU  Kairiiaitica[\an^8To\ 
BodBtakan  by  order  of  Henry  IV  on  occaaion  of  the 
dilhrence  between  tha  republic  of  Venice  and  Pope 
Puil  V,  with  the  aim  (o  maintain  the  tighta  of  tbe  tern. 
ponl  power  agalnat  the  court  of  Rome.  It  waa  Mopped 
hr  tbe  king'*  order,  when  the  dlTerence  in  qoeition 
waa  settled.  He  also  wrote  Ad  ?romtimem  Ducatin 
ijMtob  (Land.  1811,  4to)  agalnat  the  Jeauttical  doc- 
trine of  authority.  The  beat  edition  of  bit  LtUtri  la 
Aat  of  Rottoidam  (1709,  U\).  There  is  a  fuU  account 
•r Us  life  ani  writings  in  Haag,  La  Fnavx  Pmlaliatt, 
ra,  iaB.—Hi.-g.  Unit,  vii,  S&9 ;  Landon.  Erd.  Dictiana- 
f,  *-•>■;  Hoefer,  Aour.  Biog.  Gairalf,  viii,  954. 

Cue,  Isaao,  a  Biptist  miniater,  was  bom  at  Rebo- 
baU,  Bristol  Co.,  tlaas.,  Fab.  £5, 1761.  united  with  tbe 
Bi{>ti>tCliarcb  in  1779.  was  licenaed  the  fullowing  year, 
and  waa  ordained  in  1783.  For  many  years  Ur.  Cage 
iiboTedaaa  miaiionary  in  Maine.  New  Brunawicii.  and 
Xova  Scotia,  and  with  much  eaccen,  until  advancin|{ 
age  rendered  him  incapable  of  farther  eiteTtion.  Ho 
£ad  at  Keadfleid,  Nor.  3.  IH62,  in  tbe  9Sd  year  of  bis 
■geandtheTidofhiaminiatry.— Spta«ne,  ^MUiit,  vi, 
ML 

CkM.  WlUltun,  misaionary  to  the  Indiana  in  Can- 
ada, waa  ben  in  Swansea.  Mbb>.,  Aug.  27.  ITS').  He 
eabneod  a  rrlliciona  Kta  in  l'<08.  and  was  rmired  on 
trial  In  tbe  New  York  Conference  of  the  Hetbodlst 
Efaacapal  Church  in  IBW.  His  fiirt  appointment  waa 
k  tiM  Bay  of  Qninte,  Canada.  In  1809  ha  oerved  aa 
BisBiDiufy  at  Detniit.  From  1810  to  1817  he  served 
■a  fmUiat  elder  in  variona  dittrieta  In  Weateni  and 
U_6« 


7  CASIPHIA 

Northern  New  Tork,  and  in  Canada.  In  1BS8  Canada 
was  given  up  to  theWeeleyan  Methodists,  and  Caaa  waa 
made  euperinlendent  of  Indiun  miasiont  and  schoola  i 
and  IVoni  ISSO  to  1833  be  was  general  superintendent, 
without  episcopal  povreis,  of  the  Methodist  societies  in 
Canada.  A  great  part  irf  his  time,  in  all  these  yean, 
waa  spent  in  miaslonary  woi^  among  tbe  Indians.     In 

1 1807  ha  waa  made  principal  of  the  Wesleyan  native  In- 
dustrial Bchool  at  Alnwick,  in  which  aervica  Wi  re- 
mained untU  1B6I.  In  1864  he  delivered  a  sermon  be- 
fore (he  Canadian  Conferance  iu  commcmaratloD  of 
the  fiftieth  year  of  hla  service  in  the  ministry.  He 
died,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  tram  bia  horaa,  ft  tlio 
Alnwick  mission-houae,  Canada,  OcL  19th,  IS&A.  Ho 
filled  all  bia  ecclesiutical  poets  with  honor ;  but  hia 
greatest  field  of  usefulneas  was  amorig  tbe  Iiidiana 
''The  very  spirit  of  Eliot  aeemed  to  bo  reprodocod  i» 
h\m."—ifimtfto/Ue  CiOHidimCon/tTeiiee,  1856;  WaL 
ilrlltad.  UagaiHK,  1856,  p.  179  ;  Sprague,  AnnaU,  vii, 
4t21i ;  COti  md  hit  Conttatporaria  (Toronto,  I867> 

Casellna,  JoHAHH,  an  eminent  German  scholar, 
waa  bom  at  GOttingen  in  15B3.  He  studied  first  bi 
the  achooia  of  Ganderahelm  and  Nordhausen,  andafter' 
wards  In  tbe  unlvenitleB  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig, 
where  he  received  the  lessons  of  MelanctboD  and  J. 
Camerariua.    He  then  visited  Italy,  where  he  continued 

I  bis  studieii,  and  on  his  fetnm  became,  in  1568.  prrfesa. 
or  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in  thoUnivrraitycf  Hos- 
tock.     During  a  aecond  journey  be  made  in  Italy  he 

!  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  at  Pisa,  in  1666,  and  the 

'  following  year  received  a  patent  of  nobility  from  the 
emperor  Maximilian.  In  1599  he  accepted  a  profeaa. 
orahlp  in  the  University  of  Helmatadt,  where  ho  op- 
poaed,  in  union  with  theHelBnctfaoniana,the  efforts  of 
ultra  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  principally  represented  by 
his  GoUeaguF,  Daniel  Hoffmann  (q.  r.),  to  pRncrilw 
science  and  pbiloaophy.  He  waa  the  teacher  of  Geori,-e 
Calixtus  (q.  v.),  and  wrote  a  great  number  of  woib. 
moat  of  which  remain  unpublished.  He  died  in  1613. 
See  J.  Burkhardt'a  EpUiola  de  Jo.  Camliitrsa  bomu  liU 
erat  merifu  r/ujue  IvinibraUimiim  edittaite  (Wiltenb. 
1707, 4lo).— Heraog,  Afiil-fwyUiip&lle.  11, 698. 

CuaiD«iit(=3C(!,(aAn(^',PrDT.  vii,  6;  "lattice," 
Jndg.  V,  SS),  a  kind  of  barrier  of  open-work,  placed 
before  windows  in  the  Eaat,  which,  being  usually  open 
in  (ummer  down  to  tha  floor,  roquire  some  such  de- 
fence.    See  HouBB. 

Cashel,  formerly  an  archlepiscopal  Bee  in  Ireland. 
This  ancient  see  ia  now  depri%-ed  of  Ita  metropolitan 
dignity,  and  baa  united  to  II  tbe  aeea  of  Emly,  Water, 
ford,  and  Liamore ;  the  united  diocese  consisting  ottbe 
connties  of  Upperarj-,  Watrrford,  and  part  of  Limer- 
ick. The  incnmlient  in  1866  waa  Robert  Daly,  D.D.. 
consecrated  in  181S. 

Cuiph'ia  (Heb.  KanjAga,  ST^P?!  P»rt"P"  At™ 
1)0?,  nltrr,  or  jcUtitk,  If  the  name  be  not  of  Alien 
oriuin  J  Sept.  ao  translatea  iir(i(M»-\  a  "  place" 
(c'p-a,  i.  e.  region)  of  the  Persian  em]jfB,  where  Le- 
vl'as  had  settled  jinring  the  Captivity,  whence  Iddo, 
with  others  of  them,  were  sent  for  by  E«ra  to  join  hit 
party  iTluming  to  Jenwalem  (Earn  viii,  17).  Gese- 
nias  (Tl/sEivr.  p.  70fl)  objects  to  the  identification  by 
some  with  tha  Catpia  P^  and  of  othera  with  tho 
city  JToarn,  that  these  are  not  on  the  route  tima  Bab. 
ylon  Co  Palestine.  Ae  this  poeition  of  the  place  in 
question,  however,  ia  not  clear,  it  is  likely  that,  if  tbo 
Caspian  Sra  be  not  designated  by  this  name,  it  may 
refer  to  the  "Caspian"  Mrmalaimi,  situated  in  Media 
(Strabo,  xi,  p.  522,  tS6 ;  Pliny,  vi.  15),  where  Jewiih 
exilea  seem  to  have  been  locatal  (Tobit  i,  16;  iii.  7). 
Thia  is  at  least  favoiwd  liv  the  rabliinical  tradition,  Va- 
jOm  Aiiin  (V,  5).  and  is  defended  by  Fdrst  (Hrt. 
HnndaOrt.  s.  v.).  who  adduces  al«o  tbe  lecal  title  ABa- 
ina  as  a  coincidence  with  the  Bilvety  aummiu  of  tbe 


CASSELL 


Caal«T  (XoacXiii),  •  GnMind  farm  (1  HiDC.  i, 
M;  iv,  G2,69;  S  Mice,  i,  S,  18;  x,  6)  of  tba  uma  of 
the  JewUh  month  elMwhen  (Neh.  1, 1 ;  Zsch.  vii,  1) 
Anglieiied  Cuui^v  (q.  v.). 

Cu'luUm  (Heb.  JToibdlim',  e'Tr^OB,  of  oncw- 
tiin,  lint  pTob.  fsnlgn  ctymologT)  Sept.  In  Geo.  Xa- 
ofiuvui'/iiVnlg.  CWfwa.'  In  Chron.  XasXwvf(>/i  v.  r. 
\oa\Miiii,  Ciubiim\  a  peopla  whoM  prognnilor  wu  ■ 
•on  of  UiiraJm  (Gen.  i,  14 ;  1  Cbron.  i,  12).  Id  both 
IHiinigfi  it  wonld  appaar,  m  the  tiit  dow  «Cuii1i,  that 
the  niUutlnei  came  forth  Irom  ttia  Culahlm,  and  not 
ftrnn  the  C«phtorim,  u  1»  ebewhare  aiprsMly  it>t«d : 
hen,  thanfon,  tfatre  nu}^  be  ■  truiapeiitlcm.  See 
CAFtcran.  The  only  daw  we  have  u  yet  to  the  poai- 
tk>D  of  the  Oulohim  la  Ihelr  place  in  tbi  liat  of  the 
•ona  of  Himlm  between  the  Fathnuim  and  the  Capb- 
torim,  whence  it  is  probable  that  they  were  aaaled  in 
Upper  Egypt.  See  Patubos.  The  Sept.  aeema  tn 
identic  them  with  the  CAtuAauiMiin,  Ct^'C^n,  of  Fm. 
IxtUI,  si  (A.  V.  "prinoaa"),  which  »ma  (Hidl>eU^ 
Sappl.  p.  978),  thoagfa  not  the  Sept  in  that  place,  take 
to  be  B  proper  name,  and  lompaie  with  the  native  civil 
name  of  Hennopolia  Magna.  Thia  would  place  the 
Caaluhim  in  the  Heptanomla.  See  Habhmakkih. 
BocliaTt  (Fkalrg,  ir,  Bl)  aUBueel*  the  identity  of  the 
Caalnhltn  with  the  CMtumt  (comp.  Uichaelia,  ifpicU-g. 
i,  27G  H].),  who  are  aaid  to  have  been  an  Egyptian  cat- 
ony  (Herod.  U,  ItM;  Diod.  Sic.  1,  !8j  Dlonya.  PerieK. 
p.  689;  Ammlan.  Marc,  sidl,  2S;  comp.  Agatb.  Ui«. 
li,  IS) ;  bat  thia  atory  and  the  eimiiarity  of  name  do  nut 
aeeni  enfflcient  to  rander  the  inppoaitioii  a  probable 
onr,  although  Gcaeniaa  (aee  Bitiig,  PUiiC  p.  86  aq.) 
givea  it  his  aupport  {Tlut.  p.  702;  comp.  Ritter,  I'or- 
lalit,  p.  3i  aq.  1  Brehmer.  Extdeeh.  i,  SM  aq.).  For- 
ater  (£)>.  ad  Mi<*atl.  p.  Ifl  aq.)  conjectum  the  Caalu. 
him  to  be  the  inhabitanta  of  COmoHi,  the  tract  in 
which  ia  the  slight  elevation  called  Hoont  Caaiiu 
(Pliny,  T,  li  and  14;  Strabo,  xvii,  7»;  Steph.  Bya. 
p.  US).  Bonaen  aasume*  this  to  be  proved  (Bitelmrl, 
p.  26).  There  is,  however,  a  aeriooa  dlfflcult)'  In  tbc 
my  of  thia  aappoaitlon — tho  natnre  of  the  ground,  a 
low  littoral  tract  of  rock,  covered  with  ahifting  and 
even  qnick  aand.  But  Ptolemy  (Gtagr.  iv,  5,  12; 
comp.  Joseph.  War,  iv,  o,  11)  gives  na  the  names  of 
several  towns  lying  in  (his  diatiict,  ao  that  It  moat 
have  bean  capaUe  at  aapporting  a  population,  and  nuy, 
Id  an  earlier  period,  have  been  qnila  adeqasle  to  the 
aupport  of  a  tribe,  l^poaition  of  the  Caaluhim  in  tho 
Uat  beside  the  Palfaruiiim  and  the  Caphtorim  renders 
it  probable  that  the  original  seatof  the  tribe  waa  lonie- 
wbere  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  not  tar  trora  the  vicinity 
of  that  "Serbonian  Bog  betwixt  Damlata  and  Mnanl 
Casiusold"  (Par.  LotI,  11,  Ii92).  Hill^  (Sfnloff.  Flrrm. 
p.l78*q.)ralerB  the  name  to  the  Arfymi  of  the  Greeks 
(Stnbo,  I,  34;  ilv,  667),  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Lycians  (comp.  Schulthass,  Pond.  p.  166  sq.).  The 
Bupposition  of  Hitiig  (Philitl.  p.  90  aq,)  that  the  Caa- 
luhim were  a  Cretan  colony  in  Ubya.  whence  again 
colony  waa  sent  to  Philialia,  is  meraly  baaed  upon 
vaguD  allusion  in  Tacitus  (tlil.  v,  2).     See  Etunoi 

Caa'ptaOD  (Xnof  uv  V.  r.  Xavfap  and  XaitfvS, 
Mace.  V,  36)  or  Can'phor  (Xmr^w  v,  r.  X«o*i 
and  X<i««u5. 1  Hacc.  *.  96),  one  of  the  fortified  citit 
in  the  "land  of  Galaad."  i.  e.  Gilead  (1  Hacc.  v.  S6), 
in  which  the  Jews  tonk  refuge  from  the  Ammonites 
under  Timotheus  (comp.  ver.  6\  and  which,  with  ot' 
ciUe*,  waa  Uken  by  .ludaa  Haccabeua  (v,'  B6).     J< 
phDS,  In  the  parallel  account  (Ant.  xli,  8,  »).  calla  it 
CJia^ii'xna  (Xiifftuifia),     Grotina  and  Calmet  (in  loc.) 
conaider  It  the  same  (Imt  on  vary  alight  ground*)  with 
Uebhboh  (q.  v.).     It  waa  sitoated  near  Bnttra,  Ash- 
laroth-Karoaim,  and  Edrel,  and  waa  perhsps  one  of 


11  IbDnd  by  travak 


the  mined  dtes  in  the  Hanian 

lers.    See  Hadban.     Seelzen'i 

on  pt  T,  March,  IB06,  iv,  198)  suggest  the  modmi  c^ 

'djaaa  the  poaalble  site  of  Caipbon, but  add,  "Site, 

>wever,  uncertain."     Sea  also  CAaria. 

Cas'pis  (Kaams),  a  strongly-fortiAed  city— wbtA- 
er  east  or  weat  of  Jordan  ia  not  plain — having  near  it 

lake  (Ai/ivi))  two  stadia  in  breadth.  It  waa  taken 
by  Judaa  Maccabaua  with  great  alaagAteT  (I  Mace. 
xli,  IJ,  16).  The  parallel  hulory  of  the  lat  Biok  «f 
Maccabees  mentions  a  city  named  Cabfhob  or  Caa. 
(q.  v.),  with  which  Ca«)ls  nuy  be  identical,  lot 
the  narratives  diBcr  materially  (see  Ewald,  far.  Gtadt. 
iv,  S&9,  note).  Keland  (Palatt.  p.  184)  eompana  a  dty 
Ckaipiak  (rr*&on)  on  the  harden  of  Palestine  (Jvoa. 
Talm.  Bemai,  xxii,  4). 

CuBUider,  Geoboe,  one  of  the  moat  smiabla  and 

ilightened  divines  of  the  Banian  Church,  was  bom 
about  15)5,  In  the  Island  of  Cadsand,  at  tbe  mouth  of 
the  ScheldL  He  waa  for  a  time  profeeaiT  of  tbeologi-. 
Drat  at  Brugea,  then  at  Ghent;  after  which  be  vent 
to  Cologne,  where  he  devoted  himielf  to  the  stodv 
of  the  controveny  between  Ihe  Roman  Catholics  amd 
Reformera,  hoping  to  allay  the  dissenaions  of  the 
time.  The  duke  of  Cleves  called  him  to  Duiabarg,  to 
bring  back  the  Anabaptlata,  if  poaublp,  to  Uie Church; 
and  this  led  to  hie  preparing  bis  hook  on  inbnt  bap- 
tiam.  His  flrat  publication  was  Dt  tfiaa  fii  sen  ni 
Aoc  diindu  rrhgiixvi  (Baale,  1B61,  Hvo).  He  *hai«d 
the  common  Aite  of  thoae  who  endeavcr  to  unite  par- 
ties warmly  oppoaed  to  each  other,  and  hia  book  waa 
dialihad  by  both  ProtetUnIa  and  Romanista.  The 
rnipcroT  Ferdinand  induced  him  to  write  his  Commdta- 
tio  da  articuHt  fiei  inttr  pofiilai  tl  protnUailet  nmtro- 
Ttnii  (1(64).  In  which  he  endeavored  to  recondla  the 
variooB  articlraof  theConfeasionoTAngtbiirgwitlithe 
faith  of  the  Bomsn  Chnrch.  He  waa  willing  to  gnat 
the  cup  to  the  laity,  and,  in  extreme  caaea,  the  mar- 
riage of  prieata.  Caaaander  died  Feb.  ?,  I56C.  Hia 
works  were  collected  by  Dnoides,  Opera  fm  irpttiii 
potaaiBU  cmnia  (Paris,  iri6,  fol.).  This  collectirai 
contains,  among  other  things,  a  commentat;  on  the 
two  natures  of  Jesus  Chrint ;  various  treatiaes  againat 
the  Analiaptif  Is,  with  teilimoniea  from  tlie  filtbeni,  and 
the  doctrine  of  the  early  Church  on  the  subject  oT  tbe 
baptiam  of  inhntt ;  Littrrgiea;  eccleaiastieal  bymtis, 

of  these  treatises  were  nHtdemoed  by  the  Conncil  of 

Trent Landon,  Eed.  Bictiowary,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Von'. 

Jiwg.  Ginfrale,  ix,  S7;  Gieeeler,  CiiarrA  lliitmy,  vol. 
iv,  SB",  61;  iiook,£tfln.Bi'grojkj.tii.b(iiiq. 

Cnaaal,  Conference  of,  a  meetinK  held  at  Caa- 
ael  In  1661  between  the  Reformed  theologiana  of  Har- 
Imrg  and  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  Rinleln.  Peter 
Huslus  and  Jobann  Hennichcn,  bath  lealoos  diacjplea 
of  Calixtus  (q.  v.),  represented  the  Lutbeians,  and 
Sebastian  Curtis  and  Johannes  Hein  the  Reformed. 
Tbe  object  of  the  Confrrence  waa,  according  to  the 
nSlclally-pnblished  Brtvit  rdalie  mllogmi.  etc,  to  en- 
deavor, by  friendly  discuFsion,  to  remove  tbe  obstacle* 
to  onion.  The  principal  aulijccla  uf  dlscossion  were 
the  Eucharift,  I>rede>linHtion,  Baptlrm,  and  the  person 
of  ChrUt,  and  both  parlica  a^retd  that  in  these  fiiB- 
damenbii  point*  their  doctrines  were  essentially  ahui- 
lar.  Tbe  landgrave  was  petilionBd  to  call  on  the 
ndghhorinif  churches,  and  the  Universities  of  Bran- 
denburg and  Brunswick,  to  adopt  tlte  reaolutiooa  of 
the  Conference,  and  also  to  invite  a  general  congrvsa 
otthe  tbenloirians  of  all  countriea.  The  landgraTe'a 
death  (in  1663)  dcatroyed  all  tbeae  pn^ecta  of  unirai. 
See  Rommel.  Um-A.  ron  Hettn.  ix,  p.  46;  M«>Itdm, 
Ckurrh  Hittory,  ill,  359;    Ueraog,  RtaUEmegtiifid^ 

ii,  nno. 

Cuaell.  LBD^tABn,  a  minister  of  tlw  Hethodiat 
Episcopal  Chnrch,  waa  bom  in  Maryland  In  IiM,  en. 
teiad  tha  itinerant  minlMry  in  1801,  and  died  afjallow 


fern  Sept.  28,  iao§.  Ha  ww  or  Gcniun  puoit- 
■ga,  uid  hl>  mind  romAliHd  in  '^imcoltnnd  dAikQiut 
mm  hi*  ooafeiriDo.  From  thit  day  It  wm  nuniftrt 
kov  gnat  ■  mind  bad  thai  bMQ  called  fortfa.  The 
improviniHQt  ha  nude  utoniabed  his  IViendSp"  HiA 
iniiu,  eloqinnee,  and  piety  won  placed  him  in  the 
moit  important  pMitlimi  a*  a  preacher,  and  hia  early 
dnth  waa  •  grsat  loaa  to  the  Church.— Jf ■■(a  off^it- 
/roMM,  il,  188. 

Caacla  ia  tlie  lendering  in  the  Anth.  Vera,  of  two 
Beb.wonla. 

1.  KiDDAH*,  n^p,meDtioDedlnExod.xzx,a4(ScpL 
lot)  amaoK  the  ingredleiita  of  the  holy  dQ  at  anoinl- 
Dg,  and  in  Eiek.  UTii,  19  (Sept.  trwapriai')  ai  ona 
sf  the  aitlclei  of  merchandiae  In  the  marliet*  otTyrp. 
The  Sept.  (in  one  paeaage)  and  Joeephns  (Ant.  Ill,  a,  R) 
have  u^  i.  B.  Bome  ■peciei  i^  Jhg,  perhipa  the  Iru 
^rmAm,  which  hai  an  ammatlc  not-rtock.  Sym- 
aacbui  uid  the  Vulg.  (in  one  place)  read  Madt,  "liq- 
■id  myirh."  Tha  Anhic  rar^oni  of  Saadiaa  and  Er- 
pniaa  conjectota  aaHu  (mw  below).  The  Childae 
nid  Syriic,  with  nvMt  of  the  Eurepean  vers)on>,  fbl- 
Ignd  by  GeKDJoi,  Simon.  Flknl,  Lee,  and  all  the  leit- 
icoKnphera,  undentand  the  Arabian  oowto,  or  caula- 
baih,  a  epeciea  of  ammatlc  cortical  leiembllDg  cIddb- 
BHB,  hut  leai  fragrant  and  raloahle ;  lo  called  IVom  iti 
mil*  heiog  ipU  (tMm  *1^p,  lo  oIkim).  See  Dloscor. 
i,  11 1  Tbw>phr.  BJl.  PlaU.  ii,  fi ;  Celaliu,  Bknb.  il, 
lW,SiOMi. 

1.  Ketbiah',  nr'"S^,  nani«d  only  in  the  plnral  in 
Pia,  xIt,  8  (Sept. 'laoin,  Vulg.  ooiiu),  in  connection 
with  myrrh  and  aloe*,  as  tieing  uaed  lo  Kent  garmenia 
with.  The  word  come*  from  the  root  y^^:  to  abrade, 
and  ^ipear*  to  refer  to  the  fueled  bark  of  aome  >peciei 
af  dnnamoo,  perhapa  dlOering  in  this  tram  tha  preced- 
mg  only  a*  deaignUing  Mine  ail  or  prepared  aromatic, 
o(  which  that  denotea  the  raw  material  (*•«  CeUi  Bi^ 
mi.  ii,  sen).     Sea  AnoMATlca. 

Undv  tlie  name  eattia  (which  appaan  to  be  identi- 
cal with  thia  lart  ilab.  term)  tba  andant*  deaignated 
an  anmatic  bark  derived  from  the  Eait,  and  employed 
ai  an  ingredient  in  cottly  ungnenti  (Theophr.  Pbail. 
ii,Ti  Pliny,  xU.43;  Dlo*eor.  1,13;  Diod.  Sic.  iii,46i 
AAen.z,M3;  PUnt.  CWvW.  i,  !,T;  Virg.  Cen.  11,406; 
Martial,  Ti,  5S,  1 ;  z,9T,ti  Pare,  fiat  il, M ;  l,B6).  It 
waa  aUained  from  a  tree  or  ihmb  growing  In  India 
and  Aottria  (Herod.  lii,  110 ;   Diod.Sk:.  L  c;  Aga- 


19  CASSIA 

tharch.  in  Hndion,  1, 81  j  Arrian.^kr.  v{i,!0;  hnt  sea 
Pliny,  ili,  *1),  which  Pliny  (itiil,  48)  more  closely,  bat 
■till  not  adequstely  deecribca,  and  whkh  Columella 
(ili,  8)  saw  in  Roman  fancy  gardens.  It  la  clear  that 
the  Ladn  writen  by  the  term  taiia  nnderatood  both 
the  Oriental  product  now  nnder  coutderation,  a*  well 
AB  ■on]elow,aweet  berbaceoua  plant,  perhapa  the  Aupit- 
ne  gmdium,  Una.  (»e  Fee,  flan  dt  VtrgUe,  p.  SS,  and 
Du  Uolin,  Fbr.  Pott.  Anciemi,  p.  277) ;  but  the  Greek 
word,  which  ii  first  uaed  by  HcTodotu*  (ii,  86),  who 
any*  (lii,  110)  the  Arabians  procured  It  (Tom  a  shallow 
lake  In  their  country,  is  limited  to  the  Eastern  product. 
Dioacorides  (1.  c.)  and  Galen  enumerate  three  better 
sorta  of  cassia,  and  there  an  still  in  Europe  held  to  be 
diffiitent  kinds,  but  they  all  are  diatiaguiabed  1tfiv\ 
tba  troe  cinnaman-tree  liy  tbeir  darker  color,  weaker 
odor,  and  less  lively  taato.  The  tree  f^om  which  the 
bark  is  prodncod  la  regarded  by  naturalists  aa  tbeZoa- 
ru  auaia  (Linn.),  that  floarlshes  in  the  Esst  Indies  and 
Malatia  (Ainslie,  MiOtr.  Med.  i,  W  *q.) ;  yet  the  broth- 
ers Neea  von  Esenbeck  (Se  diuiamotito  duplat.  Bonn, 
1S2S,  in  the  Eolai.  ZdbMff,  1831,  No.  B4)  have  shown 
ttut  thia  plant  (the  Lannii  cauia)  is  not  a  distinct  spe. 
ciei,  but  only  a  vUd  or  original  form  oT  the  cimoxo- 
mum  Cfgloniixm  or  Zqlanicitm.  See  the  Pamg  Cgiiii- 
padij,  s.  V.  Casaia;  Lauma. 

The  name  Ca«a1a  has  been  applied  by  botsniata  to  a 
genus  containing  the  planta  yielding  senna,  and  to 
others,  aa  the  Cauia  JUtalOy  which  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  original  caaaia.  "Casaia-buds,"  again,  though 
no  doubt  produced  by  a  plant  belonging  to  tbe  same, 
or  to  some  genus  allied  to  that  producbg  cinnamon 
and  csasia,  were  probably  not  known  in  commerce  at 
BO  early  a  period  aa  the  two  latter  aulutancea.  Dr. 
Royle,  in  bla  Atitijai/g  of  Bimdoo  Uedicou,  p.  84,  haa 
remaAed, "  Tbe  casala  of  Iba  ancients  it  Is  not  easy  to 
deunnlne ;  that  of  commerce,  Hr.  Hanball  aaya,  con- 
sieta  of  only  the  Inferior  kinds  of  cinnamon.  Some 
cooler  caaala  to  be  dlatingulabed  from  cinnamon  by 
the  outer  celiolar  covering  of  the  bark  being  scraped 
off  the  latter,  but  allowed  to  remain  on  the  fomier. 
TLb  is,  however,  tbe  characteristic  of  tbe  (CochlnXhi* 

Ur.  Crawford  (fmkaqr  lo  Sioa^,  p.  470)  that  it  i*  not 
cured,  like  that  of  Ceylon,  by  freeing  it  from  the  epi- 
dermis." Then  is  no  doubt  that  some  caasia  Is  pro- 
<  duced  on  the  coast  of  Hilalnr.  The  name  also  would 
i[^iear  to  be  of  Eastern  origin,  as  fauw  loiwk  i*  one 
kind  of  dnnamon,  mantiODed  by  Burmann  in  his  fio- 


The  Heb.  word  itliiah,  however,  has  a  strong  re- 
•Bml>Unce  to  tha  jDofAandbotfof  the  Arabs,  of  which 
£oMitlai*aaidbythsir  authors  lobe  tba  Syriac  name, 
and  ttom  which  there  Is  little  doubt  that  the  (ovroc 
of  the  Greeki  and  eottiu  of  the  Latins  ate  derived. 
iivTOC  i*  enumerated  by  Theophraatus  (//iit.  PI.  ii, 
7)  among  the  fragrant  snijetancea  employed  in  making 
ointment.  Thne  kinds  of  il  are  described  by  Dioecor- 
Mes  among  bis  Anmata  (i,  16),  of  which  the  Arabian 
ia  said  to  be  the  bast,  the  Indian  to  hold  tbe  second 
place,  and  tha  Sjrriait  tha  third.  An  inferior  kind  ia 
termed  by  him  «rrw  (i,  IS),  a  word  which  haa  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  Heb.  UiUoA  al<ova.  Pliny  men- 
tiuna  only  two  kinds  (xv,  11),  the  white  and  the  bUck, 
tironght  from  India.  Tbe  Penian  wtilen  on  Halatia 
Medica  in  use  in  India,  in  irivlnic  the  above  synonymea, 
evidently  refer  lo  two  of  the  three  kinda  of  ComIui  de- 
scribed by  Dioscorides,  one  belnic  called  ^ooif  Hindtr, 
and  the  other  Kooit  Arable.  Both  these  kinds  are 
found  in  the  bauisr>  of  rndia,  snd  the  tool  or  hnrf  nf 
the  nitlves  Is  often,  hy  European  merchants,  called  Id* 
dian  orris,  1.  e.  Iris  root,  the  odor  of  which  It  somewhat 
rmmbles.  The  same  arUcte  U  known  In  Calcutta  ss 
Pvckai,  the  name  under  which  It  is  exported  to  China. 
The  identity  of  the  substance  indicated  by  theaa  vari- 
00*  names  was  long  ago  aKCrtained  by  Gardaa.  The 
jfcOMf  obtained  Is  the  notthweslem  proTtneea  nf  India 


CASSIAN  n 

is  one  oTtfae  anbiUDCM  brought  kcrota  the  Indni  froni 
Labon  (Boy la,  IBiut.  Himal.  Bvl.  p.  BOO).  Dr.  YHsoa. 
«r,  on  bla  Jouroey  to  Cubmer;,  ducovend  that  it  »■■ 
exported  from  thtt  vallry  in  Urge  quantitiu  into  tbe 
Ponjab,  whenu  it  finda  iu  way  to  Bombay  (u  Id  the 
time  ot  Pliny  to  PMala)  and  Calcutta  tor  export  to 


0  CASSIANUS 

Iba  celebratwl  abliay  of  St.  Victor.  He  may  tbna  ba 
coneiderad  *a  tbe  founder  of  monacbiim  in  tbs  Weat ; 
and  bla  tnatiie  Dr  IntHttiCt  CotiiMontm,  libH  xii,  af- 
forded a  code  by  vUch  Iba  monaiteriaa  were  long  aft- 
er mled  (Iranel.  Into  French  by  SalLt^y,  Parif,  1667, 
Bvo).  Cauiannr,  Bccordiu^  to  dlBennt  wiitfre,  died 
(aged  97)  in  MO,  or  M8,  of  436.     the  Chronicle       ' 


U  Urn  as  aliv. 


d433.    Sodi. 


honor  liim  aa  a  uint  on  the  28d  of  July,  though  faa  w«a 
never  caaonixed.  He  was  a  itrong  opi-oncnt  of  Augu^- 
tine'i  doctrine  of  predcatiaation,  but  at  the  fame  tinifia 
by  recogniaing  the  aniverul  cotrupticn  of  faamvi  na- 
ture, he  oppoead  Pelaplua  ]nat  aa  atrouKly.  (Se«  bia 
CMitiomn  nvmn.)  He  admitted  Ibe  nnesFlty  of  pie- 
venting  and  auiallng  gr*ce,  but  held  that,  in  moat 
men,  tailh  and  good  wQl,  and  the  deaire  of  con  version, 
wrought  l>y  natural  Mrentrth  alone,  precede  atich 
grace,  and  prepare  the  mind  to  receive  it;  and  tbat 
such  lint  afforta  of  tbe  natural  man  cannot  indeed 
itterve  the  gift  of  grace,  but  aMlrt  to  the  obtaining 
of  it.  "  Hia  attenlian  waa  turned  to  experience  ;  be 
obaerved  rellglana  naturea ;  a  Fyatem  of  mere  loKical 
ipacnIatioD  bad  no  chantia  for  hitn.  Hia  doctrinea, 
which  are  fcattered  thniuf  h  bia  wrillnga,  were  draif(n- 
ed  to  represent  in  ita  simplicity  tbe  faith  of  tbe  Galile- 
an llahermen,  which  had  been  garllrd  by  Ciceronian 
eloquence.  Free  will  and  grace  agreed,  and  hence 
there  waa  an  oppoaing  oneaidedness  which  maintained 
either  grace  alone,  or  free  will  alone.  Augnatine  and 
PelagiuB  were  each  wrong  in  their  own  way.  The 
idea  of  the  divine  justlaE  in  the  determinaliDn  of  man'a 
lot  after  the  Arat  tranrgrearion  did  not  preponde 


OfiHuniuiTiKnii  a—ia,  with  enlarged  Tiew  of  the  Bud. 
China,  where  it  la  highly  valued  aa  one  of  the  ingredi- 
enta  In  the  incenaa  which  the  Cbineae  bnm  in  their 
temples  and  private  houses.  He  named  tba  apecies 
A  uMudia  Cdtai  (_LBHt.  Trmt.  xix,  SS)  (aee  Smith'a 
D!a.  of  Clan.  AM.  Am.  ed.,  a.  v.  Casaia;  Coatum). 
See  CiNMUioN. 

CuBlau,  Jci.iCB  (Koitvkivih),  >  leader  of  the  Dn- 
eetn  In  tbe  aecond  century  :  Cave  givea  tbe  date  A.D. 
174 ;  Tillemont  about  A.D.  !00.  He  la  menUoned  by 
HippolytuB  and  Irensua,  but  what  la  known  of  him  la 
chiefly  derived  from  Ciemena  Aleiandrinus,  who  calls 
him  tbe  tonnder  of  the  aect  nf  the  Doeetir,  and  refers 
to  one  ofhla  worka,  enljtisd  Cmcerwii^  CWfinaKi!,  from 
which  it  appeara  that  be  adopted  tbe  notions  of  Tatian 
leapectlng  the  impurity  of  marriage.  He  quoted  pas- 
sages from  apocryphal  Scriptunv,  and  perverted  pas- 
sages from  the  genuine  Scriptures  in  order  to  support 
bia  oplnioDB.  Clement  raya  that  "he  had  recoarse  to 
tba  Hctlon^that  Christ  was  only  a  man  in  appearance 
.l-4hrou)^  unwillingness  to  believe  that  he  had  been 
bom  of  the  Virgin,  or  partaken  in  any  way  of  Kenera- 
Hon."  Clement  accuses  him  of  borrowing  fW.n  Plato 
his  notiona  reapectinhC  the  evil  nature  of  generation, 
a*  well  as  tbe  notion  that  tbs  aool  waa  originally  di- 
vine, but,  bebig  rendered  efFsminate  by  desire,  came 
down  troca  above  to  this  world  of  generation  and  de- 
struction. F.oaebius  (vi,  IS)  speaks  of  Cassian  aa  au- 
thor of  "  B  hiatory  of  the  timea  in  chronological  order" 
(Clement,  Slrrtmat.  iii,  18,  %  91).— Ijtfdner,  IVoris,  vlil, 
611-fil4;  Neander,  Chrf\  Hiit.  I,  46Hj  Cave,  Hut. 
Lilt.  Cent,  ii ;  Hatter,  I/itl.  da  Gnmtkumt,  ch.  1,  §  9. 

CaSBlSmw,  JonAfNES  (alao  called  JoANMea  Uas- 
BiLiEiraiB,  JoAHHu  Errhita),  according  to  Genna- 
diua  (Dt  Vlr.  lUuil.  e.  61),  a  Scytblan ;  but  the  more 
likely  view  makes  bim  a  native  of  Haraeillen.  He 
waa  broaght  up  at  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Bethle- 
hem (q.  v.),  under  Germanup,  with  whom,  shaul  A.D. 
890,  he  went  to  visit  the  hermits  of  Egrpt,  amongwhoni 
he  lived  several  years.  In  403  he  want  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  listened  to  Chiysostam,  who  i^rdatoed 
him  deacon.  About  416  he  founded  a  monaacery  at 
Marseilles  for  monks  and  another  for  nuns  ;  tbe  first  li 


i  Casaisn'i 


•sin. 


a  of  a 


disciplinary  divine  love,  by  the  leadings  of  whicb 
are  to  be  led  to  repentance.  He  appeals  aUo  to  the 
myatarionaneaa  of  God'a  waya,  lintnot  aa  concerns  pre- 
destination, hut  tbe  variety  of  the  leadingi  Ly  «  faich 
God  leada  dllTennt  individuals  to  salvatk  n.  Kor  ia 
one  law  applicable  to  all;  in  rome  cases  grace  antici- 
pates Igtotia  jmereauBi),  In  others  a  conflict  preccdca, 

instance  can  divine  grace  opeiate  indeprndrntly  of  the 
free  aelf-detennlnstion  of  man.  At  the  husl  andman 
must  do  bis  part,  but  all  this  availa  nothing  without 
the  divine  blessing,  so  msn  must  do  his  part,  yet  thia 
protits  nothing  « Ithout  divine  grace''  (Keander,  Hitt. 
DfigmoMf  ii,  877).     Among  hia  writings  are  Cotiationtt 

"  '  "  wian  introduce*  Germanua 

rs,  with  himself,  in  dia. 
I  moral  dutiea.  In  the 
r  the  perron  of  Chatre- 


iiiv, 
and  other  monks  as  tnterlocut 


I vaHou 


Ifth  Conference,  Cataiar 
mon,  seta  forth  what  has 
I'm,  via.  bia  views  of  predestination  and  grace.  The 
t7th  Conference  defenda  occasional /al«lo«/,  as  being 
not  contrary  to  Srrtptnre:  "  A  te  b  to  tie  ro  cetcrmeij 
and  so  ured  as  If  It  posFessed  tbe  nature  of  bellclore, 
which,  if  taken  in  an  extreme  case  of  diaease,  mty  be 
healthful,  but  if  Uken  rashly,  is  the  canae  of  InrUnt 
death;  people  tbe  moat  holy  and  most  approved  of  God 
have  Dsrd  falsehood  without  blame,"  etc.  The  SOth 
ahowB  reveral  ways  of  obtaining  remh«lr>n  of  sins  ba. 
sidea  through  the  death  and  intercrsaion  of  Christ.  He 
wrote  also  a  treatise,  De  /iKania(u.wi!  Ciriili,  lib,  vii,  in 
confuution  of  Nestorius,  al>nat  A.D.  4C0,  at  the  requeat 
of  Leo,  afterwards  biabop  of  Bomi>.  Caasisn  mainUint 
the  propriety  of  the  term  "Motber  of  God."  TbeCU- 
hliimri  were  trjnslated  into  French  by  Saligny  (Paris, 
16GS.  8vo).  li  ia  works  were  published  at  Basle  in  1616 1 
St  Antwerp  in  1578;  at  Rome  (ram  Ptlti  GiaaxmH). 
1580  and  IGU,  Svo  ;  at  Douai  (1116.  two  vols.  Svo),  by 
Alsrdns  Gaiaiuo :  imprinted  at  Leipaic  17S2,  foL  (the 
best  edition).  They  are  alao  in  the  B^tlioli.  Palm, 
vol.  vii,— Neander,  OWn*  /lin.  li,  687-630 ;  Hcefer, 
Ifour.  Biagrapliir  C'*W™{r,lx,3B  ;  Dufin,  EceLWHtm, 
5tb  century:  Meier,  Jroa  (7[un'(n(Slrish,  1f>40}(  Wig. 
gers,  da  JuAame  CaMUiuo,  etc.  (Boftink,  1834.  IHG) : 
Wiggen,  AvguitimimBi  tl  Ptl-jgiamimBit  il,  19, 47,  etc.- 


CASSIODORUS 


141 


CASTELL 


Ao  U>  utide  CMaUnni,  b  Ench  u.  Grubtr'i  EncfUo. 
fiA;  HasBQlMcb,  Hiton  of  Doelnita,  ^  114;  Lud- 
Mt,  iForb,  V,  27 ;  CUrko,  Sacred  LiUrtitun,  fi,  188. 

CasatodSma,  or  Gaiialoriiii,  U*osob  Aiibei.ids, 
AKifar,  ml  born  at  ScyUcium  (SqoUUee),  in  Brul- 
tiom  (Laonia),  of  >  nobli  Kunun  familv,  ibout  463, 
■nd  galn^  >  big''  ropotAticm  for  wisdom  uid  elo- 
qanic«  «t  ■  compftntiTclf  eaily  >ge.  Theodoric  load- 
id  him  with  bonon  and  employnieiiti  Dear  bii  own 
pmon,  and  about  600  mada  him  prefect  of  tha  Pmto- 
rhm,  and  raiaed  him  to  tbs  patrician  rank.  In  £14  he 
ni  Kile  coiuul.  Ha  retained  his  inSnence  at  conn 
■Brkr  Athalaric,  bat  in  637  he  retind  into  the  couD- 
Irr,  and  foondad  tlie  monuterf  of  Vlvlera  (  Viairiaui), 
IB  Calabria.  Ha  wai  rtill  Urlng  in  b6i,  and  ia  be- 
■iared  to  hare  lived  beyond  ■  hundnd  jtean.  Id  bb 
Mreat  he  devoted  Umwlf  to  literaton,  even  to  cop;- 
lag  maniuerlpt*,  and  It  i>  an  nndonbted  fact  tbat  we 
axe  to  Um  tbe  pnaervation  of  muiy  invcioua  mana- 
KTlpti.  Some,  indeed,  aay  that  he  flnt  of  all  act  the 
Bmha  to  ihi*  labor  of  copying.  Bealdai  aoine  gram' 
■utkal  irorha,  lie  wrote  /f  iftorue  Ecdaiatt,  Tr^arHla 
(Praakf.  15S8):  dm/mla Ptudt^ttCi  De IfutHuHom 
Dirlamm  UteranBn  i  Erjumiio  in  Ptabmat ;  Otn^fei- 
ioH  ■■  ^Ul.  Apadol.  (Rott.  17SS,  8vo).  Hli  works 
mn  collected  and  pnbliahed  in  1491  and  1688 ;  th] 
■Hat  exact  ii  the  edition  of  Dom  dret  (Rouen,  leTD, 
1  Toh.  Ibl.,  and  Ven.  1729).  They  arc  alu  In  Migne, 
Patnloyia.  HiK^l  pabltahed  at  Venoa  (IT02)  a  com- 
■wnurv  of  Cauladorua  on  the  Acta  and  Eplatlei,  which 
be  dlK^rervd  in  the  library  of  that  city.  Hla  life  waa 
WTitlen  bv  tha  Benedictine  Sl  Harthe  ^La  vie  <fe  Cat- 
mitn,  Paria,  1694).~Landon,  Eccla.  DkHmaij,  r.  v. ; 
GiaaUer,CbnAWtitc«y,l,}llS;  Htawg,  ReaLE*cg- 
Uydd'c,  II,  SOS ;  Care,  Bui.  HI.  (ITM),  p.  836. 

Caaalna  (fulty  Caids  CAwina  LosaTHm),  one  of 
the  murderen  of  Julian  C«ur,  fint  appcan  in  history 
utbeqiuntor  ofCnuaoa  in  the  unfartun ate  campaign 
■gdnit  the  Parthlaoii,  B.C.  53,  when  he  greatly  dislin' 
gabbed  hlmaeir  by  hla  militiTy  akill.     After  vnrioui 
faUIc  MTvicea  ha  conipind  with  Brotua  anlntt  Cb- 
■r,B.C.44,indln  lbs  anarcby  that  folloiTed  he  usurp- 
ed the  presidency  of  8%'riB,  in  whkh  capacity  bla  vio- 
knt  ooodoct  towanl  the  Jews  ii  related  by  Jogephui 
(Jal.  ziv,  11  and  I'i).     The  forcei  of  the  consplra^ 
wara  defeated  by  Antony  at  PhilippI,  and  Cautiu  (^ 
minded  hb  IVeedmen  to  pat  an  end  to  hit  life,  B.C. 
— Snitb,  Diet.  a/Clim.  Biog.,  a.  v.  Longinoa. 

JoaaphoB  alao  mentlona  another  (Caiui)  Casains  Lon- 
f^ni  aa  appointed  governor  of  Syrin,  A.D.  50,  ' 
Claadlni,  in  the  place  of  Uarcua  {AM.  ax,  i,  1 ;  coi 
IT,  II,  4).     He  waa  banished  by  Nero,  A.D.  66,  who 
diewled  his  popularity  at  Boma  (Smith,  at  tap.'). 

Caaaook,  the  omt  formerly  worn  by  all  orden 
Ibe  clergs'  In  the  Roman  and  English  churchea ; 
tba  Cbnrch  of  Rome  it  varlea  in  color  with  the  dignity 
of  the  weairr.  Priest*  wear  black ;  bishops,  purple  ; 
eirdinsla,  aoirlet;  and  popea,  white.  In  the  Chnrcli 
of  Eni^nd,  black  is  worn  by  all  the  three  orders  of 
the  elerjy,  and  the  garment  la  of  cloth  or  allk,  with 
plain  aleeres  like  a  coat,  made  to  fit  close  to  the  bod< 
■Bd  Had  ronnd  the  middle  with  a  girdle.  It  te  woi 
■ader  the  gown  or  aurplice.  The  caaaock  ima  m 
griifually  appropriated  to  the  cler^:  the  word  ia  used 
in  Shakspeare  for  a  military  coat. 

Caat  (the  repraaentatlve  nt  many  Heh.  vorda,  and 
aaaany  of  tba  Greek  fiaXXw)  ocf  ur*  in  many  appli< 
liona  ai  a  aj-nnnyme  of  tiirvm.     The  following  aeem 
daaerre  apedal  notice. 

1.  Amadab.  king  of  Jodah,  einaed  the  panlahment 
ef  "eialnp  doim  from  the  lop  of  a  nek"  to  be  inflicted 
on  ten  thousand  Kdomitea  whom  he  hod  Uken  in  war 
a  Chton.  xxT,  12) ;  and  the  Oreeki  and  Romans  were 
ia  the  habit  of  coiidemninB  certain  crlmlaala  to  be  caat 
dnra  fMat  tha  top  of  a  nek,  eapecially  the  latter  na- 


tion, whence  the  fkroona  "Tarpeian  Rock"  at  Roma. 
See  PoMiBHinHT. 

a.  The  phrasoto"a>j*Mjiabank"ia  one  frequently 
employed  in  Sci^Atore  fbr  the  preliminary  act  In  be- 
solgera  of  rniaing  a  rampart  of  blockade  anoiid  a  hoe- 
tile  dty.     See  Sieoe. 

S.  For  the  practice  of  "caafiiy  metal,"  see  Mital- 

4.  On  the  actof  "coa'Hvoaf  ofthe  s7nagogne,">ee 


CaataUon,  Caatallo,  or  Caatellio,  Sebabtiak, 

Protettant  writer  of  extraotdlnary  talent,  was  born 
of  poor  parenta  in  Daupbine  in  1616.  His  family  name 
waa  Chateillon,  which  he  LaUniied  into  Caatalioo,  Ha 
applied  himaelC  early  to  the  ancient  languages,  and 
iMcame  a  great  proficient  in  Greek  and  Hebrew.  In 
1640-1  Calvin  invited  htm  to  Geneva,  and  had  him 
ippointed  to  a  proteaaor'a  chair.  In  a  fen  yeare  Cas- 
talio,  having  become  obnoxioue  to  Calvin  on  accoant 
of  hia  DfHniona  oo  predcetlnation,  led  Geneva  for  Ba- 
ale,  where  be  employed  himself  in  teaching  and  wtit> 
He  wrote  Piaitrrims  rdiguuipii  auernnmi  lilera- 
Carmiua  et  Prtcatioma  (1547,  with  notea) : — Jowu 
Proplitla,  hmico  eanrtine  Laiiao  dttcriptHM : — Diatogo- 
run  Saenvxm  ad  ImffOam  «t  mora  pHtrommJiirmimdoi, 
libri  n  (trsnalaled  into  English  by  Bellamy  nnder  the 
title  I'niM'a  ^tnplure  Armoainmcer,  or  Stbd  SaertJ 
Sluria  bg  vag  of  familiar  Diatogait,  Lat.  and  Eng.,  Lon- 
don, 1743).     He  also  published  a  version  ia  Latin  verae 

'  '  !  Sil  ylline  Books,  with  notea,  and  a  I^tin  trana- 
I  of  the  D'.alogaet  of  Bernardino  Ochino.  Before 
he  left  Geneva  he  had  undertaken  a  complete  Latin 
veraion  of  the  Bible  boat  the  Hebrew  and  Greek, 
which  he  completed  at  Batle  {Bihlia  Vtt.  H  AW.  Tm. 
n  mwme  Erb.  Catlal'ai-i,  Baail.  1661),  and  dedicated 
to  Edwaril  VI  of  England.  He  puhUahed  a  French 
venion  of  the  aama  in  15S6.  CasMtio'a  veraions  were 
made  tho  subject  of  much  confiicUng  criticism.  Ilia 
Latin  Bible  went  throngh  aevend  editiona ;  that  of 
Leipzig,  1G37,  contains  also  hia  DtUiiealia  RrlpiiUiai 
Judaiem  «  jotepKo ;  Dtfnult  »rn  mil  fiavi  Fodtrii 
eoKlra  Th.  Betam,  and  A'ofa  pruti^ior  n  ca|i.  ix  Epiih- 
In  id  B  imiaioi.  He  carried  on  an  eplstijari'  contro- 
versy with  Calvin  and  Beia,  who  aaaailed  him  with 
many  chargea,  and  even  ur,;ed  the  magiitntca  of  Da- 
ale  to  drive  him  away.  He  passed  his  latter  years  at 
Basle  in  great  poveitv,  and  died  Dee.  23, 15G3,  leavini; 
Ms  family  in  want.    '>'  In  1062  Castalio  publiahcd  Jk. 


mBiblior 


Fadait.  His  Diahgi  IVde  Pntdatiaalione,  Sec&mt, 
IJbera  Arbario,  oe  /Ma,  wore  published  in  1678  by 
Fauatn*  Socinua.  The  tiook  attacks  Calvin'a  doc- 
trinea  with  great  violence,  as  making  God  a  tyrant,  as 
tending  to  encourage  vice,  and  to  discourage  all  exer- 
tion toward  virtue.  Castalio  has  been  abused  both  by 
CalvinisU  and  Roman  Calholia  \  Arminian  critics 
have  been  more  Indulgent  to  hlra.  He  wrote  a  treat- 
in  to  prove  that  magistrates  have  no  ri,;ht  to  punish 
heretics"  (fiafffta*  Cydopadia).  He  waa  more  a  phi- 
lo1o)iii<t  than  a  theologian ;  he  treated  the  Bible  rather 
as  a  critic  than  as  an  interpreiar.— Home,  BOliog.  Ap. 
p-ndir.  pt.  I,  ch.  i,  §  4 !  Haae.  Zn  Fnma  Pnbtlattlt, 
iil,  861 ;  Hagenbach.  HiM.  of  Doelrmn,  j  260;  Beyle, 
D'lcl'oaary,  a.  V.  \  Wesley,  Worb,  y\\,  671. 

Caata.    See  Ihdias  Cabtk. 

Caatall.  EpMnKD,  a  learned  Enellsh  dirlns,  was 
bom  at  Hatley,  Cambridgeahire,  IGOfl.  and  waa  edu- 
cated at  Immanoel  and  St.  John's  mtlei^a.  Cambridge, 
While  at  the  University  he  comidkd  his  I.viam  Hrp. 
laglolkm.  Dictionary  of  Seven  I^anguages  (Ixmd.  lAffi). 
3  vols,  fot.),  after  aeventean  yeara'  labor  on  it.  The 
publication  co»t  bini  ilSOOO,  and  ruined  him.  Be 
had,  bowerer,  prevlonaly  been  appcdnted  king's  chap- 


CASTELLIO  1 

Iain  (16SB)  utd  Arabic  pnfuMir  at  Camliridgc,  to 
which  wBro  aftarwardi  added  a  prabflnd  of  Cunterfaury 
and  the  Uvingt  of  HatSald  Pergnll  and  Wadebam 
WalUr.  Ha  died  in  leSG  netoc  ot  Hlgham  Gobioii, 
Bedfordahln.  HI*  Laieait  la  one  of  the  gnatMt  moD- 
umentt  of  indmtry  known  in  literature.  He  waa  aid- 
ed in  ita  preparation  bj  Dr.  Harray,  biahop  Beverldge, 
and  Dr.  Ligbt&ot.  Bwidei  hli  vait  Ubon  on  iha 
ZecteiM,  ba  waa  eminent]]'  oaeftil  to  Walton  in  the 
preparatlOD  of  hla  /^9%U  Siblt.  Walton  ackoowl- 
edgea  hia  aarrkM,  but  not  adequatelj-. — JV«h  Gmerat 
Buynpk.  Dittiatarf,  til,  IM;  Biil.  Itrpoiilorj,  x,  11; 
Todd,  LIfi  of  H'nftoa.Tol,  I,  ch.  v;  Home,  M»Aic 
(tm,  V,  S5!  (Mil  ed.). 

CaatoUio.    See  Cabtauox. 

CoateUtun  (or  Caatta)  ParasrlaSmm  {Fiir- 
agnen'  Slaliim')  or  Petra  IncTba  (m  Itaek'),  a  forti- 
fied eeaportof  tba  Cnuadan  in  PaleMlne,  between  Ht- 
Carmel  and  deaarea  (ttlttar,  Erdt.  xvi,  SlGj  Ranmer, 
PaOit.  p.  1S8);  now  Athlit,  a  mort  fbmiidable-look-  , 
ing  ruin  (Van  de  Velde,  A'amttwe,  I.  S13-814 ;  WflMn, 
ZoKfa  0/  BM,,  li,  US).  8«  Aifi.AB.  Under  the  | 
form  CiMfrn  (muCp)  it  leenu  to  be  mentioned  \iy  the  I 
Rabbins  (Beland,  Paial.  p.  69T ;  Scbwan,  Aiferf.  p. ' 
162), 

Cutla  la  the  nndering  In  the  A.  V.  of  the  follow- 
ing word*  In  certain  paaaagca  i  'fVa'iK,  antixt' ,  tjbr. 
(rea(ProT.  xviil,19;  elHwhera  nnlfonnly  "paUcfl"); 
rn-<U,  linA',  a  wall  ("row,"  Etek.  zlri,  93),  hence 
an  ncbntre,  e.  g.  A/artrttt  ("  palace,"  Cant,  vtil,  9),  or 
a  nomada  kamltt  at  paliaadu  (Gen.  xxt,  10)  Nam. 
.1x1,10;  lChron.vl,M;  '■palace,"  Eiek.  xxt,4  ;  po- 
etlcallf  "hatdtaUon,"  Pu.  Ixlx,  !G);  rfl^-^a,  Hm- 
tulk'  [from  the  sfnoDymoog  IT113,  btroK,  "palace;" 
'  MB  Babu],  a  eUadtl  (2  Chron.  xtU,  II)  xxrli,  4); 
^^30,  migdai'  (1  Cbron.  xxril,  SG),  ■  Imetr  (aa  elee- 
whare  rendereif})  ixn,  ■Kfaaif'  (I  Cbron.  xl,  T),  or 
m!tX13,  meUwia*'  (1  Chron.  xi,  &},  a  Jiyrt  ta  ilro»ff. 
ioid  (aa  Blsewhere  uinally  mndered)  I  Di:pcijroXic,  (icrq>- 
otit  (3  Mace,  iv,  ST;  T,  G);  ■ripyos,  a  tnsrr  along  a 
wall  (i  Hace.  x,  18,  20,  K);  xapin/iuXI],  a  military 
MclMurv  (Acta  xJxl,  BJ,  S7 ;  xxil,  21;  xx III,  ID,  16,  8!) 
orya/>Dii("°u"P>"Heb.xl,84;  xlil,11,ISj  Rev.  xx, 
9).     SeeTowxn;  Pai.Acb,  etc 

Ciitlei  amoDR  the  Hebrew!  went  a  kind  of  military 
fortrew,  ftcqnently  bnllt  on  an  eminence  (1  Chron.  xi, 
T).  Tbs  prieata'  caatle*.  mentioned  in  1  Clinm.  vl,  bi, 
may  also  have  been  a  kind  of  lower,  for  the  pnrpose 
of  making  known  anything  diacovered  at  a  distance, 
and  for  blowing  the  trumpeU,  in  like  manner  aa  the  Ho- 


n  liRi 


end  the  1 


moequa 


at  the  present  day  to  call  the  people  to  prayers.  Thi 
caitles  ottbe  (CM  of  Iihmael,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxr, 
16,  were  watcb-towen,  need  by  the  nomade  ihepherdi 
for  lecnTity  agalnat  marandera.  The  "ca>tle"in  Acts 
xxi,  M,  tvltn  to  the  qnartera  of  the  Roman  aoldiere  at 
Jernaalem  in  the  foitreaa  Antonia  (q.  r,\  which  waa 
adjacent  to  the  Temple  end  commanded  it.     Bee  FoB- 


Cu'tOI  AND  POI/LUX,  the  Diatciri  (HiAnron- 
poi.  Acta  xxrili,  II),  two  hDmci  of  Greek  and  Komiin 
mjthology,  the  twln-eona  of  Joplter  and  Led*  (aeo 
Swlth'i  Diet.  o/ClniiicalBiiiy.,i'.v.  DioBcori).  They 
were  regarded  ae  the  tutelary  divlaitiea  (Sfai  •ruroptf) 
of  saUora  (Xenopb.  Sgmpm,  viii,  39).  They  appear&d 
in  Iteaven  aa  the  ranatellatlon  of  Grmiin.  On  ahip- 
boanl  tliey  wen  recognised  in  the  phoiphoric  lights 
oiled  by  modam  Italian  niionHifiru  of  SI.  Elmo, 
which  play  about  the  maito  and  the  saila  (Seneca,  Nal. 
Qmrtl.  i,  1 ;  comp.  Pliny,  xl,  B7).  Hence  the  fraqoent 
alln'ionB  of  Roman  poets  lo  these  dlvinlUee  in  connec- 
lion  with  navigation  (see  eapcclally  Horace,  Carm.  i, 
8.  2,  and  Iv,  8,  SI).  Aa  the  ship  mentioned  by  Lnke 
waa  from  Alexandria,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  no- 


H  CASUISTRY 

tiea  that  Caator  and  Pollnz  were  tpeeially  honotvd 
in  tlw  neighboting  diatrict  of  Cyranaiea  (SduJ.  Pind. 
PgA.  r,  6).  In  Catull.  iv,  ST,  we  have  dietinct  men- 
tion of  a  boat  dedicated  to  them  (aae  also  Ixvili,  65). 
In  art,  theae  dlvinitlea  wen  aometime*  represented 
simply  aa  atari  hovering  over  a  ahip,  but  tnon  tn- 
qnenlly  ■«  young  men  on  horaeback,  with  can 
and  at-ra  above  them  (aee  the  coins  of  Bhegii 


Silver  Brnttlao  OId,  with  Iha  Ileada  of  Llnslsr  and  Pallnx ; 

■las  their  KIcuiH  nmuoled. 
of  the  Bnittli,  at  which  Panl  tonched  on  tbe  voyags 
in  queation,  verae  IS).  Such  ll^re*  were  probably 
painted  or  acnlptured  at  tbe  bow  of  the  ship  (benc« 
irapaajiitov ;  see  Smith,  DicLofGam.  A^liq.,  a.  v.  In- 
ligne).  This  custom  was  very  frequent  In  ancient 
ship-bnildlng.  See  Sbif.  Herodotua  aaya  (ill.  37)  that 
the  Phcenleian*  naed  to  place  the  figores  of  deities  at 
the  bow  of  their  vessels.  Virgil  (jfLtuid,  X,  209)  and 
Ovid  (IViK.  1, 10,  2)  aupply  na  with  illmtntions  of  the 
practice;  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (Cramer's  Catrua, 
ad  L  c.)  says  that  auch  was  alwaya  tbe  Alexandrian 

meLliud  of  ornamenting  each  aide  of  tbe  |>r —    6ce 

OUMCUBI. 

CanilBtiy  la  that  branch  of  Christian  morals  which 

treats  orconHCMHcicMin  (caeca  of  conscience):  that  is 
to  aay,  of  queations  of  conduct  In  which  apparently 
conflicting  duties  seem  at  first  to  perplex  and  dlrtnrh 
tbe  moral  faculty,  and  make  It  necessary  lo  trace,  with 
a  careful  exclusion  of  everything  hit  moral  conaidera- 
Uona,  the  (oturTHnieci  ofths  rules  of  morality  (Whew- 
dl,  Biilarf  of  Moral  /'kilotopiy,  xziv).  Kant  calls 
csisuistx}'  "  the  dialectics  of  conscience."  InthiBSenae 
tbe  word  might  have  a  good  meaning ;  bat  iu  ordinar;- 
ose  Is  to  designate  aophlstlcal  perversion  or  evasion  of 
the  moral  law.  Pope  supplira  examples  otboth  shade* 
of  aignldcation,  as,  flrat.  In  the  good  sense: 


Again,  in  the  unfavorable  sense : 

"  yonllly  by  hrr  fstue  gnardlaaii  dnvo. 

But  the  theory  of  "collision  of  dntiea,"  on  whUn  this 
ao-ealled  science  of  casnlstiy  neli-,  is  unaoand.  Dnty 
Is  one,  though  then  may  be  various  ways  of  perform- 
ing It,  and  with  regard  to  theae,  ioatruction  and  guid- 
ance of  course  may  be  needed.  What  appears  to  b« 
collision  of  duties  is  generally  only  a  collision  between 
duly  snd  inclination.  In  true  Christian  ethics,  prin- 
ciples of  life  an  set  forth,  not  rules  for  Individnal 
cases.  Then  la  nothing  like  csauittry  in  the  moral 
teaching  of  Christ  and  hla  apostles,  if  tbe  "ere  ba 
single,  the  whole  body  will  be  l\iH  oflight;"  and  if 
the  ultimate  aim  of  man  be  to  do  the  will  of  God,  this 
aim,  liy  tbe  aid  of  the  divine  Spirit,  will  clear  up  all 
special  perpleiitlea  as  they  arise.  "When  truth  must 
to  dealt  out  in  drams  or  scruples,  the  health  oft^e  soul 
must  be  In  a  vert-  feeUe  and  craxy  condition."  Bkh- 
op  Heber  tells  us  that  when  Owen  was  dean  of  Christ 
Church,  a  reguliir  ofBce  for  tbe  aatlafaction  of  doubtful 
consciencet  waa  beld  In  Oxford,  to  which  tbs  itudenta 
at  last  gave  tbe  name  of  "  Scruple  shop"  (Heber'a 
Worb  of  Jrrrmg  Tafiw.  i,  !70).  ■'  The  core  for  dis- 
eased consciencea  ia  not  tobefbnndin  a 'scruple  abop,* 
but  In  the  love  and  can  of  the  great  Phyaielan,  The 
law  of  love,  under  tbe  guidance  of  the  Hoty  Spirit,  la 
a  solvent  of  all  subordinate  moral  questions  in  the 
praetiea  of  life.    For  tba  application  of  this  law  ou 


CASmSTRY  143  CASUISTRY 

tmaaa  tmt  hi  coniUnt];  *nd  CMefuUj  nnd"  (We»- '  troHetr  (JdIt.  1862),  froin  wbich  wi  ulc«  tha  follow- 
hj.  Work,,  a,  129).  iRK  puHge  '.  "  The  fint  wurca  of  tho  Junltial  cuu. 

t.  OaaiMrj  m  Ike  Ckureh  of  RuiH.  —  At  tfaa  Rain*n  Uby  U  to  be  HiiiHht  in  ths  Inherited  baliite  orthoaRbt 
AietrinM  of  penmoa  »nd  ■beolation  grew  op  in  the  Mid-  wtuch  had  l«en  fonned  in  the  Middle-*ge  achool5. 
dk  Age,  o>niu<ry  grew  up  alio,  in  tlie  farm  of  deeisloni  CmidltiDiit,  restriction*,  dijtinctioii*  tnoltiplled,  of 
«■  ipKi*!  I  aim  ortDoral  difflculty.  "The  lebooliaeii  conna;  but  to  did  the  authoritiea  and  decltiDna,  ip- 
ddigliled  in  thla  ipeciee  of  intellectaal  libiw.  They  venting  doubts,  extending  liberty,  and  tailing  away 
tmtrfnrTnl  their  aeal  for  the  moat  fiaiAM  and  fiivo-  Kruplee.  ItJ  next  caiue  wu  tha  practical  need  of 
Ion  dHtiiKtiini*  in  what  reepecMd  tiie  dootrinea  of  t»-  cuniitry  (under  the  Romiih  Rj-nteni) — Cba  endeavor 
Ugkm  Id  it*  preeepU;  tbey  anatonilEed  the  different  to  fix  what  cannot  be  fixed — Ihelimita,  in  ever?'  poui- 
Ttrtaia;  nicely  examined  all  the  circarnatanoea  by  ble  caie,  of  mortal  ain.  Douhtieu  monl  queilione  are 
whkh  oar  estimate  of  them  tbould  be  inflaenced;  anil  very  important  and  often  very  hard.  But  there  are 
Ibiy  thai  rendered  the  study  of  morality  ineitrlcaLle,  endleu  queations  on  wblcb  no  answer  can  be  given 
cmfaBnded  the  nataral  notiona  af  rigbt  and  wrong,  except  a  bad  one — wliich  cannot  tm  answered  in  the 
and  fo  accnatomed  themselves  and  otbera  to  weigh  shape  pnipoaed  at  all.  We  may  think  it  very  dealra- 
tlMir  aetiooB,  that  they  conld  easily  Bnd  some  excuse  ble  to  be  able  to  state  in  the  ibatrsct,  yet  for  practical 
to  what  was  most  cnlpabte,  while  thej  continued  un-  use,  the  extreme  cases,  whichexcusa  killing,  or  taldng 
der  Ike  Impresaion  that  they  were  not  deviating  from  what  la  not  our  own ;  bat  If  we  cannot  get  beyond  de- 
whit,  aa  mora]  beings,  wss  Incumbent  upon  thom''  clilons  which  leave  the  door  open  for  anquestionaLle 
(Witaen,  TltnL  DiiAmBnf,  s.  v.).  The  works  which  murdere  or  thefts,  or  shut  it  only  by  vague  verbal 
aMilDed  coIlectkinB  of  cases  of  conscience,  and  of  |  restrictions,  nnoxfdained  and  inexplicable,  about  'pm- 
wUeh  the  title  commonly  was  Jbetma  Caaaoi  Contd-  dnee,'  and  > moifenirKiii, '  and  'ntetiais,'  and  'grmilg 
trtia,  or  something  resembling  this,  were  compiled  at  of  drtumtlaiKCi,'  it  Is  a  practical  illustraUon  of  the 
flrstforthenae  of  Roman  confessors.  It  was  requisite  difficulty  of  casulstri',  which  seems  to  point  oat  that, 
tit  them  to  knew,  for  inatance.  In  what  cases  penance  unless  we  can  do  Itetter,  we  had  best  leave  it  alone. 
of  a  iHavier  or  lighter  kind  was  to  be  imposed ;  and  Bat  these  men  ware  iiard  la  daunt.  They  could  not 
wbal  effenoe*  must,  fbi  the  time,  exclude  the  offender  tf  oat  the  consciences  of  mankind  with  prindplea  of 
tnm  the  eommnnion.  The  first  ayatematic  work  on  duty,  but  they  could  trust  without  a  misgiving  their 
LsiiiCij  waa  thBtotA(i]n>niidn/'/'m>i^[/urf',  who  pub-  oim  dialectic  forms,  as  a  ealculos  which  nothing  could 
Ushad  ■  Anassa  de  Catibm  Faiutemtialilnit,  which  came  r^st  The  conseqneacfl  was  twofold.  Their  method 
iota  very  general  uae  in  the  ISlh  century,  largely  foi-  often  did  fail,  and  in  the  attempt  to  give  exact  formn- 
iDwad  t^  looceedlng  casuists.  In  ths  Iltb  and  16th  lie  of  ri){ht  and  wrong  action,  they  proved  unable  to 
cantaiks  the  namber  of  such  books  Increased  very  express  the  right  without  comprehending  the  wrong 
greatly.  "  Theee  Sumjiia  were  In  common  speech  with  it.  From  all  evil  deslgna  the  leaden,  at  any 
known  by  certain  abbreviated  names,  borrowod  from  rate,  may  be  aafely  absolved  j  tbongh  whether  they  did 
tte  name  ofthe  anthor  or  his  birthplace.  Thua  then  not  lose  tlielr  sense  of  the  reality  of  human  action  in 
was  the  Atltmma,  which  derived  ita  name  from  its  an-  the  forrosl  terma  in  which  they  contemplated  It,  may 
thig,  AituMuas,  a  Uini»ite  of  Asti,  In  Piedmont  (Nn-  be  a  qneatlon.  Dal,  though  the  drs^  of  corrupting 
raatnrg,  148!) ;  the  Angelica,  compiled  by  Angslua  de  morality  Is  one  of  the  most  improbeble  ctuu^ea  a.ininst 
ClavHk>.BGenoese  Hlnorll«(Kuremb.l49S)i  the /V  any  men.  the  a^ecf  may  more  easily  follow,  even  when 
ami  or  PuameUa,  which  was  also  termed  BaHkalma  or  not  intended.  These  casuists  would  not  trust  the  in- 
jrafuM«vu(Par.l47»);  the  Aictjfea  (Venice,  1574),  ;  dividoal  conscience,  and  It  had  its  revenge.  They 
tha  HmMo,  the  Sghmlriiia."  In  these  worita  the  sub-  were  driven  onward  till  they  had  no  choice  left  be- 
jHtB  were  Banally  arransed  alphabetically,  and  the  de-  tween  talking  nonsense,  or  what  was  wone.  They 
cUaoa  were  given  in  tliefDnn  ofnapansestoqaestlons  would  set  consdence  lo  rights  in  minutest  detail,  and 
pieposed,  the  oplnkms  being  often  quot^  from  or  sop-  so  they  had  to  tiko  the  responsibility  of  whatever 
parted  by  the  aDthority  of  tbe  Scriptores.  or  the  Ci-  could  not  be  set  to  righls.  Mature  outwitted  them; 
than,  at  schoolmen.  There  was  no  attempt  to  lay  '  it  gave  op  Ita  liberty  In  the  grws,  and  then  forced 
down  xeoeral  principles  which  might  enable  ttw  In-  i  tliem  to  anrrender  it  again  In  detail.  And  thus,  at 
o  determinB  for  himself  the  nutter  by  which  length,  nnder  the  treatment  of  compilara  and  alirldg- 
science  was  disturbed.  The  lay  disciple  was  j  ers,  and  under  the  influence  of  that  idea  of  authority 
sappoaed  la  be  in  entire  dependence  upon  bis  spiritual  which  doferrod  to  op'BWna  on  the  same  mle  aa  It  de- 
teaehoa  for  the  guhLince  of  hla  conscience,  or,  rather,  ferred  to  e«(in«iy—eihi luted  in  [he  coarsest  brevity, 
kr  ^  detennlnation  of  ths  penance  and  mortification  and  with  the  affecutlon  of  outbidding  the  l-oldeatprece- 
by  which  bb  dna  were  to  Iw  obllterited.  Moreover,  i  dents — tcrew  up  that  form  of  caauistry  whirh  ia  oxhlb- 
a  nry  large  proportion  ot  the  offence*  which  were  '  lied  in  the  Escobars  and  Baunya ;  which,  professing  to 
psbled  out  hi  aach  works  vera  tranagresalona  of  the  ^  Iw  tha  indlspenaable  aid  to  common  sense,  envelops 
olisaiiaocee  required  by  tha  Chorch  of  those  days,  and  ,  It  in  a  very  Charybdls  of  discordant  opinions ;  amid 
nftored  to  matters  of  which  conscience  could  not  take  j  whose  grotesque  suppositions,  and  whimsical  dialinc- 
csgniaaBce  without  a  very  considerable  amount  of  ar-  '  tlona,  and  vague  yet  peremptory  rulsi,  bandied  about 
tikU  training.  Qnestiona  of  ritea  and  ceremonies  between  metaphysics  and  real  lil^.  tha  mind  sinks  Into 
■en  pat  span  an  equal  footing  with  tlie  gravest  ques-  a  hopeless  confusion  of  moral  ideas,  and  loses  every 
laas  of  morals.  The  Church  had  given  her  decision  clew  lo  simple  and  straightforwird  action." 
nspeeting  both;  and  tbe  neglect  or  violation  nf  her  i  The  principel  casuists  of  tbe  Roman  Church  are 
pmeiKs,  and  of  the  interprFtalians  of  her  doctors,  Taequei  (f  ISW),  Sanchei  Ci  ISID),  Saarei  (t  leiT), 
neU  sevfT,  tt  was  bold,  be  other  than  alnful.  Thus  Uymann  (t  ISRA).  FilUucius  (4  IBiJ),  Banny  (f  1649), 
Uiia  body  of  caauistry  waa  intimately  connected  with  :  Eacobar(tl«i9),  Bnaenbaom  (t  ]«6B\  Moat  of  these 
the  sBlbcfi^  and  practices  of  the  Chorch  nf  Rome,  names  an  Immortaliied  In  Pascal's  Prvnivial  LtOtn 
■ai  hll  tato  diaose  along  with  them  CWTiewell,  I.  c).  j  (aee  also  each  name  in  Its  proper  place  in  this  Cyclo- 
Aller  tbe  Reformation,  the  vice*  of  the  casuistical  pndia).  Sea  also  Migne,  D'irlviuuiire  dt  eat  dt  Com- 
■Trtm  developed  themselves  in  tha  Church  of  Rome  |  teimet  (Pari*.  1S47,  S  vob.  4l»).  The  hooks  of  eo- 
B*a  rally  than  ever  before.  The  so-called  Moral  cdled  Moral  Tifologf.  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
nnbnrrtallypalsonedtheTsrylbantainsarmorality.  at*  generally  repertories  ofcasuistry.  The  most  im- 
heJascrra;  Pascal.  The  a bb^  May nard  published  pnrtjint  of  Ihem  of  late  en  Liicoi^n,  ntolngia  MoroBt 
h  1851  a  defence  of  the  Jeeuita  and  of  their  casuistry.  (Paria,  18K,  6  vola.  Ifmo)  ;  Gary,  Caau  dnuc'entia 
vimibt^aiL  lAt  Prt>niiA^ftbmrr'f»tn6nH(ivo\t.  (Lyons.  1666,  !  vols.Svo). 
W),  which  li  ably  nvieired  In  tha  Ckriiiian  Bemtm-       B.  i>rt<cstai(CiinM(r]r.~The  Reformation,  of  conrta. 


CASUISTRY  H 

broiiKbt  tlia  office  otmcbcuoiitijtoui  end.  "Tbej 
dcci^im  of  monl  quesdoni  wm  left  to  Hcb  nun's  ovd 
eoniciaiim ;  and  hia  repnaBiblUt)'  ai  to  bii  own  moral ' 
tnd  spiritiul  condition  ronld  no  longer  be  tnnsferred 
to  otbere.  For  hlmtolf  be  muit  eUnd  or  fall.  He ' 
migbt,  Indeed,  «!d  bimMlf  by  tbe  beat  lighta  which 
rbe  Charcb  coold  anpply— by  tba  conutel  of  wiaer  end 
holier  Mrrenta  of  God ,'  and  he  wu  aamnlly  enjoined 
to  leek  coanael  of  God  himieltbf  bautj  and  humble 
prayer.  But  he  coald  no  longer  lean  the  whole  welgbt 
of  hii  doabta  and  big  Bins  npon  bis  fatbar  confaHor ' 
and  hia  mother  Chnrcb.  Ho  moat  aacertain  for  him- 
ietf  what  ji  Ihe  trae  and  perfect  law  of  Qod.  He  coald 
no  longer  derive  hope  or  aatiafaction  horn  tbe  collec- 
tiona  of  caaea,  in  which  the  anawer  reeted  on  the  mere  I 
aatborityoTmenflillibieandalntblllkehiDuelf.  Tfana 
tbe  caaulslJcai  work*  of  tbe  Romanlata  lo*t  all  weight, 
and  almoat  all  value,  In  tha  eyei  of  the  Refonned 
cbnrclHa.  Indeed,  Ibej  were  looked  npon.  and  ]natlj. 
u  among  the  glaring  evldf  nces  of  the  perveraiona  and 
hamu  luTentiona  bj  which  the  troth  of  Ood  had  been 
disfigBieal.  But  even  after  Ilie  aopblatr}' and  the  moral 
perrer^D  connected  with  casnisRy  were  exploded, 
the  form  of  that  ecienca  waa  preserved,  and  nuny  val- 
oabla  moral  priticiplea  in  confonnitj  to  It  dellTared. 
Tbe  wrileri  oftbe  Kefbnned  cbnrchea  did  not  at  fint 
attempt  to  aubitttnte  anything  In  the  place  of  tbe 
calninlcal  vorka  of  the  Komiah  Chnrcb.  Bealdps  an 
aveteion  to  tbe  aobject  Itaelf,  which,  as  remarked 
above,  they  natnrally  felt,  they  were,  for  a  conalde™- 
ble  period  after  the  Refbnnation,  fnlly  employed  upon 
more  nrgent  obJecD.  If  this  bad  not  been  ao,  they 
could  not  h&ve  failed  loon  to  perceive  that,  hi  reality,  ; 
moat  penons  do  require  rome  guidance  for  their  eon-  , 
•clences,  and  that  rule*  and  [tfecepla,  by  which  men ' 
may  atrengtben  themselves  against  the  leirptaliona  ^ 
which  cload  tbe  Judgment  when  it  la  hrooght  into  con-  i 
tact  fitb  special  caara,  are  ot  great  value  to  every 
body  of  moral  and  Cbrfatlan  men.  Bat  tbe  dream- 
Btancea  of  the  times  compelled  them  to  give  tfaehr  en- 
ergies mainly  to  controveniea  with  tbe  Rcmleh  and 
oUier  adveraarief,  and  to  leave  to  each  man'a  own 
tboughta  the  regulation  of  bia  conduct  and  feellngr." 
— Wheweli,  Binary  of  Motvl  FUloKflis  in  Enghwd 
(Lond.  1852, 1  vol.  8vq,  p.  iitviii  aq.). 

In  the  writings  of  the  early  refbrmera  (e.  g.  Malanc- 
Ihon  and  Calvin)  there  may  be  fbnnd  moral  direcliont 
approaching  to  casnlstiy.  Bat  tbe  first  regular  trea- 
tise on  casuistry  in  tbe  Protestant  Cbnrcb  waa  Per- 
kins, Tie  vlule  TnaUte  of  C'iki  of  Cvuvmht,  duHn- 
guiktd  iulo  Ihrm  Boola  (imA.  1602, 1606;  al«o  In  hi* 
IPiirb.  vol.  li,  Lond.  1617  i  in  Latin,  Hanov.  1G03;  and 
In  Pe7'fa'iuHf)|iern,  Geneva,  1624).  See  PERKiira.  He 
was  followed  by  Henr.  Alsledlus  (Reformed),  Tlw:io^ 
Carom,  in  16!1  (Hanover,  4to) ;  F.  Balduinua,  Tract, 
dt  Canivt  CohkhMu  (Vitemb.  ICSS,  4to ;  Lips.  1684, 
4to);  Ameslos  (Amas,  q.  v.),  Z>e  OMtatmtia,  ejn  jure 
tt  CaiOnt  (AmaL  1680)  ;  Osiander,  ThroUgla  CoMunllt , 
(Tdbingen,  1680,  Bvo).  For  other  writ^ra  on  casulatry  ; 
in  the  Lnlheran  and  Reformed  cbarches,  eee  IValcb, 
BMiotiifca  Tkeologira,  vol.  ii,  cap.  vi.  In  the  Cliurch 
of  England  we  fiod  bi.-bop  Halt,  RtuJuiatu  and  /Jrci- 
woru  0/<f>rrn /imcKcri;  CoJM  n/Oounnur  (l.ond.  1619, 
8vo)i  bishop  Sanderson,  A'HKC<UFsn/C<MscJ<we  (Lon- 
don, 1678,  pm.  8vol;  Jeremy  Tevlnr,  Dactor  Didiilm- 
tium.  or  RaU  of  Ctmiarnce  (^Worlu,  Helvr'a  edition, 
vola.  xii-xlv).  To  caauistrv  belongs  alfo  Baiter"a 
ChriiliiHi  Dinclory,  n  »m  «/  Practical  Thnlngs  (fol. 
1673  ;  and  in  Baxter's  Practical  Warb,  voU,  ii-vl ; 
tranal.  into  German,  Frar\f.  16S3,  4lo).  Dickson,  pro- 
feaaor  at  Edinburgh,  baJ  previously  publtabed  Tkrro- 
pattira  Saem  (Latin,  1C56;  English,  1695).  a  work 
which  Baiter  lands  highly.  There  is  still  at  Iho  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  Enaland.a  praf^ssorsbipof  Jfcmif 
TktolesH  or  Catuiib'cal  Diritiiis,  which  was  held  by  the 


CAT 


Winer,  Tireliig.  Zifrrafir,  vol.  I,  J  xiii, 
Rtal-Eneyldepadie,i\.m';,';H7;  Oiint.  Life  of  Baile 
vol.  ii.cb.Vi  Hagenbuib,  TlieolBg.  EncgUopOdu,  5  94  ; 
SUndlin.  Gackiclilii  der  tktal.  Winaudiaflnt,  1, 843  hj.  : 
Schweitier,  in  Smdim  u.  KntHim,  1850,  p.  561  ;  Gua, 
in  /%*'(  Zaltdpifl,  xll,  1S3 ;  Blckerateth,  Ch-Ul.  Slm- 
denl,f.*ee. 

Caana  RABOrvlti  (auri  rtterwd).  In  tbe  Boican 
Choreb,  ore  caees  of  ain  soch  u  an  ordinary  ccniA«aoT 
(q.  V.)  cannot  ahaolve,  but  only  an  eccleaiaatic  of  U({b 
rank,  or  one  apecUlIy  aDlboiixed  by  the  pope  for  the 
pnrpoee.     See  Camnu  nf  Ttmt,  aea».  xiv,  ch.  vit- 

Cat  (oUoxpoc,  ao  called,  according  to  FhavoriQDa, 
fnm  muming  ili  laiT),  an  animal  mentioned  only  in  B«- 
mch  vi,  2S,  aa  among  thoaa  which  defile  the  god>  of  the 


ir.hi  Manln,latei. 
heathen  with  impunity  (see  below).  Tfaey  are  alluded 
to,  however,  in  the  Targnm  (at  Isa.  xitl,  22 ;  Ho*.  Ix, 
6)  under  the  name  c*a/Aa/',  hnrn,  Arabic  cAoyteA 
Martial  (xiii,  69)  makes  the  only  mention  of  eatta  tn 
classical  writers.  Bochart  (fliavt.  \\,  !06  sq.)  tbinka 
[hat  by  Iba  woid  D-^sX,  O^m',  in  Isa.  xiii,  St ;  Zxxlv, 
14 ;  Jer.  I,  S9,  and  Paa.  Ixxiv,  14,  some  apeciea  of  cats 
■re  meant :  bat  Ihia  1*  very  douhtfbi  (Hlcbaelia,  Si^pL 
p.  20F6).  SeeBsAtT.  The  Greek  niXovpof,  aa  uwd  by 
Aristotle,  has  more  particular  reference  to  the  wild  eat 
[F'lit  cofkJ,  etc).  Htrodotua  (11,  C6)  nsea  alXoupoc 
to  denote  the  domeatic  animal ;  flmiUrly,  CUen  (.Tute. 
V,  27,  78)  emiiloys/e/u;  but  both  Greek  and  Latin 
worda  are  used  to  denote  other  anlmala,  apparently 
aome  kinda  of  marten  (Jforru).  The  context  of  the 
passage  bi  Bamcfa  appears  tn  p^nt  to  the  domesticated 
animal.  Perhaps  the  people  of  Baliylon  originally 
procured  the  eat  lYom  Etvpl,  wbere  It  waa  a  capital 

ofTrnce  to  kill  one  (Diod.  Sic.  1, 88) Smith,  a.  v.     See 

Animal  Voxaitip.  The  Egyptians  treated  it  aa  a 
divinitj-,  under  the  denomination  of  PaM,  the  Lunar 
Goddesa,  cr  Diana,  holding  every  domeeticated  indi- 
vidual facred,  embalming  it  after  death,  and  often 
•ending  it  for  interment  to  Babastla  (see  Jalilonakl, 
Panlk.  A'g.  ii,  66).  Yet  wa  find  tba  cat  nowbeiw  men- 
tioned in  tbe  canonical  books  as  a  dcmcftic  animal. 
In  Baruch  H  is  noticed  only  as  a  tenant  of  pagan  tem- 
ple*. Khfre,  no  doubt,  the  fngments  of  aacriliced  bdI- 
miils  and  vegetables  attiacled  vemiln,  and  rendered  tbe 
presence  of  eata  neceesary.  With  regard  to  the  neigb- 
loring  nalioni,  they  all  had  domeatic  cats,  derived, 
it  n  presumed,  from  a  wild  specie*  found  in  NnUa, 
first  described  by  Rnppel  under  the  name  of  /Wn 
'  '  \.     Two  Fpecimena  are  bete  given  from  tbcaa 


Ascltcl  rgfptlaD  danwstle  Cat^- 


CATABAPTISTS  II 

^■nUDgi :  one  cleu1]>  >  eat ;  the  otber,  in  tbe  oiigiiul, 
iLfvmi  oi  cmtchingj  Liirdfl,  ictlng  like  a  retriBTar  for 
Ut  muUr,  vho  a  fiiwUng  in  •  boat  (WUklnion,  Anc. 
Ef,  ■brklgm.  i,  SS6,  987).  It  la  not  appanntlf  >  eat, 
bit  a  ipeciefl  of  grmiHl  or  paradozuna,  ona  of  CliB  ge- 
Hn  befbra  hintfd  at.  Both  an  neati}'  allied  to  tlie 
eritbradd  tobiaiiiuii,  Xbtherpata  afanthon.  tbe  mod- 
«a  *tmt,  which  is  oven  now  occaahmall}'  dameatica- 
Ih);  It  dilfcn  la  manners,  for  tb«  loyfalM  phararmii 
dH*  not  frequent  tbe  apland*,  bnt  wHIIdkI;  taliei  Ihs 
»uer.     See  Eotpt. 

CatabaptlatB  (mrif,  agivmiL,  and  ^arrirr^c).  a 
gnenl  aama  ■ometlmee  uaad  to  deai^Dato  all  who 
iaj  the  oeeoNtj'  of  Chiistlan  bapclnn. 

Citacomtw,  inbtemoean  plucca  ot  bnrial,  gener- 
ill  V  found  in  ngiona  of  Mft  and  eaiil}'  excavated  rock, 
nch  as  (cnDnlar  tnb.  The  oldest  are  in  Egypt ;  oth- 
tn  in  to  be  found  in  Sjria,  Malta,  Penla,  Greece,  and 
Soath  America.  It  i>  likelj-  tbaC  most  of  them  were 
(riiODallj  qnarriei,  which  nftennirda  came  to  be  ased 
at  place*  ot  bnriil  fbr  the  dead  or  u  hidiag-plBcea  for 
thetiriBg.  When  the  word  catucomba  ia  used  alone, 
it  applies  gen^rsllj  to  thoae  of  Ronie,  the  soil  around 
■hich  lAVf  is  nndermlned  in  Tarfaua  placea,  and  the 
laog  labi'rintfaa  thna  tbrintd  are  "The  CatHcomlia." 
Tline  are  catacomba  at  Naples  resembling  those  at 
Bone;  and  alto  at  Palermo  and  Syracnae.  Thia  arli- 
de  b  dcToted  entirely  to  tbe  CaUeomba  of  Rome. 

I.  Tie  IfanlOiliKDnif.— The  derivatktn  oTthe  word 
me  And  it  In  jcArij,  dmat,  and  rv/ijdoc. 


Marchi  (.tfoisMaa.  p.  !09),  Lat.  natfro,  part  oldxanbo,  I 
lis  dLiwn ;  othen  in  card  and  ni/i^t),  a  kolloie,  canoe, 
SI  ftani  the  resemblance  of  a  s^rcophsifna  to  a  boat 
(Schneider.  Ur.  Gmr..  i.  v.  n'^).  The  name  cata- 
conbi  VIS  Biat  applied  to  the  Dnder.:rDnnd  burial- 
pUeesin  the  slKlh  century;  before  that  date  they  were 
nllodn)^'«(ipi'riTa<,«Bcrat  placea);  ctmtteria  (tOi/at- 
riein,  steeping-placea). 

II.  f>r'>ia'/rteCb(a»mi<.— It  la  likely  that  some, 
U  liast.  of  the  catacombs  were  ori  .dnalli-  the  sand-pits 
ad  qnarrirs  from  which  building  matariils  I6r  nae  in 
Ihs  city  hail  been  taken.  As  the  Bomans  bomed  their 
dead  ta  aihen,  they  did  not  huiy  nnderKround ;  but  it 
h  beUsced  Ihjt  the  bodies  of  slaves  and  of  executed 
sinbals  were  aometlmea  thrown  into  the  old  qnimcs: 
TUi  Tie  w  was  formerly  held  by  the  chief  Roman  Catho- 
lic wiitera  on  the  Catacomba,  e.  g.  Bo^  Aringhl,  and 
Beldsltl;  but  of  lile,  since  the  publication  of  Padre 
Hanlii's  great  work  on  the  monamenta  of  Rome,  the 
writen  of  that  school  object  to  thia  origin  for  any  of 
tha  atacombs,  and  call  it  a  Pmtestant  calomny  (e.  g. 
iajpei.  Diet.  dxTkiabiS^, 1,674').  Bat  Protestants  and 
Rcnuiilats  are  alike  inteiwled  in  getting  at  hlatoricai 
truh;  nor  wonld  either  claaa  be  llkoly  to  itigmatiic 
tb«  early  Chiistians,  the  eommon  religions  ancestry  of 
ill  lieUerm.  Tbe  Jews  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  re- 
trined  tbe  cnatnm  of  burying  tbeir  dead  Instead  of  bnrn- 
mf  them  ;  and  they  probably  began  nalng  catacomba 
la  ths  Hdnity  of  Rome  before  the  time  of  Christ,  or 
innediately  after.  In  the  lOth  century  Bosio  discor- 
md  a  Jewish  catacomb  nntatde  oTthe  ancient  PorU 
Pcrtaenats ;  and  in  186!  another  was  opened  on  the  Via 
Appla,  outside  of  tbe  Porta  Capena.  Its  form  ia  like 
that  of  the  Christian  catacomba;  but,  inatead  of  the 
Cbrinian  symbula,  the  seven -branched  candlestick  and 
ethar  Jewish  emblems  are  sculptnred  on  the  slabs  that 
doit  tbe  lombe.  The  Etmsoan",  centuries  bthm,  had 
■•dease  of  rock-tombs  or  catacombs,  as  seenatCivlta 
Cvtallana,  Falieri,  and  other  Etrasoao  dtiee.  Then 
k  M>hln<;  more  likely  or  natural  tluu  that,  In  the  first 
ptraeeutkina,  the  Christiana  should  have  buried  their 
4ad  In  aicavatioDB  previnurly  made  by  Pagans ;  that 
ftaj  thoald  afterwarda  have  enUrgod  these  exciva* 
Htm;  aid,  Anally,  tbalt  they  shoold  have  made  new 
Mat  aa  Ihdr  iMcasaltlea.  In  ttie  laps*  of  time,  demand- 


6  CATACOMBS 

ed.    It  Is  certain  that  in  the  catacombs  at  Naplea  tbera 

gan,  and  liave  Pagan  aymbols  and  inscriptions,  while 
othera  are  la  clearly  Christian.  The  argument,  on  the 
other  hand,  for  the  theory  that  ths  early  Christians 
tbernsetvea  excavated  all  the  catacomtie,  ia  well  atated 
in  Martlgny,  Dji.  dti  Anliq,  Chrtiitmiei,  p.  IIH  et  aeq. 
It  certainly  appean  settled  that  many,  if  not  meet  of 
the  exiating  catocomiie,  were  excavated  by  the  Chri*. 
tians  of  tbe  llrst  three  centnries.    Their  dates  cac  b« 


appro: 


:ained  b^ 


reralci 


The  style  of  some  of  tbe  fresco  paintings  on  the 
walls  belongs  to  the  third  century,  or  even  to  the  latter 
half  of  the  second,  while  it  is  to'  be  praaumed  that  th* 
crypts  were  excavated  manyyeara  before  the  painting! 

2,  Soon  of  tbe  symbola  which  have  been  discovered 
tielong  to  the  earliest  dates  of  ttie  Christian  history, 
and  some  of  tbe  coins  bear  the  effigy  of  Domitian 
(t  96),  and  even  of  earlier  emperors;  other  Inscrip- 
tloni  and  paintings  as  clearly  ahow  later  dates. 

Ek  Inscriptions  marked  with  conaolar  dates-  Among 
eleven  thousand  epitaphs  in  De  RooFi'scollecUon,  about 
three  hundred  range  tiom  A.D.  71  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  4th  centary.  For  these  and  other  reasons  it  Is  be- 
lieved that  tbe  origin  of  the  oldnt  Christian  caUcombe 
coincide*  with  the  dale*  of  tbe  earliest  peraecationa, 
a.  g.  that  of  Nero.  Mortlgny  pots  in  a  much  more 
donbtfol  argument,  drawn  from  the  burial-place  of  St. 
Peter,  which,  as  he  says,  became  tbe  veritaLde  nucleus 
of  the  Vatican  catacomba.  It  ta  probable  that  the  cat- 
acoml^s,  ancb  aa  we  now  know  them,  were  all  excava- 
ted before  the  btb  century.  In  that  and  the  following 
century  no  new  catacomba  were  dag,  but  the  old  ones 
were  repaired ;  walla  were  built  to  rapport  their  roofs, 
and  pasoagea  for  light  and  ."dr  were  opened  to  the  ia% 
fitce  of  the  groond- 

1 1 1,  iiiriy  l/ttt. — The  Catacomb*  have  served  thref 
distinct  pnrpoees : 

1.  Ai  plaea  fifbtmal. — These  underground  recepta- 
cles consist  of  long  galleries,  with  transverse  corridors 
connecting  them.  These  passages  are  sometimee  teg- 
ular Ibr  a  considerable  distance,  bat  tbe  multiTdicatlan 
of  cnns  alleys  and  branches  at  last  forma  a  labyrinth 
in  which  it  is  rash  to  venture  without  a  guide.  These 
gallrrica  and  cntridora  an  of  various  length*  and 
heiirhts,  generally  aeven  to  eight  feet  high,  and  tliree 
to  fire  wide.  Tba  roof  leaupportedl'V  tbet  part  of  the 
lain  which  le  left  between  the  passages,  and  in  tbe*e 
walla  the  tombs  (lortX)  are  ciicavated.  In  moat  casei 
the  tomb  is  Jost  large  enough  for  a  alngle  corpse  ;  in 
some  tombs,  however,  two  or  man  skeletons  hove  been 


blems  are  fhand  scalp- 

tared    or    p^led    on  .— -™-     .  .»— 

many  of  the  slaba  (see  FI;7'.  S)   'nd  in  some  c: 


CATACOMBS 


FU-B. 


Htfael 


tn  ilw  Urgcr  ipuH  (calladnrnitDUci),  luTing*n  arch 
uvar  the  tomb,  or  over  ■  Barcophagiu,  hoUair«ll  oat  of 
the  will.  There  in  aln  largcT  Mpulchnl  chimban, 
called  nbiciila,  of  Tarione  ehipe* — square,  trUnKiilar, 
eemldrculBT,  etc.  Tbeoe  were  donbtlen  familj  vealta ; 
thetr  walla  an  fall  of  wp«nit«  toeuU.  On  the  anb  in 
treat  wae  a  bnill^  inicTiptlon ;  e.  g.  on  one  foand  In  i 
tha  Catacomba  ofSt.  Agnea  is  the  title  f'KfttralwH  Ann. 
tiam;  while  the  separata  loctiii  within  had  tbdr  indi- 
vidual Inecriptlons.  I 

S.  Ai  Plaeti  o/WcrMp  is  Timet  ef  Pmeeutio*  atd 
Trailir. — Chimbcn  an  found  idaptal  to  thii  purpive,  | 
■oma  capable  of  holding  a  amall  aasemblr  of  wonbip- 1 
pen,  and  otlnn  having  room  for  but  a  few,  wbo  pmb- 1 
ably  went  (here  to  commeniante  the  dead  linried  in 
the  CTTpti.  In  aome  ciMii  there  La  an  opening  from  ! 
tfaCH  erypte  to  the  upper  air  saffldentto  latin  light,  but  I 
oommonly  they  were  illuminated  h}'  Umpa  suipended 
bj  bronze  chaina  (Tom  the  roof.  Ciatems  and  well*  | 
are  Bometimea  found  in  tbem  whlcb  aerved  for  Dae  in  | 
baptiama.  "  The  snperatitioDa  reTCreace  which  In  i 
iMer  timaa  wai  paid  to  the  relici  of  martyr*  «■*  per- 
haps owing,  in  aome  meaaara,  to  the  living  and  the 
dead  being  bronglit  Into  w  close  contact  in  the  early 
•gei,  and  to  the  neceaaity  of  the  mme  place  being  Daed 
■t  once  for  the  offices  of  devotion  and  for  bnrial"  (Bur- 
tan,  Ecda.  Biitorii,  p.  B41).  In  later  timea  cbnnhea 
wore  built  over  the  entrance*  to  the  chief  catacomba ; 
e,  g.  St.  Pctei'a,  o\-er  thoM  of  the  Vatican ;  St.  PaulX 
DTer  thoae  of  St.  Lncina;  St.  Agnes,  over  the  csta- 
nnnbt  which  bear  her  name,  and  in  which,  according , 
to  tradition,  she  *rai  burled. 

B.  At  Flaea  of  Rrfugr.^U  is  among  the  Romsn 
traditions  that  Pope  Stephen  long  dwelt  in  the  Cati- 
comba,  held  aynod*  tberf,  and  was  Anally  killed  in  his 
eiriacopsl  chair.  Even  aRcr  the  eatabliahment  of  tbc 
Church  nnilcr  Conatantine,  the  Catacomba  acrved  for 

B"  icea  of  roftige  for  various  popea  In  time*  of  trouble, 
berius,  it  'a  said,  lived  «  year  In  the  cemeteTv  of  St. 
Agnes;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  lllth  centurj-,  dur- 
ing one  of  the  many  diaputes  fbr  tbe  pajial  chair,  Booi- 
bca  concealed  hinuclfin  one  of  the  catocumtia.  Thero 
i*  little  doubt  that  large  numbers  of  Chriatione  took 
reftigo  in  tho  Catacombs  during  tbo  early  peniecutiona. 
A  Proteslant  writer  remarks  thai  In  the  preparation  of 
these  vnnt  cavema  wa  may  trice  the  presiding  csra  of 
Providence.  "Aa  America,  diacovored  a  few  yeirs 
before  the  Reformation,  furnished  a  hiding-place  of  rcf- 
nga  to  the  ProteaUnta  who  fled  from  eeelcaliDtical  in- 
t^nnce,  ao  tlie  catacomba,  iropenod  ahorllr  Ijcforc 
the  llrtU  (four  lj!rd,nuppli«l  shelter  tnthoChriatbns 
In  Roma  during  the  frequent  proseriptione  of  tbo  sec- 
ond and  thlnl  centariea.  When  the  Gospel  woa  Unit 
propagated  in  the  imperial  city  ita  adherents  belonged 
chiefly  to  the  lower  classes;  and,  for  reiaona  of  which 
it  is  now  imposaible  to  apeak  with  certainty,  It  seems 
to  have  been  soon  very  generally  embraced  by  the 
qnariTmen  and  sand-diggers.  It  ia  prohal  le  that  many 
were  condemned  to  labor  in  those  minen  as  a  poniah- 
mont  for  having  embraced  Chrietlanity  (see  I.en's  Tkrtt 
Ltctura,  Dublin,  p.  SS ;  Maitland^a  Clmnh  in  Ihe  Cola- 
eomit,  p.  £4.  Dr.  Maltland  visited  Borne  in  1M1,  but 
bl*  Inspection  of  the  LapUarUn  Gallery  reems  to  bave 


6  CATACOMBS 

been  regarded  with  extreme  Jsaloaay  by  the  aatboifc 
ttea  Ibere).  Thna  il  waa  when  persecution  raged  in  tha 
cipiUli  the  Cbriatlan  felt  himself  comparatively  s«fe 
In  the  catacombs.  The  parties  in  chii^  of  them  were 
hia  friends  ;  they  could  give  him  seaaonable  intimation 
of  the  approach  of  danger,  and  among  these  *dena  aiid 
cave*  of  the  earth,'  with  conntlets  places  of  intrrrss  and 
egress,  the  officer*  ot  government  must  have  attempted 
in  vain  to  overtake  a  fugitive"  (Klllen,  TV  AmcUat 
dturdi,  p.  UO). 

IT.  A'mAer  and  Eiletil  of  lie  Calaeoailt.~Tiui  ac- 
tual number  of  cata.^omb*  has  never  been  accurately 
known.  Aringhi,  followed  by  other  wtilen,  gave  tb« 
number  aa  higb  as  sixty,  hut  witboni  proof.  De  Rfir- 
tl'a  list  gives  forty-two,  only  twenly-tix  of  which  arc 
extensive,  «hile  Ave  date  after  the  peace  secured  for 
the  Church  under  Conatantine,  mostly  within  a  circle 
of  three  mile*  from  the  modem  walls;  the  nost  re- 
mote being  that  of  St.  Alexander,  about  six  roiles  on 
the  Via  Komentina.  It  wa*  ftirmerly  held  that  the 
I  catacombs  around  Rome  were  connected  together  in  a 
vast  system,  but  De  Rossi  has  ahown  that  ibere  is  DO 
I  rach  cunnection.  The  most  remarkable  catacomba  an 
imlhelfJ>bnntotQ\tT:\\KT:  viz.  the  catacombs  of  Sts. 
Julius,  Vstentinua,  Baailla,  Glanutui,  Priscilla,  Bri^-i- 
da,  Agnes,  Hlppolylns,  Peter,  and  Harcellinna,  etc 
On  the  Via  Appla  are  the  extensive  catacombs  of  Pre- 
texlatus,  Calllatua  (not  far  from  the  latter  i*  an  inter- 
Mting  Jewish  catacomb,  discovered  in  IPSS),  SI*.  N»- 
rcua  and  Actailleus,  and  others.  On  (he  ii^<  btaJC 
there  an  few  catacomba  of  Interrat  except  tlioae  of  the 
Vatican.  Tradition  lixea  upon  this  aa  the  rpot  whers 
St.  Peter  was  buried;  and  In  the  belief  of  this  tradi- 
tion the  church  of  Si.  Peter  waa  built  on  the  neigb. 
ioring  hill.  The  modem  cemetery  of  the  Vatican  is 
over  the  more  ancient  one,  contrary  to  the  gnieral 
rule.  The  number  of  hodlea  depoaited  in  the  rata- 
Fomba  cannot,  of  couisr,  be  accuntciv  ascertained. 
r.  Uarchi  eatimotes  It  at  aix  millions'.  MicbeU  di 
Rnsni  calculates,  from  careftilli'-gathered  data,  that 
the  total  length  of  all  the  galleries  known  lo  exin  near 
Rome  is  967,S00  ysrds,  equsi  to  about  £90  miles,  but 
only  a  amall  part  of  thia  vaat  range  hae  been  exfdorod. 
V.  /nicriptuMU  awl  Sj/mbnit. — For  a  specitic  acconnt 
of  the  inscriptions  and  fymlols  of  the  Cabcombs,  so* 
the  Btticlcs  IhscriftidkS;  Simboi-um.  The  collec- 
tions of  the  Vatican  and  the  Lateran  contain  multi- 
tude* of  Ihoae  remains,  which  can  now  lie  studied  ia 
De  Rossi's  Ittterlptumtt  arittiamt  Crtii  Rama  (IF61), 
and  in  other  works  named  at  the  end  of  this  article. 
On  most  of  the  slabs  i*  found  the  Conatantinian  tnono- 
Qram  of  Chriat  ^  ,  or  a^ui.  The  sculpture*  end 
paintin  n  are  either  lii-tTlcsl  or  symbolical.  Among 
Iho  former,  ftmn  the  Old  Testament,  are  the  fall  of 
Adorn  and  f.ve,  Noah  in  the  ark,  the  eacriflce  of  Abr»- 
liam.  Moses  etrikiog  the  rock,  tho  *tor}-  of  Jonar,  Daniel 
in  tho  lions'  den,  Ihc  three  Israelites  In  the  furnace,  tlw 
ascent  of  Eliaa,  etc.  Frrm  the  New  Testament,  thn 
Nativity,  tho  adoration  of  the  Hagi,  the  changn  of 
water  into  wine,  the  multiplication  of  loaves,  the  heal- 
ing of  the  cripple,  the  raiiJng  oSl^itrat,  Christ  enter- 
ing Jeruaalem  on  an  aaa,  Peter  denying  Christ,  betwaen 
tvoJowa;  the  arreatnf  Peter,  Pilate  vaihing  his  hands; 
in  one  instance  (on  a  sarcophagus),  the  pr  Idiers  cioim- 
Ing  our  Lord  in  mockery,  but  it  garland  o'Jfr-iorrs  being 
tubetituted  for  the  crown  of  Chorus.     >.o  Crurijbitm 

or  St.  Peter  appear  before  the  ftinrth  century. 

"Turning  to  the  purelv  aymlolic,  we  find  most  fVc- 
qucntly  introduced,  the  Iamb  (later  appearing  witb  tils 
nlmlin*  round  Ita  head),  snd  the  various  other  fornis  fn 
which  bilh  contemplated  the  Erdcemer,  namely,  th« 
f;ood  ahepherd,  Orpheus  charming  wild  animala  with 
his  lyre,  the  vine,  the  olive,  the  rock,  a  light,  a  col- 
umn, a  fountain,  a  lion  ;  and  «a'm*y  read  seven  poetic 
line*  by  Pope  Damaius  enomeratiDg  all  tin  ti^ca  <■ 


CATACOMBS 


U1 


CATACOMBS 


ijBibtla  nftning  ta  the  uuae  dlviae  penonill^,  «n 
prinig,  bedde*  tb*  abOTs,  t,  king,  a  giant,  a  gfitn, 
pie,  ■  rod,  a  hand,  a  houH,  a  net,  a  vineyard.  Bat, ' 
nxBg  all  othen,  the  aymbol  meet  frequently  leei)  ia  . 
Ibgftih.  Sea  IcUTHBB.  We  And  bIm  the  doTe  for 
Oe  Holy  Spirit,  or  tOr  beatified  splilti  KeiM^lIyi  '■^' 
K)^  Ibr  the  deaii*  after  baptism  and  heavenly  Iruth  ; 
aniMabra,  tbr  lUamlaation  through  the  Goapal;  a 
lUp,  for  the  Charcb— nmetiniea  repnaentsd  sailing ' 


■tar  a  ll^t-hcKue,  to  ilgniiy  the  Church  guided  1>y 
the  •Dime  of  all  light  and  truths  a  Hah  awlminliig 
with  a  baikat  of  btead  on  Its  back,  for  tin  eucharlMic 
(•eruMut;  tba  borae,  ftir  eagemeu  or  apaed  in  em- 
iHadng  divine  doctrine ;  the  lioD,  for  martyr  Ibrtitade, 
or  rigHana  ag^nat  the  anans  of  «ia  (as  well  ai  vith 
Ibd  U^ier  atlinian  above  noticed);  the  peacock,  for 
immectalltif  j  the  phonix,  for  the  reinrrection ;  the 
kaca,  for  peraeeation,  or  the  perili  to  which  the  tiiith- 


I  tettitnony  from  the  tombe.  Hippolytns  tstli  ni 
(PAUiHfNlluwiKl,  lib.  ix)  that,  dunog  the  epucopala 
of  Zepbyrinui,  (jalliatua  wee  'Mt  ovsr  the  cumetery.' 
Thii  was  [o-obably  considered  a  highly  important  troat, 
aa,  in  thoie  perilous  timea,  the  safety  of  ^e  Chriatiau* 
very  much  depended  on  the  prudence,  activity,  and 
courage  of  the  individual  who  had  the  charge  Mf  their 
subtarrunean  refuge.  The  new  curator  seems  to  have 
signalized  himself  by  the  ability  with  vbich  be  dis- 
chared  the  duties  of  his  appointment;  he  probably 
embellinbed  and  enlarged  so.iie  uf  these  dreary  cavea  ; 
of  the  CuCacombH  was  designated 


falm 


•  and  pride,  as  the  dove  (besides  its  other 
_  i)  reminded  of  the  simplicity  becoming  to  bo- 
limn.  Certain  trees  also  appear  in  the  same  myatic 
vder :  the  cypress  and  the  pine,  fbr  death ;  the  palm. 
fDTTictory;  the  oUre,  for  thj  fniit  of  good  works,  the 
Autre  rf  virtae,  mercy,  purity,  or  peace ;  the  vine,  not 
only  for  the  enchariat  and  the  person  of  the  Lord,  but 
•Ise  for  the  union  of  the  faithful  in  and  with  him" 
(Hnoans,  in  Conttntp.  Heciew,  SspL  1866). 

Alto  tba  spirit  of  the  inscriptions  and  syrobols,  two 
things  are  to  be  noticed  :  1.  Their  entire  opposition  to 
A(  Pagan  apirit.  9.  Their  almost  entire  fmedom  fVvm 
Ihe  later  Boinsnist  erroia.  As  to  the  flrst,  the  inscrlp- 
lioBs  o«  Pagan  tombs  are  nnurkable  for  their  painful 
iihibitiDn  either  of  despair  »t  of  rebellion  against  tbo 
Dirina  will ;  for  instance,  one  taken  from  the  right- 
haad  wsUof  the  Lapidarian  gaUery:  "  Caids  Jdlids 
Kixixn^  (aged)  two  jtart  and  Jim  sMaCii.  0  nleut-  \ 
imfarltPK,  icAi  ddigilat  i»  erad  duUk,  wty  u  Ha:ii- 
■DB  M  swUas^ taatdttd/nm  met  Navho  laliif  ned 
nlit/q/WBKsqrkaDn.  TUsstnHanBaijribAutoaii 
-idtM  Ut  aaeOsr."  In  the  Christian  inscriptions,  on 
the  otliar  hand,  we  And  expreiaiani  of  hope,  peace, 
nsigaatiaTi,  bot  nothing  of  despair,  hardly  even  sor- 
rair.  "'Vlris  tn  Deo,'  most  incient  In  such  use; 
'Tlvein  nterno;' 'PaK  ipiritn  too;'  'In  pace  Domini 
doraii,'  frequently  introdaced  before  the  period  of 
Ceastantine'a  convenion,  but  later  falling  into  disuse ; 
'In  p«)e'  continuing  to  be  the  established  Chri!>tiiin 
biBaia,  though  also  found  in  the  epltaplis  of  Jews ; 
widle  the  'Vliit  in  psce,'  very  rare  in  Roman  Inicrip- 
tiODa,  appears  commonly  among  thoee  of  Africa  and 
•f  seTersl  French  citica,  otherwise  that  distinctive 
phnsaof  thaPagane^riUph, 'TiiH' (as  if 
records  of  the  grave  to  present  lifto  rather  than  death 
lo  the  maatal  eye),  does  not  putaln  to  Christian  termi- 
nola^"  (Hemans,  I.  c). 

As  to  the  otIieT  point,  the  freedom  from  later  Roman 
doctrines  and  tnpentitlons,  we  take  the  Ibllowing  pas- 
Sags  from  KiUen  ^Tke  An^itnl  Ciank,  p.  651  sq.): 
"  These  wltneaaei  to  the  faith  of  the  eariy  Church  of 
Bane  altogether  rapodiite  the  worship  of  the  Virgin 
Uaiy,  tor  the  inscriptions  of  the  I^pidarian  Gallery, 
all  arranged  nuder  the  papal  aupervi^n.  contain  no 
addresaes  to  the  motiiBr  of  our  Lord  (Uailland,  p.  H). 
Thay  point  only  to  Jeans  as  the  great  Mediator,  Re- 
daeaMT,  and  Friend.  Farther,  Instead  of  speaking  of 
aassa  Ibr  the  repoas  of  eonls,  or  representing  departed 
beliercn  aa  stiU  to  paaa  through  purgatory-,  the  Inscrip- 
liiMs  daeerlbe  the  deceased  as  having  entered  immedi' 
alaly  nito  etamsl  rvst.  'Alexander,'  aays  one  of  then, 
'i>  not  dead,  but  lives  beyond  the  stars,  and  his  bodv 
nats  in  this  tomb.'  '  Rerr,' says  another, 'lies  Pauli- 
na, la  tba  place  of  tbn  blessed.'  'Gemella,'  says  a 
ttvd,  'slaciH  in  peace.'  'Aselua,'  aays  a  tburth, 
■  sleeps  fa>  Oriiit'  (lUltlaod,  pp.  SS,  U,  48, 170).  On 
k  IliM  point,  via.  oelibacy,  we  gaUw  the  following 


by  the  SI 


itery  of  Callistus.'  HippolytUB,  led  astray 
«tic  spirit  beginning  so  strongly  to  prev^ 
In  the  commencement  of  the  third  century,  was  op- 
posed to  sll  second  marriiiKBS,  an  that  he  waa  sadly 
acandalited  by  the  exceedingly  liberal  views  of  his 
Roman  brother  on  the  subject  of  matrimony ;  and  he 
was  so  llUnformed  as  to  pronoance  them  novel.  '  In 
bis  tiros,'  says  ha  Indignantly,  'bishops,  presbyteia, 
and  deacons,  though  they  had  been  two  or  three  times 
married,  l>egan  to  be  recognised  as  God's  ministers; 
and  if  any  ons  of  the  clergy  married,  It  was  dete^ 
mined  that  such  a  persm  aboold  remain  among  the 
clergy  aj  not  having  sinned'  (^PkUoiopkamena,  lib.  Iz. 
TertulUsn  corrobontea  the  charge  of  Hippolytus,  Di 
Pitduitia,  cap.  1).  We  cannot  tell  how  many  of  the 
ancient  biahops  of  the  great  city  were  husbands.  We 
know,  bowever,  that,  long  after  this  period,  married 
bishops  were  to  l>e  fbond  almost  every  whrre.  One  of 
the  most  eminent  martjTs  in  the  Diocletian  penecution 
was  a  bishop  who  bad  a  »lfe  and  children  (EnseUus,  Ub. 
viil,  c.  S).  Clemens  Komanus  speaks  as  a  married  man 
{Kp.adl^r.^n).  But  the  inscriptlona  in  the  Catacombs 
show  that  the  primitive  Church  of  Rome  did  not  Impose 
celibacy  on  lier  ministen.  There  is,  for  Instance,  a 
monument '  To  Bi^ns,  the  presbyter,  and  Kelicitas,  his 
wife;'  and  on  another  tombetone,  erected  about  A.D. 
47!,  or  only  (bar  yoara  before  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire,  there  la  the  following  singular  record ;  '  Petro- 
nia,  a  deacon's  wife,  the  type  of  modesty.  In  Uds  place 
I  lay  my  bones :  spare  your  tean,  dear  busliand  and 
daughters,  and  believe  that  it  is  forbidden  to  weep  Ibr 
one  who  Uvea  in  God'  (Hailland,  p.  191-198 ;  Arin- 
gbl, t,  121, 419).  'Here,'sayBanoIharepitaph,  'Suaan- 
na,  the  happy  daughter  of  tlie  lata  presbi-ter  Gabinus, 
lies  in  peace  along  with  her  father' (Aringhl,  11,398; 
Rnme.ieil).  In  the  LapidarianGalteryoftho  Vatican 
tliere  are  other  epitaphs  to  the  same  effect." 

The  doctrinal  leasona  to  be  drawn  from  the  Cata- 
comlM  are  also  treated  in  two  articles  in  tho  Revue 
airilieme(i&  Hai,  1864;  15 Jnin,  I8C4),  hy  Keller,  who, 
after  a  careful  study  of  the  conrormation,  etc.  of  the 
Catacombs,  and  of  their  tombs,  chapels,  etc. ;  of  tlia 
inscriptions,  of  the  paintings,  and,  Anally,  of  the  sai^ 
copbagi,  with  theii  sculptures,  arrives  at  the  following 
conclusbms:  The  use  of  the  Cstacomhs  at  places  of 
worship  dales  from  the  3d  century;  tho  subititntion 
of  the  altar  Ibr  the  conniunlon'tibio  dates  from  the 
4Ih.  The  Episcopal  Cathedra  appears  Dt  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  6th  century.  No  specifically  Romanist 
doctrine  finds  any  auppott  in  Inscrlptioni  dating  iiebra 
the  4th  century.  We  liegin  to  trace  signs  of  asint- 
woTship  in  the  Gth  century.  Tho  flnt  idea  of  the 
tranaminion  of  power  from  Christ  to  Peter  dales  from 
the  latter  part  cf  the  Gth  to  tho  beginning  of  the  6th, 
and  even  then  Peter's  flgure  does  not  appear  armed 
witb  the  keys,  as  in  tho  liter  symljollsm.  Finally, 
Protestantism  has  eyeiy  thing  to  gain,  and  nothing  to 
lose,  from  the  most  Iborongh  sEody  of  the  remains 
gathered  with  so  much  care  tnm  the  Cstacomlw  by 
the  authorities  ofthe  Church  of  Rome. 

VI,  Ijiler  Hiitmy  and  IJUrabirf.—l.  Middle  Age.^ 

After  the  6th  century  no  additions  seem  to  have  been 

made  to  the  Catacombs.     Alter  a  corridor  or  passage 

I  was  filled,  it  appears  to  havo  been  blocked  up  with 

The  Iniiption  of  the  barbarians  seems  to  cola. 


CATACOMBS  1. 

ctde  wtth  the  dlntae  of  the  *ndent  cemsttrict  w  bnrUl- 
plocef.  Bud  the;  fell  Into  oe^oct  and  ruin.  Pops  Paul 
1  (t  7<>7)  removed  the  liooea  of  many  martyn  and  lo- 
ciUed  uinta  from  the  Catucomlji,  (oddutriuuted  tbem 
among  chuichet  and  nioiuittcriea.  But  the  Ci>nib«  of 
the  nurtjrs  continued  to  be  objecti  of  rsverance,  and 
pill^niai^  were  made  to  them,  eepadallj  to  those  of 
St.  Soliutian,  OTer  which  a  church  had  been  bnilt,  and 
vhich  remained  accenelble.  The  Cruiaden  thronged 
the  (ubterranean  corridom,  and  carried  offbnnea  of  the 
dead  in  auch  number*  that  tbe  popea  denounced  the  ' 
which  the  penalty  ghoiild  be  excom-  | 


ral  c 
moat  part,  unknown 


Theii 


s  became,  fur  tbe 


b  roond  in  the  names  of  Kaynuiio  Farneae  (father  of 
Panl  III)  and  otben,  murked  hy  an  inscription  in  the 
Cataconibi  of  St.  Callli>tiM,  of  d..t3  IlttO. 

i.Modim  Scifta-fie  Eipbrra/iim.—la  1GT8  a  Domin- 
ican named  Alphonae  Ciacconio,  learning  that  a  c«me- 
teiy  (St.  Priacilla't)  had  been  opened  on  the  Salarian 
Way.  mudo  a  partial  exploimtlon  of  it,  and  pave  de- 
dgnii  of  scnlpturen,  etc.  fonnd  in  it.  ALont  1590  lie 
vaajoined  by  a  young  Frenchman  named  Wingh.  But 
Antonio  Buaio  (t  1600)  wh  the  real  founder  of  the  mod. 
em  atudy  of  the  Calacombi.  He  devoted  to  it  thirty 
ycara  of  labor,  the  fruita  of  which  appeared  only  after 
bia  death,  in  Jtoma  SoHrmmai,  compiled  from  Bosio's 
MSS.  liy  Severano,  an  Onlorian  prieat  (Roma,  163?,  1 
vol.  foL),  and  lubseqnently  anoUier  Oratorian,  Arin- 
ghi,  bron;:ht  out.  with  additiona,  the  eame  work  in  L^t' 
In  (Rome,  1651,  a  vein,  fol. :  Cologne,  1669,  2  vols.  ful.).  ] 
The  works  of  Boalo  nnd  AHnghi  vers  like  a  revelation 
to  the  learned  world,  and  gave  a  great  impolse  to  ar- 
cbcologiol  rtudiea.  In  ITOS  appeared  Fabretti'a  la- 
tcriptiimn  A at'qaa,  and  in  1720  Cimilfri  dti  SamH  Mat. 
Uri,  by  Boldettl,  the  frnit  of  thirty  yeara'  labor.  The 
Sa^Te  e  Pilture  Saerc  (Sacred  Scnlpturea  and  Paint- 
inga  from  the  Ccmeleriea  of  Rome,  S  Toln.  fot.X  by  Bot- 
tarl  (1T87-6J),  li  a  very  valuable  and  fully  illustiated  i 
vork,  luing  Ikwlo'a  materials,  and  eren  his  copper-  J 
platca.  Original  iketchea  of  Fculptorva  fhim  the  Cat-  | 
acombs  are  given  by  D'Agincourt,  IfiiMre  dan  par  , 
laMmnmatlt  (Paris,  1F11.23,  C  >-a1s.  fol).  But  in  the  ' 
eighteenth  century  little  wan  done  for  the  exploration  , 
or  illnatraUon  of  the  Catacom'  a,  and  it  is  only  since 
18!0  tbat  the  research  has  been  carried  an  in  a  resUy 

Jesuit  padro  Ginaeppe  Marehl,  whoso  Jfojiammh' /^im- 
ttiri  diOt  Arlt  Ckrii&ntt  (Roma,  1844,  TO  plates,  4lo)  is 
confined  wholly  to  tbe  topagTa{Jiy  and  architectore  of 
tbe  Catacombs.  It  waa  to  have  been  followed  by  a 
Mcond  volume  on  the  paintings,  and  a  third  on  tho 
acDlptnres.  Tbe  French  government  has  been  at  the 
expense  of  publishing,  nnder  the  patronage  of  tho 
Ai^emy  of  Inscriptionf,  the  linely-il  Inst  rated  work  of 
Ferret,  l.a  Calaamba  dt  Rome  (Pari.i,  lH5!'ii,  G  tdIs. 
fbl.),  a  work  of  more  artuitic  than  original  scientific 
Taloe,  bat  yet  exceedingly  valuable  for  study.  Tbe 
Sth  volume  givea  4S0  Christian  Inscriptions,  carefnlly 
repTDdnced.  But  all  previous  worka  are  thrown  into 
tbe  shade  by  those  of  Chevalier  G.  B.  dl  Rossi,  who 
baa  given  ntanv  yean  to  personal  research  In  tbe  Cat- 
acombs (dded'ky  his  brother  Uichcle  di  Bosel),  and 
whose  Roma  SoitfTTonta,  of  whicli  vol.  i  appeared  in 
186G  (4lo,  with  Atlas  of  10  plates),  will,  wben  comple- 
ted (in  3  vols.),  make  the  stndy  of  the  Catacemba  easy, 
without  a  personal  visit  to  Homo.  Ho  has  also  pub- 
lished (under  tho  patronaso  of  Plus  IX)  Iturriptiima 
Chritiaim  wrW.  Itoma  (1K61,  vol.  i,  fcl.),  conUining 
tfao  Chrirtian  Inpcriptions  of  Rome  anterior  to  the  Cth 
century.  Among  minor  works  are  Northcote  (Rom. 
Cath.1,  Tkt  Roman  CMiromif  (London,  1^56,  3d  ed. 
limo);  BUit1and,CViin-ii'ntAeCaAininif(lx)Dd.  1847, 1 
3ded.evo);  &\f,ThtCataa>mbtofltowuQi.-i.W6i,' 


:8  CATECHETICS 

l!mo)j  Bsllermann,  Atll.  eiruth'rlie  BrgrJfnt!—tlStlf» 
u.  d.  KatatowAm  ai  Kfoptt  (Hamb.  18.19).  S««  aim 
Hurray.  Itamdboot  -/Rome,  i  B5 ;  Schaff.  CkinA  Hid. 
i,  3  B3 ;  Bimusat,  tfaaii  Cir^ .  iJs  Airar  (in  Am.  if. /Vmz 
Jfoadu,  15  Jain.  I86S);  Jeban,  Diet,  da  Or,gi»t»  rf« 
C4ru«o«rt«c,p.!18sq.i  VLtx^Tty,Diei,de,  At^qmtii 
OrH.  p.  106  aq. ;  Lecky,  i/iafmy  tf  RalioKalum,  i,  Sl« 
iq.;  A»j«i*  RtvioB,  v.  476;  EdMurgh  Siv.  vol.  cix, 
p.  101;  vol.  cxx.  p,  ]12  (Am,  ed.);  Booli,  Tkealagit 
da  Valacomba  (Anas,  1H64).     See  CnriTV-,   Looa- 

"JBj    iNSCHlPTiOHB  I    SlKBOUBK. 

CaUAlloo  (Ital.  a  MrafolJ),  or  CATAFALQUE,  a 
temporary  oenotapb  of  carpentry.  Intended  to  reprvMnt 
a  tomb,  and  with  decorationa  of  aculpture,  and  painting 
or  upholstery.  It  la  employed  in  funeral  ceremoakl 
in  the  Church  of  Rome,  especially  in  luly. 

Cataldna,  bishop  of  Tarentum,  a  saint  of  tbe  Ro> 
man  calendar.  Annrdlng  to  one  account,  he  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  and  came  to  Italy  In  the  fifth  or  sixth  «■>- 
tury.  HarvellouB  stories  of  miracles  and  wonders  are 
connected  with  his  birth  and  histuiy  in  the  Tsrentine 
traditionr.  Sea  Hoefer,  A'ooi;.  Biog.  Ginfmle,  ix,  141 ; 
Henoir,  Beal-F.ntikhpidir,  sapplem.  p.  808  ;  AVa 
Stmdorvm,  t.  ii,  Mali,  p.  669. 

Cstaphiyglaiis,  a  name  anciently  gin-n  to  tba 
Montanists,  becauae  UonUnna  flrvt  publiebrd  hia  o^a- 
iona  in  a  village  of  Hyaia,  on  tbe  burden  of  Ptiygia. 

See  HOXTANISTB. 

Cateohatlcal Instruction.  SeeCaTccBmcs; 
Cat«cliatlc«l  BchoolB.    Sea  Axnoca  and  Ain 


(SCRC 


L.r). 


Catectiatlca,  CAntcHizjiTion.  Catechetica  ia 
that  part  of  the  sdence  aif  theology  which  tronta  of 
catechetical  religious  instruction  (onder  Church  ao- 
thority),  both  with  regard  to  theory  and  practice,  ll 
belongs  to  the  depsTtment  of  Practical  Theology. 

].  A^oma  and  Scope.  —  Tlia  term  la  derived  from 
Ennj^i w,  to  nwnf  out  aloud ;  to  amid  inlo  oite't  rm ; 
and  hence,  in  K.  T.,  to  inlnia  orally  (1  Cor.  xiv,  19 ; 
Gal.  vl,  6,  et  al).  In  the  N.  T.  tbe  word  apidire  to  all 
kinds  of  oral  Inslmction  ;  but  its  derivatives,  in  later 
use,  acquired  a  special  applbntkin  to  Instruction  given 
to  proselytes  aeekinu  hspdrrn.  Still  Uter,  tbe  Mina 
terms  cams  toapplytoelenient:.iy  Instruction  in  Chris- 
tianity, whether  given  to  pn^sclyies  seeking  ^aptis^l, 
or  (and  thlschiefly)  to  baptiicd  children  in  (he  Cburrh. 
Tho  act  of  giving  snib  instruction  ia  called  aifeciiMimg, 
or  cattck'iatirm.  The  person  Instructing  is  (ailed  a 
catechiat  (q.  v.) ;  the  persons  tanght  are  called  eate- 
tiumnit  (q.  v.);  tbe  anbatance  of  the  instruction  (In 
later  times  a  small  book)  ia  called  ne  Cnlwhitm  (q.  v.). 
It  belongs  to  Catechatics,  us  a  liranch  of  theology,  to 
treat  of  sU  these  heads ;  but,  for  convenience  of  refers 
encc.  we  treat  the  three  latter  in  separata  article*,  in 
their  alphalwtlcal  order. 

a.  Jliilory.— The  adenco  of  Catochetics,  as  fuch,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  until  nftrr  the 
Refoimatlon.  Bat  as  ttie  necessities  of  tho  case  gava 
rise  to  oral  instruction  in  Ctuistianlty  fh>m  the  very 
beginning,  atid  to  the  sulisequent  development  of  tbb 
inslmction  Into  ■  systematic  Iranch  of  Church  activitj, 
wc  find  indications  of  Catechetici  at  all  periods. 

(1.)  Befnrt  the  Rrfamatiim.—'nB  Arst  teaching  of 
Christ  and  hia  apostles  wsa  nceesaarflyoral,  and  paTtlj 
homiletlcal.  partly  catechetical.  But  wo  find  no  men- 
tion In  the  N.T.  of  cstechisU  aa  Church  functloDsriea. 
In  the  second  century  we  find  mention  uf  catecfaUta 
and  catechumens  (e.  g.  in  tho  CIrmeniinrw,  q.  v.).  Un- 
der the  catcchdical  system  of  tbe  fourth  century,  tlia 
catechumens  were  taught  the  Ten  CcmmindmrDta,  a 
creed,  or  summary  confession  of  faith,  and  tho  Lord'* 
rrayer,  with  suitable  expositions;  but,  prior  to  bap- 
tism, the  nature  of  tbe  sacraments  was  csreftally  con- 
cealed. SeeARCA!(iDiBciri.i>A;  CaTECHtnans.  Tba 
Apoilolical  Corulitiitiau  (q.  v.)  not  Only  mention  tho 


CATEOHETICS 


Kx  tbTM  ytm  ■■  the  period  of  In- 
1  (vili,  39).  Sm  Alsjumdbiai  Autioch 
(ScuooLC  or).  In  Gngary  at  Nyiu'i  Ct  BM)  \riy<.f 
earryirKnc  u  /lirai'  (ed.  KntuDger,  MoiMC.  18tU>),  and 
u  CrrU  of  Junukm'i  (^  S86)  Karqxvr«i:  (CaUcheti- 
nl  diKoanu),  wa  And  catacbtlical  iutmcUon  fir  both 
fcwtlytf  uid  Dawlj-liaptiud  p»no».  Aogiutliia 
■nto  ■  tnct.  As  CblMMiiiidu  mlifau  (opp.  «f.  Arwrf. 
I.  Ti).  AfUr  On  CliDrch  had  bscoma  nUlillihed,  ud 
lu  Incnue  wu  obUiped  by  tba  birth  and  baptum  of 
cUUriB  nther  than  by  cwnvenloni  Tniin  heatbeadooi, 
tb*  id«a  of  cMBcbttied  Inatruclkin  puied  (Vom  baing 
tbal  of  a  preparation  lot  baptbm  to  twing  tbat  of  *  cul- 
tan  of  baptiud  childnn.  When  coafirmatloa  became 
pvwr^  ottcchetieal  initnictian  began  to  bear  the  laine 
nlatton  (alt  that  It  had  Ibnneil}' done  ta.bapliirn.  In 
the  BuKioas  to  beatbens,  In  tbe  Middle  Age,  it  became 
uaallo  baptize  converuat  once,  and  tbe  ancient  cate- 
chamenata  lell  into  diinie.  Nor  wa*  great  attention 
giT*n  to  the  catechiiing  of  baptized  children  hi  the 
Sooaa  CbiiTch  up  to  tbe  time  of  tbe  Rerormallon  j  the 
cnbaiiaiial  look  tha  place  of  the  Catecbiam.  See 
Catkchisx.  The  namea  of  Bnuics  btihop  of  WOn- 
hDK  {lllh  centniy),  Hngo  de  SL  Victore,  Otto  of 
fianberg,  aod  John  Geraon,  are  to  be  mentioned  ai 
•ctiire  In  rBatodng  catechetical  Inatrnctlan.  The  Wal- 
deuaea,  WlclilBtas,  and  other  raffvinlDg  secta  gave  at- 
tantiDg  to  the  nibjoct.  On  tha  Waldentlan  Catecbiim, 
•••  ZeiachwiU,  KauMtme»  do-  ITiiUnHr  uiid  BDItm. 
Brwier  (EiiMagBa,lWS);  JaJUrbii.iir  fir  dtiatdt  Tht- 
>*fi>,  U,  2.  SM. 

il.)  aiaa  iMe  Rrf)rma6<m.—\M  the  Beformatjan  waa 
a  niirsl  of  religion  for  tha  human  Inlallect  aa  veil  aa 
te  the  heart,  it  natnratly  followed  that  the  tralnbig  of 
chttdren  aooD  came  to  demand  new  methoda,  at  the 
reatoration  of  old  methoda,  of  grounding  them  In  tbe 
bith.  Lather  waa  the  father  of  modem  catechetica, 
both  bj  the  Calachlimi  (q.  v.)  which  ha  hlmaelf  pre- 1 
pared,  and  by  tha  writing!  in  which  be  exfJained  Cats-  ' 
chiliei  and  gara  an  impnlae  to  their  punnlt  The  | 
Tdocipal  pointa  of  Lather's  Catecbiim)  are  tbe  Deca- 
loftte,  the  Cned,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Sacra- 
naat*  (1519}.  Lather,  with  true  iniigbt,  however, 
taaght  that  catechltation  ahoold  not  merely  include 
tbe  hearing  of  a  tedlallon  tnra  the  Iwoli.  bat  alao  an 
eiplanation  and  an  application  of  it  to  the  hearta  of  tbe 
popOt  (aee  prefacea  to  hia  larger  and  amaller  Cate- 
cUaoB,  and  also  BrOalleiD,  LuOitr'i  Emfiiu  ratf  da$ 
VMmiadmna,  etc.,  Jena.  1851).  Calvin  aUo  pub- 
liibad  Catechiima  (IMG,  lUI),  and  in  the  preface  to 
tha  OKaoluHi  Eeda.  GnaauU  be  gaie  hia  Tiawi  of 
Ibe  Baton  and  deaign  of  Catacbianu  and  of  catecbet- 
kal  iostniction  at  length.  He  dafinea  the  Catechlam 
la  be-'formBls  endlendl  poena  In  doctrlna  Chrjati" 
(Aogiuti,  Coipei.  Ubmr.  3fmMicor.  p.  4GO-M4).  The 
BrCDnned  churcbei  generally  followed :  e.  g.  tba  Hd- 
dalberg  Cstechinn  (lUS)  for  tha  German  Reformed  ; 
lbeCharchorEnglandCatechi*m(lU8,16TS),etc,  The 
Udratic  Conleaiibni  (invu  ef  inwfju)  malies  catechita' 
tiaoadatyofpa^tiTaobligationinthaChDrch;  ".  .  . 
paatgrta,  qui  ^irentnlem  matare  et  dilJgenter  cate- 
cUaant,  prima  Adei  fUndamenta  jaclenteK,  eipKando 
Decalogum  mandalonim  Dei,  Symbolum  item  Apoato- 
1mm,  Urationem  qnoqne  Dominlcam,  et  Sacramento- 
nm  ratiaucm,  cum  ailia  ejo*  generis  primin  prindpiij, 
ftreligionia  noatrBcapltibnapnedpuii"  (CopaJ  xnlv). 
Sm  alio  tha  preface  to  tbe  Heidelberg  Catechism 
(Aigaatl,  Lib.  Sfmb.  KH  aq.),  and  tbe  article  Catb. 
fXiwtt.  In  Germany,  after  the  ftrrar  of  the  Rcfomia- 
lioa  period  bad  pealed,  and  the  wbolaitic  tbeolngiani 
Ni(iKd,tha  catechetical  initmctios  degenerated  into 
a  Bare  fcwmal  routine  of  preparation  for  mnfirmation, 
aad  the  aame  thbig  happened  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
laad.  Indeed,  thia  reaalt  appeara  to  be  inevitable 
wbem  baptfanial  regeneration  Is  believed,  and  conAr- 
malhiB  [>  made  to  follow  aa  a  mattn  of  coorae.  ftne. 
OB  and  the  rtetlaU  gave  new  Ul 


9  CATECHETICS 

■tructlon  by  connectlDg  it  with  apiritnal  teaching  and 
life  (aee  Hurat,  Hilary  iif  JtaliimaHm,  p.  90;  Thilo, 
Spimer  ail  KaUdiel,  Berl.  1840).  Tlia  Cbnich  of  Boma 
was  compelled  to  follow  tba  Kefonnars  in  catechetical 
inatroction;  the  PaMoUtauu  Amuuhij  (l&64i)  became 
the  bails  of  nnnwrous  Catechisms—thoee  ofCaniaiua, 
BelUrmin,  Bosauet,  and  Fleury  attaining  tbe  wtdeat 
Girculatlim.  Aaany  biabopcan  autboriie  aCatechiam 
for  his  diocese,  the  Komanists  hare  now  a  great  Taria- 
ty,  and  they  are  atill  iocreaaing  (aee  JlitQiog.  ^uirUU- 
tehrijt,  1863,  p.  MS). 

Tbe  theory  of  catechiiatlon  In  tbe  Proteatant 
Cbnrcb  grew  op  gradually  ftom  tbe  germa  in  Ln> 
teaching,  through  tha  period  of  decay  and  dry 
'im,  and  Anally  >hot  np  into  full  bloum  in 
Ita  principlea  are,  I .  That  the  Catecbiim  of 
tbe  Church,  itamped  with  ita  authority,  shall  be  used 
in  InatrucUon;  Z.  That  the  initractiou  Is  not  Socntlc, 
i.  a.  doee  not  aim  to  draw  out  what  is  in  tha  mind  of 
tbe  pupil,  bnt  ntlier  to  convey  revealed  truth  to  tbe 
mind  in  a  way  which  it  can  appreciate  and  nnder- 
stand  ;  S.  That  while  the  pupil  Is  to  laarn  the  words  of 
tbe  Catechiam  by  heart,  the  teacher  i>  to  explain  and 
illoatrate  them  from  tha  Bible,  and  to  enforce  Ihem  on 
tbe  heart  and  conadence  of  tba  catechumen — i.  e.  cata- 
cbiaatioD  is  to  be  not  merely  didactic,  but  practical. 
It  i*  farther  well  settled  tbat  tbe  Catechiam  of  each 
particular  ebarcb  sboold  be  taught  to  the  children  of 
that  church  (1)  by  parenta  or  guardlana  in  tbe  family; 
{i)  by  tbe  Siinday-achad  teacher,  who  ahoold  alwaya 
be  a  constant  catechlal ;  and  (8)  by  tha  paalor,  whoa* 
catechliatkin  abotdd  not  only  be  >  teat  of  tbe  proAeien- 
cy  of  the  children  under  home  and  Sunday.«chool  In- 
atmeUon.  but  should  include  exhortation,  liluatratioD, 
and  application  alao.  It  was  ooe  of  Spener's  gloriea 
that  ha  intniduced  public  catecbiiation ;  and  the  pas- 
tor who  fails,  at  fixed  timea,  to  catecbiie  the  children 

pmence  of  the  congregation,  toees  one  of  tbe  most 
important  means  of  Cbiatian  culture  within  the  aphera 
of  Church  life. 

Dr.  Ashliel  Oreen  (LtUvrtM  <m  llu  Skorltr  CaM- 
eUtm,  vol.  i),  in  bis  Julrodiieton/  Ijc/ure,  thus  speaka 
of  tbe  advjntims  of  eatecbiiation  :  "The  catechetic- 
al or  questlonary  form  of  reiigloui  oummaries  renden 
them  moat  ea«y  and  interesting  to  cbildnn  and  youth, 
and,  indeed,  to  Chriatlana  of  all  ages  and  dcscriptiona. 
For  myself,  I  have  no  reluctance  to  staU  here  publicly 
what  1  have  ftequently  mentioned  in  private,  that  in 
tbe  composition  of  sermons  one  of  tbe  readleet  and  beat 
aids  I  have  ever  found  has  been  my  Catechism.  Let 
me  add,  brtber,  that  long  observaUcm  has  satisfled  me 
that  a  principal  reason  why  Instruction  and  exborta- 
tion  from  tbe  pnlpit  ate  so  little  efficBcious,  Is,  that 
they  presuppose  a  degree  of  information,  or  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  truths  and  doctrines  of  divine  rev- 
elation, wlilcb,  by  a  great  part  of  the  bearers,  la  not 
poasessad,  and  which  would  beat  of  all  have  been  sup- 
plied by  catechetical  instruction.  It  la  exactly  thIa 
kind  of  instruction  wbicb  is  at  the  present  time  moat 
urgently  needfd  in  many,  perhaps  In  most  of  our  con- 
gregations. It  la  neeiied  to  imbue  effectually  the 
miuda  of  our  people  with  "tbe  first  principles  of  the 
orKl«ofGod,"to  Indoctrinate  them  soundly  and  sys- 
tematically in  revealed  Imth,  and  tbnt  to  guard  them 
afcalnat  being  "curried  about  with  every  wind  of  doc- 
trine," as  wall  aa  to  qualify  them  to  }ohi  in  the  weekly 
service  of  tbe  sanctuary  with  foil  noderatandinir,  and 
with  mlnda  in  all  respecta  prrpared  for  the  right  and 
deep  Imptesalon  of  what  they  hoar." 

The  duly  of  catechiiatlon  Is  enjoined  in  Iho  laws  of 
almni>l  alt  branches  of  Ihs  Church.  In  the  Church  of 
EngUnd,  by  Canon  BD,  "  every  parson,  vicar,  or  cnratc, 
upoo  every  Sunday  and  holyday,  before  evening  pray- 
er, shall,  for  half  an  hoor  or  more,  examine  and  in- 
struct  the  youth  and  ignonnt  persons  of  his  parish  in 
the  Ten  Commandmenta,  tha  articles  of  tbe  belief,  and 
in  the  Lord's  rnyer;  end  ahall  diligently  hear.  In- 


CATECHETICS 


160 


CATECHISM 


Mrott,  and  Uscli  ttwm  tha  Citaoblim  Mt  forth  In  Uw  i 
Book  ot  Common  Friyar.  And  >1)  btberi,  motliBrt, 
maslen,  andiniBtrMMaduIlcauH  their  cbildr«o,*erT- 
■nta,  Biid  appreDticea,  which  hava  not  learned  tba  Cala- 
chiim,  to  coma  to  tha  church  at  the  time  appointed, 
obedientlj'  to  hear,  and  to  be  ordered  by  tba  miniiter 
Ojitll  tbe;  have  learned  tha  ume.  And  if  any  minii- 
tat  neglect  his  dutyherain,  lethlmbe  iharply  reproTed 
upon  the  lirst  complaint,  and  true  notice  therao/  given  ' 
to  the  biibop  or  Didioarj'  of  the  place.  If,  after  aab-  i 
mittinghimiel^  be  iliillwiUlnglyaffetidtherein  again,  i 
let  him  be  soapended.  If  ao  the  third  tune,  thera  be- 1 
Ing  little  hope  that  he  will  be  therein  reformed,  then  j 
excommunicated,  and  ao  remain  nntil  ha  be  rafonned. ' 
And  likewiae.  If  any  of  the  uid  fathara,  motbera,  maa- 
ten,  or  miitreaneF,  cbildren,  Mrranti,  or  appnntioeg, : 
aball  neglect  tbaii  duties  ae  the  one  >oit  in  not  canaing 
them  to  come,  sad  tba  other  in  refuiing  to  learn,  aa 
afbresaid,  let  them  be  aaspended  by  thfir  ordinariei  (if  I 
they  !»  not  children),  and  if  they  eo  penlut  by  tbe 
apice  of  a  month,  then  let  them  be  excommanicated. ' 
And  by  tba  rabrlc,  tha  curate  of  ever}'  pariah  etiall 
dilii^ently,  apon  Sunda%-a  and  bolydaye,  after  the  lec- 
ond  leeson  at  evening  prayer,  openly  in  tbe  chnrcb,  in- 
•tract  and  examine  10  nun;  cbildren  of  tbe  parish  lent 
nntohim  ai  ha  shall  think  conTenlent,  in  aomepanof 
tba  Catechiam.  And  alt  fktbera  and  mothera,  mHtars 
■nd  damei.  xhsU  cause  (heir  children,  servsota,  and 
^iprenticea  (who  have  not  leamed  their  Cetecbinn)  to 
oome  Ut  the  church  at  the  time  appointed,  and  olie- 
diently  (o  bear,  and  be  ordered  by  the  curate,  until  such 
time  as  they  have  learned  all  that  therein  is  appcdnt- 
•d  for  them  to  leain."  These  carefat'  rules,  however, 
bavB  become  nearly  a  dead  letter.  In  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Chnrch,  the  xiviiith  Canon  (of  I88S)  enjoins 
that  "the  ministers  oftbfa  Church  who  have  charge  of 
paHshes  or  cures  shall  not  only  be  diligent  in  instruct- 
ing tbe  children  in  the  Catechism,  but  shall  slso,  by 
ttUed  catechetical  lectares  and  iuatrucUon,  be  diligent 
in  Informiiig  the  youth  and  others  In  the  doctrines, 
oooatltntion,  and  liturgy  of  the  Church."  The  Heth- 
odlst  Episcopal  Church  makes  it  the  "dnty  of  preach- 
•n  to  see  tliBt  the  Cateehiim  is  used  in  Sunday-schools 
■Dd  families,  to  preach  (o  the  children,  and  to  publicly 
catechise  them  in  the  Sunday-schools  and  at  pulillc 
neetinga  appointed  for  that  purpose"  (DuripSnr,  part 
V,  §  !).  "  It  shall  also  Iw  the  duty  of  each  preacher. 
In  hla  report  to  each  Quarterly  Conference,  to  state  to 
whatextent  he  has  publicly  or  priTstely  catrchlzed  thi 
children  of  his  charge"  (part  ii,  chap,  ii,  §  17}.  "  Al 
the  age  of  ten  yaara,  or  earlier,  the  preacher  in  charge 
ahall  orgeniie  the  tapUted  cbildren  of  the  chnrch  into 
classes,  and  appcdnt  anitable  leaders,  msla  or  female, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  meet  them  in  class  once  a 
week,  and  instruct  them  in  tbe  nature,  design,  and  obli- 
gation of  baptism,  and  the  truths  of  roiigioa  necessary 
to  nuke  tbam  wise  unto  aalratkm"  (part  1,  ch.  ii,  §  !). 
The  Presbyterian  Church  makes  catscbiiing  "one  of 
the  ordinances  in  a  particular  church"  (Form  of  Got- 
tmmmt,  ch.  vii),  and  eajoint  the  duty  in  Its  Dirnton/ 
far  IVoTjjUp,  ch,  i,  §  6 ;  also  ch.  ix,  §  1 :  "  Children 
bom  within  the  pale  of  tha  xisiljle  Church,  and  dedi- 
cated to  God  in  baptiim.are  under  tbe  inspection  and 
goremment  of  the  Cburcli,  and  ore  (o  be  taught  tbe 
Catechism,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  the  Lord's  Pray- 
er." In  the  licformed  Dutch  Church  aacb  paatnr  is 
bound  to  expuund  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  the 
Classis  ia  bound  to  see  that  "the  catechizing  of  children 
and  youth  are  faithfully  attended  to"  (Cnmtftofion,  cb. 
i,  art.  iii,  §  8).  Tba  Lutheran  and  German  Refarmed 
churcbet,  not  only  by  their  traditions,  but  also  by 
Chnrch  law,  are  bound  to  fidelily  In  catecfaltation. 

3.  /j'temtH-f.— The  taence  of  Catechetics  was  treated 
by  Hyperia9,D;f:h(«cle>>(!o70i  ed.  Schmidt,  Helmut. 
1704,  Std)  :  Dietrich,  /lufi'ff.  CutuiUf.  (161S) ;  Alstedi- 
ns,  Tliealogia  Catedtttica  (Hanover,  1(116,  4lo);  Ram- 
bach,  WtMuaUrriehltler  Catcchet  (Jena,  I72T,  and  Lips. 


17e6.8»o>.     Dr.Watta  gave  an  Impetosta 

by  his  Dacaurm  on  IntnKtun  bg  Caleetitm  (London 
I7S8 ;  tVarkt,  ad.  oflSlS,  vol.  v),  In  which  he  explained 
the  Catechism  of  tbe  Westminster  Assembly,  and  ^n 
two  smsller  Catechisms.  A  tharon^  work  oo  tU* 
branch  of  theology,  in  English,  la  yat  a  daslderatam. 
The  raUtion  of  tbe  Catechism  and  of  catecbaUcal  In- 
struction to  the  Church  and  to  baptiam  baa  not  baea 
made  so  prominent  in  tbe  EngUsh-speakiag  churchea 
08  In  the  German.  On  minor  pcdnts,  cepedalty  relat- 
ing to  the  ancient  Church,  Bingham  and  other  Engtlah 
writers  have  done  wall.  Both  fbr  the  history  and  the- 
ory of  Calecheties  in  general,  onr  chief  references  mnit 
be  to  German  writers.  Among  tbam  are,  beeidea  tboae 
already  mentioned,  T.angemack.  HiMaria  CUecitliea 
(3  vols.  1729^0);  Walch.  JSnMtB^  •■  iKs  tafdte- 
(ucAs  AiifaWr,  etc.(17St)j  Katita,EiiiltUm^imJieea- 
Itrlitliiekt  rA»t..9ie(l7hl);  the  same,  Kal.  Gttdudtltd. 
pOplliktn  KinheCnSS);  tb^mnt.Ktit.Gaelk.d.r^. 
Kireie  (17IiC) ;  the  same,  Kal.  GudUeUt  d.  Wallaun; 
u.  a.  Strtai  (1764— Uie  four  books  constituting  a  body 
of  Catachetical  science).  Of  more  or  less  Rationalistic 
tendencies  are  the  follawing:  Schnler,  CtKiieUt  dbi 
tn'.  Btligi  luiiH/errifili  imUr  dot  PiatrilaiUm  bit  17(3 
(Halle,  1802):  Gritfe,  Lektiadi  dir  aligtm.  Kateditlit 
(on  Kantian  principles,  Gdtting.  1799,  9  vols. ;  !(!(«.  I 
vol.)  J  GrSfTe,  Gni»dnti  dtr  nUgtm.  Kalfdirtit  (ITM, 
8vo).  or  the  same  school:  Schmid,  Kaltcket.  Hiad- 
hiah  (Jena.  9d  ed.  i;99-]eai):  HUller,  Ukrlmrk  i.  Ka- 
udKUt  (Altona,  U  ed.  16^2,  Svo).  More  evangeliul, 
but  yet  resting  on  the  Kantian  philowphv  in  its  Fich- 
tean  form,  is  Daub.  UhHmd  der  Kattckelii  (Prank- 
fort,  1801,  8vo);  and  more  practical  are  Scbwara.  Ka- 
IfdKlit  (Oiassen,  1S19.  8ro);  Hamisch  (Halle,  1B28): 
Hoffmann,  XTiMdMU (1841).  Since  the  madifioatkm  of 
German  theology  through  Schlaiennacher's  influence. 
a  still  better  class  of  works  has  appeared,  among  which 
are  Palmer.  Knangtl.  Kattdulik  (1844;  4th  ed.  1B66, 
evo) :  Krviuold,  Kaltriieiik  (IMS) :  Plato,  Ltkrbfdt  d. 
«u(K*e(it(i^ipt.l8a3,lBmo);  Puchla, //(MrftiH!* der 
jtraH.KiUei!/Hite(l»&*);  Ztxtebwita.  Sf Mem  <t^  dri^ 
Sc/t-UrcUkhrn  Kaltcketik  (Lpt.  18e4-e6,  S  vols.  8n>, 
the  fullest  treatise  on  tha  subject,  but  not  yet  finished). 
In  books  of  practical  theology,  Catechetica,  of  course, 
is  treated  In  its  place.  AmcFng  Raman  CsUwlic  writ- 
ers we  name  Galora,  Gnadiatte  d.  imAiwi  Kaltrktm 
(Freiburg,  17S5);  Winter,  Kattdtelik  (Landshut,  181«; 
,  evo);  Graber;  Mulkr;  and  espedally  HlrM:her,  Ka- 
I  Udtetik  (18£],  4th  ad.  Thbing.  1840),  whoK  eompre- 
hen^ve  mind  grasped  the  snlject  in  all  Ita  bearings, 
but  especially  in  its  true  relations  to  the  pastoral  work. 
Among  writers  in  Emrlish,  see  Cannon,  PoMoral  Ttt. 
ofcjj.  Lecture  siii;  Baxter,  ^P^omnJ  nufor ;  Tinet, 
Piutoral  Tltfologs;  Baxter,  Tkt  Ttaiking  r/ FamiSa 
(Fraaical  Wurti,  vol.  lii) ;  Orme,  Life  of  Baxter,  ii, 
140  sq.  I  Gilly,  »dne  Oi/rck^lwiir  (London,  1838,  8vo)i 
Doddridge  (M  Prtaclmg,  Lecture  ivfi ;  Farindon,  Str- 
»iaM,lv,S01;  (JBorfer^AenHC,  March,  1848;  iVriice- 
tOK  Ar*ia(>,xxl,  G9i  Evangtlicat  RennB,\,iSl;  Arden, 
^awiai  n/'Ca(ukti'caJ/iu(rw(iai(Higb-cbureh;  Lon- 
don, 1661,  ISmo) ;  Green, Ashbel,Lec«unrf(iDae£Aarler 
CateiMtn  (Phils.  1841,  2  tdLi.  Svo);  Alexander,  A., 
Dslg  ofCaleelutiad  /wfriirtton  (Presbyter.  Tract  Soc.) ; 
Ramsay,  CateckcKcal  /lumcliom  (Chutcb  of  En^and ; 
Lond.ie61,18mo);X><filoCB((nli(Ko/rcarriw9(Land. 
1843, 13mo);  Bather,,4r*  o/C<itoc*mitj(ravised  by  aii- 
thnr,N.T.  ie47).  Catechetical  hints  may  be  fimnd  in 
many  books  on  Snnday-scliaol  and  Blble-ctasa  teach- 
ing; in  periodicals,  such  as  The  ClAchniini'i  Beporfrr 
(Lend.):  and  In  the  various  expositions  of  the  diffbi^ 
eat  Church  Catechisms.  Also  ClariFse,  Eueyelpar^ 
Thtolugioi,  §  99;  Sie.-el.  Bandbuek  dtr  diriM.-kirct, 
Abenkamrr,  i,S40!>q. ;  Hagrnhach,  EmtyUopSdie,  $  99; 
Pelt,  Tkmt'S.  Eru-^ilnpSd'f,  §  103;  HeRog,  Xeal-Jitt- 
rgUopaJie,T,-ii.4ii  ;  Wtner,  Tbedag.  UUratur ;  Walch, 
BMoHiKa  ThteloffKa,  vol.  I,  ch.  iv. 
CBtaoblBin  (In  the  eccleiiaaticBl  «<B*e),  a  book  of 


CATECHISM  !S1  CATECHISM 

CbWin  iwtraMion,  put  forth  ander  the  aatbority  |  |jnd.  Soitljtid,  HaiiKiry,  and  tbc  Netherkndi.  A> 
tf  ikt  Omrcb,  fcr  the  oral  initrurtion  of  children  and  Ut*  u  I67H  it  waii  ordered  to  b«  owd  in  tlie  Univerrity 
ft^jMi.  GtocntUy,  at  th«  pment  day,  the  CU«-  ol  Cambridge,  Snglaod.  See  Kbcber,  Katalut.  G»iA. 
itbB  it  m  the  r<m  or  quealiou  and  anawer.  <Jcr  n/bmi.  Kireiit,  Jena,  1766,  Bto,  210  iq. ;  Bonar, 

L  ly  mma  CMmImh.— The  name  ii  derived  tnm  I  CaUMimi  of  At  SatUA  RtfartnoAim  (Land.  1866). 
«if^'v(we  Catkchktici.  1).  In  ita  sxlBting  hdio  I  (2.)  Heidaberj. — Tho  moat  Important  of  the  Refonn- 
I  fmliably  (ri^nated  with  Luther.  In  the  early  agea  ed  CatechiimB  ia  that  of  Heidelbai);,  oani[Hlod  b]'  Ccs- 
iti  alaehanieni  (q.  t.)  were  taught  tho  Creed,  the  par  Olevianus  and  Zacharuu  L'ninua,  at  the  requcit 
Lod'tPnj*]',  and  certain  rudiments  of  doctrine  (BIng-  '  of  the  Elector  of  tlia  Palatinate,  Frederick  III,  and  pnb- 
kn.  Orif.  Eala.  bk.  z,  ch.  I,  §  6).  Cyril  (f  886)  liahed  at  Heidelberg  in  1563.  After  iU  approval  by 
ni  Gngiry  of  Kyaaa  (f  S94)  wrols  what  would  now  tho  Sj^od  of  Dort  (q.  v.),  it  became  one  of  tin  aymbol- 
ii  nhttuice  be  called  Catechiima,  ai  did  Angostine  '  ical  booki  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland,  aa  well 
(ftnjin  tiii  Eipoaition  of  the  Creed.  SecCATECurr- ,  aa  of  tlie  German  Retbrmed  Church.  It  may  be  fband 
EL  Bat  in  Angoatind'a  ii»,  the  word  CatechUm  ,  In  Latin  iu  Anguatl,  Ubr.  Sifn^'.Kor.  63!  aq. ;  In  £ng- 
■iBaitli*  act  of  preparatory  butrucliDa  through  which  liih  in  niasy  aaparate  editions.  The  beat  Engllih  var- 
Ikt  eiUciiiunaia  went  before  baptiam.  lu  tbo  Middle  lion  i>  the  TtrcetUenary  (N.Y.  4ta,  18G3) ;  the  beet  G«i^ 
A(<i.Keni  of  St.  Gall  (Slh  century)  publbhed  the  man  ed.is  that  of  Schaff(Phila.lS66,  ISmo).  In  riew 
Cnel  aod  Lord's  Prayer  in  Ceimau,  tor  the  iuatrac-  of  the  apacial  importance  ofthitCatechiam,  it  is  treated 
Ijta  of  chiUren  and  ignorant  people.  Wiclifla  alao  in  a  aeparals  article.  See  HEiUKLBEna  Catbchibm. 
U  Ok  iame  In  Engliah,  adding  the  Uecotogue.  But  8.  Oin*  of  £iis'.atid.—We  giye  the  followiog  ac- 
lilkir  8rat  gave  the  name  Catachiam  (IGifi)  to  the  eonnC  from  pToctar,  On  Ommon  Prt^/er,  chap,  v  i 
MM  if  Cbriatian  knowlsdge  made  np  for  dementaiy  "  PisTioiuly  to  1661  the  Catachiam  waa  inaertad  in 
JaaractkB  mto  a  bouk.  It  la  poadble,  howcTer,  that  the  Order  of  CeaHrmalioD.  The  title  In  the  Flayer- 
the  Krai  "Cateehlam"  had  been  ua»l  by  the  Wal-  booka  of  Edward  VI  and  EUiabeth  waa,  <>aj&n<>lK«, 
^■Ma  befcfa  Lnther'a  time  in  the  aame  aense.  See  !  ichertm  iw  amlaimtd  a  CaUckumfor  Ciiidrat;  and  lu 
lachnili,  Die  KalfdUimim  dtr  WaOauar  mil  ball-  1G04,  Tie  Onkr  of  CWjfnaiUwii,  or  laying  «  ofiimdi 
mtdia  BrSAr  (EtUngMi,  18G3,  Svo).  '  upon  nUUrm  Aqp^KiiJ,  and  aiU  to  rmder  m  aoxmt  of 

IL  TU  primdyit  CaUdatmi 1.  LtttAotBt.— In  16S0    titar  finik,  aeew^^  U  Ae  Calecluim  fiMowaig ;  wlOi  a 

Lotbet  pabliabed  hia  fint  Short  Cateehlam,  containing  j  farther  title  to  the  Oiteciun  Itaelf,  (Aal  it  (o  119,  An  lit. 
nkortEDiiB  of  the  Creed,  the  Command  menta,  and  the  |  (tnielioti  fo  be  Uarmd  tf  every  Child  brfore  he  be  bnmgKt 
Lard'i  Prayer;  bat  hia  expetiann  of  the  groai  igno- 1  to  be  confirmed  by  (la  Biebep.  The  ioaartion  in  the 
riea  at  the  people  in  religiona  thlnga,  eapeclaily  aa  '  prayer-book  of  auch  an  authorized  expoiltion  of  the 
■MitiT  him  in  bia  vuitationa  ori5!7,  led  bim  to  pre-  elements  oftbe  Chriatlon  tiUlb  and  practice  belongs  to 
pan  larger  and  Smaller  Catecliiama,  which  aflerwarda  the  Befbnnatlon.  Engliah  verakina  and  expoaitiDua 
fiBod  a  place  among  the  aymboUcal  booka  or  atand-  '  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Creed  had  exlated  in  early 
■nb  sf  the  Lutheran  cburcbes.  They  are  to  be  found  times.  But  immediately  before  the  Beformatioo,  it  ap- 
is Qiaa,  Libri  Symbolid  Ecdei.  Lalkemma  (Lipa.  1846),  jieara  that  these  elenwnta  were  by  no  maaua  generally 
•km  a  brief  sketch  of  their  blstoiy  ii  given ;  alio  in  known.  Tbe  origin  of  the  rubrics  about  catechidng 
ItaAt,  Lit.  Syw^  Eeda.  iMllienuia  (U.f».  lUl').   may  be  referred  to  the  Injun    '  


d  Engllih  an  abumLuit.  1 1688  (Strype,  Ecel.  Mem.  lint.  VIII.  i,  12),  which  or- 
He  CslfhW— a  itajor  w»s  Intended  for  the  use  of  tbe  '  dered  tbe  curates  to  teach  the  people  the  Lord'a  Pray- 
ck>|y  sad  achoolnuBtirs,  the  M'mar  lot  the  use  of  er,  the  Cned,  and  tbe  Ten  Commandments,  aauteuce 
At  p(S{)le  and  llw  children.  The  Formula  Concordia  by  aentenoe,  on  Sundayi  and  bolydays,  and  to  make 
alUtlieie  Calechlama  "quasi  laicorum  BIblia,  in  qui-  ,  all  persons  recite  them  when  tbey  came  to  confession 
bat  mis  ilia  breritor  comprahenduntur  quie  bi  sacra  (Bamet,  Bill.  Stf.  It,  101,  ed.  Nares  [Records,  book  lii, 
lirriptiitahnu  traetantBr"(ParBl,§  fi;  alio  Para  II,  ;  Mo.  li]).  Aa  soon  as  a  book  of  lerrice  was  prepared,  > 
IH  The  Smaller  Catechism  is  in  the  form  ofqaes-  Catechism  waa  placed  in  it,  that  tbe  eipoeitiun  of  thue 
■iMiMlauwer;  the  Larger  ia  noC  The  con  ten  la  of  (  hriitian  elementa  might  not  depend  on  the  care  or 
tW  SoallM  an :  PrWbce ;  Chap.  1.  The  Decalogue ;  aUlity  of  the  curates.  This  manual  itill  remains  in 
Ckir.II.  The  ApoMlos' Crew];  Chap.  III.  The  Lord's  ,  tbe  Prayer-book,  with  only  a  few  verbal  alterations, 
ftajrv:  Chap.  IV,  Tbe  Saoament  of  BapUsm  \  Chap.  |  and  the  addition  of  an  explaoaUon  of  the  sacraments 
T.  TW  Wd's  Sapper  ;  Appendix  1.  Homing  and  In  1601.  Tbe  composition  ofthla  latter  part  is  gener. 
Emkg  DsrotkMi ;  Apfi.  2.  Blcaaing  and  Grace  at  Ta-  '  ally  attrlbnted  to  blahop  Overall,  who  waa  tbe  prolo- 
Uti  Af9.a.The  Home  Table  (cssitainiDc  a  brief  anm- 1  cutor  of  the  Convocation,  and  at  that  time  dean  of  St. 
any  if  etUa).  Thia  arrangemont  of  topics  Is  fol-  Pstil'i.  It  was  added  by  royal  authority,  ■  by  way  of 
bval  also  lu  the  Larger  Catechism  (omitting  the  ap-  oxplanation,'  in  compliance  with  tbe  wiab  which  tbe 
tndiees),  bat  more  amply  treated.  The  German  '  Puritans  had  expressed  at  tbe  conference  at  Hampton 
t^Btha  NiU  OM  Luther'a  Catechiam  generally,  but  Court  (Cardwell,  Coof.  p.  187),  and,  with  two  emenda- 
te vilhgU  oppoaltian.  See  Zesscbwiti,  ^irnii  drr  tions,  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Convocation  and 
'MtSeUireUi^oa  Kalfdutik  (Lelpxlg,  186*,  1886,  !  |  Parliament  in  1661. 

faklTo);  Nitiach.  fVail  rieaf.  II,  i.  191,  and  yolr.  "An  intention  was  formed,  In  tbe  time  of  Edward 
^*ArTfir  i^mndtt  Thealogie,  x,  II,  BBS  sq.  For  the  and  Elliabeth,  to  have  also  another  aalboiiied  Cate- 
*siMi  editions  of  Lather's  Citechisma,  and  the  worki  |  chlam  for  the  inatructlon  of  more  advanced  itodenta, 
*nll*B BpDa  tbam. see  Walcb, fiitJiofjiicq  Theulog\ca,\,  and  especially  those  in  public  schools,  touching  the 
>iit^.  Winer,  tAeo'.  ItfenKar,  pt.  xi,  pt.  xxvil.  groundi  oftbe  Christian  religion.     Tbe  orighial  of  this 

t  g^med.—d.y  Gaum  CiKedUfDi.— Calvin  drew  |  work  is  ascribed  to  Poynet  (Orlg.  Lett.  [Pork.  Soc] 
■P  •  Catechiam  iu  French  in  1636i  in  Latin,  1538  (tbe  Izxi,  Ckrke  lo  Btllinfftr,  lajM  7,  I5&S),  who  wai  bishop 
''•"riimuit  Gneremeiey  Thia  was  revised  and  pub- 1  of  Winchester  during  Gardiner's  de[nivstton.  It  was 
Ei^WinFrenehinlMl,  andlnLatin,  I54fi.  Ita  beads  'publiabsdin  Latin  and  in  English  In  1I>S8,  and  Is  lup 
>^  1.  Doctriae,  or  Truth  (the  Apnelles'  Creed)  ;  2,  posed  to  have  liad  the  approval  of  Cranmer,  and  also 
'■<«v  (the  becilogua):  8.  Prayer  (Lord's  Prayer);  4.  |  of  tbe  Convocation  which  sanctioned  the  Articles  In 
1^  Wvfd;  (.Tbe  SaerBments.  Appended  Is  a  ftirm  |  lfi&2  (ace  It  reprinted  in  bishop  Randolidi'a  £>wAiridioii 
^  [sbUe  pnyer  and  tbe  admlnlstntion  of  the  s«:ra-  I  Tleoi^'om,  vol.  L  Both  the  Engliah  and  Latin  edl- 
"Wi(assCa]vinl(>T(),  QeDava,iei7,  vol.  XV,  p.  12  '  tlons  an  rrprintsa  In  lHurgien.  rtr.,  of  EdicVI  IFnk. 
n-'- Aocmli,  C017M  Ji&r.  ^K&ofKvr.  460  aq.).  It  was  Snc.j).  It  seems,  however,  tliat  thia  was  not  conalder- 
^^y  ksMlated  Inio  other  langosges,  and  adnpted  .  ed  qoite  satiafadorr ;  nor  waa  it  able  tn  supplant  the 
°  tb  Bsfaaiad  cbwchea  of  Switzerland,  France,  Eog- ,  many  atmllar  compilations  of  the  IbtelgD  Befiinuui^ 


CATECHlSil  u 

which  were  adopted  bj  mvtj  tMcbcn,  «nd  occaaloned  I 
much  (ompUiat  ka  to  tbe  w«iit  of  a  unlfona  ivBlcin  of 
leligloiu  Inrtmctlon  («m  Hirdwlck's  Hi^.  o/dui  A  rti- 1 
tia,  p.  1D8  K).).  Of  foreign  C>l«chl>a»  there  were  I 
the  C»techl<iii  of  Ermmai  (1M7>,  ordered  to  be  nwd  in  ! 
WinchetlCT  College  aod  elMVherej  the  StniUer  and 
Urger  Cat«Mnni  of  Cdvin  (1536  lud  IMS),  that  of 
<£ealuiip*diaa  (1M5),  L«a  Judu  (16&S).  and  more  e*- 
pecUUy  Bnllinger  (15fi9).  Even  in  1578,  when  the 
exeliuive  hh  of  Nowell'g  Cit«hlinu  bad  been  enjoin- 
ed In  the  cawiDi  of  1671,  thoaa  of  CalTin,  BuUinger, 
■nd  othen  were  itill  ordered  by  atatute  to  be  urcd  in 
tbe  Univenity  of  Oxford  (»e  Canlwell,  Dje.  Ant.  i, 
son,  nolt).  Hence  It  waa  agreed  by  the  tuthopa  In 
l!>ei  that,  beAidei  tbe  Catechiem  for  children  wbo  vere 
to  be  confirmed,  another  somewhat  lonicer  ihould  be 
dcTleed  for  commuaic-«nte,  and  a  third  In  Latin,  for 
acboolt.  It  l>  probable  that  at  thla  tiow  Dean  Nowell 
was  employed  upon  eucb  a  Catechism,  taking  Poj'nel'i 
na  hii  gronndwot^ ;  ao  that  it  waa  compleled  before 
the  meeting  of  Convocation  (Nov.  11,  IMi),  b.r  which 
it  waa  approved  and  amended,  bat  not  fonnally  aanc- 
tioned,  apparently  becsiue  it  was  treated  aa  jiart  of  a 
larger  design,  which  waa  not  realiied,  viz.  to  publish 
NoweU'a  Catechism,  tbe  Articles,  and  Jewall'a  Apology 
in  one  book  '  by  common  consent  to  be  aatborized,  as 
containing  true  doctrine,  and  en}oined  to  be  taaght  to 
tbe  yoath  in  the  universitiea  and  grammar-ecbool* 
thrangboDt  tbe  realm.'  The  Catechism,  tberefore,  re- 
mained anpublisbed  until  I&70.  when  it  was  printed  at 
tbe  raqnest  of  the  arcbbiahope,  and  appeared  in  several 
(bima,  in  Latin  and  in  English.  The  Larger  CaliMtn, 
in  Idtin,  intended  to  be  oied  In  places  of  liberal  edu- 
cation, is  reprinted  in  Bp.  Randolph's  EocUrid.  Tkto- 
lo^cmi,  ToL  il.  Its  title  is  '  Catechiamna,  aive  prima 
inatitutio,  diaciplinaqne  pielatis  Christians,  latine  ex- 
plicata.'  Intha  same  year  it  waa  tranilated  into  Eng- 
lith  by  Korton.  Also  an  abridgment  of  it,  called  the 
Shorter  or  the  Middle  Catechism,  was  prepared  by 
Novell  for  the  use  of  schools.  lie  also  published  a 
thbd,  called  ttxs  Smaller  Catechism,  diSering  b 
slightly  from  that  in  tbe  Book  of  Common  Piayi 
It  ia  probable  that  Overall  abridged  the  qoeslioni  ana 
answers  on  tbe  Sacraments  fkum  this  Catecbiam  (see 
Chnrton'a  Ufi  of  SoveU,  p.  188  sq.  ;  Utbhury,  Hit. 
o/Coexot.  p.  1S7  sq.)."  Cranmei'a  Catecbiam  waa  re- 
printed, London,  1839, 8vo. 

chlim  are,  Nicholson  (Bp.),  An  Eipotilio*  rf  tie  C<^- 
d^Mm  of  lit  CkiBvh  of  Knglaud  (id  ed.  Ojtf.  1844, 8vo) ; 
Boveridge  (Bp.),  Cluu-ck  CaltMtm  Eiplaimtd  (12mo)  j  | 
Nix(Hi(P.B.),  Uctara,  HiHarleal.Dafirinal,  a»d  Prat- 
Heal,  Ml  the  ColKiUnt  iflkt  Ckurck  ofEngtimd  (3d  ed. 
Lond.  1S4T,8vo);  Fltageriild  (A.  D.),5AortZiMBni(M 
Ms  CUrc*  CataMm  (l2mo};  James  (J.),  A  Conmtnl 
at  Us  CImrA  OUtMim  and  Orcanonat  Offctt,  or  Ike 
Ualktr'i  Hdp  (Lend.  1842,  I2mo) ;  Seeker  (Arp.),  /-Bv 
lura  OK  lie  C/uirch  CaltMm  (12ma) ;  Bnmet's  £j^<'- 
(™o/"<*e  (7*Bre*  C(K*erli«ni{8vo).  John  Wesley  aays 
ofit:  "Our  Cbnrcb  Catechism  is  ott*rly  improper  fcr 
cUMren  of  aiz  or  seven  years  old"  (,Worh,  N.  Y.  ed. 
vil,170). 

A.  Prtibgtrnim  CImrrA.  ~  Tbe  WutauiuIrT  CaU- 
ctums,  with  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Paitb,  con- . 
stitnte  the  standards  or  symbolical  books  of  tbe  Pics-  j 
byterian  chnrches.  Thny  were  prepared  by  commit- 
tees of  the  Westminster  Assembly;  the  £*or(er  Col- 
tdtitvi  was  presented  to  the  House  of  Commons  No- 
vember G,  1M7;  the  Largtr,  April  6,  IA48;  and  by 
fesoiutioD  of  September  \li,  1G48,  the  Catechisms  wers 
ordered  printed  by  aulhorils,  for  public  use.  The 
shorter  is  not  an  abridgment  of  the  Isr^^r,  but  the 
Ijtter  Is  an  expansion  of  the  former.  They  were  both 
adopted  by  tbe  General  Assembly  of  tbe  Cburch  of 
Scotland  b  IMS.  The  Shorter  Catechism  "  haa  been, 
■nd  still  is,  Iq  almost  universal  ose  among  Presliyle- 
rlans  speaking  the  English  Uognage,  end  to  a  consid* 


2  CATECHISM 

erable  extent  among  IndepeDdeats  and  Congregation- 
alisla  both  in  Btluin  and  America.  In  Holland,  abo, 
a  translation  of  it  haa  been  mncb  used.  It  is  very 
generally  regarded,  by  those  whose  doctrinal  views 
an  In  accordance  with  it.  as  an  admirable  compend  of 
Christian  doctrine  and  doty.  The  aothonhip  of  tbe 
Westminster  Assembly's  Catechisms  has  been  tbeanb- 
ject  of  mncb  debate,  or  at  least  the  anUiorship  of  tb« 
first  drafts  of  them,  it  being  admitted  that  thrr  vere 
prepared  with  great  care  by  committees  of  the  Assem- 
bly. But  the  probability  appears  to  be  that  their  sn- 
tlwnhip  is  to  be  ascribed  entirely  to  these  cummittees, 
and  that,  like  the  Westminster  Confessiou  of  Faith, 
they  are  thus  the  result  of  tl>e  joint  labon  of  manv. 
From  discoveries  recently  made  by  Dr.  M'Crie,  it 
seems  probable  that  at  least  the  plan  or  scheme  of  tbe 
Shwter  Catechism  is  to  be  ascribMl  to  Ul.  Pklmer  " 
(Chambers,  s.  v.). 

There  are  numeroas  editions  of  the  Catechisms  i  tbe 
Utest  are  those  of  tbe  Prabglmaii  Board  nf  PuUira- 
lim  (PbiUdelphIa).  They  teach  the  Calvinistic  tho- 
ology.  Among  the  many  commentarirs  on  tbe  Cat- 
ocblsnu,  we  name  Creen  (Aihbel),  Ltctam  o»  Ae 
ShoTWT  Cattrhim  (Phila.  1S4I,  i  vols.  Svo) ;  Belpage, 
KxpoKtUm  of  Ike  AtmnAIg't  Caltckiim  (Lend.  !  vela, 
limo);  Fisher,  £i}MM>uisa/'ar  .IjsrmMy'iC'iKerjIisiM 
(Lend.  1849,  limo) ;  Paterson.  Tke  Skorltr  Catrrtiitm 
(l^nd.  IMl,  ISmol:  Mnctnt,  Tir  Calrekuim  £:rplaimed 
(I.ond.  1848,  l^mo);  Boyd,  Tke  WtMmimleT  Skarter 
Calechina  (S.  Y.  HW9,  »mo). 

5.  Tke  Jlitii^il  Ciimk.—ln  the  Wetlersn  Meth- 
odist Church,  in  England,  the  Calerbitras'in  nse  mn 
three,  arranged  in  gradation,  for  pupils  of  differpBt 
ages,  bv  the  Rev.  Richard  Witson.  1  her  are  printed 
aMTkeWairgatiifrlliodilCalfckimt.  Formanyyekn 
these  Catechisms  were  used  also  in  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Cburcb  in  the  United  Sutes,  together  with  A 
Skorl  Sir.'plural  Caltckiim.  prepared  ly  Ihe  Rev.  J. 
Edmondson  {!).  In  lf4H  the  General  Conference  or. 
dered  the  preparation  of  a  Church  Catechism,  *hieh 
was  undertaken  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kidder  (ibrn  Sim- 
day-scbool  Editor),  who,  with  the  aid  of  other  diviner, 
prepared  a  series  of  Catechisms  which  were  apprawd 
and  adopted  by  tbe  General  Conftrence  of  186!.  They 
are  pablished  as  Caltckitmt  of  Ike  Mtikodiil  Fpitropal 
Ciird,  No.  t,  !,  3  (New  York,  Methodist  Book  B.  oiii>- 
'Ihe  series  does  not  consist  of  three  separate  Cate- 
chisms, hot  of  DM,  in  three  stages  ordevrlopment.  tha 
Ungusge  of  the  basis  being  unchanged  in  the  different 
numben  of  tbe  series.  No.  1  la  the  Catechism ;  No. 
I  li  is  the  same,  with  tbe  addition  of  numerons  Scrii«iire 
prooft  and  illnstrations  printed  side  by  side  with  tli« 
several  questions  and  answers  ;  Ko.  8  expands  tike  an- 
swers of  No.  I  and  tha  proofs  of  No.  2  into  something 
like  a  system  of  Christian  doctrine  in  a  condensed 
form.  'The  Catechism  proper  is  taken  up  section  by- 
section,  and  a  lawtmary  is  given,  in  comprehennve  lan- 
guage, of  Ihe  subject-matter  of  aach  feettOD.  Tb*n 
follow  an  aitalysis  of  the  section,  a  number  of  eiplan- 
atoty  and  practical  qneations,  and  a  set  of  definitiana. 
The  outline  of  topics  is  as  follows :  I.God:  $l.Hi« 
Nature  and  Attributes;  j  2.  The  Penonsof  God.  II. 
Cheatio:<;  S  1.  Tbe  World,-  §  9.  Han.  111.  Uax-b 
Fall  and  Sqirct.  State  :  j  1  Sin ;  j  S.  Gnilt,  PreT. 
slence,  and  Conseqnsnces  of  Sin.  IV.  Salvation  : 
§].  Tbe  Source  and  Grounds  of  Salvation,  vii.;  Ihs 
Ixive  of  God  in  Christ,  and  RedemptioD  thmagh 
Christ;  §  2.  ConditionB  of  Salvation;  S  8.  The  Froita 
and  Extent  of  Salvation.  V.  The  Mearb  of  Gbace- 
§  1.  The  Cburch  and  Ministry;  §  2.  The  Sacrament*  : 
(1.)  Baffm;  (3.)  Tke  Lorfi  Btipper;  i  S.  The-n'mtl 
of  God  and  Prayer.  VL  Gon's  Law  ;  Dntie*  to  Go4 
and  Man.  VII.  Or  Dbath,  jDtKJKEiiT,  and  £te». 
MTT.  ApreHDix:  TheBeatitudes;  Thelxird'aPnij-_ 
er;  The  Ten  CommaBdments ;  The  Apastlea'  Crowd  ; 
Baptiamal  Covenant  j  XxampiM  of  Vttsm  Ar   •y^ 


CATECHISM  153  CATECHUMENS 

C  TitOmrtk  0/AnM,— In  Um  Chnrcb  at  Rome  '  Cateohlst,  i.  •-  tateehittr.  In  tbe  ccclesluCiul 
tki  Trldtntiue  Catschiim  (CiftcAinuu  Hommia)  is  m  aeiiBe,  ont  who  tetcbei  rdli^ioD  to  childno,  or  nnii- 
bock  of  ijniballc*!  authorit]'.  It  m»  prepared  in  pliytea,  cBtacbsticallj.  For  tha  derivation,  He  UaT' 
obedience  to  a  dwree  of  tba  Conncil  of  Trent  (Sen.  ki;hetics,  1.  (1.)  AC  fini  it  wu  the  office  of  the 
11,  de  Kef.  c.  T),  by  archbishop  Leoiurdo  Uaiino,  biihop  to  prepare  Che  catecbumeae  for  bsptlim,  ht  well 
liibop  iEgidini  Foiciirari,  and  the  PortuKueae  Do-  U  to  admit  tbem  into  the  Church  by  that  nacruinenC. 
Biiiiua  Ftnneisco  Fureln,  with  the  aid,  as  later  writ-  But  in  course  of  time  it  became  impoaaible  for  the 
en  (>.  g.  TlTmboachi)  conclnde,  of  Muiio  Callni,  arch-  hitbopa  to  devote  the  requiaita  attention  to  this  part  of 
bidiif  ofZaraj  roviaed  by  cardinals  Borromeo,  Sirlet,  thaii  work,  and  consequently  they  transfBrred  it  to 
sad  Aatonian ;  and  saaetioned  by  Tope  Pioa  V.  It  such  pmbytera  and  deacons  as  they  deemed  compa- 
■■  poUishad  at  Rome  in  1666,  the  iMia  veniou  be-  teat  in  the  undertaking.  They  were  called  caleiiria ; 
lag  either  by  Pauloa  Manutius  or  Pa)(gisnus.  The  and  their  eaiplDjaient  was  considered  peculiarly  bon- 
CoBBdl  of  Trent  had  ordered  (1.  c.)  that  the  Cato-  orable,  as  requiring  the  poesessiaa  and  uae  of  eminent 
Abm,  wbeo  prepated,  should  "  be  faithfully  trus-  talent)  and  quatiltcitions.  But  there  never  was  B 
lued  into  the  remacular  langoagea,  and  expounded  separate  office  or  order  of  catecbbts  in  the  Church; 
■b  tbe  people  by  all  pastan."  It  wii  anbeequently  !  the  work  was  only  a  fiinction,  assigned,  as  need  aroee, 
B^ftoTBd  by  special  bulls,  and  adopted  by  votes  of  i  to  persons  capable  of  it.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  andChr)'- 
pnriDcial  synods  in  the  varions  Roman  Catiiolic  conn-  soi^m  (Bom.  21  ad  popnl.  Antioch.)  were  originally 
liiat.  It  rotwists  of  fonr  parts:  tbe  Apoetles'  Creed,  '  catechiats.  They  were  BOiuetimes  called  by  a  flgura- 
llw  Sacraments,  the  Decalogue,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  ,  tive  name,  vairtoXoyot,  that  Is,  those  whose  office  it 
IliiBaeof  theatandards  of  doctrine  in  the  Church  of  i  was  to  admit  passengers  to  tbe  ship,  and  contract  with 
ttomt,  tboogb  the  Jesaita  deny  Its  aymbolical  author-  '  them  for  tbe  tuiB,  The  Church,  by  a  welt-known  lig- 
ity.  lI6Uar  refoaes  lo  it  the  charactir  of  a  "  pablio  ure,  was  compared  to  a  ship ;  the  bishop  was  u  irpu- 
coufcaikm,"  but  admit*  "the  great  antborily  which  '  piit,  IhepUoi;  the  presbyters,  oi  vaurai,lAe  marinmi 
BBdoatAadly  belong  to  it"  {Sgnioliim,  Introduction,  !  the  deacona,  oi  Toi}^apxBi,  the  cUr/  nnetn;  tbe  catft- 
p-IOfi;  aes  also  Elliott,  Ddiaealiot  a/ Runamtm,  bk.i,  ;  chliCs,  d1  vavraXiyiH.  It  was  properly  tbe  catectaisu' 
dL  I ;  Ciamp,  Ttxl-'ia^  of  Paptiy,  ch.  XKii).  Tha  duty  to  show  tbe  catecbamens  the  contract  they  were 
QUchifin  is  not  fitted  fir  tbe  instruction  of  children,  to  make,  and  tha  conditions  they  were  to  perform,  in 
bnt  is  ■  manual  fiir  the  use  of  pistors.  It  was  not  ;  order  to  their  admittance  into  tbo  Christian  ship. 
•tigiially  In  th3  form  of  queatioa  and  answer,  but  Tbe  deaconesses  were  alio  cstccblsts  to'the  more  ij;. 
MBS  of  the  later  editions  took  that  ihap;.  There  is  norant  and  rustic  women-catechiimens,  which  proves 
an  En^iah  translation  by  Dr.  Donovan,  of  Haynoolh  that  caleebists  were  not  necessarily  of  the  clerical  or- 
Cedege  (Dublin.  I8!9;  Baltimore,  n.  d.  Svo).  Cramp  der.  Origen,  when  only  eighteen  years  of  age,  and' 
naarki  of  this  tramiatlon  that  it  "sni^resies  or  al-  consequently  when  Incapable  of  lieing  ordained  a  dea> 
tin  loch  paasBjes  as  express  the  pjcoUar  tenets  of  eon,  was  appointed  ■  catechist  (Eusebius,  lliil.  Eccln. 
pnpsy  Id  too  open  and  undia^jnliiBd  a  msnaer,"  an.l    vi,  3). 

rimbhea  proofs  of  the  cha^e  {TaH-hmk  of  Paperg,  (-2.)  In  the  modsm  churches,  ministers  are  generally 
p.  130).  Beaidea  the  CattdtUiiHU  Roiuui-a,  numerous  required  by  Church  law  to  be  catechiiti  (I.  e.  for  tba 
ntha-  Cs  tech  isms  have  appeared  within  th^  Church  of  ;  biatmc^on  of  children)  ;  and  since  tba  growth  of  the 
Basntnimtim]  to  time.  Tha  m«CinipartinC  are  thou  Sunday-school  (q.  v.),  the  Sunday-school  teachers  are, 
of  Canisins  (q.  v.),  the  Jeanit  (1554  and  lb^\  which  I  or  ought  to  be,  all  cat^bitU.— Farrar,  EctUt.  Diet.  a. 
kin  been  lugely  used  firom  that  time  to  this,  eapc-  |  v. ;  Bingham,  Orig.  EccUt.  bk.  lii,  ch.  x ;  Coleman, 
tiilty  in  Oermany ;  and  that  of  Billarmine  (1603),  and  |  Cj(rsi(u(i.4fifif.ch.iv,§aj  Krause,  Z)e  CiKcifru  prsm- 
of  Beanet  (1687).  On  recent  Romin  CsUioiic  Cato-  I  Mm  eccfens  (Lipa.  17(H) ;  Siegal,  .1  ^rtUmer,  p.  340. 
cUmu,  as  compared  with  Caaisini,  aee  TTtealngiichi  I  CateDhumeiW,  in  the  ancient  Church,  candidates 
(^vt^ialn^  186%  HI,  p.  413.  !  for  baptism,  who  were  plsced  under  a  course  of  re- 

7.  Til  Greet  CAarot Palmar  (in  Hertog,  Real-  |  Uglous  instruction  in  order  to  their  admission  into  tbe 

KMCjUap.  a.  r,  Katechbrnus)  remarks   tbst  tha  only    Church.      For  the  derivation,  see  Catechetic^^  1. 
Cborcb  without  an  anthoriied  Catechism  i!  the  Greek  .  They  are  classed  by  ancient  writers  as  members  of  tbo 
Chundi.    But  a  Catechism  prepared  by  Hogilaa,  mc-    Church, but  the  lowest  order  of  members  (e.g.  Origen, 
trepeUtan  of  Kiew  (1642),  was  recognised  by  a  synol    Euieluua,  Jerome  ;  cited  by  Bingham,  bk.  i,  cb.  iii). 
<i(JerttHlBm  (1671)  aa  a  standard.  1.  A'amei.  —  Besides  tbo  name  catechumens,  they 

8.  SaFtsaoa. — I.  The  Crameitm  Catechism  was  drawn  were  called  candidates  (tandidt),  because  they  were  ac- 
■p  by  Schomann,  1571,  for  tba  Polish  churches ;  it  is  customed  to  appear  dressed  in  aUle  on  their  admission 
Bids  np  chiefly  of  verses  of  Scripture.  2.  The  Calc-  to  the  Charch.  They  were  abm  called  noviliali,  Ij. 
rUm  of  Fmuhit  Sodiua  wjs  pablisbed  at  Racovij,  rtmet  Dei,  rudn,  rnciptnln  (e.  g.  by  Tertultian,  De  Pa. 
ISIB,  ta  ananfinisfaed  form,  o  win ^  to  the  death  of  So-  ni'loit.  c.  vi. ;  andby  Augustine,  Zle /'I'dc  oiJ  (7iif«^Hm. 
cins,  nndar  the  title  CMil.-lidig.  inaitm.t  autituti^,    lib.  11,  cap.  I). 

aEc  a.  Tbe  Raeotiam  CalecMiimt,  larger  and  smiUer,  2.  Admit'itM  to  tit  Pattckmeaare.— Heathens  wore 
ampeaad  by  Hosoorovios,  a  Polish  nobleman,  and  '  admitted  to  tha  catechumenate  by  the  imposition  of 
Schinala,  a  SodnUn  minister  (Latin,  Bacovia,  1609,  bands  and  payer,  with  the  sign  of  tbe  chub.  '  Tto 
lima:  iww  ed.  by  Crelllus,  1630,  Ito;  and  another,  ,  children  of  believers  wrre  admitted  as  soon  as  thoy 
■ritfa  refutation,  by  (Edar,  Frankfort  and  Leipa.  1733,  I  were  of  age  to  receive  instruction,  bat  there  does  not 
**Q ;  English  translation  by  Reas,  Lend.  1813.  with  oppesr  to  have  been  any  specific  age  fixed  at  whicb 
pefjce,  treatlDg  of  tbe  literary  history  of  the  Calo-  Jewish  and  heathen  converts  wcro  considered  as  cate- 
chism). '  ;  chumena.  The  greater  part  were  of  adult  age ;  even 
Than  have  been  many  Catechlsma  prepared  by  in-  Constantiiie  tbe  Great  was  in  this  class.  But  it  was 
Hvidnals  and  med  in  various  countries  and  eharchea,  I  easential  that  tbey  should  not  hare  been  baptized. 
bit  as  Dona  of  them  hare  been  clothed  with  symbol!- 1  3.  Peridd  of  lie  CaWcANmAsuJe.— Tha  time  spent  in 
aliathority,  we  do  not  attempt  lo  give  a  list  of  them.  ;  preparation  varied  according  to  the  usages  of  various 
—Smith's  Ha, -enhach.  Hut  o/Dw**!-*,  J  SM :  .Sbedd,  '■  churches,  and  particularly  according  to  the  proficiency 
B^  a/  Dxtriaa.  ii,  157-1D3 ;  Smith's  Gieseler's  Ch.  ■  of  each  individual.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
">*Tf.  vrf.  iv.  S  31 ;  Augnsti,  Corpuj  /,iir,  5ynM.  ,  three  roars  are  enjoined ;  by  Oie  Council  of  Eiiberis, 
*:frm.(Uberf.l8S7,  8vo);  Winer,  r*wf.  Uletatur.  %  A.D.  678,  twn  yean;  by  tbst  of  Agatha,  A.D.  60C, 
inii;  Welch,  Biiliadita  Thtaiiigica,  vol.  1,  ch.  iv;  '  eight  months.  Sometimes  the  catechumenate  period 
Rem^,  Stal-EitefUiipdilk,  vii,  IM  sq. :  ZtUickr^  '  was  limited  to  tbe  tbrtj'  days  of  Lent.  Socrates  ob- 
/nr  jttKar.  TVofsyu,  1865,  p.  300.                                  1  serve*  that,  in  tha  conversion  of  the  Burgnndtans,  (he 


CATECHUMEKS  1114  CATENA 

Ptancb  blibop  vho  coDTCfted  tben  took  onljr  mvta  |  order  lo  ottdn  laUibetOT;  evidcnM  of  tlmir  fitneu  to 
daja  to  caUchiie  tbem,  and  then  biptiied  tbem.  But,  ba  enrolled  in  tha  nnk  of  tha  dUciplta.  Tba  azpcii- 
JD  eaae  of  alckocn  or  immiDentdiath.tlia  catachDineiii  ance  of  tha  piimitiva  ChiiatiaD*  had  langht  them  that 
were  liumedUtelv  baptlud  with  what  iru  colled  c)in-  the  groai  baUta  of  MoUten  vara  not  at  onn  relio- 
Ic  baptiiini.  Cyril  of  Jeruaalam  and  Jerome  direct  the  qulibed  for  tha  pore  and  apiritoal  principltf  of  the  Ooa- 
catecbaniena  to  ob>erT<  a  Kasoii  of  Tatting  and  prayer  pel,aDd  that  multitndfi  of  praftaaedlieliaven  held  their 
for^'  dnya,  |  faith  by  >o  ilender  a  tie  tbat  the  illghtett  temptatioii 

4.  Claaei  of  Catachimau. — Tbey  vera  early  divided  i  plunged  tbem  again  Into  their  fornier  acnniality.  The 
ioto  aepanta  cUuei,  the  number  and  nam«  of  wbjch  protracted  inqniry  into  the  character  and  rievi  of  can- 
were  Hniewhat  diflTennt.  'Ihe  Greek  caaoniati,  fol-  didote)  for  admirglon  Into  tha  Charch  wie  therefore 
towed  by  BeverMge,  Cave,  and  othen,  among  the  mod-  designed.  If  potiible,  (oprsTentthe  occDTTense  of  ip(»- 
ema,  apeak  of  tha  iTiXiarHMn,  On  matuliaUd,  and  Ihe  taleep,  which  had  dlitnrbrd  (be  peace  and  proiperity  <.f 
TiXiaripot,  the  sure  ateanad.  Suidaa  dietlngultbea  j  the  Church,  and  miy  U  tnic»l  to  a  iandaJile  drair*  of 
them  as  cicpou/uivj,  >uch  aa  were  occupied  in  learn-  inatmcting  young  and  uninitiated  converta  In  the  prin- 
in|2,  and  kiixoinvol,  anch  ai  are  engaged  in  devotional   ciplea  of  the  Cbrirtian  fahh." 

paraulta.  Bln^hom  apeciln  fonr  claaaea :  Fint,  the  In  modem  Cbriatian  unge,  the  worda  refedhnnna, 
iiiaBoiiiami,  or  those  who  were  Instructed  |irivately  ealtdMmnale,  are  not  found  in  the  booki  of  Cfattrch 
without  the  Church,  and  kept  at  a  distance  ftom  the  law,  except  vith  blatorical  reference  to  tLe  nodent 
privilege  of  entering  into  the  Church  for  aome  lime,  to    Cbnrch.     Bat  Ihe  thinga  designated  by  thtae  ternia 


bavo  alvraya  exiitcd,  and  the  tenua  tb 
likely  (and  very  properly)  to  come  Into  nao  again,  to 
depitinate  the  children  of  the  Chnrch  and  their  period 
of  Inalmctlon  preparatory  to  (onfirmatlon,  lo  the 
cbarcheB  which  ure  that  rile,  and  pnpanlory  to  com- 
munion in  full  mcmterihip,  in  those  churchra  which 
do  not.  In  the  Uetbodiat  Church  in  England  tbc 
term  baa  been  revived,  eapecinlly  In  the  efforts  of  the 
Rev.  S.  Jackson  to  establub  a  fixed  method  and  cosne 
of  Initmeticn  for  young  prranua  between  childhood 
and  puberty  (aeo  the  volumca  nf  the  Coliehnam'i  Rr- 
pnrier,  Ix)udon).  The  wholo  anl.}cct  ia  alw  canfully 
diacnsaed  by  Zccrchwita,  SgHem  d.  dtnA-htrtliL  Ka- 
letHttii  (Leipl.  1SG3,  i,  TD  rq.). 

See  the  coploos  treatment  of  the  ancient  cstechcme- 
nate  by  Bingham,  Origiitti  Ecdtma,  ch.  x ;  and  Cote- 
man,  AiKiftU  CiriiHani^,  ch.  rii,  lec.  vl,  g  T.  See  airo 
Siegel.  AUtnhBmer,  i,  B64  sq. ;  Planner,  Ve  Caltcluimc- 
nil,  Jutifwi  Ecdtna  (Frankfurt  et  Gotha,  1688,  4lo) ; 
Forrar,  Kedmat.  Dictimtarii,  r.  v. ;  Buck,  TJmt.  Dif- 
;  Ncauder,  Chirth  Hutvy,  i,  £05 ;  and  Ibo 


e  more  eager  and  desirous  of  IL  Ibe 
Aeit  degree  above  these  were  the  Arpoaifitvnt,  aadimltf, 
or  hearen.  Tbcy  were  n  called  from  being  admitted 
lo  bear  sermona  and  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  Church, 
but  were  not  allowed  to  pirtuko  of  the  prayer*.  The 
third  aort  of  catechnmene  were  the  yoi-vrXiyovrtf, 
ffrmt-JkctfUei,  or  kneeletf,  m  called  beciose  they  re- 
Ceivo  Imposition  of  hands  kneeling  upon  their  knees. 
The  fourth  order  was  the  fiatfriZriuvci,  f  wn^iSfHivi, 
the  conpflmlrM  and  elect',  which  denote  the  Immediate 
candidates  o^baptlam,  or  auch  as  wen  appointed  to  be 
baptlied  the  next  approaching;  festival,  before  which 
strict  oxiunlnatlon  was  made  Into  tbeir  proficiency  nn- 
'  der  the  several  atagoa  of  calechetical  exerciaea.  The 
age,  sex,  and  circnnutances  of  the  catechumen*  were 
duly  obaerved,  men  of  ago  and  rank  not  being  claaaed 
with  chiblrcn  (Antiqairiti,  bk.  x,  cb.  U,  ^  !). 

6.  /tufrncton  and  AdmiuKn  lo  the  CJlwr*.— The  ex- 
ercises of  the  parties  till  tbdr  anion  with  "  the  bellcT- 
era"  wore  generally  directed  with  reference  to  tbeir 

preparation  for  baptism.  They  were  required  to  at-  iiumj,  r.  t.,  i-trmuun ,  <,>ii-nr 
tend  to  vsrinns  doctrlnsl  and  catechetical  instructions,  article  Arcaki  Dibciplika. 
to  reading  tha  Scripture?,  etc.  Ono  of  Chiyeostum'a  Catfina  (a  efcn'a),  in  BiLUcal  criticism,  ia  an  ex- 
homilica  (sd  2  Cor.  1)  is  an  exposition  of  the  pny-  position  of  a  portion  of  the  Scripturea,  fonreil  of  cel- 
cr  of  tiio  Charch  for  the  cilcchamena  (see  Neander,  j  loctlons  fram  variana  authocT.  Thoa  wo  tiLve  Cafoue 
I/fe  nf  Chryioitoin,  tr.  by  Stapleton,  Appcndii  to  vol.  '  of  tho  Creek  fathcre  ly  Procopiuj,  ly  01ympiodoTD«, 
i).  That  part  of  divine  service  which  preceded  the  end  by  Nicopborui,  en  several  books  of  the  Old  Tcata- 
common  prayers  of  tho  communicants  at  tbo  altar,  tliat  ncnt.  Pooled  Synopa{t  may  bo  regarded  lb  a  caUna 
is,  tho  psalmody,  tho  raoding  of  tbo  Scriptures,  the  eer- '  cf  modem  Interpretation  a  of  tho  Bible.  The  cneimt 
mon,  etc.  was  called  atiax  rotecABnenanon,  because  '  catenas  seem  to  liave  originated  in  the  shoit  echolia, 
the  catechumens  bad  the  liberty  of  being  present  only  cr  glosses,  whicli  it  was  customary  In  manuaciipta  of 
at  this  part  of  the  service.  Tho  advanced  clasaea  be-  the  Scripturea  to  introduce  In  tho  margin.  Ibmc,  ly 
fbra  baptism  were  aali}eet«d  to  repeated  examinations,  i  dcercce,  were  expanded,  and  posaages  fhmi  the  kvnii- 
and,  in latertimes,  to  a  Idnd  of  oxardam,  accompanied  I  Ilea  or  sermona  cftbo  fathan  ware  added.  The  mcst 
by  the  imposition  of  hands;  they  received  the  siim  of  celebrated  cctona  is  tho  ailena  tairata  of  1  homaa  Aqui- 
the  cross,  and  insufflation,  or  thoLTcatblng  of  tho  nas,  which  was  translated  at  Oxford  nndcr  tho  rnpcr- 
prieat  ii|>on  them.  They  also  pissed  many  days  in  I  i:itendence  of  Mr.  .1.  H.  Newman.  The  subacqncT.t 
fisting  and  prayer,  and  in  learning  the  Apostles'  Creed  ;  conduct  of  Mr.  Newman  has  led  those  who  were  wBI- 
and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Some  tiays  before  baptism  j  Ing  to  ottacli  some  authority  to  that  work  to  examine 
they  were  required  to  wear  a  veil.  Their  modo  of  £d-  •  it  carefully,  and  Ibe  result  has  been  the  dctoction  tbat 
mission  was  simple.  The  bishop  examined  tho  catidi-  i  Thomas  Aqnlnu  1u:s  somotlmes  modified  the  qnota- 
ditc,  and,  if  he  was  fouml  worthy,  enrolled  bis  name  in  tlona  ho  has  made  from  tliefathorai  and  the  whole,  as 
tho  records  of  the  Cliureli.  Tho  solemnity  was  con-  I  a  commentary,  is  inferior  to  tho  commentariea  of  mcd- 
cludcd  by  pnyer,  by  tho  Imposition  of  hands,  and  by  '  cm  theologians  (farrar,  fjcd.  Did.  s.  T.  j  Hook,  Ci. 
the  signins;  of  tho  cross.  fHcHmury,  t.  v.). 

"  No  such  arrangement  aa  tho  catechumonnto  is  In-  Tho  application  of  thia  name  to  works  of  tbia  sort 
dtcsled  In  the  Now  Teatament:  whon  an  individual  tias  been  oltributeilto  Thomas  Aquinas  in  eonaeqnencQ 
professed  fjith  In  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  he  was  Immc-  of  tbe  above  collection  on  the  foar  Gospeb ;  Lot  that 
diately  admitted  to  the  inlUolory  rite  of  Christiaai^'.  '  it  is  of  later  invention  appears  from  tbe  fact  that  tbe 
All  converts  then,  however  they  might  differ  in  their  older  editions  of  this  work  bear  tbe  title  of  ^&uaa  (t«- 
knowledge  or  attainments,  were  equally  entitled  to  the  lintuj,  according  to  what  was  the  customary  phrsiaeolo- 
Oiitward  sign,  as  they  were  to  Ihe  inward  and  spirituLl  gy  of  the  time,  and  tbat  Thomas  himself,  In  hia  dedi. 
grace.  But  when  Ifae  Chureb  was  augmentsd  bj  tbe  cation  tn  Pope  rrhan  IV,  calls  his  work  cnariaiu  er^xk 
accession  to  her  pale  of  large  numbers  from  heathen-  <if'*a.  Tbe  early  names  fbr  these  among  tbe  Greeka 
Ism,  and  when  lier  purity  was  no  longer  guarded  by  were  I'lrirofiai  (OfiT)viiwv.  nvi^yiMiyal  ISijytiaiti',  soo- 
the presiding  care  of  Ihoee  apostles  ond  others  who  lui  diru  Sio^pmv  tpfiqvfiuv,  etc.,  which  nn  more 
poasesseii  the  power  of  iliseoming  si>irlt»,  the  cuslom  :  jusUy  descriptive  of  their  contents  than  the  later 
l>f  deferring  tlio  admtssioa  of  members  was  adopted,  in    names  j^iva  at^Xoiaand  mpflj.     These  cateiiK  ar* 


CATERPaLAB  11 

•t  dlfSannt  kind*.  "  Sonetiniei  tha  wordi  of  tin  fa- 
lkt»  ttaax  whom  Uwj  wcra  caRi[ri]ed  ■»  preMnted  in 
1  nintiUtod  Hata,  and  not  m  tber  wnv  oii^nall;  viit- 
ttn.  SanMiniM  the  ban  expodClon  i«  glr«D,  vithoot 
Ae  noons  by  which  H  ia  inpported.  SooMdmM  we 
find  that  the  oplokMuofdiB^TeDtwriteiaan  confagnd- 
■4.  that  baiog  aaalgned  to  one  which  properly  belonga 
u  anatber.  By  far  tlw  gnator  nnmbar  appaar  to  have 
b«n  hiatil]''  and  nagliEantly  made,  wtdi  m  many 
ooiEaFkHis  comiptiona,  and  am>ra  that  they  cannot  ba 
rdisd  on"  (DaTidson,  lltrmeiml.  p.  IK).  All  arc  not 
alike  in  the  method  nf  their  arrangement,  nor  are  all 
aqullr  akittbUj  cr  neotly  airanged.  Ttiey  vary,  alio, 
BCearding  aa  the  writen  from  wfaoni  they  are  drawn 
wen  attached  to  the  grammatical,  the  allegorical,  or 
lb*  dogmatic  principle  of  interpretation;  and  >oms- 
thnei  the  compUer'g  own  inclination  in  this  rtipect 
giTt*  a  character  to  bia  work.  The  nu  of  theH  cate- 
Bie  k,  nerertfaelesi,  conildeiable,  aa  they  preaerve  to 
at  many  lyagmtDts  of  Aquila  and  the  other  veraiona 
of  the  Haxapla;  as  they  contain  eittracta  from  the 
wetki  of  interpietera  otherwlie  uDhoown  to  na,  sod  a« 
they  occaalonally  inpply  variou  reading*. 

Ilw  namber  of  theae  catena  la  conaiderable  ;  manr 
yet  nmiln  In  H8.  Of  thoae  that  have  been  printeil 
Biay  be  mentioned :  Cnttna  Gr.  Patnim  I'n  bnOwm  Jub, 
nalUelan  Xktta,  ed.  Pat.  Jnniaa  (London,  1637,  fol.); 
Sjmbaiantm  mMatthaum  tomut  priQr  ejrhibeiu  Cutena'a 
Gr.  /Un~  ^ni,  edit.  P.  Poulnaa  (Talof.  tC40,  fol.); 
^ud.  (nur  allrr  qto  coaftiKfur  Cafm-i  PP.  Gr.  lar, 
bteipnt.  Ualth.  Conlerina  (Toloe.  1647,  fbl.) ;  Calma 
Gt,  pp.  is  Erraig.  lef.  Mareitn  collect  atqno  Interp. 
P.  Foaainoa,  etc.  (Rom.  1G7S,  fbL);  Cattma  lit  Gr. 
PP.  is  IjKom,  giu*  (hsuI  Beangg.  imtroiaat  tip'ieatio- 
rss,  Ue»  H  latm^UOt  i»ali,  etc.  n  B.  Corderio,  Antw. 
1«S8,  fbl.)  ;  Colnu  PP.  Gr.  m  Joatmem  tx  (mI'jiM. 
Gr.tataimlacem,  ed.  a  D.  Corderio  (.Vntw.  18S0,  fol); 
CMm  Gr.  PP.  n  ffav.  Tat.  ed.  J.  A.  Cramer  (Oxon. 
im,  8  vola.  8vd).  To  thia  data  belong  aUo  the  com- 
mnrtiriet  of  Thoopby  Uc  t,  Enthy  miua  ZIgabeniu,  (Eeo. 
anim,  Andraaa,  Anthaa,  Bedo,  Aqulnaa,  etc. 

The  introdoetlon  of  thia  claaa  of  commenUrles  hia 
been  axignad  to  01irni[dodonii  by  Wolf  and  other*, 
bat  thia  cannot  be  aubMantlated ;  atill  leaa  can  the 
opinkm  of  thoae  who  wonld  aacribe  It  to  Procopioa 
Gaza.  It  I*  probable  tlut  tba  practice  of  com^dllng 
torn  the  great  teachen  of  the  Cbaich  grew  np  gradu- 
ally in  tha  later  and  leaa  enlightened  agea,  piltly  fram 
a  feeling  of  veneration  for  theae  earlier  and  brightrr 
lonlnariea,  partly  tnrai  Inability  to  farniali  anything 
enjinal  on  tha  booha  of  Scripture.  It  was  a  acaaon  of 
■l^t,  when  thoM  who  toogfat  after  tTnth  felt  that  oren 
taSaeted  llghta  wen  a  great  bleaalng  (aee  Simon,  Bill. 
Oil.  ia  prime.  Cumimlaltun  de  y.  T.  e.  SO.  Itdglue 
AMfi)aecue<eatcsupatniis[Lipa.lTOe]j  F,ibrklua, 
BiU:Cr.  vii,  p.  TU;  J. C. WolHns,  JElirrntrKw  m  cat. 
FP.  Gr.  reprinted  in  Cramer'a  Gttem  is  K.  TrM.  i ; 
Hoeaaelt,  D*  Cjt.  PP.  Gr.  in  JV.  T.  lOpntc.  Hi,  tii  aq.]i 
CnaMr'a  Frmfatio  to  hii  ediiiuo  of  the  Catena).    See 

CO>UiDTAmT. 

CatorpUlar  Is  the  rendering  In  the  Aoth.Ters. 
of  two  Heb.  wonla :  I.  Innrtably  of  ^■'Dn,  ehaatific- 
mt  1  Kings  Till,  37 ;  1  Chran.  t1,  33 ;  Psa.  Ixxviii, 
1 ; ;  Iia.  zxxilt,  4 ;  Joel  i,  4 ;  li,  SfiJ  )  2.  Occaalonally 
(Paa.  e»,  W ;  Jer.  li,  H,  !7)  of  pV;,  je'fci,  elaewharo 

Tha  Eogliah  wvid  C3lerf^ar  balonga  strictly  to  the 
larwa  at  the  genna  Lo^doptara.  and  more  eapecLally  to 
(ha  larr*  of  a  aee^on  of  It.  the  PapUiimda.  It  i>, 
hswerer,  fkr  from  proved  that  tbo  ekitU  ia  any  apeeiea 
af  utcrpOUr.  Tho  not  ^Qn,  duual',  ligiiiDea  to 
"(oosmne"  or  "deronr,"  and  it  la  eapeelallr  used  to 
4*Doto  Dm  rangia  of  tho  loaal  (Dent,  sxviil,  88). 
The  word  (JpovxoC.  by  which  it  ia  frw|aently  rendered 
In  the  8ai«.,  from  (iptimi,  "  I  eat  np,"  eonveya  alao 
tha  idn  of  nveaonaiMaa.    Tba  Arabic  asd  SyiUe 


5  CATHARI 

tenna  also  Indicate  a  creature  whose  chief  charaetarlfc 
tic  la  Toncity,  and  thia  attacbea  to  all  tha  Speclea  of 
loauli.  Tha  ancient*,  indeed,  concur  in  refkiilng  tho 
word  to  the  loeust  tribe  of  insects,  but  are  not  agreed 
whetber  It  signiAea  any  parUcular  apecirt  of  locnat,  or 
ia  the  name  for  any  of  tboae  italri  or  (rasf/onsadciu 
tfarongh  which  the  locoat  paasea  from  tho  egg  to.  tho 
perfect  Inaect.  The  Latin  fathers  take  it  to  motn  tho 
hrva  of  the  locust,  and  the  Greek  understand  it  aa  the 
name  of  an  adult  locust.  Tho  Latins  give  tho  name 
brachui  to  the  young  locust  beforo  it  has  wings,  call  It 
altrlabta  when  it  beglnB  to  fly.  and  loeiala  when  It  Is 
fully  able  to  fly.  Tho  superior  anttqully,  howei-er, 
of  Ibe  Sept.  entitles  tta  opinion  t->  preference,  and  in 
soma  paasages  it  ascribes  figkl  to  the  jipni'XOt,  and 
speaka  of  it  as  a  distinct  apedes;  and  <D  tho  former 
[HTtlcalar,  especially,  it  is  difficult  to  nupcct  it  of  an 
egregious  errcr.  Tbo  statement  of  Aristotle  is  also 
worthy  of  notice,  who  speaka  of  tho  atlelaba  as  a  ma- 
tnro  Insect,  for  be  refers  to  ita  pirturltton  and  eggs 
(^Hiit.  An.  V,  !S).  Tbe  argnment*  sad  fpeculstiona 
ef  tho  most  eminent  modem  writers  msy  bo  seen  In 
Ilochart,  Hieroz.  ed.  P.;>ecnm;]1kr,  ill,  SSG  sq.  (Lips. 
]  798-6).     See  Locun. 

C&tUil  (_rasapot,  pirr)  or  Catiiabists  (q.  d.  Pa- 
rifass),  D  name  applied  at  dlfTerent  times  In  Cbnrch 
hiatory  to  difllerent  sects ;  all,  however,  charactetiioil 
bv  aiming  at,  or  at  least  pretending  to,  peculiar  purity 
oflifoandmRnnen.  1.  It  was  assumed  by  tbe  Noca- 
tianslnthethlnl  century,  who  excluded  from  tho  Church 
all  who  fell  into  sin  after  baptism.  See  NovatiaSb. 
2.  Tha  noma  of  Calbari  was  ahw  given  In  the  twelfth 
ccnluiy  to  the  sects  of  tho  Allrigenses,  Vandois,  I'a- 
tirini,  and  othen.  Tbo  Roman  Catholic  historians 
abound  in  Mghtftil  accounts  of  tho  heresiea  and  im- 
moralltleB  of  all  tbcM  sects,  to  whom  they  attribnted 
all  tho  bad  men  and  bad  deeds  of  their  times.  Some 
modem  Protestant  writers,  yielding  too  ready  ciedenco 
ti  the  Roman  historians,  treat  of  tbe  Cathari  as  if  they 
neraalldualist^lfnotMsnlchBans.  Tbe  truth  aeems 
ti  bo  that  the  origin  of  tnoat,  if  not  all,  of  tbo  secta 
above  named  la  to  Lw  songfat  in  circumstancea  of  gen- 
cr.ll  operation,  and  principally  In  a  prevailing  senao  of 
tho  cormptions  of  tho  dominant  Church,  and  of  her 
perversions  of  Gospel  truth.  That  some  of  the  sects 
thus  originated  professed  doalistic  doctrines  b  not  t^ 
bo  doDbted ;  that  all  were  corrnpt  in  doctrine  and  life 
is  probably  an  Invention  of  tbeir  persecutors.     Soo 


I.  ffistory.— Tbe  origin  of  tho  Cathari  is  unknown; 
the  name  itaelf,  however,  is  Greek,  and  indicates  an 
Oriental  (rigln.  That  an  earnest  spirit  of  protest 
against  the  corruptions  of  Rome  arose  In  Western  Eu- 
rope during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  manifested  itself  sf- 
(leeblly  slxiut  tho  thirteenth  century,  Is  certain ;  but 
tbo  doctrines  and  some  of  tbo  rites  of  tbo  really  dual- 
Istlc  Cathari  were  doubtless  derived  from  tho  Eait. 
It  was  tbtmerlv  thought  that  tbe  Cathari  wero  lineal 
descendants  of  tho  Hanichces  of  tho  third  and  fburtli 
centuries ;  l>ut  this  view  Is  now  abandoned.  There  Is 
no  subtle  rellgioua  pbiloeopliy  like  that  of  tho  Mani. 
chcana  (bund  among  the  Cathari ;  tbeir  whole  system 
was  popular  rather  than  myalerions.  ''AcconUng  to 
the  Uanlchees,  tbo  cmstion  ]a  tbo  result  of  the  union 
of  tho  soul  of  the  world  with  matter,  while  the  Cathari 
taught  that  the  whole  material  creation  was  cxclualvc. 
ly  tbe  work  of  tho  evil  principle.  Above  all,  there  la 
Dmonu  them  no  traoo  of  tho  profound  personal  rever. 
once  for  Hanes,  and  worship  of  liia  memory,  which  was 
oni  eaaential  characteristic  of  the  genuine  Jlsnicbees, 
who  looknl  upon  their  founder  as  tho  Paiaclete  prom- 
ised liv  Josus  to  his  diseiplea.  The  Prise illianlsla  suc- 
ceeded tbo  Hanichees  In  tho  West,  and  tbe  Paullcinns 
in  tho  Esst;  vet  these  Utter,  propeily  Syrian  Gno^ 
tics,  enectated  Uanca.  Tho  I-aulidans  wero  thought 
by  Mosheim,  Gibbon,  snd  Klaltland  to  hai-o  been  tho 
inmediato  religions  ancostors  of  the  Cathari.     It  il 


CATHARI  1 

wall  known  that  nnmbcn  of  tfaom  ralisianbta  mn 
UuupUnted  inlo  Tbncs  li;  ConsUntins  Copronj-miu 
aboDCthe  middle  of  the  eighth  centaiy.  ¥el  the  P>u- 
liciins  bad  no  rites  or  oeremoniet  whatever,  no  eccleu- 
oatickl  oc  luer«rchic»l  orginiution ;  thej  ware  Bttan- 
gan  to  ucetic  abacinenoe  from  animal  food,  and  did 
Dot  condemn  roarrisgs.  Such  radlod  diBhreocu  as 
then  will  not  allow  na  to  Buppna  ths  heterodox  move- 
mant  of  Sontheni  and  Woatem  Euiopa  to  have  been  a 
limple  trane plantation  of  Aeiatic  Paulidanitm,  thoagh 
thie  HCt  may  have  contiiliitted  in  soma  maaBUra— tnore 
orleBidiiecClr— Ui  the  formation orCalhariam.  Thefact 
BMma  to  be  that  Dualiam  manifested  itself  in  Cbria- 
tendom  at  differant  perioda  under  TariouB  Bnccaasive 
and  indepondant  Ibrras"  {Loud.  Quart.  RtvUm,  lv,10}. 
Schmidt  anigns  it  a  Slavonic  origin  (South  Uacedo- 
Dia),  and  aacribei  its  iDtrodQction  into  Italv  to  Slavonic 
trader*.  The  fint  Catharl  in  Italy  were  found  about 
A.D.  1035  near  Turin,  and  their  chief  and  otben  went 
bnniad.  Bj  tiie  twalfUi  century  they  were  esUb- 
liahed  at  varioua  points,  fnyai  Upper  Itily  to  Calabria. 
A  Somanlat  vriter  has  recently  soagfat  to  show  that 
DanU  was  a  Calharist  (Aroax,  Ikaue  iirrligut,  Paris, 
1854;  and  Chr/dt  laCamidie  Antt-cahoSqae  ds  Dante 
AUghim,  Psru,  1866).  In  the  thirteenth  centnry, 
PnngilovD,  said  to  have  been  a  Calharist,  bat  a  man  of 
eminent  charity  and  goodnaat,  came  near  being  canon- 
iied  by  the  Roman  Chunh.  See  CASOMiKAtioa. 
Tbo  greateat  successes  of  the  Citharists  in  Weatern 
Europe  wale  in  the  BOnth  of  France,  wharo  tfaay  ware 
either  identical  with  the  AlbigonBea,  or  confounded 
with  them.  Sm  Ai-aiaEsBEa.  Daring  the  twelfth 
century  they,  and  all  other  diuidenta  from  Rome,  auf- 
tared  grievous  local  penecntiona ;  bat  there  *^  had  been 
no  general,  pereevering,  systematic  attempt  to  exter- 
minate them.  Meantime  they  liad  spread  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Spain ;  they  were  masters  in  the  Slavon- 
ic provinces  which  cow  form  the  north-east  of  Turkey; 
they  were  formidable  in  Lombardy ;  they  had  auda- 
ciously inrinosteil  therosalves  inln  the  pontiflcal  city 
itself;  above  all,  the  only  transalpine  nation  that  had 
emerged  from  barbarism  had  almost  thrown  off  ita  sl- 
loginnce  to  Itome;  heresy  sat  enthroned  in  a  central 
region,  wbence,  in  one  generation,  It  could  spread  over 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  Cburch  was  in  peril ; 
but  the  year  1198  witnessed  the  beginning  of  ■  pontif- 
iote  in  which  an  iron  will  was  to  pot  forth  in  bar  aer- 
vico  all  the  resoums  of  nre  intrepidity,  unremitting 
vigilance,  and  fjr^eeiag  sagacity-.  Innocent  III  was 
the  very  incarnation  of  the  idea  of  the  papacy ;  ho  was 
diatlngolahed  by  precisely  the  sort  of  character  and 
talents  which  ware  qoaliHed  to  eSect  the  purposes  of 
the  hierarchy  of  which  he  was  the  head."  During  bis 
pontlHcate.  the  cruel  cnuades  against  the  Albigenses 
and  Cathari,  wbich  have  made  the  names  of  Innocent 
and  Dominic  notorious  in  hiatoiv,  swept  away  thou- 
sands of  Cathariit  Dualists  and  of  simple-minded  Albi- 
genses together.  See  A1.BKIENSES.  There  were  con- 
gregations of  them  enough  to  constitute  whole  dloceaeB 
in  the  thirteenth  century;  but  the  InqniaitiDn,  direct- 
ed by  Innocent  III,  and  establiabed  by  the  Conncll  of 
Tonloose,  1229,  for  the  search  and  Bappraasion  of  her- 
esy, parsued  ttaem  telentleaaly ;  ao  that  after  the  four- 
teenth cpnturj  no  traces  of  tbem  are  to  be  found. 

Il.Ztocrrw*.  — The  heretical  Oath sri  held  to  Dual- 
ism,  i.  e.  to  God  as  the  original  itood,  and  to  an  evil 
principle  aa  the  author  of  evil.  This  is  a  simpi*,  and, 
to  an  uneducatoii  mind,  a  natnral  folation  of  the  prob- 
lem of  the  origin  of  evil.  The  almiuU  Dualists  held 
that  the  evil  principle  was  an  original  one  aa  well  s* 
ths  good.  The  struggle  between  tbem  is  eternal.  "It 
was  believed  that  some  souls  bad  barn  created  by  the 
cvU  being,  and.ofcoDiae,  would  never  be  saved.  Snch 
wan  all  Btrwloun  criminals,  ti-ranta.  persecutorB,  ene- 
mies of  God  and  of  his  Church.  Others,  created  by 
the  good  God,  had  been  soduced  from  the  heavenly 
world  above  by  Satan,  who  diasuised  hlmaelf,  for  the 


i6  CATHARI 

purpoaa,  aa  an  angel  of  Iwan^  and  light.  These  wbm 
condemned  to  eifdate  their  offence  in  earthly  bodies, 
and  to  pass  from  one  body  to  another,  sometimes  even, 
as  an  additional  punishtmnt,  asiuming  the  ahape  ol 
animals,  until,  at  last,  they  ahonld  obtain  dclivcranrv 
from  their  terreatrial  hell  by  being  admitted  into  th« 
(zoe  Church.  The  amioiameiihim  (aee  below)  reunitca 
the  eiilea  to  their  guardian  angtis  (called  'Holy 
Ghost'  or  '  Paraclete*),  of  whom  there  is  a  disUnct  one 
fbr  every  soul  of  heavenly  craaticn.  St.  Paul,  in  ptr- 
licular,  bad  auccesaivaly  inhabited  thirty-two  1  odiee. 
Of  course  there  was  to  be  no  real  resarrtction." 

The  majority  of  the  Cathari  held  to  a  more  moderate 
form  of  Dualism.  Ofthia  dars  were  the  Gogomile>(q. 
V.)  in  Slavonia  and  the  East;  and  in  Italy,  tlw  Ct.D> 
coreluianB  ta  Coocoreienses,  so  called  fnrni  a  corrop- 
tion  of  the  name  of  the  town  Coiiu,  Id  Dalmatis. 
They  held  to  one  God,  who  created  matter  tnia  noth- 
ing; but  the  arrangement  of  matter  into  the  exiting 
form  of  the  viiihle  world,  in  which  so  mach  evil  rxiitf , 
was  due,  not  to  God,  but  to  a  fallen  spirit — an  axoed- 
in^y  migh^  angel,  who  seduced  a  third  of  the  beaT- 
cnly  hoaL  The  absolute  Unslists  held  that  all  sodIb 
camo  to  the  ratth  at  once ;  the  Conccreni lans  main- 
tained  that  Adam  and  Eve  were  created  (their  Udin 
I  y  the  avil  power,  tbeir  souls  from  God),  and  that  all 
EDula  are  derived  from  them.  Hence  the  metempsy- 
chosis of  the  abrolute  duality  had  no  place  in  Uieir 
aystem.  The  Word  of  God,  both  in  Iba  O.  T.  and  N. 
1'.,  was  Interpreted  Ly  the  Cathariita  to  tnit  their  dn- 
aliatic  tfaemy.  Jesus  Cbrist,  tbebigbest  of  ereatedbe- 
ingB,  was  sent  from  heai-en  to  teach  the  csptive  Sfdrita 
the  secret  of  setting  themselves  free  from  tbe  chains  of 
matter  and  of  evil.  He  came  in  an  ethereal  body, 
which  bad  only  the  arpaaiance  of  the  human  fotm ; 
for,  as  he  raid  of  himrell^  he  la  "from  above"  (John 
viii,  9S),  or,  ae  St.  Paul  raid,  "  Ihim  heaven"  (I  Cor. 
XV,  47).  He  expreasly  denied  having  inherited  any- 
thing from  hia  mother  (John  ii,4).  He  had  bnt  tbe 
likeness  of  fleth  (Rom.  viii,  8-.  Fhil.ii,8).  It  was  for 
this  reason  that  be  could  walk  apon  the  water;  and 
Ihia  was  the  glory  revealed  on  the  Uonnt  of  Tnnafig- 
umtion.  His  death,  not  being  real,  was  bnt  ao  appa- 
rent triumph  of  tbe  evil  one. 

Id  Elkict,  all  classes  of  Catbari  held  that  ^  is  "  Iha 
lust  after  the  created."  Tbe  world,  as  the  work  of  the 
evil  one,  1b  evil,  and  all  contact  with  it  leada  to  sin. 
Among  mortal  ains  were  wealth,  war,  killing  of  ani- 
mals (except  fah),  carnal  ccnnexion,  whether  In  cr 
out  of  wedlock  (inatmnch  a«  it  increatea  tbe  numter 
cf  bllen  sDuIa).  Putilicattcn  from  aln  was  lo  le  otK 
tjined  by  renoandng  tbe  world  and  entering  the 
Church  of  the  Cathari,  out  of  which  calvstiDn  could 
not  be  had. 

III.  Utag't, — Tbe  Tariona  rects  of  Cathari  agreed 
very  generally  in  their  aBapca,  however  Ihey  ml^ht 
differ  in  doctrine.  There  were  two  classes  of  mnn- 
bers,  tbo  jirrftct  (perfrcti)  and  simple  brlintn  (cxt<- 
dentes).  Tbe  former  wen  cdmitted  by  the  "spirit- 
baptiam,"  called  the  (xnsrJiiiii'arwB.the  ceremcny  be- 
ings simplo  impofition  of  bauds,  (n'aterhapliim  wts 
rejected.)  By  the  imioaitlon  of  hands  (he  Holy  GboM 
nss  said  to  be  imparted,  and  the  recipient  became  one 
of  tbe  pfrfecL  To  this  cUas  belongrd  the  authority  of 
the  Church ;  they  administered  ita  rites,  and  governed 
it  as  succeaeoTs  of  the  apoatles.  A  manuscript  in  (ha 
Somance  language  was  diacovertd  in  1861,  and  Is  now 
in  the  PaUat  da  AtU  tA  Lyons.  It  was  publiihrd  by 
Cnniti,  Jens,  1861;  also  in  the  Strtuturprr  BeHrOgt 
t.  d.  fAwI.  Wiamria/ln,  vol.  Iv,  ICG!.  It  conlaina  a 
short  liturgy,  beginning  with  the  lord's  Prayer,  tlie 
Doxolc^,  and  the  first  aeventeen  verse*  of  St.  Jcdin's 
Gospel  in  Latin.  Then  follow  In  Proven^l,  fitit,  an 
set  of  confea^n ;  secondly,  an  act  of  reception  among 
the  number  of  bttinen ;  ttaiidly,  an  set  of  reception 
among  the  number  of  Cdnrlinu  or  PtrftrU ;  fourthly, 
some  spedal  directions  Ibr  tbe  bithful  j  and.  laatly,  an 


•etoT 
bctlHi 


ikri-duK,  tiAt  «a  mar 
dB7  df  jndfiaeU  vtth  f«h 
TV  firsL  degne  of  initutian,  or  tin  let  o(  reecplion 
iaU  tbe  oambet  of  b«liev«n,  ia  called  "  tbe  delivery 
of  tbc  orwoD,"  becaoH  ■  copy  of  tbe  Lord's  Fnjer 
1  lo  the  Deaphyte.     It  begins  thqe: 


■.xr; 


thfli 


their  binlh  idI 


And  th«  ■!  ar  nuut  *duBMi 
e>  (ih.i  U.  leiU).  AbH 
loM^'-Blf  Peier,  Toii 
(anUiaUbiinhoflJiid, 
■hudUHHolrOhwt. 

Filber,  Iha  ^tao,  ud  Iha  IlolrOho^" 


Tb«  Bail  laitiation,  or  camolamtnlam,  ii  csllod  ' 
bqilum  of  the  SpiriL"     Here  u  ui  extract  I 
brmnta  of  ita  celebntioD : 


maiu  Jtmn  UhrM,  ■ 


baptlani  of  InipnltUiQ  I 


wrStajC 


h  la  BnDjr  pUcH     And  S(.  ¥ 


ittptUnL,  by  wJdrh  ibd  lEoL^ 


l>m«,  uid  vlll  da  »  u  Ilia  and  <4'  tha  vorld. 

Tba  prrficti  nets  bound  to  Bpaclal  bating  &nd  ibiiti- 
nasea— from  pwperty,  and  IVoa  marriage.  They  bad 
aigni  by  which  thdr  penona,  and  avaD  tbdr  hotuaf, 
teuti  be  reoi^niaed  by  the  Initiated.  Riinariui  (who 
apeatatiaed  ftom  Catbariam  to  tbe  Church  of  Rome) 
aNiniatrd  tha  naniber  of  "tha  perfect"  at  abont  4000 
ia  all  Europe.  Tbe  ertdntri,  at  timple  belieTen,  vera 
■Ht  tali)ecl  to  the  apecLiI  restrietlDna  named  above, 
bat  wen  bonnd  to  confeaaion  to  tbair  miaiaterx,  and  to 
•eck  tbe  eaualaMailim  before  death,  as  easen^l  to  aal- 
valioa  naatt.dnable  by  the  great  maaa  of  mankinil. 
With  tbem.qaite  ai  niach  aa  with  the  Konun  Catbo- 
Dca,  aalTittkia  wai  made  to  depend  npnn  adheaioD  to  a 
■W*B  religiniia  commnnity;  and  aa  tbe  audilora  g«n. 
anDj  pot  otl  receiving  tbe  cumolamaaH*  to  the  hour 
ef  death,  thia  c^nvmony  bacajne  inreatcil  with  a  magi- 
cal viftue,  tike  the  aacramenta  of  the  dominant  Churcli. 

Th^  religion!  aerricoa  were  entirely  f^ee  ftom  iLo 
penp  and  diapUy  of  tha  EaUbliabed  Church.  The 
places  of  wonhip  were  deatltute  of  ornioif  nta,  croaaei, 
aad  imagaa;  at  one  end  waa  ■  timple  taljle,  nvered 
vilhacloth,  on  which  lay  tbe  New  TeaUment.  War- j 
•hip  ctmaiited  of  reading  the  Scripture,  expoaitlon  of 
It.  and  praytf.  They  rejected  the  haptinn  of  the ' 
Choid  of  Bone  both  beeanaa  tbe  hierarchy  waa  not . 
the  traa  mm,  and  becanae  water  waa  created  by  the 
nil  ged  ;  and  yet,  with  aome  looansblancy,  they  suU- 
•titBted  the  bloaaing  and  breaking  of  biettd,  without 
viae,  f»  the  Romiah  eucfaariat. 

The  excellent  writar  in  tbe  LomAm  iP(«va,«bDm  we 
kire  cited, maka  tbe  (bitowingjuat  remarks  upon  the 
awrn  oftbefabe  vlewi  of  the  Catbari,  aa  exiating  in 
an  age) :  "  Is  there  no  overt  Uanlchalnn  dUpbiyed  In 
Mr  own  day  In  the  bias  aacetidam  of  the  Pnaeyite : 
■nd  If  there  be  no  latMit  Uankhniam  in  tba  viewa  of 


CATHAUINK 

I  the  extremely  oppoiita  aecUon  of  Proteatants,  whence 
'tbe  tendency  to  ire  it  human  natuia  aa  intrinsically 
'  evil,  not  as  merely  auLjecled  lo  evil ;  to  make  human 
powera,  physical  and  mental,  evil  In  their  uae,  and  ncit 
merely  in  their  abuse ;  to  Identify  society  and  lla  insti- 
tutiona  with  'the  world,'  against  which  the  Christian 
1*  forewarned?  "So;  however  it  muy  diaguiae  itself, 
and  however  its  manifestations  may  be  varied,  that 
baa  ever  been  one  and  the  aame  instinct  of  self-justifi- 
cation, hidden  in  tbe  receaaeg  (^  Ibe  heurt,  which  treats 
ain  aa  a  something  external  to  tha  will,  and,  tn  a  cer- 
tain extent,  inevitably  impoaed ;  which  makea  bolinea* 
and  bithfnlness'  lo  Uod  conaist  in  something  easier 
than  tbe  abdication  of  the  Idol  self.  This  inaidioua 
instinct  slope  at  no  Bacrllicea  provided  It  can  maintain 
itaeir.  It  inapired  the  atem  '  Touch  not,  taste  not, 
handle  not,'  of  the  earliest  Gnoalics  of  the  apostolic 
times  (Col.  ii,  21) ;  and  it  has  worked,  with  more  or 
less  intensity,  in  every  age  of  the  ChristUn  Cburch." 
IV.  UfertWun.— Tho  Roman  sources  are  Bonacorai; 
In  D'Acherv,  8fii^.  i,  SOS ;  Uoneta,  ode.  Cmkirnt  tt 
Vaidaati  (Rom.  i;4»)i  Rainerins  (about  1S6D),  whose 
account  ia  analytcd  by  Uaitland,  ynelt  owf  Aonuuiitt 
mtU  HiMBrg,ae.'>fllit  AliigaitrtaiidWaidnuriiljatti. 
19S2).  The  recent  writen  ate  Neander,  Ck.  HiH.  Iv, 
b6b  eq. ;  MaitUnd  (aa  al-ore) ;  Schmidt,  Hill.  H  Dod. 
de  la  .src«e  dti  Calhare,  (Par.  1S4P,  Z  vols.  Bvo) ;  Hahn, 
GtKMuAlt  d.  Krbxr  I'm  iliUtlaU  rCStutlgart,  1846-47). 
See  also  London  Aenew,  April.  ISofi,  art.  i;  Uiesalar, 
C*.  ;7i«orj,  ii,  S  84, 87 ;  Hahn,  m  StaKm  n.  KrUilm, 
1863,  Hcfl.  Iv  ;  Schmidt,  in  Uenog's  Re^ii-HiiesU  pi- 
dii,  vii,  4G1  sq. 

CatilailiiA,  the  name  of  several  sc-called  sunsfa  of 
the  Grsik  and  Ronun  chorcbea. 

1,  A  martyr,  who  suffered  at  Alexandiia  under 
Maximin  II.  Tbe  Greeli  and  Roman  accounts,  which 
are  not  at  all  to  be  depended  on,  stale  tbst  she  waa  a 
rich  and  noble  lady,  who.  having  entered  upon  a  dis< 
putation  with  certvin  heatben  pbilneophers  at  tbe  com- 
mand of  Haximin,  and  vanquished  and  oonverted 
them  to  the  fullb,  was,  together  with  them,  put  lo 
death.  She  ia  said  to  hare  been  put  upon  an  engine 
msde  of  wheels  armed  with  spikes  to  lacerate  her 
body,  but  when  the  machine  was  put  into  motion  her 
bonds  were  miraculoualv  broken,  but  aba  was  immedi- 
ately beheadod.  Hence  tbe  name  ol  CaHianite-wlud, 
Enaebiue  (Knrf.  ffut.  vlU,  14)  speaks  of  a  f.imous  Alcx- 

yielded  to  the  lust  of  the  tjTunt  Hi.ximin.  reaolutdy 
resiated  and  overcame  him,  hr  which  aha  was  pun- 
ished with  exile  and  the  loaa  of  all  faer  property.  Jo. 
aeph  Assemannl  thinks  that  this  Is  tbe  only  account 
of  jr.  CittAormf  that  can  be  depended  on.  Her  remains 
are  said  to  be  still  kept  in  a  msrLlo  chest  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Mount  Sinai,  in  Araliia  (Focock'a  Tnmli,  i, 
140,  ful.).  She  is  commrmoroted  on  Kov.  SG.— But- 
ler, Lira  o/'S.tiM,  Nov.  2fi;  Landon,  Eccl.  Did.t.v. 

2.  Of  Sweden,  a  princeas,  bom  about  ISSO,  who,  be. 
ing  contrjded  in  marriage  to  a  young  nobleman 
named  Kgard,  persuaded  liim  to  join  her  in  making  a 
WW  of  perpetual  chaslitv !  She  died  abbess  of  the 
monaatoiy  of  VaUen,  Mirch  84,  ISM.— BuUer,  Lira 
o/Samb,  Nov.  22 ;  Landon,  Eedfi.  Di^iimirtt,  s.  v. 

3,  or  sienna,  was  bom  at  Sinnai  In  1S47,  and  early 
devoted  henelf  to  an  anst?ra  Ufi'.  In  1365  she  re- 
ceived the  habit  of  Ibe  third  ordor  of  St.  Dominic,  and 
soon  became  celebrated  for  her  recluae  litis,  revela- 
tions, and  miraculooB  powers  nf  cnnvenion '.  She  In- 
duced Pope  GregoT}-  XI  to  rertora  the  pontilicsl  thnme 
lo  Rome  from  Ailgnon.  She  used  all  har  efforts  to 
t«UBe  Urban  VI  to  la  recomiMd  aa  the  lawful  suc- 
cessor of  Gregory.  She  died  April  29, 1R80.  Piua  II 
puliliahed  the  bull  for  hcrr  canonliution  June  20. 1461, 
aiMl  her  festival  is  oliaervod  on  April  80.— A.  Butler, 
l.v/i  o/S^HMr,  April  80i  Ciaxia.  Vie  de  Si.  CalAarmt 
(1846):  l.andan,  Erdf.  Dittiomary,  a.  v. 

4.  Of  Bologna,  born  of  noble  pirenta  Sept.  S,  lUB. 


CATHARINUS  1( 

Id  14!T  ahe  «mt«TBd  amaQg  the  Dan*  of  St.  Fnnci*  M 
F«mra,  wbo  Boon  tttm  (dopted  fhe  nirera  mlg  of  SL 
Cbn.  Afternids  Kb*  b«c«iiie  Bbbeu  of  >  new  eon- 
Tont  of  tb«  order  In  Bologiu.  She  U  old  by  Roman 
wrUen  toluTebMl  tbsgiftiofpnphccyuidmlTulu.' 
She  died  Much  9,  UBi.  on  wUeh  dij  iha  ia  commBiD- 
onted.  A  tipuriow  book  of  ber  ReveUtkms  wu  pab- 
labad  at  Bologna  In  ISIL— BMIer,  Lioa  of  5aaW, 
Hareb  9. 

9.  or  GoDoa,  dioKfater  of  Jamu  Fiaachl,  vlcatoy  of 
Kaplea.  waa  bom  at  Gcn«  In  IMS,  and  at  about  aU- 
tMD  vu  married,  agalnat  ber  will,  to  ■  ga]'  young 
piofilgBle  named  jnlins  Adorna,  who  for  many  yean 
canaed  berlbe  gieate*!  affliction.  Being  left  ft  widow, 
she  devoted  heraelf  to  the  cire  of  tha  aick  and  poor. 
She  died  Sept  IJ,  1610,  leaving  a  few  worki  of  devi>- 
tion.— Butler,  /jw.  o/  Sa'aU,  Sept.  H  [  Upbam,  Uft 
of  Calk.  Adanta  (N.Y.  1836,  ISroo). 

6.  or  Ricci,  was  bom  at  Florence  In  153!.  In  16» 
■be  took  the  veil  BDong  tbe  Dominican  nana  at  Piato, 
In  Taacaay.  Sbs  wa*  made  perpet-ul  prloreaa  at 
tweaty-flTa,  on  acconnt  of  ber  aatclity  &nd  auetic 
life.  Tba  BolUndiata  My  that  Philip  of  Naii  waa  li- 
k>wed  to  Gon«erM  with  her  in  a  viaion,  she  balnT  at 
ber  oonrent  and  ha  at  Rome !  She  died  Feb.  i,  158B, 
and  waa  canoniied  in  1746. — Butler,  Uva  of  Sw'n'-i, 
Feb. 14. 

CathailnilS,  Ambbosiitb.  or,  more  properly,  I.at- 
ctiol  Poim,  was  bora  at  Sienna  In  14S3.  He  Mudleil 
law,  and  afterwards  Uught  that  acience  in  several  lul- 
lan  nniveraitica ;  bat  in  1511  he  entered  the  Domini- 
can order  at  Florence,  and  in  IMJ  accompanied  tbe 
cardinal  del  Hante  to  the  Coancil  of  Trent.  He  be- 
came aftetwarda  blahop  of  MinnrI  in  1(>46,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Coma  in  l&Gl.  Ha  died  at  Rome  In  HAS. 
As  ■  theologian  he  atood  high  for  learning, 
mneb  giren  to  controversy,  and  did  not  dpare  either 
tbo  fktbera  or  the  dogmas  of  hli  Church  in  his  attaclii 
Hit  principal  worka  are !  CommtHtaria  tn  tp'ttah 
Fim'i  (Yeolce,  ISei,  fol.):  — Baamilfoii™  m  Genai 
(RnnK,  I5S3,  fill.).  Soma  of  his  vritlnga  were  pub- 
Ilsbed  under  the  title  Oputetla  (IB)!).— Pierer,  Vmvtr- 
111-  Laihm,  a.  v. ;  Dufdn,  Ecd.  Wrilen,  16th  cent. ; 
Niceron,  ilemolru,  t.  xzxiv. 

Cathoart,  Rodrrt,  D.D.,  ■  Presbrtcrian  minis- 
ter, wue  born  Nov.  1759,  near  Coleraine,  Irol: 
he  was  claselcslly  educated.  He  afterwarda  entered 
the  Univeraity  of  Glasgow,  waa  licensed  by  Ibo  rrcs- 
b)-tery  of  Ko'uts,  and  lalwred  within  Its  b< 
sevonil  yean.  On  comina  to  America  in  I7S0  he  lie- 
came  a  member  of  the  Prenbytery  of  Pbiladeiphio,  and 
In  179.')  beosme  pastor  of  the  charcbes  of  Yi  ' 
Hopewell,  Pa.,  where  he  spent  nearly  fifty  yeora  of 
eminent  uaefulaeaff.  He  was  amomlier  of  tbe  Gener- 
al Assemldy  for  nearly  thirty  yean  In  ■accession.  He 
punued  bis  labors  with  nnwearled  diligence,  and  died 
Oct  19,  l»:g.  He  published  A  Srnmm  om  tAe  I>ntlh 
vfRrr.  Dr.  Dmdtcn,  1812— Sprogua,  Aiaial;  111,  569 
Pnit.  QuiTl.  Jttv.  Oct.  ISei,  »rt.  vi, 

CathidTA  (Latin  callitdra!  Gr.  aiOiipa —  fmm 
UTO.down,  and  r?pi7,  AMSt).  Indussical  archmlogy 
cailifdra  means  a  chair  with  ■  back,  but  wlthont  arms, 
and  usually  used  by  women.  Calhedne  were  oIm  used 
by  teachers  nf  gymnastics  while  giving  i 
and. later,  by  all  public  teachen.  Fallowing  this  ujuge 
of  the  wntd,  the  term  has  befn  applied  to  the  cha* 
aSce  of  profesfon  in  univerilties  or  other  high  scI 
of  leaniin'.'.     Tbe  English  word  obnr  ia  need  in  the 

In  tbe  early  Chrirtian  Cbarcb  tba  term  esthodra 
was  applied  to  tbe  seata  t^bopa  and  presbyterr  occu- 
pied during  divine  service  in  snch  rooms  u  Christians 
were  permitted  to  assemble  in  liefore  ibtj  were  allow- 
ed to  build  churches.  In  many  of  tbe  crj'pta  in  the 
Catacombs  at  Roma  and  elsewhere  are  seals  cot  In  tbo 
rocks,  supposed  to  have  been  thus  need.     Later,  when 


CATHOLIC 

charcfa  ediOeea  ware  erected,  the  cathedne  were  placed 
ilddla  of  the  semicireulu  speis  at  the  eaateni 
or  rear  end  of  tbe  cfaorch,  and  occupied  by  the  char. 
of  the  cathedra  were  Uken  fnim  tbe 
d  were  thus  of  marble,  and  deivrstad 
with  dt^ignB  from  classical  mythology.  Later,  they 
were  decorated  with  symbolic  designs  of  the  Christian 
tilth,  as  tha  head  of  a  lion,  reravaenllng  tha  foice  and 
tlance  of  a  good  biKba|>;  the  head  of  a  dog,  repic- 
ting  hia  vigilance  and  fidelity  i  or  a  dove  crowned 
h  a  nimbns  over  the  bock  of  the  cbalr,  repreaentin:; 
Holy  Spirit  whicb  waa  to  abed  light  Into  bis  heart. 
The  cathedrs  of  the  Stfa  and  6th  centoriea  were  often 
Inlaid  with  ii-oiy  and  predona  atones,  after  the  stvle 
'  the  Alexandrian  moaalcs.  iMn,  they  were  richly 
decorated  and  heavily  gilt.  Very  early  in  the  hiitory 
of  tha  Church  they  were  held  as  predona  mementoee 
of  favorite  bishop*.  Traditions,  unworthy  of  cndlt. 
'"  '  '  ■  the  reputed  chairs  of  St.  Peter  in  the 
Vatican  (Rome),  of  St.  Mark  in  Venice,  and  W  St.  Paul 
'a  Salonico.  In  the  Ganlie  Church,  for  a  time,  tbe 
lishops  were  buried  seated  in  their  Jiain,  which  were 
afterwards  tiken  up  and  preserved  with  great  rerpect. 
'  the  paintings  of  the  Catacnmbr,  in  early  mosaics 
and  miniatures,  cathedrs  are  often  rspresentad  with 
ither  a  liUial  or  flgnrative  meaning.  Thn^  in  tbe 
Catacombs,  n  bishop  is  represented  stretching  out  hit 
hand  to  a  womsn  and  to  a  sheep,  thus  representing  tbe 
id  the  flock ;  in  another,  the  bishop  is  hold- 
ing up  the  Word  ;  God  the  Father  [a  reprewnted  on  a 
ilhedra  receiving  the  gills  of  Cain  and  Abel;  tbe  Re- 
deemer is  tbna  seated,  receiirlng  the  cromta  of  gold 
from  tbe  seven  elders  [see  ArocALTPSE];  Cbriat  is 
sealed  on  a  cathedra  aumunded  by  eight  martyrs. 
Two  chain  in  two  niches,  with  a  table  between  thera 
bearing  the  open  Bible,  represent  a  council  (In  the  Ba|> 
liatery  of  Ravenna\  I  n  the  church  of  Santa  Uaria  del- 
U  Mentorelln  (In  UUam)  Is  a  work  in  gilded  bninu, 
representhig  the  twelve  apbstles  on  asata;  betwrcn 
them  Is  a  cathedra  supporting  the  open  Bible,  la  the 
source  of  all  authority  i  above  is  a  lamb,  bearing  a 
cross  with  a  banner,  having  the  inscription  "£^  son 
c^im  H  orUa  omim—"  /am  fie  gale  amd  tkfoUi^Ot 
Arrpi"  ■  chalcedony  in  Corlena  has  a  ratbedra  with 
'll^'t:  est  on  it. — Bingham,Or^.  Hcdet.  bk.  viii,  cb.  vj. 


$10. 

Cnthadral  [see  Cathsdba].  (1.)  The  chnrch 
edifice  containing  the  cathedra  or  bishop's  choir,  1.  e. 
the  bbfaop's  church  in  a  diocese,  usually  the  Uigert 
and  most  roagnlflcent  church  in  a  dioceae.  Tbe  mod- 
cm  tise  of  the  term  cathedral,  as  designating  the 
church  in  which  the  bishop  has  hla  throne,  is  coofloed 
to  the  Western  Church,  and  is  posterior  to  tbe  teuth 
century.  In  the  East  such  churches  r.rs  called  tha 
great  church,  the   episcopal  church,  or   simply  the 

C?.)  CaTBEIiR.vi.  (a<l}ecllve)— (n)  perUining  ta  a  ca- 
thedral, as  "  cathedral  serticc ;"  (b)  official  or  authori- 
tative, OS  tbe  "  cathedral  determination  of  an  nitide." 

CatlloUo  («i9oXwo(,-  [cnra  and  oXoc],  gmmt, 
umvenal),  a  title  given  to  tbe  Christian  Charrh  on 
account  of  iu  being  not  confined  (like  tbe  Jewifb)  to 
one  people,  but  embracing  memben  uat  ofcrery  n!- 
lion.  ■>  As  '  He  Cbuivh'  is  (In  one  of  Its  •enaes)  em- 
ployed to  signify  alt  Christians,  who  are  ■memben 
nne  of  another,'  and  who  compoee  the  body  of  wbicb 
Cbri't  is  the  bead,  ra  the  title  ■catholic,'  or  'anlver. 
sal'  ia  a  necessary  indication  of  tbe  use  of  tbe  wmi 
■church'  In  that  sense.  The  Catholic  Church  cwn. 
prebends  tbe  entire  bodyof  tme  ChristlaD*:  but  it  is 
no  one  community  on  eartb— it  has  no  one  voible 
ruler  or  governor.  Any  Individual  church  may  be  in- 
cluded in  it.  I  ul  cannot  with  propriety  be  callad  tbe 
Catholic  Church"  (Eden,  s,  v.). 

1.  In  tbe  primitive  Chnrcb.  Itw  title  "  eatbolic" 
came  into  use  at  an  early  period  to  distispilah  tba 


CATHOLIC 


159     CATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH 


Cfarittba  Chuicb  Aon  tba  Jcwlah,  which  was  nation-  | 
iL,  while  tlw  Chriaun  body  wu  to  include  all  mu- 
khd.  At  «  later  panod  ic  vm  used  to  dlttiogDuh ' 
t^M  irtu  ulopled  tha  ao-ciUed  "  hereiie*,"  within  the 
Ckrutbn  Chnreh,  ttom  the  boiy  of  balieTsn  who  held 
the  tme  Guth,  and  to  whom  alone,  and  to  whoH  ba- 
hrf;tba  tenn  "catholic"  waa  applied.  The  euliatt 
BnaaflliBwaTd(e.g,of  Pol]'orp[tl6S],in  kd  eiuiti* 
p.-exrTwl  in  Eiuebiiu,  B.  £.  It-,  15;  Clainetia  Alex. 
[tt!0],£iTuiwH'a,  ril)  kiu  in  tbe  acnia  of  the  general 
difeijoii  uf  the  Chnnrb.  Ic  la  lued  in  the  Apoatlei' 
l.'nHl(thir<1  ceatary),  andaftn-the  adoption  of  the  Nt 
Hue  dead  it  bei^an:e  a  cooimoii  title  of  the  Chorcb 
((M  P(«r»n,  0»  lie  Cittd,  art.  ix,  note  v).  ChiilinK- 
vsith  interpreta  tba  "Hcdy  Catholic  Church"  in  the 
Creed  to  mtma  ■'  the  right  that  the  Church  of  ChritC, 
«T  ulber,  to  apeak  properly,  the  Goapcl  of  Christ.hatb 
Is  ba  nninraally  believed.  And  therefore  the  article 
luy  he  Craa,  tbough  there  were  no  Chrletlan  Charch 
ID  the  «otld"  (Cbillingirorth,  IConb,  lol.  p.  196).  Pa- 
ciaiiaa  (A.D.  S73),  in  answer  to  Sempronian  the  NoT^ 
tin,  who  denunded  of  hhn  why  Chiiatiana  called 
thenuelTe*  Catholic*,  replied,  "  Chrlatian  la  my  name, 
aid  Citbolic  my  aumams;  the  one  la  my  title,  the 
other  my  character  or  muk  of  diatinctjon"  (cited  fay 
Bingham).  CUrke  {5cr<iiDtu  [vol.  Iv,  ed.  1730]  on  Ife 
CaOnSc  CkmrA)  givea  the  following  meaninE>  of  the 
«eri :  "  The  j6v(  and  t  jrgeat  aenae  of  the  term  Catbo- 
lie  Cbnrcb  ti  that  wbich  appeara  to  In  the  moat  ol>vi- 
001  and  lltaral  mtiantng  of  the  words  In  the  text  (Heb. 
ill,  13), 'The  genaral  asaambly  and  church  of  the  flnt- 
born  which  are  wzittan  in  heaven ;'  that  is,  the  whole 
aoDber  of  thoaa  who  ihall  finally  attain  unto  solva- 
lioa.  &»ik1^,  The  Catholic  OT  Universal  Church  eig- 
niAu,  in  tba  next  place,  and  indeed  more  froqaanCly, ' 
Ih*  Christian  Choich  only— the  Christian  Church,  aa  ' 
distiaimbhed  tntm  that  of  the  Jewi  and  patriarcha  of 
old :  tba  CUorch  of  Chiiit  spread  nniversaUy  from  onr 
SarioBr's  daya  over  all  the  world,  in  coatradiatinctlon 
td  tba  Jewiah  Church,  which  was  particularly  cnnlioed 
la  ona  nation  or  people.  Tkirdti,  The  Catholic  Church 
ilgniHea  very  frequently,  in  a  still  more  partlcnlar  and 
rtaDaiBedaeiu*,  that  putofthe  Un  I  venal  Church  of  I 
Cbriat  which  In  the  preaent  age  Is  now  living  upon 
•nth,  Bs  distinguished  from  those  which  have  been  i 
baiin  and  sball  come  after.  Fourli^  a»d  tattlg,  The 
tsm  Catholic  Chnrch  signifies.  In  the  Isat  place,  and  ' 
mt  ftequently  of  all,  Ibat  part  of  the  Univerasl  \ 
Chanh  of  Christ  which  In  the  prosent  generation  Is 
ruble  npon  earth.  In  an  ontward  profesuon  of  Che  be- 
Esfof  the  gospels,  and  In  ■  ylaible  external  comma- 
aiM  of  the  Word  and  aacramenta."  Peanon  (£710- 
ripuiffAt  Apadla'  Ortd,  art.  ii)  explains  tbs  cath- 
slidtyof  theCbnrchaacoiuiating.  Kenerally,  in  "anl- 
vmslity,  aa  cmlnacing  all  aorta  of  penons,  as  to  he 
diianninated  thntogh  all  nations,  sscomprabendlnfall 
sgia,  aa  containing  all  neceasary  and  saving  tmths,  ai 
obliging  all  men  to  all  kindi  of  obedience,  as  coring 
sll  diiaaiea,  and  planting  all  graeaa  is  the  souls  of 

i.  The  Romas  Chtmrh  anggiotly  clainu  the  name 
Catholic  aa  axcIastTely  her  own,  and  disignataa  all 
■bo  dn  nM  baloag  to  her  camBonion  as  bereCles  and 
rcbiinatx*.  It  ia  bad  awngfa  In  the  Choreh  of  Rome 
to  make  this  claim  of  the  title  "Catholic^"  it  Is  still 
worse  for  ProleataoU  to  concWle  it.  The  result  of  this 
nueaaion.  in  moat  Protastant  countries,  is  that  com- 
nwn  feoflB  have  really  no  conception  of  the  true  use 
of  Uie  word  Catholic.  The  word*  "  Papist,"  ■'  Papal," 
"  Smaai*^"  are  all  properly  applicahlo  to  the  Church 
of  Rnmi,  and  imply  no  offenalve  meaning,  as  thry  are 
*U  lef^mstely  derived.  At  aU  evenbi,  the  woni 
"Roman"  shoald  always  be  prefixed  to  "Catholic," 
i(  the  Utts  term  be  uaed  as  part  of  the  title  of  the 
Qarcb  of  Rome.  "  There  is  a  atrange  enchantment 
ia  wonh,  which,  being  (althoogb  with  no  great  color 
o  leaaog}  smninnil,  do  work  on  the  tanciea  of  men,  es- 


pecially of  the  wanker  sort.  Oftheee  power  doth  ever 
arrogate  to  itaelf  sach  aa  are  moat  operative,  by  their 
force  aoataining  and  extending  Itaelf,  80  divers  prev. 
aienC  factions  did  assume  to  themselvea  the  name  of 
Catholic,  and  the  Roman  Chnrch  particularly  hath 
appropriated  that  woid  to  itself,  even  so  as  Co  commit 
a  bull,  implymg  Rome  and  Che  universe  to  be  the  same 
place  i  and  the  perpetual  canting  of  tbis  tenn  hath 
been  one  of  the  most  effectual  charms  to  weak  people. 
'  I  am  a  Catholic,  that  is,  a  univenal ;  therefore  all  I 
hold  is  true  ;'  tbii  ia  tbelr  great  aricnment"  (Uamw. 
On  lie  P^-M  Saprenuu^;  Work;  S.  Y.  ed.  iu,  iOl). 
I  The  Chnrch  of  wbich  Rome  was  ai 


at  as  the  Chnn 


Ft  Catholic,  tut 


not  Catholic,  fa 
ConMantinople  waa  the 
Greek.  "There  is,  indeed,  a  Cathotio  > 
Chnrcb,  and  tberetbra  a  nnlveraal  Christianity.  But 
to  assert  that  the  unity  Implied  In  the  conjunction  of 
these  terms  is,  and  most  be,  a  eiaiMs  unity,  is,  In  a 
word,  to  give  the  lie  to  all  Church  blatory,  botii  Qraek 
and  Latin,  hom  a  dale  almost  Immediately  sequent  on 
the  apoatolic  age.  And  neither  Greek,  nor  Latin,  nor 
Teutonic  Christianity,  nor  all  of  them  together,  can 
ije  CatioSc  Christianity,  any  more  Chan  a  pare  of  any- 
thing can  be  cqaal  to  the  whole"  (Lml.  (^rttriji  At- 
eirw,  April,  1855,  p.  160), 

Bishop  Bilson,  in  bis  Trm  Difinim  btUir*  Cirit- 
(iqa  SubjretioK  ami  raolnMian ActeKuH  (1565),  eumi  up 
the  reasons  for  denying  catholicity  aa^  note  of  tbs  Ro- 
man Chnrch  aa  followa  (In  dialogue  form) :  "PiataadtF 
(Komanist) ;  What  One  point  ofoar  raligjon  la  not  cath- 
olic 7  TieopUtm  (Anglican) :  No  one  point  of  tbat 
which  thja  realm  hath  refuaed  ia  truly  catholic.  Your 
!  bsving  and  adoring  of  images  in  the  church ;  your 
I  public  service  In  a  tongue  not  understood  of  the  peo- 
I  pie ;  your  gailn|{  on  the  priest  while  he  alone  eateUl 
and  drinketh  at  the  Lord'a  table;  your  barring  the 
I  people  tmta  the  Lord's  cup;  your  sacrificing  the  Son 
of  God  to  hla  Father  for  the  siiu  of  the  world;  yOBi 
adoring  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  with  Divine 
honor  instead  of  Christ;  your  seven  sacraments ;  your 
abrift ;  your  relesalng  souls  out  of  pnrgatoiy  by  pray- 
ers and  pardona ;  your  compelling  prieata  to  live  eln- 
ule  J  your  meritorious  vowing  and  performing  pilgrim- 
ages ;  yonr  Invocation  of  salute  departed  1  yonr  mlea 
of  perAction  tor  monks  and  friars ;  your  relying  on 
the  Pope  as  head  of  the  Church,  and  vicar-tnneral  unto 
Christ— these,  with  Infinite  other  BuperatitiDnB  in  ac- 
tion and  errors  in  doctrine,  we  deny  to  have  any 
foandation  In  the  Scriptures,  or  conflrmaUon  in  the 
general  consent  or  use  of  the  Catholic  Church." 

In  fact,  (tor  Protestants  to  concede  to  Romanists  the 
title  " Catholics"  is  equivalent  to  acknowledging  them- 
selves heretlcr.  "This  concession  may  be  harrolea* 
and  Innocent  eaongh  as  fur  aa  Prc^atants  are  concern- 
ed, but  It  is  most  pernicious  to  those  to  whom  the  title 
is  conceded.  Men  at  all  times  have  an  inclination  to 
trust  in  names  and  privileges,  and  nothing  has  proved, 
or  will  prove,  a  greater  obstacle  to  progress  In  Chris- 
tian truth  than  this  feeling  of  being  poeaeesedof  ex- 
clusive privlleo*! — of  being  exclusively  Catholics,  1.  e. 
members  of  the  Catholic  Church-4)f  that  holy  commu- 
nity that  must  secure  a  specisl  share  of  divine  favor 
to  every  member  of  it." — BInghsm,  Orig.  Ea'ti.  Ik,  I, 
ch.  i,  §  7;  Suicer.  ThtKOirat  EecUt.  a.  v,  raBeXisoc; 
Kden,  Clmrciman'e  DieHorniry,  a.  T. ;  Elliott,  DrBma- 
Hont  of  Itontiaium,  bk.  iU,  ch.  il,  J  vil;  Betfomnv'i 
Kalti  of  lie  Churd  ttmfwed  (Lond.  1687,  ito,  pp.  29- 
94);  Ulton,  Tie  Omrdi  -f  Cintl,  fak.  ii,  pt.  11,  Intro, 
duction ;  Palmer,  Oa  Ike  Chmi,  pC  1,  ch.  xi,  ^  8.  £e> 
Roxan  Catholic  Chdbcb. 

CATHOLIC,  title  of  a  prelate.     See  CatholicM. 

CaUioUc  Apoctollo  Gtaaroh.  the  name  of  a 

body  of  Chrii>tiaos  which  has  hsd  a  separata  in^niis- 

tion  for  somewhat  more  tban  ChirCy  yean.     The  fU- 

lowing  article  is  from  a  member  of  the  bo^y.        I ,  • 


CATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH     160     OATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH 


[.  HiMtaTj.—Ta'KaTit  tb«  and  of  the  Hnt  qusrtar  of 
tliH  cenlDiy  there  began  to  be  ml  increucd  spirit  of 
prayer  in  (jreit  Britain  for  the  outpouring  of  the  Holj- 
bpiril,  Id  promoting  which  the  lalion  r^  the  Rev.  I. 
Haldane  Stewart  (oftheCborcb  of  England)  were  most 
helpful.  About  the  same  time  the  «CT  Edwi.rd  Irving 
(q.  V.)  was  called  np  from  Glasgow  tu  London,  where 
fur  a  number  of  ytan  be  preached  with  great  power 
■nd  effect  on  the  coming  and  kingdom  of  CfarLit,  his 
true  humanity,  and  hia  work  aa  the  liapticer  with  the 
Hoij  Ghost.  la  roppect  to  the  laat,  he  Uught  that  the 
Church  la  now,  and  at  all  times,  entitled  to  the  tfii. 
itnal  endowments  of  the  primitive  age,  because  "the 
sUta  and  callings  of  God  are  without  repentance;"  but 
be  had  no  clear  conviction  that  the/ would  be  restored, 
nor  did  he  urge  his  flock  to  pray  for  their  restorutian. 
The  missionary  emplo}-ed  by  his  Church  to  preach  to 
the  poor  of  the  city,  the  Rev.  A.  J.  Scott,  had  much 
stron^r  fuith  that  they  would  be  recovered  than  Mr. 
Irving  himaelf,  (iad,wben  on  ft  visit  t*  hIa  friends  in 
tho  west  of  Scotland  in  '3H  or  "JS,  he  labored  to  con- 
vince them  of  the  psrmancncy  of  the  i^fl  of  tho  Holy 
Ghoet.  Among  them  was  Mies  Hary  Campbell,  sis- 
tcT  of  IsabelU  Campbell,  whose  Mtmo'.n  were  widely 
circulated  more  than  thir^  years  ago,  then  bring  at 
Femlcarry.  Through  the  careful  study  of  the  New 
Testament,  ahe  became  convinced  that  the  promise  of 
the  Coniforter  was  fbr  all  generations,  and  she  was  led 
to  pray,  in  eoniyrt  with  some  frienda,  that  God  would 
■gain  manifest  himself  as  of  old  in  the  gifts  of  his 
Spirit.  In  March,  1830,  when  engaged  in  prayer  with 
ber  friends,  the  power  of  the  Holy  Qhoet  came  might- 
ily upon  her,  and  she  was  made  to  speak  in  tongues 
and  propheaying*.  Ver}-  soon  afterwards,  the  same 
spiritnal  phenomena  appeared  in  a  family  by  the  name 
(if  Uacdimald,  living  at  Port  Glasgow,  who,  like  Hiss 
Campbell,  were  PieEb}nerians,  and  distinguiahed  as 
well  for  pnrity  of  life  as  for  seal  and  devotion.  One 
of  the  ^ler»,  who  was  dangerooiiy  ill,  was  restored 
isslantaneouslj  to  health  through  the  faith  of  her 
brother,  l.y  whose  instrumentality  Mar;-  Campbell  wi 
also  laisad  up  from  what  seemed  to  lie  the  very  briok 
of  death.     These  occurrences  natumlly  excited  much 

thmughont  Great  Britain,  and  in  the  summer  of  that 

the  Church  of  England— went  down  ftom  London  and 
■pent  some  weeks  at  Port  Glasgow,  to  aottsfy  them- 
selves as  to  the  true  character  of  these  spiritual  utter- 
ances. Being  convinced  by  what  they  snw  and  heard 
that  they  were  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  met 
together  after  their  return,  with  othem  of  like  faitli  ' 
prav  IhLt  God  woold  pour  out  his  Spirit  upon 
whole  Church.  These  meetings,  which  were  I 
weekly  U  private  houses,  were  continued  throughoot 
tho  winter,  and  it  was  not  until  April  of  the  following 
year  (18^1)  that  any  spiritual  mcnifestotion  appeared. 
Then  the  mouth  of  a  [nous  lady  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, under  the  pa>tDr«l  care  of  the  Rev.  Daplist  Koel, 
was  opened  in  power,  and  she  too  spako  in  tongues  and 
prophesyioga.  In  tite  course  of  that  year  oLbcr  per- 
sons, both  men  and  women,  received  like  spiritnal 
gifta.  Somo  of  them  were  members  of  the  Establith- 
«]  Church,  anil  others  were  Presbylarians  and  Dissent- 
era  :  but  it  was  chioAy  in  the  congregation  of  Mr.  Ir- 
ving (and  that  after longand  careful  examinatign}that 
lilrtirty  was  given  to  speak  in  spiritnal  power, 
together  with  his  prominence  in  the  eypB  nf  the  t 
led  to  the  connecting  of  his  name  with  the  HiTk,  al- 
though he  and  all  who  were  of  the  same  faith  wit) 
n?vcr  ceased  to  protest  against  the  name  of  Irvingitcs 
as  a  designation  of  the  body. 

These  utterances,  accompanied  by  many  and  i 
Ing  cases  of  healing,  continued  in  great  power  and  ftv- 
qucncy  until  tho  end  of  the  year  18S2,when  a 
form  was  given  to  the  work  by  the  restoring  of  the  of- 
fice of  apostle.    Thia  waa  done,  not  by  popular    ' 


nor  by  any  act  of  man,  but  by  the  rolce  of  tb« 
Holy  Ghost  speaking  thrDai;;b  propheta,  and  thns  ez- 

ing  the  mind  and  will  of  God,  that  one  who  had 

a  godly  member  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
had  stood  as  a  faithful  witness  to  tbe  work  of  Ae  Holy 
Ghost,  ahould  serve  him  in  thi>  highest  ministn'.  Otfa- 
'Ts  were  afterwards,  fttim  time  to'  time,  called  to  tb* 
ime  office,  until,  in  the  year  1886.  the  full  nnmber 
as  completed.  Mr.  Irving  was  not  one  of  them,  nor, 
ith  a  single  exception,  any  of  hie  original  congrrgk- 
tion ;  three  of  them  were  clergymen,  three  were  mem- 

if  the  bar,  two  of  them  had  been  members  of  Par- 
liament, and  all  were  men  of  high  religious  character. 
At  this  time  there  existed  a  considerable  nnmber  of 
:ongiegatiDn>  wblcb  had  been  gathered  by  the  preacb- 
ng  of  evangelists,  and  organiied  by  the  apostles  prs- 
riously  called.  When  the  number  had  been  filled 
]p,  they  were  sclemnly  separated  to  their  work  wKh 
imyer  and  benediction  in  an  ssscmlly  of  the  church- 
u,  ai  was  done  in  Antioeh  in  the  case  of  Bamal  as  and 
Saul.  They  were  then  bidden,  In  the  word  of  propb> 
ccy,  to  go  to  s  secluded  village  in  tbe  south  of  Eng- 
land— Albury,  tbe  residence  of  Mr,  Henry  Drnnimond 
—and  liere  t™d  the  Scriptures  together  in  the  piea- 
ence  of  the  prophets,  that  light  might  be  thrown  npon 
them  by  the  word  of  the  Holy  Ghort.  Thry  were  alio 
directed  to  prepare  a  testimcnv  of  what  God  was  do- 
ing, and  to  present  it  to  tbe  biibops  of  tbe  Church  of 
England  and  Ireland,  which  waa  dene  in  Jan.  IBtO. 
A  larger  testimony  was  presented  in  1888  to  tho  Pope, 
the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  King  of  the  French, 
Bs  the  representatives  of  the  great  principles  of  |^v- 
cmment  existing  in  Christendom— priestly  rale,  abK- 
lutism,  and  popular  election~and  aflemards  to  othen 
of  the  chief  rulers  in  church  and  state  throughnut  Eu- 
rope. In  these  testimonies  (especially  in  the  latter) 
the  sins  of  Christendom  in  departing  flinn  tbe  ways  bf 
God  wer;  pointed  out,  hia  approaching  judgments  pro- 
claimed, and  (he  coming  of  the  Lord  (fi-r  which  the 
reatoratlun  of  the  Chnrcb  waa  the  preparation)  held  ip 
aa  tbe  only  hope  of  deliverance  to  the  sin-burdened 

For  a  number  of  years  the  work  made  little  progrera 
□ntsiile  of  the  British  Isles,  but  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment in  Europe  in  1^48  drew  to  it  the  attentioD  of 
many  In  Germany,  and  chotvbea  were  soon  organiird 
In  Berlin  and  Dthor  citiea  and  towns.  It  has  gradual- 
ly extended  itself  ipto  SwitirrLnd.  Fmnce,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  and  Austria,  and  iIfo  into  Nortb 
America,  and  belicven  ere  to  be  fonnd  in  countries 
where  there  Is  as  yet  no  liberty  of  worship. 

11.  Orsanitalim  md  iWriy.— This  bcdy  cf  Cbrif- 
tians,  who  tako  the  n^mo  of  the  Catholic  A|.ostoli« 
Church,  as  being  tho  proper  de)<lgnatiiTn  nf  all  tbehsp- 
tiied,  and  not  as  exclusively  their  own,  look  upon  the 
Binritnal  work  which  has  been  briefly  described,  as  a 
divine  movement  In  tbe  one  Church  to  restore  to  it  ita 
originsl  structure  and  endowments,  in  prrparation  for 
(he  now  rapidly  approaching  advent  of  the  Lonl  Jenis 
Christ.  They  believe  it  to  b«,  not  the  founding  ofa 
new  sect,  much  less  the  setting  up  of  ■  new  diFpensa- 
tion,  but  a  work  of  healing  and  recover}-  in  the  one 
body  nf  Chrift,  which  bashed  a  continuous  and  histor- 
ic eitiatence  from  the  day  of  Pentecort  to  this  hour. 
They  recognise,  therefore,  the  whole  Christian  Chnrcb 
as  brethren,  according  to  the  measure  of  truth  in  doc- 
trine and  ordinances  which  it  has  Tetain<d  in  ila  sev- 
eral divisions.  They  believe  that,  in  the  purpose  of 
God  and  in  its  own  nature,  it  is  one  body ;  and  that 
intercommunion  between  tbe  parts  is  tbe  true  kw  of 
its  being,  and  the  nmssaiy  conditioa  of  tta  heallhfal 
growth :  intercommunion,  not  as  between  distinct  and 
independent  nations,  but  OS  between  the  different  por- 
tions of  one  and  the  same  nation,  having  one  centn.1 
authority,  and  enhjecl  to  common  InwF,  Tbe  central 
authority  which  God  gave  lo  the  Cbtircb  In  the  begin- 
ning Ibey  believed  him  to  have  now  tetlored.  not  for 


CATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH     161     CATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHUKCH 


to  i^ienadiDg  of  tlu  esbtlnB  miniatriaa,  bat  tor  the 
aartjing  ot  gnet  and  itreogth  roore  >bun<Uiitly  to 
in  sho  will  recaiTB  it  Tb>  ■pottoUc  office  balDugt 
tiiM*H:t,bDtI*fortha  whole  Charcb;  uiilthoHiwbo 
ua  gUlMred  nader  it  en  Dot  a  uct,  but  rt  pan  ol  the 
VM  bod]'  broBght  into  thsir  right  nlatioiu  to  the  Head 
■ad  to  oD«  another. 

In  iMpecC  to  the  organiutkio  of  the  Catholic  Apo«- 
tnUe  Chnnb,  ito  chief  pecDliarity  liea  In  the  nmrfDld 
loiaiMiy  of  apoMle,  prophet,  evengetui,  and  putor,  u 
daeaibed  bj  St.  Peal  in  the  4th  of  the  Epheaiane. 
ApoiUa  an  nilen  In  the  Church  anlvenal,  b^  whom 
lit  Lud  in  hla  kbaenec  exercieu  hia  function!  of  «u- 
iSm'itj :  prophets  are  the  ipeciil  organ*  of  the  Holy 
Gkat,  bj  whom  light  fi  impertwJ  for  tbe  goidance  of 
ipntie*  in  their  worlc!  cvangaliita  carry  forth  the 
Gnpel;  and  piBlora  feed  and  cure  for  the  flocka.  Tbe 
Mae  (imrrDld  diatlncdon  ta  bronght  ont  in  the  particn- 
lar  chgrchea,  in  each  of  which,  where  circnmatanceB 
allow  of  its  being  fully  organlxofl,  there  ia  an  angel  or 
diief  pastor,  representing  to  his  own  floch  the  Angel 
of  the  Coreoant  la  the  hearens,  who  hse  under  him 
a  body  of  eld?ra  in  whom  thore  ahoold  be  aeen  the 
■UH  foorfoldneta  of  minlatr]-  aa  in  the  Church  anU 
renal  under  Chrial — aome  helping  him  In  the  worlc  of 
rule,  othera  exerclaing  the  prophetic  gift,  and  othera 
■tili  acting  aa  evangeluta  andpaatora  within  the  limlta 
of  the  aajtera  charge.  This  variety  of  functlotu  In 
llw  nlaiirtry  ie  in  accordance  with  a  foarfbld  diatinc- 
lioo  lathe  Intellectual  and  spiritual  charactera  of  men, 
to  whkh  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  shape  themselraa 
— aODU  havlug  tbe  power  of  nile,  others  the  imagina- 
tlre  bcnlty,  while  hi  others  the  adaptire  nnderstaod- 
iag  or  (be  affections  are  reipecUvel}'  predomiDant. 

In  <TBr7  church,  In  addition  to  the  angel  and  eld. 
era,  there  la  a  body  of  deacons,  wlio  ire  choian  by  tbe 
people  as  being  their  repreaeatativea,  and  ordained  by 
tbt  injjel',  irhOHeSceitiato  aaaiitin  the  public  Serv- 
ian, eepedally  the  celebration  of  tbe  Eucbaiitt;  to 
diatribiite  the  alma  of  the  church  tu  the  poor,  and  to 
be  tbe  coanseUon  of  tbe  people  in  woridly  mattara. 
Tbsra  are  also  nnder.deacons  and  deaconeiaee,  aa  the 
Bsceaattiee  of  the  oongregatlon  may  require.  All  tnin- 
liten  except  thoae  in  the  dbconal  ofllce  are  called  by 
Um  voice  of  prophecy,  and  ordained  by  the  hands  c^ 
apoctlea.  The  apoMlu  themselves  are  not  ardainod, 
Acre  Mag  nans  higher  than  themselvea  to  confer  on 
thea  BBtbority  and  gmee. 

III.  OoctTMu.-^-They  receive  the  Scripturea  of  the 
MduKt  New  Testaments  (rejecting  the  Apacrypha)u 
tba  plenarily  Inspired  and  authoritative  revelation  of 
God'i  will,  and  atandird  of  doctrine  for  ali  generationa. 
And  they  hold  the  common  faith  of  Chriatendom,  as 
eipnssed  in  the  three  great  creeda  beat  deserving  the 
atme  of  Cath<dic— the  Apoatlea',  the  Nicene, 


leof  ni 


meda,  ai 


the  Inc 


thse  an  used  conatantly  In  the  public  asTvlces 
put  of  wonbip-^he  Apostles'  being  recited  before  Ood 

Kiwne  every  Sunday  in  the  encharistic  ofBce,  end  (he 
Athanasian  on  the  principal  faaats  of  the  year.  But 
liiej-  (rive  eapecul  prominence  to  the  great  doctrine  of 
h  its  cornliaries  of  the  death  and 
in  of  the  Lord,  and  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Obost  (  teaching  that  the  only  and  elemally-begotten 
Aon  of  God  took  fallen  humanity  by  being  liorn  of  tlie 
Vlndn.  fulfilled  In  It  aa  man  the  perfect  righteonsaeas 
of  God,  and  yielded  it  to  tbe  death  of  the  cmea  aa  a 
•pollesi  and  sntBclent  offering  for  the  pins  of  the  whole 
world;  *bertDpon  the  Father  gave  him  hia  reward  by 
nnng  him  tnnn  the  dead  in  the  incorruptible  iiodr, 
•ad  exalting  him  in  the  human  nature  to  hia  own  right 
hod.  He  waathoaconatitutedthe  Head  of  the  Church, 
aad  his  next  step  waa  to  form  the  body  by  sending  the 
Bsly  GhM  la  luke  men  one  with  himaelf  In  all  the 
•pMlnal  fralta  and  resnlti  of  hb  vktory.  The  three 
•  whkh  he  baa  appdnted  In  hia  Chnrch 


for  this  end  are,  Bapdsm,  which  ia  Ibr  conveying  hla 
new  or  resnrrection  life  to  all  who  believe  In  him,  and 
to  their  children,  and  which  is  coonled  valid  whether 
administered  by  sprinkling,  pouring,  or  immening; 
tbe  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  bread  and  wine  are  made 
in  conBecration,  by  the  operation  of  tbe  Huly  Spirit,  to 
be  the  apiritDal  myatery  of  (he  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  and  are  partaken  of  for  the  nonriahing  and 
atrengtheahig  of  bis  fnithful  mambera;  and  the  rite 
of  conflrmation  or  sealing,  in  which,  by  the  laying  tin 
of  the  bauda  of  apoatlea,  the  Holy  Ghoat  ia  given  for 
endowing  with  heavenly  gifts  and  the  powers  of  the 
world  to  come  thoae  who  have  reached  adult  age  and 
are  walking  in  holiness  of  life.  In  respect  to  the  Eu- 
charist, they  reject  the  Roman  Ciitbulic  doctrine  of 
tmnaubalantlstioa  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  of  Zwln- 

and  wine  are  unchanged  in  their  pbyaical  prDpertiea 
and  eaaencc  by  conaecration,  while  they  are  made,  by 
the  operation  of  the  Holy  Gboat,  to  be.  apiritually  and 
not  carnally,  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord. 

To  gather  the  Church  aa  the  election  of  God  ont  of 
all  tbe  nations  of  tbe  earth,  they  believe  to  be  the  great 
work  of  thia  dlapenaatiDn,  at  the  completion  of  which 
the  Lord  will  return  and  uke  his  Bride  to  himself  hy 
raising  the  dead  and  changing  the  living  aalnta,  and 
will  then  proceed  to  set  up  his  kini^om  in  tbe  earth. 
First  of  all,  he  will  deliver  the  Jews— both  the  two 
tribes  which  are  known  and  the  ten  which  are  losl— 
ttma  their  dispersion  and  exile,  and  reconstitute  them 
as  the  metropnlitin  nation  in  the  land  which  God 
gave  to  their  fithora  j  and  then,  by  their  Inrtrumen- 
talilv,  he  will  extend  his  salvation  to  all  the  ftmiliee  of 
mankind.  Thia  millennial  diapenaatlon  will  continue 
throogh  tbe  thonaand  years  spiiken  of  by  St.  John,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  then  will  be  an  aposlasy 
among  the  nations  onlaide"  the  camp  of  the  Hints  and 
tbe  beloved  dty,"  i.  e.  thoae  whose  aUndinii  ia  distinct 
both  fhim  tbe  Church  and  the  restored  nation  of  Israel, 
through  the  instigation  of  Satan,  tlien  for  the  last 
time  loosed  from  his  prison-house,  afler  whii-h  thi*  final 
judgment,  with  its  eternal  retributions  of  good  and 
evil,  will  ensne. 

The  Encbariat  Is  made  the  crntn  of  worship^  aa  be- 
ing the  commemoration  of  the  death  of  Christ,  which 
opened  the  way  of  entrance  into  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
where  he  now,  as  our  great  High-priest.  falHIs  the  work 
of  intercession.  In  this  work  bis  Church  is  called  to 
take  part,  which  she  does  In  the  highest  sense  when 
she  shoira  fnrth  hla  death  in  this  holy  sacrament,  hy 
praaenting  unto  God  In  the  conaecrated  elrmenta  the 
memorial  of  his  sacrifice,  and  thereupon  offering  pmy- 
ers  and  Interceaaiona  for  all  men.  It  is  not  the  expi- 
atory aacrlflca  of  Jeaus  on  the  Cross  which  theChureh 
thus  renews  and  continues  In  the  Eucharist  (aa  the 
Roman  Cathoilca  teach),  for  ho  died  once  for  all  to 
make  atonement  for  ain.  and  then  can  be  no  repeti- 
tion of  his  death;  but  it  is  hia  preaent  intercessori- 
work  la  heaven.  The  Eucharist  is  celebrated  on  the 
forenoon  of  every  Lord's  day,  and  on  other  solemn  and 
special  occasions.  The  tithes  and  oirerlngs  of  the 
people  are  brought  Dp  during  the  services,  and  solemn- 
ly dedicated  to  God  in  prayer.  Then  an  also  morn- 
ing and  evening  services  for  worahlp  on  every  day  of 
the  year,  at  fi  A.M.  and  6  P.M.,  consisting  of  confer. 
slon  of  sin  with  al»alutlnn,  the  rending  of  the  Holy 
Scriptates,  the  reciting  of  the  Creed,  the  singing  of  u 
Psalm,  and  prayen  In  the  fourfold  form  of  snppllci- 
tions.  prayers,  interceaaiona,  and  giving  of  thanks. 
which  are  olTcred  by  the  priests  In  order  according  to 
their  rcapective  minhtries,  all  being  gathered  up  and 
presented  to  God  in  the  name  of  Jmus  Chriat,  thi 
great  High-priest  and  Hediatnr,  by  tbe  angel  of  the 
Church.  In  the  principal  congrogationa  there  arc 
shorter  services  every  forenoon  and  afternoon  at  nhie 
and  at  thl«e.  There  are  also  meetings  for  extern. 
porancoua  pnyer,  that  all  whom  the  ^rit  movea  to 


CATH.  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH     162 


CATH0LIC03 


pnj  may  hiTS  llbrat;  to  oxprus  Iheir  daairei  unto 
Ood,  uid  Air  Um  cierciN  of  aplritiul  gift*,  in  which 
«vci7  one — eYen  wotnaD  and  children — maj  jitli 
tbemnlTU  to  apeik  In  the  power  of  the  Holy  Gbo«t. 
Sermons  are  preicbed  on  Snndaya  and  at  appointed 
tima*  daring  the  week.  A  ritual  ia  owd,  coDitrudad 
on  the  principle  of  githsrinB  In  ooe  all'lbiit  i*  most 
valuable  in  the  wonhlp  of  the  whole  ChDich.  The 
minlitera  wear  Teatments  In  the  public  HTvicea,  and 
llghti  and  iDcenae  are  uaed  for  their  aymboUcal  chu- 
ai:t*r.  The  ancient  ordinance  for  anolDting  the  elefc 
with  oil  ii  reatored  to  lU  right  use ;  and  for  the  relief 
orpenhanta  there  is  the  rite  of  private  conreaaian  and 
absolution,  bat  which  is  not  compabiarj,  nor  for  (he 
extortion  of  aacreta.  The;  believe  that  the  end  o 
diapanaation  la  rapidlj  approaching,  and  that  the  ob- 
ject and  aim  of  all  theae  mlniatriea,  and  apiritoalgUta, 
and  eccleataatical  services,  is  to  make  read]-  a  people 
for  tbe  Lord. 

There  an  no  pnbllahed  itatiatlcs  of  thta  bodv,  but 
there  are  cbarche*  in  many  of  the  principal  citlea  of 
England  (aeven  In  London)  and  Scotland  ;  Id  Dublin 
aadBelbst;  in  Paris,  and  a  f^w  other  pbicea  In  France - 
in  Basle,  and  Berne,  and  other  towna  in  Switrerland ; 
In  Berlin,  and  man;  other  places  in  X«th  Germanv; 
and  a  number  of  smaller  eongregationa  in  Holland, 
and  Belgium,  and  North  America. 

To  tbe  above  account  it  <a  proper  to  add  that,  In  the 
Jndgment  of  the  Christian  Church  generally,  the  dls- 
tinctiTe  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Cbnrcb  are 
regarded  as  erroneoni,  and  lla  poll^  and  aaagee  aa  re- 
actlonarj-,  and  oppoaad  to  tbe  tme  development  of  the 
Church. 

I.  Af  te  d<>e(rt*c.— The  C.A.  Cbarcb  )a  especially 
diatinguiahed  by  its  doctrine  aa  to  spiritual  gift*. 
"  Like  ttaeHontanistsof  the  aecond  century,  they  look 
npon  these  apostolic  gifts  snd  offlcea  aa  the  neceaaary 
condltiona  of  a  healthy  atate  of  the  Church  at  any 
timej  make  their  diaappearanca  the  bult  of  Chriatian- 
Ity ;  and  hold  It  impoa^ble  to  remedy  the  defecls  of 
the  Charch  without  a  revival  of  tbe  cbariama  and  the 
apoatolate.  Thev  appeal  to  snch  pasaagea  aa  1  Car. 
xii,  87-81 ;  Eph.  Iv,  Il-lS,  where  undue  emphaaia  ia 
laid  on  •  till  ;■  and  to  Thesa.  »,  19,  20 ;  1  Cor.  sii,  Bl ; 
siv,  I,  where  the  apoatls  not  only  wama  Cbriatlana 
againat  quenching  the  holy  Are  of  the  Spirit,  hot  also 
poaitively  requirea  them  to  strive  eanui-tly  after  His 
Dilracnloaa  gifts.  There  seema  to  ns  to  be  here  a  mix- 
tnreoftruthandemron  iMthaides.  In  these  charisma 
we  must  distingnish  between  the  essence  and  tbe  tem- 
porary form.  The  first  ia  permanent ;  the  second  haa 
disappeared,  yet  breaks  out  at  times  aporadically, 
though  not  with  the  same  itrength  and  parity  as  in 
the  apoMotic  period.  In  the  nature  of  the  case.tho 
Holy  Ohoet,  when  first  entering  into  hamanity,  came 
with  peenliar  creative  power,  copiousness,  and  fresh- 
ness :  presented  a  striking  contrast  to  the  mass  of  the 
nnchrlatian  world  ;  and,  by  thiaveir  exhibition  of  what 
was  extiaordinary  and  mlracnloaa,  exerted  a  mighty 
attraction  upon  the  world,  without  which  it  neve: 
conid  have  l>een  conquered.  Cbriatianity,  however 
aima  to  incorporate  henelf  In  the  \\h  ofhumanity,  en 
ler  into  all  it*  condltinns  and  spiiercs  of  activity  aathi 
ruling  principle,  and  thus  to  become  the  second,  hij^er 


Aa  itn 


the  sphere  of  the  Spirit,  so  in  this  very  piDceni  it  makes 
Iba  aapemataral  more  and  mora  natnnl.     These 
bat  two  aspects  of  one  and  the  same  operation.     , 
cordingly  we  find  that,  as  fa»t  aa  the  reigning  pen 
of  heathenlam  ia  broken,  those  charisma  which  exhibit- 
ed most  of  the  miracnions  become  Uaa  frequent,  and 
after  tbe  fbarth  century  almnst  entirely  disappear. 
This  is  not  owing  tA  a  fault  of  Christianity,  for  at  that 
very  time  the  Charch  prodaced  some  of  her  greatest 
teachers,  her  Athanaeiua  and  ber  Amtirose,  her  Chry- 
sostom  and  ber  Auguat'jic     It  is  rather  a  result  of  its 


victory  over  the  world.  Spiritual  gifts,  bowow,  dH 
not  then  fully  and  fbrerer  disappear,  tat  in  times  at 
great  awakening  snd  of  tbe  powerful  descent  of  tba 
S|drit,  in  the  creative  epocha  of  tb*  Church,  we  now 
and  then  alieerve  phenomens  quite  similar  to  those  at 
the  flrst  century,  along  with  the  eorreepondlng  dangers 
and  abuses,  and  even  Satanic  imltatian*  and caricatnne- 
These  manifestations  then  gradually  cease  agaia,  acv 
cording  totlie  law  of  the  development  of  a  new  princU 
pie  aa]uat  staled.  Such  facu  of  experience  may  serv* 
to  conlirm  and  lllnstrate  the  phenomena  of  the  apos- 
tolic age.  In  judging  of  them,  moreover,  particularly 
of  the  masaof  legends  of  the  Roman  Church,  which  still 
lays  claim  to  the  perpetual  possession  of  the  gift  of 
miracles,  we  must  proceed  with  the  gr(sl«st  cantlon 
and  critical  discrimination.  In  view  of  tie  orervalo- 
ation  of  cbartsms  by  the  HontanlsU  and  Irvingites,  m 
most  never  forget  that  Paul  pots  tboee  which  mMt 
shun  free  inspactiun,  and  most  rarely  appear,  as  the 
gift  of  tongusB,  br  beneath  the  othera,  wbieb  pertain 
te  the  regular  vital  action  of  the  Charch,  aad  are  at  all 
times  present  in  larger  or  emsller  meaaure,  aa  the  gifts 
of  wisdom,  of  knowledge,  of  leaching,  of  trj'ing  spirits, 
of  government,  and,  above  all,  of  lore,  that  grsatesi, 
moat  valoable,  most  useful,  and  most  endutinK  of  all 
tbe  fruiU  of  the  Spirit"  (Schaflf,  Apolalie  Chtrtk, 
§  116), 

S.  Tb^  worship  Is  almost  wholly  out  of  tbe  line  ttf 
Praleatant  development  and  feeling.  Their  use  of  in- 
cense, and  of  lights  on  the  aitar ;  tbeir  priestly  veet- 
mcntf — aib,  girdle,  stole,  chasubte,  rochet,  etc. — with 
the  pomp  of  their  worship,  belong  neither  to  the  prim- 
itive age  on  the  one  hand,  nor  to  tbe  Belbrmed  Cbnrcb 
on  the  other. 

For  a  fuller  account,  by  tbe  author  of  the  artlclea 
given  above  (the  Rev.W.W.  AndrewsX  see  BMkiAwa 
Sacra,  January-,  1866,  p.  IW  sq.  Seealao  SchatT,  in  tbe 
DtvOrlkt  KirfArn/rmmi,  va\.  iiii  EmgiitA  Rrv.  ix,2ai 
Thier*h  (H.W.  J.),  Vorlriiaigat  fi&n-  Katiolieitmu  ml 
PnMHimlimut  (Eriang.  I84li,  1816, !  voia.) ;  Thiarscfa, 
Die  Kirck  im  Apalol.  Ztitaller  (186?,  Svo);  /.oHden 
Quarfsr^  RtvUir,  No.  iii,  art  1 ;  IJltiT^  (md  Lilivni  nf 
Hue.  A.  Ciwvh  (S.  Y.  1856)  j  W.  W.  Andrews,  Trm 
Coutlilvlian  nflkt  Chtiri-k  (N.  Y.  ISM) ;  Jacot^  Ltkn  der 
/rmijifni,  IfBB ;  Smith's  Hagenbach.  f/uloiy  rf  Doc- 
Iritirt,  ii,  411 ;  Baxter,  Irnngim,  ill  Kae,  Pngmt,  and 
Prantl  Slair  (Lond.  I8B6)  ;  KOstlin,  in  Herrog'a  Aeof- 
EatyOapadie  (Am.  ed.  ii,  6Sfl) ;  Qmntiif  Jourmal  of 
Prophttiy,  July,  I86S,  art  1 ;  Usury,  in  Rerae  det  daa 
ifonda,  Sept.  186S ;  and  the  artlclea  Gifts  ;  Irtiko. 

Catliolio  Eptat]«R.  The  canonical  epistle*  of 
Jjmes,  Peter,  and  Jude,  and  the  first  of  John,  are  so 
calird  bccanse  tbey  are  not  addreraed  to  any  particu- 
lar individual  or  charch,  bat  to  Christians  in  general 
(Suloer,  Thfi.  Eccln.  Ii,  IS). 

Hug  gives  the  following  view :  '■  When  the  Gospels 
and  Acta  of  the  Apostles  conBlitnted  one  peculiar  divis- 
ion, the  works  of  Paul  also  soother,  there  still  rrmam- 
ed  writings  of  different  sntbors  which  might  likewise 

be  given.  It  might  most  sptl}'  be  called  Ur  commim 
coBfctiim,  naBoiitif  iron-oy^n.of  the  apostles,  and  tbe 
treatises  contained  in  it  roifni  and  ra&oXicn;,  which 
are  commonly  used  by  the  Greeks  as  synonyms.  For 
this  we  find  a  proof  even  in  (he  most  ancient  eocleriaa- 
tical  lingaage.  Clemens  Alviandrinus  callstbe  epis- 
tle which  was  difpatrhcd  by  the  assemLly  of  tbe  apos- 
tles (Acta  XV,  aS)  the  ■catholic  epistle,'  as  that  in 
which  all  ttie  apostles  had  a  share,  n}>-  ^neraX^ 
cnSoXic^i'  rut-  ' Airo'mtXiiiv  SnaiTiin;  Hence  our 
seven  eiustles  are  catholic,  or  epistles  of  all  the  apos- 
tles "ho  are  authors"  (fafrod  lo  X.T.§  161).  So, 
also,  Eichbom.  See  Home,  Iatn)diKi:<m,  pL  vi,  cb.  Ir, 
g  1.     See  ErisTT.EB,  Apostolical. 

CatboUo  Iiengna.    See  Lciom. 

G«tlloU0OS{ro0aXwo£),  (l.)Tb*tideglv«n,  under 


CATHUA  163  CAITLE 

CoBftuUiM,  to  fall  procontor,  or  viur-gensral  (after  Jilr  and  JaphtUih  ftnin  Ibe  kMpIng  of  tbccpi  Sinl 
ttiiargwiii>tionofdiaca«Bnd«r  Imperial  Uw),  whuM  and  David  iiii);ht  aim  tw  mcntkoicd.  Soma  nf  tba 
ittj  it  wai  to  se«  tbat  all  impsrial  rsBcripta  were  daiy  pniphcta  were  called  from  that  employment  to  the  pro. 
So  in  a  letter  from  Cooatantlne  to  Erne-  phetic  dignity,  aa  Elliha  iraa  from  the  plongh  (1  Kln^e 
red  in  Soctatea,  HUl.  Ecda.  i,  S),  the  am-  :ijz,  19),  and  Amoa  froni  Leing  a  herdeman.  Bat  the 
"  Lattere  have  been  aent  to  the  ^iiHjeqvdiii'  tendint[  of  flocki  «ae  not  confined  to  the  men.  Iti. 
oMlwai',  that  ba  maj  provide  all  thingt  neceuan',"  chel,  the  dan^hter  of  I^ban,  kept  her  fatbi^'i  ibeep 
etc    See  Snictir,  Tka.  Eeda.  a.  r.  (Gen.  zxix,  9),  and  Zipporah  end  ber  «lx  (Islem  had 

(t)  Tha  otBciat  title  of  certain  of  the  OrienUl  prel-    the  care  of  their  bther  Jethro'a  flockn,  wbo  was  a  prince 
Uia,  especially  of  the    patriarchs  of  tha  Armenian    or  prieat  of  Midian  (Eiud.  ii,  16).     The  fuilowinc  ia  a 
Cbanh.      He  is  appointed  head  of  that  part  of  tbe   general  trealmeni  of  the  subject  un<let  ita  two  great 
dianh  over  vhicb  his  Joiiadiction  extendi ;  he  only   lectioni.     See  Herd;  Flock. 
no  «dain  Uibops  and  coniecrate  the  lacred  oil.     The 
fignltyofCathalicae  is  inferior  to  that  of  patriarch,  but 
Hfierior  to  that  of  metropolitan.     There  are  three  dig- 
iriBriai  bearing  tbe  title  in  the  Armenian  Chnrch  at 
pment— the  Catholieoi  of  ECcbmiadiin,  the  Calhollcoe 
of  A^tamaTf  tba  Catbolicoi  of  Sis, — Coleman,  ^HcieiiJ 
Oirittiimti,  ch.  zXTii,  g  3.     See  AaimiAN  Church. 

Cattm'K  (KaSaufi),  one  of  the  family  heads  of  the 
"lertants  of  tbe  Temple"  (Nethinim)  that  returned 
hgm  BabykiD  (1  Eadr.  t,  30)  ;  apparently  the  Giddel 
[<l.  T.)  of  tbe  Hab.  texts  (Em  ii,  47 ;  Neb.  vii,  49). 

Catlia,  Jacob,  D.  D.,  a  Congregational  minUter,  ,    _,--  —      '  Llt^^S^!^!*^ 

wai  bom  at  Hanvinton,  Conn..  March,  1758,  and  grid-  ^  —i-.-'WiM/i^j^^W' 

•aled  at  Yale,  1784.     Ha  became  pastor  in  New  Marl-  B""  rfl*>e>il°a. 

boiDagfa,  Uaaa.,  July  4,  1787,  was  made  D.D.  by  Yale        I.  Kird  Citftfe.— These  an  designated  collectively 

in  WM.  aikd  died  April  1%  18!8.     Ho  pabliiheda  work    by  the  Heb.  term  ^53,  haiar';  tingle  animaU  of  this 

*"  "^!!^i.1-^,"  ^^  ^'*''^L?  ""'T'  *'"    tind  are  called  q^iA.'^H^pl',  an  "o,,"  or  liti,  Mor 
■auc(itoef«f(1.9r);andaOi*Di(r»eiefor«  B^ree-aia-    ,^,    ,,    _ ._        ,'      -'      „     .,,    .         ,  ,   . 

«V  £«^(1T96).-Sprag«e,  AfmaU,  ii,  880.  [CI""-  ''^^<  '^^  »     '"'"«*)"  H"  "1™  an  ityled 

C«ttei.l«irKh.ADn,R»VA«.aDArminUnorRe.  >??.  « M  »«*"  «  S™'«^f«"-  nijS  ,,iri  . 
■BUtrant  tbeol^,  l»m  at  Rotterdam  Nov.  2, 1664,  ,  "  ""'^^  C*!"  »  y™°S  «■•-  •""  "••*»  '""''•■'  »»  f"> 
od  tlM  the  protoaorahip  of  theolwr  at  AmHerdam  7"^''  •''"*<■  "'*'  '* '  "°^  '-  ">  •  "'""  K"""".  bat 
br  twenty-fiTo  years.  He  was  Intimately  connected  atill  in  fqll  youthftil  rigor,  1^,  I»r,  a  rfw-fcm.  IT^D, 
•ith  Philip  Limborch.  He  died  in  1786,  leaving  (1.)  paroA',  t  hfi/er  (jmamu,  juctitca :  comp.  Varro,  An 
afieOrfiMm  TiMlogim  ChrUliama  PUSppi  a  IJnbortk  Am'-  ii,  S,  8).  Ibe  nomadic  Abrabamida  (like  the 
(AMt.  17W.  i  vob.  161.)  !-<2.)  BibSMeca  Xcrip/onim  Homeric  cbiafk,  see  Feith,  AtUiq.  Horn.  p.  406)  already 
JbwH*n>Mlim(Am>t.1T27,8vo):— (3.)£fiila;mfi.';a-'pncticed  the  raising  of  cattle  (Qen.  xil,  16;  xrlii,?: 
r»«iiJfOH»i  (Ibid.  1737, 4to),aitainstAtbeltta  and  xxiv,  8i;  xiiii,  6;  xxxW,  S8:  comp.  »ii!,  S),  and 
D™t».  Ha  alio  wrote  a  lift  of  Grotius  in  Dutch.—  when  they  emigrated  into  Eg>-pt  still  carried  It  on 
Haeftr,  Kam.  Biog.  GiniraU,  is,  !».  :  (Eiod.  x,  9,  24 1  xil,  82  iq.).      In  lairr  times,  alio,  this 

Cattle  (the  repreaenutiv.  In  Tarion.  passage,  in  '  *"  «  P™!?^  P'"^\  °J."^ '5«'''^:  "f-^'^J" 

,.     .  „  J..      „.           .    -„__    ,.      \T^  ,  leveral  distncti  of  Paleitine  (Dent,  vin,  13;  XII,  !1 

ll»A.V.ofthaHab.wordarTCria,ic*™<.*,alarg.  j  Smm.xi.ii   xil,  S;  2  Sam.  xil,  2;  Pm.  cxliv,  14; 

fKKfrapiJ  io   genenl,  niually  "beasf  [aeo  Bkhk-  j„.  «),  j^;  y,!!;  Jmlith  vui,  6,  etc.).    The  oxen  an 

Ncm]  ;  In  Num.  xx,  4,  and  Paa.  lixviii,  48,  -i'S^,  there  somewhat  nnall,  with  short  faomi,  and  a  bunch 

Mr',  gimdng  aviBali.  elsewhere  "baaiti"  so  the  Or.  of  fat  on  the  sbonlders  (Hasaelqniat,  TVoivb.  p.  180; 

liordiiuiTa,  aa  baing/.d,  S  Uacc  ill,  11,  or  Hpi^fiaro,  comp.  Shaw,  Tranti.  p.  150).     The  lineat  herds  and 

fron  being  reorrd,  John  iv,  12 1  moat  fieqaenlly  and  atmngest  butlocka  were  found  in  Baihan,  beyond  Jot- 

ilsnMeristiQallyrt3p'a,Bnt«i',apiisHi^iasome-  dan  (Num.  xxxii,  4);  hence  the  Bashanile  ateera  are 

tiMi  tendered— l^oii  the  fkrt  that  Oriental  wealth  »"""  I™'  metaphorically  for  formidable  enemies  (Pia. 

[■'«b.tano^■■  Job  i,  B.  10]  largely  canE>iited  in  this  '  »^".  '»)■  "'•""  Baihanite  cowi  are  a  lymbol  of  static 

Wad  of  property;  like  the  Or.  rr^,  ai  being  poiao*-  '?  "omen  (Amoe  i,  4).      In  the  dirtnct  west  of  the 

«i.l  ll«c.  xii,  28;  also  idiomatically,  rri;.  J^.  J"^-  the  plain  of  Sharon   extending  to  the  Modi- 

_   «    I         ..    o.       1—  o.    „     .          ■■      ..   ^  terranean  Sea,  afforded  the  flneit  paetnrea  (lea.  Ixv, 

^  "i■'t:^^  -l'*'  "'r-  f '  «?•''■»->"'.  V-  ».  lO;  ».  Jemme  in  Inc.).     Even  Ihrking,  had  their 

O,  an  md>ridosl  >lc'7>  or  f .  mi,  aa  eliewbare  rendered ;  herdamen  (1  Chron.  xxvlii.  29).     There  was  great  de- 

i»l!a,(ai»,Gen.iix,B9,40,41,42,43;  xixi,e,10,  mand  lor  neat  cattle;  many  hondreda  were  yearly 

li,41,4S!  Ecclsa.  il.  7,  sjI«ii  collectively  at  a^i,a8  slauglitered  In  aaciiace  (andtheie  were  animala  of  tbe 

nadend  elsewhere),  in  ecriptntiil  usage,  embraces  the  finest  quality,  sa  among  other  nations,  see  Herod.  U. 

tuae  qnadrupeds  employed  by  mankind  for  domaitic  41 ;  Xenoph.  Cgr^.  viii,  81 ;  Varro,  It't  EmM.  ii,  &,  11 ; 

psrpoHa.  aa  oxen,  baffisloea,  bones,  sheep,  goals,  cam-  Pliny,  viii.  10,  etc.),  others  were  employed  for  food  or 

d»,ai(daaaea{Gen.i,25;  xul,  2;  xxxii,  lS-17;  Eiek.  festive  occasiona  (Dent,  xii,  21 ;  2  Sam.  xii,  4;  ToMl 

xii,  19;  ixiiv,  19;  Num.  xx,  19;  xxxii.  IB;  Paa.  I,  riii.!!;  Matt  xxiit,  4),  sa  then  eenerally  beef  (1  Sam. 

ID).     See  each  of  theae  In  their  alphabetical  place.  ,  xiv,  82;  1  Kings  xlx,  21;  comp.  iv,  28;  Neb,  v,  18), 

Tba  Holy  Idnd  was  eminently  diatinguiihed  for  ita  and  atill  ofleneTTaal  waa  sfeasttothe  [sraelltes  (Gen. 

atuduce  of  cattle,  to  the  management  and  rearing  xviii,  7 ;  I  Sam.  xxviii,  24 ;  Amos  vi,  4  ;  Luke  xr,  23, 

aT  which  the  Inbabitanta,  ft«m  the  aarlloM  times,  chief-  27,  30),  it  being  anciently  regarded  as  an  act  of  wan- 

Ij  applied  themselves,  as  Indeed  they  have  always  Ion  prodi^lity  to  alay  nieful  agricnltuial  beaats  (com- 

nuiltatad  tbe  principal  and  alnuet  onlv  poaaeaaion  at  pare  Apollon.'lihod.  ii,  686  iq.)  in  order  to  enjov  their 

•  Mmade  nee.     In  thia  caae,  wealthy  people  wen  ax-  flesh  (£lian,  lor.  /fitl.  r,  14 ;  Anim.  xii,  84  ;  Varro, 

paMdtoaUtheTicbiaitndeaofthaseaaona(Gen.xxxi,  A.  A.  11,6,8;  Plinv, //'Jf.  A'nT.  viii,  70;  Valer.  Mix. 

tO).    MeeeswBaashapbardduringbiaexile.Shnmg.ir  viii,  I;  Cic.  A'lV.TW.  11,  6.'0-     See  Food.    Tbe  milk 

na  taken  from  tha  berd  lo  b«  ■  Judge  in  Iinel,  and  waa  Died  either  aweet  or  cnrdled,  and  waa  made  bIfo 

(SdMothimUa  tbTeahing-flDoi(Jndg.Ti,lI),aswere  into  cbaesa.    See  Milk;  CHaEan;  Bdttbb.     CalUe 


CAITLE  H 

irare  jaktd  to  tha  ploagh  (Daat  xxii,  10 ;  1  Klugi 
xiz,  19  >q.;  lu.  xxx,  24;  Amoa  vi,  1!;  Job  I,  U; 
comp.  Judg.  xiT,  18 ;  JoMpbiu,  Ant.  ili,  4,  6),  likewise 
tet  dnDgbt  (Num.  vil,  8,  7 ;  1  S«m,  tI,  T ;  !  S*m.  vl, 
8,  6),  ■nd  were  KnneUmes  emploTed  far  burdens  (1 
Chron.  xil,  40;  comp.  SWtxt,  Aain.  vli,  4),  but  ssp»- 
CUII7  (br  tiireahiiiB  (comp.  BiAa  Maia,  tI,  i ;  CMin, 
ivf.T).  See  AoRicHLTnBB.  They  were  driven  (Judg. 
iii,3I;  1  Sun.  xlll,  21;  compuv  Sinch  iixvlll,SS; 
Acta  U,  6)  wHb  K  pointsd  edck  O?^?.  ■u/iwkJ',  or 
15"i^,  dorfriia'i  ayrfov  or  (Soush^dji,  bIso  ^uir^qj 
In  il-ad^  vi,  135,  UL  itmuba  [camp.  Srtof.  >d  Pindar, 
/yA.  il,  ITS]),  sn  inatrument  employed  ileo  for  horses 
(Ov)d,  Mttam.  ii,  127 ;  aee  SchMlgon,  Dt  ilimuio  boan. 
Frcr.  aV.  171T).  See  Goad.  During  aummer  cM\t 
ranged  under  the  open  iky.  In  tfae  Italia  (!  Chmn. 
zxiU,  98)  tlieir  fodder  (Pniv.  xW,  4;  Luke  xlH,  16) 
WIS  pUced  in  ■  <:iib  (043N,  ebut';  ^nrvi)).  Beilde* 
fresh  gresa  and  meadow-plants  (Dan.  It,  39;  Mam. 
xxil,  4),  meilln  (V'-^a,  bdU',  Job  vl,  6  ;  Ism.  xxi,  24 ; 
'fl!\  le'bat,  laa.  li,  7)  is  mentioned  la  provender  ot 
cattle,  ■  mixed  food,  like  tha  Roman  famga  (Geaeni- 
u«,  Thenair.  p.  213).  That  lalt  (to  gratify  Uie  appe- 
tite) waa  added  may  be  Inferred  mm  laa.  xxx,  !4 
(sea  Geaaniaa  in  loc.).  See  Salt.  Cattle  were  great- 
ly annoyed  by  insects,  and  perhaps  the  yH^.t  ^'' 
(A,  V.  "  dettroctlon"),  of  Jar.  xlrl,  20,  Indicates  acme 
aort  of  anch  noxiona  eraatnre,  namely,  the  gadfly  or 
attm  (aee  Hitiig  in  loc. ;  otherwise  Geaeniua  in  loc). 
Sea  Bekvb. 

In  the  Moa^c  Uw  the  following  enictmenls  relate 
pecUlly  to  oxen :  1.  The  month  of  the  thraahin'^-cattle 
waa  not  to  be  bound  so  as  to  prevent  their  eating  the 
provender  apread  under  them  (compare  Dnrckfaardt, 
Pnnrrbi,  p.  67).  Sea  MBiei-K.  Hence  tha  term 
"threahing  oxen"  aometlmea  atsnda  for /.I  or  well- 
conditioned  animala  (-ler.  1,  11;  aeo  SasenmDller  in 
loc.).  3.  Whoever  etole  and  then  sold  or  slangbtered 
an  ox  muet  Eive  five  oxen  in  latiafactlon  (E^tod.  xxli, 
1):  bnt  If  the  animal  was  found  alive  in  the  poiaeasinn 
of  the  thief,  he  was  merely  required  to  make  doable 
Kstltution  (Exod.  xxil,  4).  See  Theft.  S.  Whoever 
met  an  ox  that  had  Iklten  or  strayed  waa  under  oLli- 
gation  immediately  to  help  It  up  and  bring  it  bark  to 
theowner(Eiod.  xxiil,4;  Deut.  isll,  1,4), an  injunc- 
tion the  more  needful  in  a  country  not  only  thinly  in- 
habited, but  intenected  by  many  desert  tracla.  See 
Palestine.  4.  An  ox  and  an  aaa  uiuit  not  be  yoked 
.  together  to  the  plough  (DeuL  xxii  JO).  This  prohi- 
bition ia  evidently  akin  to  those  relating  to  heteroge- 
neous cotnbinationi,  although  MIchaelia  {Mot.  Rich', 
111,  149)  glvei  it  another  interpretation.  See  Diverse. 
Benpecting  unruly  cattle  (Exod.  xxi,  W  aq.),  see  Dam- 
AOEB.  It  waa  considered  Bnmercirul  to  take  the  only 
bean  of  a  widow  in  pawn  (Job  xxiv,  3).  Sea  Deht. 
On  the  subject  generally,  aee  Bochart,  llitnt.  i,  269 
aq. ;  Ugolino,  De  Rt  Rati.  Hebr,  (in  hii  Tkaititr.  :ili), 
II,  9  aq.  For  the  symliollcal  worahip  of  the  youn .; 
bull,  see  CAI.F,  oolden.     Oimpire  Bbabt. 

II.  SfaaUCattlt:  1.  <SAri7i.— These  are  designated 
collectively  by  ^XX,  MM  (a  general  term,  like  pijXov 
and  ptau,  including  also  goats),  singly  by  fia,  irA ;  1 
while  Sn^,  Tochd.',  meana  ttet;  37SC,  ayU,  vnlher, 
(Chaid.  15^,  rWor');  -a.  Jar,  a  fat  pasture  lam*; 
D33.  it'brt,  a  Ismb  of  one  to  three  years  (comp.  Ge- 
«en.'  -niu.  p.  669) ;  Mba,  talth'  (or  "lia,  ftW),  a  auck- 
ling  or  miO-IaiRt;  BVO«.  mifAii'in'  ("Iktlinca,"  I 
Sam.  XT,  9),  ia  an  obscure  term,  possibly  aifmll^inu 
tinhffor-M  lamba  (oni  tKimdariui,  Columella,  Ra 
Rvti.  vli,  3 ;  comp.  Bochart,  Hitna.  I,  469).  Next  to 
neat  hefda,  abeap  formed  the  most  important  staple 
of  Oriental  nomatUc  puranita  In  Aramna  (Gen.  xxix. 
XXX)  and  Palettine  (Gen.  xil,  16;   xiii,  i;  xi,  14; 


i  CATl'LE 

xxi,  37:  xxiv,fl6;  xxx1t,S;  xxiiv,  2fl),  aa  In  Egypt 
(Gen.  xlvii,  17 ;  Exod.  Ix,  8),  AraliLi  P.trva  and  De- 
■erta  (Exod.  li,  16,  19;  ili,  1;  Kum.  xxxi,  S2;  laa. 
xxiiv,6ilx,T),andHoaUti*  (2  Kings,  111,4  1  laa.  xvi. 
1).  In  milita^  feudi  between  such  tribes,  we  always 
And  abeep  mentioned  among  tha  booty  uf  the  victos 
(Num.  xxxi,  S3 ;  Jos.  A  SI  i  1  Sam.  xiv,  32 ;  XT,  3 
aq. ;  xxvii,  S ;  1  Chron.  t,  21,  etc.).  The  aame  ia  still 
UDiTcraally  true  of  modem  Bedouin  Arabe,  whoae  traf- 
fic In  aheep  (comp.  Eiek.  xxvi,  31)  la  their  leading 


Eyrtan  Hlieep  1 

mark  of  proaperity  and  even  opulence  (crmp.  Arrlenx, 
ili,  132).  The  patriarchs  bsd  large  flocks  of  thsep  In 
Palestine,  ai  later  In  Egypt  or  Goshen  (Exod.  x,  9, 34  ; 
compare  Hengetenberg,  Pail.  p.  6  aq,);  also  upon  tbe 
occupation  of  Canaan  by  tbe  Israelites,  iheep-hreedin'; 
con^ued  to  be  the  chief  employment  of  a  large  part 
of  the  population  down  to  the  latest  period,  being  car- 
ried on  amid  the  numeroua  open  tracts  and  hilla  of  tbe 
conntn-  (lu.  vii,  f  &),  many  of  which  were  produrtire 
of  saline  plants  (comp.  Deut.  vii,  13;  Tiii.lS;  xivili, 
4;  Judg.Tl,4;  1  Sam.xxii,]9;  2  Sam.  xii,  2;  ProT. 
xxvii,  28;  Eccl.  il,  7 ;  Jer.  iii,  24;  v,  17;  Hof.  T,  «; 
Joeli,I8;  Judith  Tiii,6,etf.).  There  wororichownen 
of  flocka(l  Sam.  XKV,3;  2  Sam.  xii,  2;  comp.  Job  1, 8 ; 
xiil,  12),  and  even  kinga  had  their  shepherds  (1  Cbmn. 
xxvii,  81 ;  Amoa  vii,  1 ;  compare  3  Chron.  xxxii,  28), 
from  whom  they  derived  a  revenue  of  (heep  and  wool 
as  presents  (3  Sam.  xvii,  29 ;  1  Chron.  xii,  4(i)  or  trib- 
ute (2  Kings  iii,  4  ;  lu.  xvi,  1).  Among  the  regiona 
moat  favorable  for  Fheep-rraring  are  mentioned  tbe 
plain  of  Shann  (Iia.  Ixv,  10),  Mt.Cannel  (Mic.  vll, 
14).  Bashan  (Eiek.  ixxii),  and  Gileod  (Mic.  1.  c). 
The  aheep  In  the  patriarchal  age  were  tended  oflen- 
timei  by  the  dau>rhtera  of  the  owner*  (Gen.  xxix,  9; 
compare  Exod.  li,  16) ;  later  by  oveneera  or  hired  mm 
(John  X,  12) ;  aometlmea  by  the  aona  of  the  famUj  (1 
Sam.  xvi,  ]]  ;  xvii,  lb).  See  SiiBFHEBD.  The  keep- 
ers gave  their  ifaeep,  eipecially  the  bell-wethers,  reg- 
ular names  (John  x,  8;  compare  Theocr.  v,  102  aq.: 
Ariatot.  Ata'ni.  vi,  16 :  Longin.  Pailor.  v.lT  end  19),  and 
familiaiiiedtheaB  animala  with  their  voice  so  as  to  fol- 
low them  (comp.  2  Sam.  xii,  3).  The  sheep  roamed 
all  rammer  in  the  open  air,  being  folded  only  at  nigbl 
(Num.  xxxii,  16;  !  Chron.  xxxii,  28)  in  a  pen  (."^^f, 
jcAroA',-  Talmud,  nil),  where,  in  .exposed  poaitkma, 
they  were  guarded  by  sentries  (Luke  ii,  8).  In  tbe 
daytime  they  appear  to  have  been  sometimes  abeltn' 
ed  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  cavema  (nH^X,  Zeph. 
ii,  6;  which,  however,  a<«ording  to  others,  ligniflea 
only^iiff,  i.  e.  cisterns  for  watering  tbe  sheep).  Sbep- 
heidi'  dogs  were  indiapenssUle  (Job  ixx,  1).  Of  the 
young,  which  sheep  bear  twice  a  year,  the  aotmnn 
lambs  were  considered  the  more  vigorous  (Vam,  Jtti 
Awl.  ii,  2,  IB;  Colum.  ft.  B.  vii,  8;  Pliny,  riii.  73; 
comp.Uamaker,J/iKeU.Pib»Be.p.ll7Fq.).  Thefleeh 
of  the  ibeep,  cipecUlly  that  of  wotberi  and  lamb*. 


CATTLE  1( 

■M.U  wHh  modirn  Anb*  (Wallitad,  Trot.  p.  ISl),  ■ 
UfUy  Mtnmcd  ruod  (1  Sun.  xxv,  18 ;  lu.  ucii,  IS ; 
Ana  tI,  * ;  Tobil  tU,  9 ;  vjii,  SI),  and  wH  iiMatiil 
U  a  wrU^apreu)  bovd  (1  Kiagt  iv,  23 1  Neh.  v,  IB), 
Tin  milk  of  sbrap  wm  mIio  mn  uticle  of  cuUnarj  on 
(DtEt.  luii,  14 ;  CMnp.  Diod.  Sic.  1, 18 ;  Plln;  xXTiii, 
H;  StMbo,  zvii,  8J;6;  Colutn.  S.  R.  vil,  Z;  Dlofcor. 
ii,  7i).  Sbecp,  wpMidl;  lunb*  and  nmi  (q.  v.). 
v«n  •  proininent  maiaul  in  ucriilcn  (q.  v.),  uid  ■ 
itaek  attfaem  wu  oftrn  HCriligiouily  oBn-sd  for  ulc 
b  tilt  Jcwiah  tampla  (Jubo  li,  14).  Tba  wool  O'?^, 
tn'mer,  or  ^l,  ga\  wbicfa,  on  aocoDnl  uf  tb«  putnring 
ef  tba  Bock  under  ttii  open  >kv,  itttined  ■  faigh  degm 
of  luacM  (u  in  Spun),  ma  wiongbt  into  gannenia 
(Lit.  lili,  47 :  DsbL  xiii.  11 ;  £Hk.  xulv,  S;  Jab 
xui,  » ;  PniT.  iivii,  !6;  zszi,  18),  and  Ihe  lansl- 
ilM  wen  obliged  Co  pay  tltbea  of  thia  product  (Deut. 
Iiiii,  4).  Shef  p-ahearing  (Gen.  xxxviii,  Vi)  waa  a 
rani  featire  oecaaion  (1  Sam,  xit,  4 ;  i  &im.  xUi,  3S). 
At  aDemiH  of  the  abepbcrd  ara  numed  the  lion  (Mic. 
T,  7),  tha  bur  (1  3am.  xrii,  34)  and  tba  volf  (Sirach 
xiil,  ill  lUtt.  X.  16;  John  i,  11;  comp.  laa.  xi,  Ci 
liT.  la),  wbicb  mlgbt  eaailj  cony  off  a  single  animal 
in  tha  eilcnaiva  and  aolitary  paitnreii,  although  even 
thii  vai  often  rttcaed  Ly  Che  aheep.tender  (1  Sam. 
irii,!Maq.).  See  1. ion.  The  eheep  were  very  liable 
alio  lo  itray  in  Ihe  wide  pastaragee  (Pm.  cix,  176 ;  laa. 
liii.6i  Hoa.  It,  16;  Matt,  ivlil,  IS).  On  tbe  ■'rot," 
er  diieaaa  pecaliar  to  flocka,  toe  Bocbart,  i,  59fl ;  Aria- 
tat.  <4iM>.  ii,  B.  The  cwlnr  of  aheep  la  In  tbe  Eaut 
gtntrally  oblte  (Paa.  cxivii,  16 ;  laa.  1, 18 ;  Djn.  vil, 
»;  CanL  H,  5;  Kev.  I,  14;  camp.  Eiek.  xxvii,  18); 
aKhongh  black  (D<n,  Auty,  Gen.  zxz,  32)  onaa  are 
•laDraiiad(Coluin,  A.  A;vil,Si  PUdv,  viii,T3;  oomp. 
WtUatsI,  1,  !:3;  Kappell,  Abfiiim.  ii,  21),  aa  wall  ai 
■pottHl  and  griizled  (Gen.  ixx,  US),  peculiaritiea 
■hicb  (bepbetda  kaaw  boar  to  produce  (TClliGially 
(Gen.  XIX,  S7  aq. ;  Strabo,  x,  449;  I'luly,  xxxi,  U; 
nnp.  R<aaelini,  .Vattat.  CicU.  i.  24C).  See  Jacoh. 
A  pecaliar  apedea  of  aheep  (_Or.i  lalleauiila,  Linn.)  ii 
farad  is  tba  Eatt.  witb  a  long  fkt  tall  (H^^X.  aiyiA\ 
Arab. o^  A.  V.  "rump;"  Ut.  Ui,9;  vii, 8 ;  viU,  SB ; 
■x,  19)  of  10  to  15,  and  aonellmea  40  to  5U  poanda' 
walKfat,  Corned  op  at  Ihe  end,  and  oltcD  drawn  by  Ihe 
•oimal  DpOD  a  board  or  amall  two-wheeled  cjrt  (Herod. 
rii,lia;  AriatoL  AniB.Tiii.SS;  Plinv,  vUi,  76 ;  Diod. 
Sii.ii.U;  £lian,  ^flfa.  iU,  S;  x,4;  Olear.  firtiVu. 
T,  8;  Klmpfer,  ^aun-p.  fi06  aq.;  Lucaa,  Htm  wiot 
i.  LrtwUr,  p.  183;  Roaacl,  AUppo,  II,  8;  Dttcript.  ik 
t^Sftr,  xxiii,  197  aq. ;  Oedman,  Sammi.  it,  7fi  aq. ; 
anp.KorU),A'W,p.4?9;  Kobinaon,  Ae>.  ii,  109,180; 
Schubert,  iii,  118).  Ibal  the  tania  oontrirance  waa 
natnmarT  with  tha  Jewa  may  be  una  f^om  the  Uiah- 
■a(&LiU.  V,  4).  Thia  kind  of  aheap  iafaitbardistin- 
giiabed  from  the  cumir.on  apeeiea  of  tbe  Bedonina  t 
iH  IBrned-op  Boae,  and  long,  pendent  fx».  On  tl 
Haaaie  nufUnenta  reapecting  tba  rigbCa  of  property  i 
ihaep(Exud.  xxli;  DeuC.  xxii),  aes  above.  Gompar* 
gntinlly  Bochart,  llient.  1,  461  iq. ;  Uichaelb,  t'trm 
&4ny.  i,  118  aq.  Iii  Dan.  vlii  the  Peraian  ampir 
(king)  u  peraonifledby  aram.  See  Persia.  On  thi 
tgtiti  (Hhich  re|reaenla  tbe  intiJecCa  aa  a  flock),  an 
LeiigETkfT,  D-iiurl,  p.  360  pq.     Compare  Srkei-. 

t.  (.'oofi.— Thb  kind  of  stock  ia  usnally  cUaaed  with 
•beep  nndcr  Ihe  word  'iKX,  (am,  or  (when  a  alngla 
head  ia  faiConded)  T^'D,  acA,  and  Choi  aaaocial«d  with 
aaat  cattle,  *^p3i  baiar'  (aa  in  Horn.  fiqAo,  then 
fiitt).  Tbe  Unna  for  goata  Indiridually  are :  'S,  a,  a 
^Bfo^;  BV5  r-n-jto,  arirrtV  iWai' (.baggy  female 
I'lbe  goats),  a  $it-gital;  for  tha  bock,  more  distlnct- 
irdy,  tben  are  aeveral  Certna:  ti^ri,  (n'jul;  1W7, 
^asr,-  '<'t'^.  tav'  (more  fully  B-^J  ^^Ti?,  aeir'  ii- 
>ii',  L  e.  ahaggj  male  of  the  gosto)  ;  "^'p^I,  Itrpi': 
^h  f^'^  ^  *  collectiTa  term.    Goata  were  reared  by 


Che  early  patrtarcha  (Gen.  xt,9)  xzxJI,  14;  xxxvU, 
81),  aa  by  the  modem  Bedouina;  and  in  later  times 
they  alae  formed  an  important  element  (in  all  tha 
hilly   regiona  of  Paleatine)  of  agricDltnral   wealth 


Ooat  of  PalaallBa  (Copra  Mmnbrte  ). 
(comp.  I  Sam.  XXT,  2;  Cant,  vi,  6;  Prov.  xxvli,  28) 
a«e  Eiek.  xxvil,  21).  Tbcy  were  uaed  not  only  for 
sacrilicc,  bnt  alao  for  food  (Deut.  xlv,  4 ;  comp.  Buck- 
ingham, ii,  67 ;  Kobinecn,  i,  SI!  ;  Wcllated,  p.  406), 
especially  the  young  malea  (Gen.  xxrii,  9,  14,  IT; 
Judg.vi,19;  xiii,15;  1  Sam.  Kvl,  90),  aa  still  in  Ihe 
Giat  (Ruuel,  Ateppo,  ii,  SB).  The  milk  of  poala  vraa 
alao  an  article  of  food  (Prov.  x.^rii,  27),  being  mora 
wholeaomethan  that  of  aheep  (I^iny,xiviii,83;  comp. 
BocbarC,  tftcnn.  i,  717;  Proap.  Alpin.  Rrt  j^^gypt.  p. 
229).     Goat-akina  were  only  employed  aa  clothing  by 


poor) 


parel 


(Heb.  xl,  ST).  They  were  generally  made  into  water 
or  wine  caaka.  See  Bottlb.  Goat's  bair  woe  often 
tbe  material  of  lent-cloth  (Exod.  ixvi,  T ;  xxxvi,  14 ; 
comp.  J>ella  Valle,  Trtm.  i,  206;  Arvieax,  iii,  2^; 
Tolaey,  i,  S08 ;  TbevenoC,  Iii,  196),  aa  well  aa  of  maU 
reaaea  and  bedding  (1  Sam.  xii,  13, 16 ;  bnt  ace  on 
tbis  paaaage  Ko\\a.r,Quat. BQd.^m.ii,K  8q.),and  fre. 
qnentl7orcloaka(RoblDaon,i,279).  SeeTxHT;  Boi. 
rrxs ;  Clothimo.  The  goata  of  the  oomadic  Aruba 
are  generally  black;  but  in  Syria  (Ruaael,  at  eup. ; 
Therenot,  ii,  196;  Rosaeggcr,  1,  712)  and  Imnn 
Egypt  (Sonini,  i,  HSD)  there  are  found  goats  of  a  Lirge 
alx«,  like  tbe  Europeao,  with  banging  eara  (often  a 
foot  or  mon  in  length),  and  of  a  liright  red  color: 
thb  apeeiea  is  called  O^ira  AfonArini.  Whether  Cbs 
Angora  goat  {Ctipra  Aitgortaiii  of  Linn.)  (aee  Hasaet- 
qniat,  p.  285;  Toumefort,  iii,  488;  ScbuVrt,  1,  379), 
whose  long,  aofc,  aliky  hair  is  made  Into  Clie  well' 
known  "camlet"  atuff,  waa  aUo  indiiienoua  to  Pales- 
tine (Schulx,  LtU.  V,  28,  will  have  It  found  on  l^be- 
non),  ia  undelermined ;  It  ia  poaaibly  ChaC  referred  to 
in  Cant,  vi,  ii.  On  the  Moawc  enactment  respecting 
tbe  cooking  of  a  kid  in  it«  mothcr'a  milk  (Exod.  xxiii, 
19;  xxxiv,  26;  Deut.  xiv,  21),  see  KiD.  The  aym- 
bol  of  the  Macedonian  (Alexander's)  empire  by  a  htt- 
goal  (DV^n  '^''EX)  in  Dan.  viii,  G  aq.,  may  be  illua. 
Crated  by  Che  epi'theC  £gean  (Ai'^in^tf,  q.  d.  goat- 
men),  applied  to  the  Greek  coloniea  on  that  pert  of 
Ihe  Meditenanean  Sea  (comp.  JuaCin.  vii,  1,  7).  See 
Mackdokia.  See  generally  Bocbart,  Hitroi.  i,  708. 
On  the  Syrian  wild  goata,  see  Ibex.     Comp.  Goat. 

Caul  (P";nT',yo(*«'rrU,  properly  a  mfawlinf  part, 
i-t-fiap^  Exod.  xxix,  13,22;  Levit.  iii,  4, 10, 16;  Iv, 
9;  vii,  4;  vlii,  16,25;  ix,  10,  19)  ia,  according  to  tha 
Srptuagint  and  Volgale,  Che^n' M«  o/'Ue  Ji'nr,-  the 
margin  of  our  version  aaya,  "  Ic  aeemeth  by  anatomy 
and  the  Hebrew  doctora  to  be  the  midriff."  Tha  won] 
might  be  rendered  the  lobe  over  the  liver,  although  il 
makes  a  part  of  Ibe  liver  Itself,  and  this  appears  to  be 
more  applicable  than  the  net  over  tbe  liver,  termed  tbe 
lesser  omFnriin.  See  LiVER.  In  Iloa.  xiii,8,  Ihe  Hels 
word  rendered  "caul"  of  tbe  heart  is  ^^30  (itpar', 
literally  eaeJwd),  and  meant  tbe  ^riain/twi>,  or  daits 
about  the  bean.  ,  , '  ^ 


Tba  lann  tniulated  "cink"  In  Im.  til,16  (n''p'>3d, 
iAtbinm  ,  lltetslly  •«■(%•,  Sept.  i/iirXona)  ir«  pet- 
hapi  ■  cap  of  network  worn  by  femmlea.  Tbe  caps 
of  network  in  the  •ccompuiylng  wood-cnt  are  from  k 


relief  in  tbe  Brititb  Muieam.  repnBenting 
bupictt  welcoming  Seonscberili  on  hii  i 
coaqoest.  t'lg.  1  bu  the  blir  curioiul}-  airailKea.  nui 
perbaps  not  in  a  caul.  There  I)  alto  in  the  British 
Hoieum  a  real  cap  of  network  for  tbe  hair,  fhnn 
Thabei,the  ineeheBofwhicb  are  very  flno.  See  Head- 
DBEU.  Aa  to  tbe  true  meaning  la  thii  paarage,  tbe 
venioni  give  bat  little  aHintann.  Tbe  Sapt  ren- 
der! liixXma  "  plaited  work,"  to  whicb  i(oau;j,(Jotic, 
"fringes,"  appeara  to  have  been  added  originally  at  a 
gloM.  and  afterwards  to  have  crept  into  the  text, 
Aqnila  baa  riXaiuIivnt,  "  belt"."  The  Targum  mere- 
ly adopt*  the  Hebrew  word  without  Iranslaling  it,  and 
the  Syriac  and  Arabic  vagnely  render  if'their  orna- 
menta."  It  occura  but  ODce,  and  its  root  Li  not  etie- 
wbera  tbmti  in  Hebrew.  Tbe  Rabbinical  comnienta- 
ton  connect  it  with  yas,  iJiMtti',  rendered  "embroi- 
dor"  In  Exod.  xxviii,  89,  but  properly  "to  work  in 
•quarea,  make  checker- work."  So  Kimchi  (_Lex.  t,  v.) 
explain*  tMum  as  "the  name  of  gamienle  wrooghl 
in  checker-woik."  Raahi  eaya  tbey  are  "a  kind  of 
network  to  adom  the  bead."  Abarbanel  la  more  full ; 
he  describee  them  as  "bead-dresses  roade  of  ailk  or 
gold  thread,  with  which  tbe  women  bound  their  beada 
■boat,  and  they  were  of  cbecksr-woik. "  The  word 
occura  again  In  the  Misbna  (Kelim,  xxvUi,  10),  bi 
nothing  am  poeeibly  be  Inferred  from  the  paiaage  i 
self,  and  the  eipbnationa  of  the  commentaton  do  ni 
throw  mncb  ligbt  npon  it.  It  there  appears  to  be  uac 
as  part  of  a  network  worn  as  ■  head-dreas  by  wonwi 
Bartenon  saya  it  wm  "  a  fliure  whicb  they  made  npon 
the  network  for  ornament,  standing  bi  front  of  It, 
going  ronnd  from  one  ear  to  the  other."  Scbroeder 
(Ob  Vetl.  Mat.  cap,  ii)  CDn}ectar«d  that  they  were  me 
dalllons  worn  on  th«  necklace,  and  identlfled  then 
wKb  tbe  Arab  ilmniaiirh,  the  diminative  of  akiiu,  tbi 
son,  which  la  applied  to  denote  the  aun-ebaped  omi 


(6  CAVE 

ments  worn  by  Arab  women  about  their  necks.  Bnt 
to  thia  Geaenlos  very  properly  objects  (Jim.  i,  1V9), 
as  weU  as  to  the  explanation  of  Jahn  (_An*ail.  I,  li,  Z, 
189},  who  rendera  the  word  "gania  veils"  (Smith,  *. 
T.).  Others  understand  golden  oraamenta  appended  to 
br,iid*  of  the  hair  behind  (aee  Kitto's  Uaily  lUmtln- 
liim  in  loc.).  The  hair  of  Orienul  women  la  ugnally 
divided  Into  a  number  of  braida  ur  treases,  which  fall 
down  upon  tbe  back,  and  to  each  of  which  is  added 
three  allken  threads,  each  charged  with  small  orna- 
ments In  gold,  and  terminating  in  amall  coins  of  the 
same  metal  (see  Kitto,  Pkt.  BiUe  in  loc. ;  Lane,  Mod. 
£;.  i,  69,  SO  i  ii,  409, 410).     See  Obkamrht. 

CBtwemy  (Hipn,  mwiflo*'),  ■  niied  way  C^ 
Cbron.  xxvi,  16,  lb),  or  alairs  of  wood  ("terrace,"  2 
Cbron.  ix,  II).     In  these  passagea  it  apparenUy  refeia 
ascent  by  atepe,  or  a  raised  alope  between  Zlon 
he  Temple,  which  in  subsequent  times  was  ra- 
plaeed  by  the  bridge.     In  S  Chron.  Ix,  4,  it  la  called 
rriV;(ati3r'iA'), an  "ascent."    In  most  ot the  paasagea 
^ere  it  occurs,  tbe  former  word  aignides  any  pobUc 
ad,  and  Ii  tmnslated  "  hiiihwaj." 
Cauuin,  Nicholas,  a  French  Roman  Catholic  di- 
ne, was  bom  at  Troyes,  in  Cbampagne,  In  lliSS,  and 
IS  received  in  the  order  of  the  Jeauita  in  IC07.      He 
t;iught  rhetoric  fir  a  time  in  different  collvgea,  and 
~'  '  ilieo  made  hhn  confessor  to  Louia  XIII.      Ha 
died  July  S,  1651.      His  principal  work  is  Coar  Smnl'i 
{b  vol'.  12niD,  Tkt  Holj  Covri,  transl.  bv  Sir  Thomas 
Hawkins,  Lond.  1663,  fol.).    It  had  great  sncces*  fn»n 
the  style  of  its  biographies  and  its  fcn'id  devotion* 
Fuller  bu  adopted  much  of  its  style  in  hia  //o^  aad 
/Vn/ooe  Stale.     Tart  of  it  was  tmnaUted  hilo  Latin, 
under  the  title  Aula  Impia  HirtdU  (Col.  ICU,  8vo). 
He  published  also  Ot  floqimHa  arm  rl  jtimawi.  lilri 
ivi  (7th  edit  Lugd.  ]6fil,  4to)  j  Syniotica  jEgi^Hior^m 
topim/iii,  nunc  pOft  t>ariai  ediliona  denao  tdUa  (Par. 
1S4T,  4to).^HDefer,  Nam.  Bicg.  Gfmrrale,  ix,  itl. 

Cavalier  or  CsTailieT,  Jun,  one  of  the  chief 
leaders  of  the  Camisarda  (q.  v.),  was  bora  in  IGT9,  at 
Ribaute,  near  Alalx,  in  Languednc.  Be  waa  a  Prot- 
ratant,  and  in  the  persecution  ori70t  he  Bed  to  Gene- 
va.  When  tbe  inanrrection  in  the  C^vennea  Lroke 
out  in  1702  he  Joined  the  Losnrgents,  and  soon  roee  to 
command.  With  incredible  skill  and  aucress  he  kept 
up  the  warfare  until  1704,  when  he  made  a  trea^  with 
Marabal  Tlltara.  Ue  then  became  a  colonel  in  the 
king's  service,  and  was  even  introduced  at  Veraalllcs. 
Afterwards  feeling  himself  to  be  an  ob}ocl  of  suspicion, 
be  escaped,  and  subsequently  went  to  Great  Briuin. 
Here  be  published  hla  Mrmairrt,  which  were  tnuslsted 
into  English  (Dublin,  17M,  8vo).  After  having  com- 
manded a  regiment  of  Huguenot  refugees  at  the  battle 
of  Almanza,  be  died,  mvemor  of  Jersey,  in  1740.— 
Smedlty,  Hif.  of  Ihi  Reform.  Brl.  in  France,  vol.  lii, 
chap.  XXV ;  Boeftr,  A'dw.  Btog.  Giniralf,  ix,  !79.      See 

CaTBlllorl,  GiovAKVT  Hiciiei.b,  an  Auguadne 
monk  of  Lombardy,  Lorn  at  Bergamo  about  the  end 
of  tbelTlh  century.  He  died  in  17GT,  leaving  behind 
blm  as  a  monument  of  learning  and  industiy  a  work 
entitled  Orrm  omnia  Btvrgica  (Aug.  Vind.  1764, 6  vob^ 
folio),  containing  a  vast  mats  of  information  in  the 
shape  of  commentaries  on  the  decrees  of  tbe  "  Sacred 
ConL-regation  of  Rites"  at  Rome.— Hoefer,  Simii.  Bing, 
CtHiraii,  Ix.  284 ;  Biog.  Unir,  torn,  iii,  p.  448. 

Cavalry.     SeeHonsx;  Chariot. 

Ca-vaailas.    See  Cabasil^u. 

Cawe,  property  fTJSljl,  atfaraJt'  (cTerywhere  so  ren. 
dered,  except  "den"  In  Isa.  ixxil,  14;  Jer.  vii,  11; 
"  Mesrah"  [q.  v.],  in  Josh.  liii,  4) ;  trs^Xoiov  ("den," 
esceptinJobnxi,88);  occaaionally  I'lanlorOllerally 
a  "hole,"  as  generslly  rendered;  bence  a  oaeeni.  Job 
XXX,  6,  etc. ;  whence  the  name  HoBrra,  i.e. 


CAVE  1 

■In  HaIHAS,    L  C    CaMTIKItll;    HOBONAIH,    I.    t.   tMH 

-on.-  Beth-Uorox,  L  a.  piax  in  Hit  Aottov),  or  "^lU, 
ite <■!»  nndend  "hols");  once  Dirt's,  med^HA', 
Ih.3,19.  Grottoes  *wni  iln  lobe  mdiiectly  denoted 
hj  tha  (anna  0'"3n,  diagatm'  (n/uga  in  the  rocki, 
"ckfti,"  Cut.  ii!  14;  Jei.  iHi,  IG;  Otud.  9),  and 
n*n]^  m-mAarak'  (■  jbfiin  through  which  a  stream 
In*,  "d>n,"  Jadg.  tI,  2);  both  of  which  are  com' 
bbid  b  tha  Qraek  term  6rh  ("cave,"  Heb.  zi,  88; 
'-jJn"DrwBtsr,JsnKaUi,lI).      See  Dsfl. 

1.  Jt  maiarai  Ftalura. — The  gaological  formation 
i< .Stria  iahighlf  &Torable  to  the  prodacliaa  of  cavei. 
[I  roanitj  chieflj  of  limeBloiie,  in  different  degrees  of 
ilHBJt7,u)d  abounds  with  tabteiranean  rivulets.  Tha 
•pciap  iMoini;  froin  limestons  generallj  contain  car- 
biaala  of  limes  and  most  of  them  yield  ■  large  quanti- 
^tttmi  carbonic  acid  npon  exposure  to  the  air.  To 
(he  eiD^Te  effect  uponiiniestonetocks  of  water  charged 
with  this  acid  the  formation  of  caves  la  chiefly  to  be 
■MTibad  (A'bt.  MHropU.  art.  Geolofiy,  p.  692,  693). 
Xd;  of  tfacH  have  also  been  artificLill j  enlarged  and 
•^Bfitsd  to  vanoui  purposes  both  of  shelter  and  de- 
fc»«(Page,r(a<-Booior'?wiOT,P-l«;  Kitto,  P*y». 
dajr-  ofl'oL  p.  72).     This  circuinaUnce  has  also  giv- 

■  ire  cnployeid  in  the  Scriptures  to  denolo  caves, 
kJM.  and  G«aure9,  some  of  them  giving  names  to  the 
tawDi  and  placaa  and  their  neighborhood  (Gea.  xiv,  6; 
iuvi.21;  Dent.ii,  IS;  Job  XXI,  6;  comp,  Strabo,  1, 
ti;  iri,775,T76:  see  Burclihardt,  .li'yriojlia;  Rabin- 
■n.  ii,  421 :  Stanley,  8ivu  and  Paleil.  Appand,  §  68- 
H).  TlieaiioiT&ui/c  strata  of  Syria,  sandilone,  chalk, 
baiih.  natron,  ate.  bvor  the  Coimation  of  caves ;  con- 
•^■mlly  the  whole  region  abounds  with  subterranean 
liJlews  ofdiffemnl  dimensions.  Some  of  them  are  o( 
iautnue  extent;  tbeae  are  noticed  by  Strabo,  who 
ipBiki  of  a  cavern  near  Damascus  capable  of  holding 
«0<l  na  (ivi,  p.  1096,  edlL  ITOT).  Thi*  cavern  is 
ikovn  to  ttie  present  day.  llodem  travels  nboiind 
■itb  deacripdoni  of  the  caves  of  S}Tia.  The  Crusade 
■liten  rrcord  the  local  tradition!  respecting  them  cur- 
ml  in  (beir  times  (William  of  Tyre ;  Quaresmiua, 
ffcrii  Tir.  Sane.).  Tavernier  {Vofogc  dt  Pcrte,  pirt 
ii,  chip,  iv)  speaks  of  a  grotto  between  Aleppo  and 
Bit  which  wonld  hold  near  3000  hone.  Maundrell 
Laj  detcribad  a  large  cavern  under  Hhighrock3~nioun- 
tiia,  is  the  vicinity  of  Sidon,  containing  200  smaller 
canrw  ^Trmrti.  p.  158,  ISO).    Shaw  mentions  the  nu- 

Bia4i«at,eileDdingthroDgh  along  range  on  each  side 
•IJapf^  An  ianumerible  multitude  of  excavations 
■re  bnuid  in  the  rocks  and  valleys  round  Wadr  Husa, 
■kick  were  probably  formed  at  Srit  aa  sepulcbras,  but 


(7  CAVE 

afterwards  lnhaldled,11ke  the  tombs  of  lliebea  (Robin- 
son'* Saearcta,  ii,  (>29).  Other  excavations  occnr  at 
Deir  Dutaban  (ii,  358) ;  otliers  in  tha  Wady  leading  to 
Santa  Hannah  (ii,  B9G).  "  In  tha  mountains  of  Kl3'at 
Ibn  Ma'an,  the  natural  cavems  have  been  Bmfsil  by 
passages  cat  in  the  rocks,  in  order  to  render  them  more 
commodiDus  hatdtatlons.  In  the  midst  of  these  cav- 
ems several  cuitems  have  been  built;  the  whole  would 
aSurd  refn^  for  600  men"  (Bnrckhaidt's  TravtU.  p. 
331).  Almost  all  the  habitations  at  Om-keis  (Gadara) 
are  cavas  (Barckhardt,  p.  273).  An  extenrive  system 
of  cavee  exists  between  Bethlehem  and  Hebron  (Irby 
and  Manglea,p.  103). 

2.  Scriptural  .Voficu.— (I.)  Tha  first  mention  of  a 
cave  in  Scripture  relates  to  that  into  which  Lot  and  his 
two  daugbters  retired  trom  Zoar,  after  the  destruction 
ofSodom  and  Gomorrjh  (Gen.  lii,  80).  It  was  somo 
cavern  In  the  mountoins  of  Moab,  but  tradition  has 
not  fixed  npon  any  of  the  numeraos  hollows  in  that 
regioD.      Seo  Zoab. 

(2.)  The  nest  Is  tiie  cava  of  Hachpelab,  in  tha 
field  of  Ephron,  which  Abraham  purchased  of  the 
sons  of  Ileth  (Gen.  ixv,  9,  10).  There  Abraham 
buried  Sarah,  and  was  himself  afterwards  burled; 
there  al»  Isaac,  Reliekah,  Leah,  snd  Jacob  were  bur- 
ied (Gen.  lUx,  31 ;  1. 1.1).  The  cava  of  Hachpelah  is 
said  to  be  under  the  Mohammedan  mosque  at  Hebron, 
surrounded  bja  high  wall  called  tha  Haram  ;  but  even 
the  Moslems  are  not  allowed  to  descend  into  the  cav- 
ern (Ben),  of  Tudela,  Etvij  Trav.  p.  86 ;  Stanley,  p. 
119).  The  tradition  that  this  is  the  burlal-plnce  aftho 
patriarchs  is  supported  by  an  immense  amy  of  evi- 
dence (iCobinion,  Raeardia,  Ii,  438-440).     See  HaCH- 

(8.)  Tbe  altnatlon  of  the  cave  at  Uakkedah,  Into 
which  the  five  kings  of  the  Amorites  reared  npon  tbeir 
defeat  by  Joshua,  and  into  which  their  carcasses  were 
ultimaUly  cast,  is  not  known  (Josh,  x,  16.  27).  It  is 
(honght  by  many  that  the  cave  of  Hakkedah  can 
hardly  lie  the  one  to  whicb  tradition  has  assigned  the 
nume  (Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  93);  for,  Ihoueh  It  Is  not 
necessary  to  suppose  that  the  care  was  close  to  the 
town  of  Itlakkedah,  yet  the  situation  of  the  great  cav- 
erns both  at  Beit  Jibrin  and  at  Deir  Dubban  in  neither 
case  agrees  with  tbst  of  Makkedah  as  given  by  Euse- 
biua,  eight  miles  fnm  Elentheropolis  (ReUnd,  p.  885  ; 
Robinson,  Ii,  B62, 397 ;  Stanley,  p.  211).     See  Makke- 


Wady  Khureilun,  which  passes  below  Ihe  Frank 
itain.     The  site  migntd  by  Euscbius  to  Adullsm, 

this  cave,  which  in  some  respect 
with  Ihe  Scripture  narrative  bet 
the  neighborhood  of  Deir  Dub 
^gneil  in  it  by  Mr.  Stanley  (see 

agrees 
er  than 
iin,»i. 

ISam. 

ii,  175;  SUule 

(5.)  The  cave  at  Engedi,  whicb  af- 
forded a  retreat  to  David  and  his  fol- 
towers  (1  Sam.  ixiii,  39;  xxiv,  ]),  and 
in  which  he  cut  off  the  skirt  of  .Saul's 
mbe  (1  Sam,  xiiv,  4),  can  be  clearly 
ulentlDed.  The  place  ia  now  callnl 
'Ain  Jidy  by  tha  Arabs,  which  means 


"The    F™ 


r   Ihe    Kid." 
ry  is  full  of  CI 


SI  along  tha  Upper  Jordan. 


CAVE  1( 

ii,  aOS;  eomp.  Lyncb,  SarratiiK,  p.  SSI;  Sianlaj',  p. 
296).     Sea  En-obi>i. 

((>.)  Thacavsln  which  Obodiah  concealed  the  proph. 
eta  (1  KiDgi  sviii,4)  canpot  now  be  ideotifled,  but  It 

WIS  probably  In  the  northern  pvt  of  the  countrj-,  in 
which  >biiiidant  iiutancei  of  cavea  fit  for  each  a  por- 
poH  might  be  pointed  ont.     See  Obauiau. 

(7.)  Tfae  lite  of  the  cave  of  Elijah  (1  Kingi  nix.  fl), 
»  well  Mthat  of  the  "deft"  of  Moaee  on  Mount  Horeb 
(Exod.  xxzUI,  !3),  ia  •!»  obvloaily  IndeterminBte ; 
for,  thoDgh  tradition  hu  not  only  avigned  a  place  Inr 
the  former  on  Jebel  HClsa,  and  cODKcnted  the  ipot  bv 
a  chipel,  there  are  caves  on  the  competing  nammit  of 
SerbaJ  to  one  or  another  of  which  it  mltibt  with  equal 
probability  be  Ininaferred  (Stanley,  p.  19 ;  Rolrinson, 
i.l53;  Burckhardt,  p.  608).  See  Hohbb.  The  cave 
of  Elijah  la  pretended  to  l>e  shown  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
SInal,  in  a  chape]  dedicated  lo  lilm  i  and  a  bole  near 
the  altar  ia  pointed  oat  as  the  place  where  he  laf  (Rob- 
iiuon,  i,  laS).     See  also  Cahheu 

(8.)  In  the  New  Test,  are  mentioned  the  reek  aepul' 
chiei  of  Laiarui  (John  xl,  38)  and  Christ  (Matt,  xxvli, 
GO) ;  the  former  slill  ihown  with  little  proUabUitj  by 
the  monka  at  Bethany  (see  Rubinran,  ii,  100),  and  the 
Utter  a  diepattd  qnestion.     See  Calvakt. 

Beildaa  these  Bpeclal  cavei  there  ia  ftcqnent  men- 
tion in  0.  T.  of  caves  as  places  of  refuge.  Tbui  the 
Iiraelitei  are  aaid  to  have  taken  refuge  from  the  Phil- 
iatinei  in  "  holes"  (1  Sam.  xiv,  II),  to  which  the  name 
of  the  Kene  of  Jonathan's  cDuflict,  Makhmls  (Mich- 
mash),  sufficiently  sntwers  (SUnley,  p.  204  ;  Bohin- 
son,  ii,  113 ;  Irby,  p.  SS).  So,  alio,  in  the  time  of  Gid- 
eon, tliey  had  taken  refuge  from  the  Midlanites  in  dena, 
aud  cavea,  and  strongholds,  inch  as  aboond  in  the 
nioantaln  region  of  Manasaeh  (Judg.  ri,  S  i  see  Stan- 
ley, p.  3J1). 

8.  Uki  D/'Clwa.— (1.)  Caverwero  OHid  udvtUing- 
pltua  bythe  early  iaiiabltanta  of  Syria.  Thelloritei, 
the  ancient  Inhabitants  of  Idumiea  Proper,  were  trog- 
lodytes, or  dwellers  in  cavee,  as  their  name  imports. 
Jerome  records  that  in  his  time  Idumiea,  or  tin  uhnle 
southern  re^on  ^om  EleutheropoUa  Co  PetrasudAi 
wasfntl  of  habitations  in  caves,  the  inhabitants  using 
sabtarrBDcan  dwellings  on  account  of  the  great  heat 
(Cbmn.  DK  Oiad.  r,  6).  "The  excavation!  at  Deir 
Dubban  and  on  the  south  side  of  the  wady,  leading  to 
Santa  Ilanneh,  are  prob»bly  the  dwellings  of  the  an- 
cient Horilea"  (Robinson,  ii,  353),  and  they  are  pecul- 
iarly numerous  aronnd  Deit  Jibrin  (Elculhempolis) 
(ii.  4Jj).  The  Scriptures  abound  with  refereni-c*  (o 
habilalioDS  in  rocks;  smonic  others,  see  Num.  xxiv,31; 
Cant,  ii,  14 ;  Jer.  xlix,  IS  j  Obad.  3.  Even  at  the  pres- 
ent tim:  many  persons  live  in  caves.  The  inhabitants 
of  Anab,  a  town  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  all  live  in 
grottoo  or  caves  holloired  out  of  the  rock  (Buckiug- 
liani's  Travdi  amoog  He  AriJt  Triba,  p. CI).  In  the 
ncighborliood  of  Hebron  peasants  still  live  in  caves. 
and  especially  during  summer,  to  be  near  their  flocks 
(Wilkinson's  Tracdt,  i,  318).  Poor  families  live  in 
caverns  in  the  rocks  which  seem  formerly  to  hsve  been 
inhabited  as  a  sort  of  village,  near  the  ruins  of  El  Buij ; 
so  also  at  Siloam,  and  in  the  n^hborhood  of  Naiareth. 
For  the  rock-dwellings  and  temples  of  Idumea,  see 

(2.)  Cares  afforded  excellent  rtfagt  in  lit  lime  if 
var.  Thns  the  Israelites  (1  Sam.  xiii,  6)  are  said  to 
have  hid  themselves  in  eaves,  and  In  thickets,  and  in 
rocks,  and  in  high  places,  and  In  pits  (see  also  jer.  xli, 
9  j  JosepbuB,  Ant.  xii.  11. 1).  Hence,  then,  to  "enter 
into  the  rock,  to  go  into  the  holes  of  the  rock^  and  into 
earth"  (Isa.  ii,  19),  woi 


L  very  pi 


nilial 


expre 


tofthscai 

noticed  above,  especially  the  sirongholils  of  Adullam 
and  Engedi. 

(3.)  Not  only  have  the  raves  of  Palestine  afforded 
refuge  from  enemies,  but  daring  the  mrAipi  <kti  also, 


8  CAVE 

by  which  the  conntry  hot  lieen  so  often  visited,  the  in- 
habitanta  have  found  in  Ihem  a  lafe  retreat.  Tbia  waa 
the  cuse  in  the  great  convubion  of  1837,  when  Safet 
was  destroyed ;  and  to  this  mods  of  retreat  the  pruphet 
Iiakh  perhaps  alludes  (Isa,  il,IO,  19,  21  j  see  Bobin- 
son,  Hi,  S-^1 ;  Stanley,  p.  IM). 

(4.)  Caverns  were  also  (Vequently/oiYyW  when  oc- 
cupied by  soldiera.  Thus  Bacchides,  the  general  of 
Demetrius,  in  his  expoditioo  against  Judca,  encamped 
at  Messaloth,  near  Arbela,  and  reduced  to  submiaeiou 
the  occuponta  of  the  cavea  (1  Mace,  ix,  S  ;  comp.  Joae- 
phns,  AiU.  lii,  11, 1).  Uessaloth  is  probably  riVs^, 
sfeps  or  fCFTOCei  (comp.  2  Cbron.  ix,  11 ;  see  Gesenius, 
{  Tha.  p.  S57}.  The  Messalnth  of  the  book  of  Macca. 
j  bees  and  the  robber-caves  of  Arlicla  are  thus  prottaLIy 
'  identical,  and  are  the  same  as  the  fartilied  cavern  neu 
I  Mejdel  (Hat^dola),  called  Eaiaat  Ibn  Maan,  or  Pig- 
eon's Castle,  mentioned  iiy  several  trsvellers.  They 
•re  said  by  Burckhardt  to  be  capable  of  contrining  600 
I  men  (Reland,  p.  S68,  576 ;  Burckhardt,  ffria,  p.  S31 ; 
I  Irl>y  and  Mangles,  p.  91;  Lightfoot,  Cm/.  Ckomgr.  ii, 
'  331 ;  KohinEOn,  lii,  3TS ;  Ranmer,  p.  1(18 ;  comp.  alao 
Hos.  X,  14).  See  Brru-ARnxL.  Jceephns  aUo  speaks 
of  the  robber  inhibitanla  of  Trachonltls,  who  lived  In 
large  caverns,  presentingno  prominence  above  ground, 
hut  widely  extended  below  (,^irf,  xv,  10, 1),  Ihewi 
banditti  annoyed  much  the  trade  with  Damascus,  bat 
were  pnt  down  by  Herod.  Strabo  alludes  very  dis- 
tinctly to  this  in  his  description  of  Trsrhonitia,  and 
deKribescneoftbe  caverns  as  capable  of  holdinKlOOO 
men  (Strabo,  xvi,  766 ;  Raomer,  p.  68 ;  .lolijiTF,  Tra^ 
eU  m  Pal.  1,  197).  Josephus  {AnI.  xiv.lS,  h)  relates 
the  manner  In  which  one  of  (here  caves,  occupied  by 
rnlibrn,  or  rather  insurgents,  waa  attacked  by  sol- 
diers  letdown  fWnn  above  in  chests  and  barkels,  fTcm 
which  tbey  drageed  forth  the  Inmates  with  hooka,  and 
killed  or  thrust  Ihem  down  the  precipices ;  or.  setting 
Are  to  their  stores  of  ftiel,  destroyed  them  br  suffiw*- 
tion.  These  csves  are  said  to  have  brrn  In  Galilee, 
not  (it  tram  Srpphoria,  and  are  probably  the  urae  ii 
;  those  which  Josrphus  himself,  in  providing  for  the  de- 
'  fence  of  Galilee,  fortified  near  Genneoaret,  which  else- 
where he  calls  the  caves  of  Arbela  (ICbr,  i,  16,  i-4;  a. 
30,  G  1  Ij/r,  S7).  See  Ahbei.a.  Thbi  description  of 
niwi  of  Tohbm  reminds  us  of  our  Lord's  words,  in 
which  be  reproaches  the  Jews  with  having  made  the 
Temple  a  dm  oftAierri,  ar^Xmov  Xgaraif  (Malt,  xxi, 
IS).  A  fortified  cavern  existed  in  the  lime  of  tbe  Crv- 
sades.  It  is  mertioned  by  William  otTyn  (xxii,  li- 
Sl)  as  situate  in  the  country  beyond  the  Jordan,  six- 
teen Roman  miles  from  Tiberias.  Lastly,  it  was  the 
caves  which  lie  teneath  and  around  so  many  of  the 
Jewish  cities  that  firmed  the  last  hiding-places  of  the 
Jewish  leaders  in  the  war  with  the  Romans.  Jofephus 
himseir  relates  the  story  of  his  own  concealment  in  the 
caves  of  Jotapata;  and  after  the  capture  of  Jemralim, 
John  of  Gbchala,  Simon,  and  many  other  Jews,  cd- 
doBvored  to  conceal  themselves  in  the  caverns  beneath 
(he  city  ;  while  in  rome  of  them  gmt  spcnl  and  vast 
numbers  of  dead  bodies  were  fennd  of  those  ■  ho  had 
perlahed  during  the  siege  l>y  hunger  or  from  wounda 
(Josephus,  mir,  iii,  8, 1 ;  vi,  9,  4). 

(6.)  Natural  cavities  In  the  rock  were  and  are  fre- 
quently used  for  other  purposes  more  or  less  akin  with 
the  above,  such  si  stalls  for  horses  and  for  irmnarie* 
(Irhy  and  Mangles,  p.  116).  Again,  the  "pita"  spo- 
ken uf  la  some  of  the  foregoing  Scripture  referenen 
seem  to  have  consisted  of  large  <rtUi.  in  "  the  sides"  of 
which  excavatinns  were  made  leading  into  variooa 
chambers.  See  Ci.iTxBS.  Such  pits  were  somelimn 
used  as  primni  (Isa.  xxiv,  !!;  Ii.  14;  Zech.  Ix,  II). 
See  pRisQX.  Those  with  nirAn  in  the  sides  were  evrn 
occupied  for  liHryir'gflarf$  (Ezek.  r 


a  this  I 


ThB  a 


CAVE 

Mrikhi^y  coaiMcU  tlta  modem  nwgaa  of  Pilestine 
ud  tbc  ai^iacenl  ragioiu  with  tb«ir  ancient  hlaLoi; 
thui  Uw  «mplojm«Dt  of  them  m  tomlw  or  VAulti  (com- 
jtn  the  MTly  Christiui  Catacombs).  The  rockj 
■oil  of  wtsTKe  ■  portloD  of  the  3o[y  Luid  almoM  for- 
bid* inHmeDt,  escepting  in  cavitiei  either  natnnl  or 
hm  ftom  the  rock.  The  dwelling  of  the  dnmoDitc 
tBoag  the  tomb*  ia  thai  expUlned  b;  tlie  rock  cav. 
mt  ilwiuidiag  aimx  the  tea  of  GeUlee  (Jolliffe,  I,  Sfi). 
LeatdinKlf,  Damaniu  illea  are  ahowii  In  Paleitine 
ud  edjolnfaig  land*  of  (ao-calUd)  lepalchTea  of  aalata 
udharoei  of  UuOldaDd  New  Teautnenta,TaiMnlad 
both  bj  ChriatUn*  and  Hohamniedaiu  (£ir^  Tmt.  p. 
K ;  Sttolejr,  p.  146).  Among  ttaase  maj  be  meotioDed 
the  cava  of  Haebpijafa,  the  tomb  of  Aaron  on  Mount 
Bar,  of  Joieph,  end  u(  Bachtl,  ae  tboee  for  which  ev- 
vj  probabilltj  of  identity,  In  aite  at  leait,  mar  be 
diinnd  (Irliy  and  Hanglea.  p.  IHi  RoUnHin,  i,  SlI, 
III ;  &I1,  96-97).  Hare  qoaatkinable  are  the  ate*  of 
the  tomba  of  Ellaba,  Obadiab,  and  John  the  Baptist  at 
Baaaria;  of  Uabakknk  at  JebUba  (Gabatba),  Ukah 
Bear  KeUa,  and  of  Dabonh,  Rabekah'a  none,  at  Bethel 
(Stanley,  p.  143, 149;  Reland,  p.  T7S,  696,  961;  Rob- 
bnon,  lii,  140).  The  qaeaUooa  ao  moch  debated  re- 
Uting  to  the  tombs  in  and  near  Jemaalem  and  Betba- 
aj  wiQ  be  fbnnd  treated  under  thoee  head*.  Bat, 
whatanff  *alne  may  belong  to  the  connection  of  the 
aame  of  jndgea,  king*,  or  pnpheta  with  tfae  rary  t«- 
■aikable  rock-tomha  near  Jereaalem,  there  can  be  no 
dmbt  that  tbe  cave*  bearing  tbeae  namea  are  aepol- 
chnl  caTomi  enlarged  and  embelliahed  by  art.  The 
ddea  of  the  valley  of  Jahoehaphat  are  atndded  with 
cana,  many  of  which  are  inhabited  by  Arab  families 
(Sandy*,  p.  186  j  Haundrell,  p.  446;  Koblnion,  i,  866, 
U«,  IM ;  Baitlett,  (foUi  oiDatf  JenuaUm,  p.  117).  It 
ia  no  doabt  tba  raat  Dumber  of  cave*  throughuut  the 
eomtry,  together  with,  perhapa,  aa  Haandrell  remarkii, 
the  tide  for  hermit  life  which  pnniled  in  the  fifth 
and  aiith  centoilea  of  the  Chriatiao  mn,  which  haa 
fketd  tbe  site*  al  so  many  important  eTenli  in  cavea 
and  giMtoe* ;  e.  g.  the  birth  of  the  Vir^tln,  tbe  An- 
■ancHtko,  the  SaIMation,theblrthoftha  Baptist  and 
tfoor  Lofd,  tbe  *c«im  of  the  Agony,  of  Peter'a  denial, 
the  tmpodlien  of  tbe  Apoillea'  Creed,  the  Tnutaflga- 
lalion  (Shaw,  pt.  ii,  c  1 ;  MaaDdrell,  Earij  TVoaeb, 
p.  471);  and  the  like  canaea  have  cnated  a  traditigo- 
irr  caiF4le  for  the  altar  of  Elijah  on  Hoont  Or- 
act  (1  King*  xriii,  19;  comp.  Amoa  iv,  8),  and  peo- 
pled ita  aides,  as  well  a*  those  of  Mount  Tabor,  with 
heraiit  mbabitants  (see  Irbv  and  Hanglea,  p.  60 ; 
Btlmd,  p.  S»:  Sir  J.  Haundeville,  TravtU,  p.  81  ; 
Sandcs,  p^  203,  HauiKlrell,  Eaify  Trat.  p.  478;  Jahn, 
Ha.  Ank.  f.  9;  Stanley,  p.  a&St  Killo,  Phgi.  Gtogr. 
F>  »,  31 ;  Tan  Egmont,  Tnmb,  ii,  6-7).     See  SeFui^ 

Cave.  William,  an  eminent  English  divine,  was 
horn  at  Pickwell,  Lelcsatenbire.  Dec.  SO,  1687.  He 
Madied  at  St.  John's  (>>llFga,  CambiidKe,  where  he 
gnduted  A.B.  in  1666;  A.M.  In  1660.  In  166S  he 
waa  appointed  vioar  of  Islington,  and  afterwardi  he 
btcuie  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Charles  II.  In  1G79 
ht  was  mads  rector  of  All-Hallows,  London ;  In  1681 
Wmcdrodacanonry  at  WiDdaor,  andin  1690  became 
tior  of  Islaworth.  He  died  at  Windsor,  Augost  4, 
1711  Hb  wvrka  at* :  1.  Primiint  CiriiHaMty  (Lond. 
Itn ;  and  eererml  times  re[>iDted — a  French  transla- 
tlm.  Amaterdan,  1712,  2  rola.  Uom)  :  — g.  Tabtia  Ec- 
(AuuEicn,  or  Tablaa  of  Eodasiaaticd  Writers  (Land. 
1(74;  Hamborg,  1676) :— 3.  Aitiqmlalf  ApoHaliaa,  or 
lJm,Acl*,tle.,o/tltii  Hotj  AfKMet,  amiSU.Mari  imd 
Ufa  (Lond.  1676  and  1684,  fbl. ;  also,  edited  by  Gary, 
Oif.  l840,Sro);— 4.  ^jBXn<in,arrtcZagej,  Aat,ele., 
•/ a«  gpfuiiji.'ra ai  or  immrdiaU  Sacetmon  of  lit 
A/odht,  and  the  most  eminent  of  tbe  Father*  of  tbe 
tot  thna  oentnriea  (Lond.  1677,  IbL  ;  also,  edited  by 
Cirj,  Ott  1810,  II  vola.  8<ro) :— 6.  A  DiMKhalum  am. 
(vny  da  Gtmnmad  itfOti  AmdaU  ChardL  bj  Blab- 

iL-e* 


i»  CECIL 

ope,  Metropolitans,  and  Patriarch*  (Load.  1688,  8to)V 
— e,  Ecdeniulid,  or  Lives,  Acta,  etc.,  of  tbe  moat  cof 
Inent  Fathera  of  the  foartb  century-  (Lond.  1682,  fol.)  1 
.—7.  Chartopiv/lax  EcdaiaaliciUt  an  improved  edition 
of  the  TabiJa  Ecehiiatlica  (1686, 8vo}  -.^S.  Sertplonm 
Ecdniiulieonim  Hutotia  LUtraria  a  Ckriilo  nttfo  utipie 
ad  Siradum  XIV  (2  voLi.  or  parts,  fol.  1688  and  16X8, 
Lund. ;  reprinted  at  Geneva,  1706  and  1720,  and  at  Ba- 
■le,  1741 ;  but  edition  that  of  Oxford,  corrected  and 
enlarged  by  Cave  himself,  and  continued  liy  Wharton 
(1740  and  1743,2  vols.  foL  The  Basle  edition  was  made 
upon  this).  Cave  was  a  very  credulous  writer ;  desti- 
tute of  critical  talent,  he  generally  took  the  aceoonts 
of  aodent  writers  and  Koman  CathoUca  as  bs  found 
them.  Jortin  calls  him  "  the  whitewasber  of  the 
ancienla."  Yet  Dowling  ia  juaUtied  in  saying  that 
"  Cave' a  writings  rank  undoubtedly  among  those  which 
have  affected  tbe  progress  of  Church  history.  Bia 
smaUer  works  greatly  tended  to  extend  an  acqoainb- 
ance  with  Chilstisn  antiqui^ ;  his  Lieet  0/  the  ApeMla 
tmd  Primilkt  FalJtert,  which  may  be  regarded  aa  an 
ecdeaiastical  history  of  the  Arst  four  centuries,  ia  to 
this  very  daythe  most  teamed  work  oftbe  kind  which 
has  been  written  in  our  own  language ;  and  his  Hi^o- 
ria  UHttoria  is  still  the  best  and  moat  convenient  com- 
plete work  on  tba  literary  history  cf  the  Church.  For 
extant  and  variety  of  learninx  he  stands  high  among 
the  acholara  of  bia  time,  and  he  bad  taate  and  feeling 
to  appredate  ancient  piet}',  but  he  can  ecarcely  claim 
any  other  praiae." — Hertng,  Rtai-EuCfiUoptldit,  Sop- 
plem.  1, 188  ;  Laudon,  Ecda.  Dictiomaiy,  t.  v. ;  Hook, 
er«ls>.  Biograpis,  iii,  624 ;  Dowling,  Mroi.  to  Eec)et. 
Bit.  (Lond.  1888) ;  Nob  Gm.  Biog.  Diet,  vi,  1S7. 

GkWton,  TnoMAi,  a  NoDconlbrmlat  divine,  was 
bom  at  WIvenboe,  Essex,  in  1687.  Having  studied  at 
Utrecht  and  Oxford,  he  received  ordination  from  tbe 
bishop  of  Oxford.  He  officiated  for  several  ycara  as 
chaplain  to  Eogllsh  noble  families,  but  soon  became  »d 
dissatisRed  with  the  dominant  party  in  the  Established 
Church  that  be  left  it  to  become  pastor  of  a  Noncon- 
formiat  oonKTeKation  In  Westminster,  when  be  died  In 
1677,  While  a  student  at  Utrecht,  ha  pabliahed  two 
dlaaertatlons,  entitled,  Di^mUttio  dt  Veriiime  Sfriaeo 
l'«.  il  Xari  Trlamemli  (UltnO.  1667,  *lo\  and  Dimr- 
lario  dt  uiu  Ungaa  Htbraica  i*  nuUtopliia  Thtorttica 
(Ultra].  1667,  4lo),  tbe  fbrmer  of  which  ta  of  lasting 
value  for  the  hlatory  of  the  Syrlae  versions.  Cawton 
was  regarded  as  ODB  of  the  prominent  Orientaliata  of 
bis  time.  — Kitlo,  Cydif.  a.  v.;  Uwik,  Etd.  Biog.  Oi, 
626. 

CuallB.  AuoDsmt,  martyr,  waa  bom  of  noble 
parenta  in  1606,  and  was  educated  at  the  uDivemllJes 
of  Valladolld  and  Alcala.  Caitania  (q.  v.),  archbiab- 
op  of  Toledo,  became  bis  patron ;  and  Caaalla'a  tal- 
enta,  ander  aoch  patronage,  soon  gained  hhn  diatinc> 
tion.  In  1IM6  be  became  ch^ilain  and  almoner  to  the 
emperor  Charles  V,  whom  be  accompanied  into  Ger- 
many. Here  be  imbibed  tbe  principles  of  Luther  (after 
combating  them  some  time),  and  on  bia  return  to  Spain 
In  1662  he  began  to  preach  reform.  Ula  mother, 
brother,  and  aisters  shared  bis  religions  convictions 
and  It  k  said  that  even  Charles  V  was  greatly  moved 
by  Cixalla'a  piety  and  arguments.  The  attention  of 
the  Inquisition  was  soon  fixed  on  the  Caaalla  bmily, 
but  It  WBB  not  till  after  the  emperor's  death  In  1658 
that  they  wen  arrealad  and  tried  for  heresy.  At  an 
auto  da  r6  in  May,  1669,  he  was  atrangled  and  then 
burnt,  with  hie  siater  Donna  Beatrice ;  bia  brother 
Krancisco  waa  St  the  same  time  burnt  alive. — M'Crie, 
nit.  afUie  Krformatiim  m  Bpain,  p.  226  sq. ;  De  Ca>> 
tro,  Spamik  PnUtaf  (Lend.  1861),  p.  114  *q. 

Cocil,  RiCBAKD,  an  eminent  Evangelical  divine 
of  the  Church  of  F.ngland,  was  bom  in  London,  Ko- 
vember  8, 1748.  His  eariy  life  was  bad— he  was  even 
a.  professed  InOdeli  but  about  1772  be  waa  converted, 
and  In  1778  entered  QoeeD'a  College,  Oxford.   In  1777 


CECILIA  r 

b*  <nu  ontiined  priut,  ind  tetUed  >t  Lewei ;  bat  hli 
be»]th  failed  there,  and  Id  1780  h«  bacinie  mialiCeT  uf 
St.  Jobn'B,  Bedford  Bow,  London.  Id  IHOO  he  obtaia- 
ad  the  livinija  of  Chobhim  and  Biibam,  Surrey.  In 
ISOe  be  ««  attacked  by  ■  piinlytic  seizure,  and  «u 
vompelled  to  visit  ClifUm.  'f  be  JuurnEf  did  not  much, 
however,  irnprove  hi*  bealtb,  and  be  retired  In  Uay, 
ie09,  to  Tunbridge  Weill.  He  died  Anguit  15, 1810. 
"  The  ezcrtiona  ot  Mr.  Cecil  ae  a  preacher  were  im- 
menae.  Uis  talent*  were  eminent ;  hie  eloriuence  wa* 
impaaaloned,  yet  niemn,  and  K)n)etimee  iTriumenta- 
tive.  Ai  a  Chiiatian,  he  was  habitually  iplritually 
minded ;  modut  and  UDawuming,  be  never  intruded 
his  capacitiea  on  the  attention  of  mankind.  He  wu 
contented  with  doing  good  and  getting  good ;  and  hia 
works,  thongh  few,  are  valuable  for  their  sterling  aenae 
and  genuine  piety"  (.lonee).  They  are  collected  In  bia 
Worla,  edited  by  Pratt  (London,  1811,  i  vols.  Svo),  of 
wblcb  vol.  i  conUini  a  Ijfe  of  Cecil,  by  Pratt,  with 
Cecil'a  Lhri  of  Boom  and  Nado*.  vol.  ii  conUins 
■ennonasnd  mlscellaDeouatracta;  vol.  lii,  thirty-three 
aermoDa ;  vol.  iv,  Cecil's  Ramau,  which  are  among 
the  most  valuable  writinga  on  paatoral  Ufa  and  work, 
aa  well  sa  on  vaiioua  polnta  of  practical  teliRion,  in 
modem  time*.  There  ia  alao  an  American  edition  (H. 
Y.  IMS,  B  vola.  Svo).— Pratt,  Mtmrnr  of  Ctril ;  Jones, 
Chnttiaa  Biographi),  a.  v, 

Cecilia,  one  of  (be  so-called  aainta  of  tfae  Greek 
and  Roman  Calendar,  is  aaid  to  have  aufftred  martyr- 
dom nearly  at  the  same  time  with  Valerian,  her  has- 
l>and,  Hbnrtiuii,  Us  brother,  and  Haxinias,  an  officer, 
(Jiout  A.D.  !30,  onder  Alexander  Severua,  probably 
In  some  popular  commotion  and  persecution,  since  that 
emperor  waa  favorably  inclined  toward  the  Chrbtiaas. 
The  legendary  accoODt*  of  her  are  not  worthy  ot  cred- 
IL  Aa  she  ia  aaid  to  have  sung  pralaes  with  iDatm. 
mental  accompaniment  Juat  liefore  her  execution,  ahe 
ia  regcrded  as  the  special  patroneai  of  church  niuaic. 
"  St.  CMllia'a  Day"  ia  atlll  annnally  celebrated  m  Eng. 
land  by  a  mnsleal  festival.  Handel's  '■  Ueaaiah"  wai 
composed  for  it.  Both  Greeks  and  Latins  celebrate 
her  Aatival  on  tfae  ZSdof  Ifovember.— A.  Butler.LsDM 
(/Aula,  Nov.  S3 j  Laudon,  £ec(.  Dief.  n.  v. 

CecilUima,  biabop  of  Carthage  (A.D.  811).  See 
DoKATnra. 

Cedar  ('"^K,  ''m,  from  its  *ep 
tonn ;  Gr.  nijpoc)  occurs  in  numerous  places  of  Scrip- 
ture, bat  onthors  are  not  agreed  on  the  exact  meanin 
of  the  term.     Celaius(R<n-ofrn(.i,]0(J,sq.>.  for  Insane 

to  tlie  exciuaioQ  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  which  ho 
conaiders  to  be  indicated  by  the  word  btroA,  or  "  fir." 
The  majority  of  authors,  however,  are  of  opinion  that 
the  cedarof  I^banon(iSiBacerfn«,  ot  Ctdna  Libiim  of 
botsnista)  is  alone  intended.  This  opinion  is  confirm- 
ed by  tbe  Seplaagint  and  Vulgate,  which  uniformly 
(aa  in  tbe  English  version)  render  the  word  by  cijpo;, 
etdna;  and  slso  hy  the  fact  that  tbe  AraUc  name  for 
the  cedar  of  Lebanon  is  org,  evidently  cognate  with 
-m.  rtie  fnlbiwin);  statements  are  inirmleil  to  be  dia- 
criminalive  on  the  aubject.  See  Botakv. 
I.  The  earliest  notice  of  the  cedar  ta  in  Lev.  zii 


re  told  a 


leper 


that  was  to  be  cleansed  to  make  sn  offering  of 
sparrows,  cedar-wood,  wool  dyed  In  scarlet,  and  hyi 
sop;  and  in  ver.  49,61,  52,  the  honses  In  which  the  lep- 
ers dwell  are  directed  to  be  pnrifled  wKh  the 
terials.  Again,  In  Num.  xix,  6,  Hoses  and  . 
commanded  to  aacriflce  a  red  heifer:  "And  the  priest 
shall  take  cedar-wood,  snd  hyssop,  and  scarlet."  Here 
tbe  proper  cedst  can  hardly  be  meant, 
grow  In  Egypt,  and  its  wood  Is  scare 
The  variety  called  jnuiprr  is  evidently  intended,  the 
wood  and  berries  of  which  were  anciently  appliin]  to 
such  purposes.  The  term  cedar  Is  applied  hy  Pliny 
to  the  leaser  cedar,  eaycednu,  a  rbienician  Juniper, 


0  CEDAR 

which  la  BtlU  common  on  the  Lebanon,  and  whon 
wood  ia  aromatic.  Ihe  wood  or  fhill  of  tbia  tree  wat 
anciently  barnt  by  way  of  perfume,  CNpecially  at  ta- 
nerala  (Pliny,  //.  \'.  xiii,  1,  b ;  Ovid.  Fail,  ii,  &68 ;  Ho- 
mer, Od.  V,  60).  The  tna  is  common  in  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  and  also  in  Arabia,  In  tbe  Wady  Houaa,  where 
tbe  greater  cedar  la  not  found.  It  is  obvioualy  likely 
that  tbe  use  of  the  more  common  tree  sbonld  be  en- 
Joined  while  the  people  were  atlll  in  the  witdemcaa, 
rather  than  of  the  nncammDu  (Sfaaw,  TraeeU,  p.  464; 
Borekhardt,  Syia,  p.  480;  Russell,  .YaUa,  p.  43S). 
See  Jdmifbr. 

At  a  later  period  we  have  notlcea  of  the  variotuaaea 
to  which  the  wood  of  tbe  ma  was  applied,  aa  3  Sam. 
T,  11  j  vll,  a-7i  I  Kings  V,  6,  8,  10;  vi,  B,  10,  16,16, 
18,aOj  vil,!,S,T,U,ia:  lx,ll;  x,!7;  1  Chnm.  xvii, 
6;  2ChTDn.il,  8;  ix,  27;  xxv,  18.  In  these  [vasagea 
we  are  informed  of  tbe  negotiations  with  Uiram,  king 
of  Tyre,  for  the  supply  of  cedsr-treea  out  of  Lebanon, 
and  of  the  uses  to  which  Ihe  limber  was  applied  In  the 


"the 


alU  of  tl 


with  boarda  ot  crdar,"  there  were  "  eedor  pillars."  and 
"tieama  of  cwlar,"and  the  altar  was  of  cedar.     But  la 

dai  cannot  well  be  signified,  as  tbe  wood  is  neither 
hard  not  etmng  enongh  for  building  putpoeea.  Otbo 
kindred  varieties  of  trees,  however,  doubtless  esLted 
in  tbe  aama  locality  wilh  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  whicb 
were  suitable  in  these  rerpects,  a*  well  aa  on  account 
of  beauty  and  dunhllity,  for  architecture,  Perhapa 
nothing  more  is  meant  than  tbe  ^mM-tne,  which  ia 
known  to  grow  on  Mt.  Lebanon.  This  oiunion  senna 
to  Iw  conHrmed  by  Esck.  xxvil,  6;  "They  have  mad* 
all  thy  sbip-boarda  of  iir-trces  of  Senlr;  tbey  have 
taken  crdar  from  Lebanon  to  make  masts  for  thee  ;" 
for  It  ia  not  probable  that  auy  other  tree  than  the  coov 
mon  pine  would  be  taken  for  masts,  when  this  was 
procurable.  Also  in  the  second  Trmple,  rebuilt  ander 
Zerubbabtl,  tbe  timber  employed  was  cedar  from  Leb- 
anon (Ezra  111,7;  1  Esdr.  iv,  48  j  v,  M).  Cedar  ia  also 
said  by  Joaepbns  to  have  been  used  Ijy  Herod  In  tlie 
roororbiBtemple(ll'c7r,v,S,S),  Tho  roof  of  the  ro- 
tunda of  the  church  of  tbe  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jenwa- 
lem  is  aaid  ta  have  been  of  cedar,  and  that  of  tbe 
church  of  the  Vin^n  at  Bethlehem  to  have  been  of  ce- 
dar or  cypress  (Williams,  ffofy  Cilg,  11. ST!;  Quarennl- 
ua,£&c.r(rr.5aiK(.vl,  ISj  Toblcr,  SerUfcar,  p.  110^ 
US).     See  Purs. 

It  may  here  also  be  remained  that  the  Syiiac  and 
Heb.  interpreters  generally,  at  Isa.  xli,19;  lz,13,  ren- 
der the  word  (euatatar'  ('^q&'Mn,  literally  erecfiteai), 
translated  In  our  version  (after  the  Vulg.  and  Chaldee) 
"box-tree,"  by  ateriM-cedBr,  a  speciea  of  c«dar  dis- 
tinguished by  the  smallness  of  hs  cones  and  the  ni^ 
ward  directioD  of  its  branches  (see  BoaenmCiller,  AOer- 
llHHiut.  IT,  i,  393).  Another  form  of  this  word,  '4C!e^, 
aAar',  occurring  in  Ezck.  xxvti,  G,  has  there  boen 
mistianslaled  In  our  venion  by  "Aahurites,"  where 
the  clause  "the  company  of  the  AAitrUit  have  toads 
thy  benches  of  ivory,"  is  literally,  "thy  benchca  they 
make  of  ivory,  the  daughter  of  the  oMlir-wood,"  L  e. 
inlaid  or  bordered  with  it.  Fcr  a  full  account  of  the 
various  readings  of  that  passage,  see  RoaenmQlIcr*B 
Schi.  in  Esek.  xxvii,  6.  The  moat  aatiafactory  trans- 
lution  appears  to  be  that  of  Bochart  (fitog.  Sac.  i,  til, 
c.  5, 180)  sndRoeenmOUer:  "Thy  lienches  have  tbey 
made  of  Ivorv,  inlaid  with  box-wood  from  tbe  islea  of 
Cbittlm."  Now  it  is  probable  that  the  isles  ofChit- 
tlm  may  refer  to  any  of  Ihe  islands  or  maritime  dis- 
tricts of  tbe  Mediterranean.     Bocbart  believes  Corslot 

Italic."  Corsks  was  celel  rated  for  iu  box-tnies  (Plin. 
xvl,  16 ;  Theophrast,  H,  P.  iii,  IB,  5  B),  and  It  b  weH 
known  that  tbe  andenia  nnderatood  tlia  art  of  nnvar- 


CEDAR  i: 

bv  wood,  capadallr  bax.wood,  with  Itdt]-,  tortolae- 
iMl.e(c.(ViTg.^».x,  137).  Howbtsi-, OlaiiU  (fftr- 
nt.  i,  80)  ind  SpranKsl  {HimI.  Ret  Herb,  i,  !67)  identify 
IhcittrUiwitb  tbei'wu««inu(LiD&.),  tbecetUrof 

UtxiUIl.       Sec  BOX-TBKE. 

U;  as  thB  other  hand,  He  conaldcr  aome  of  tha  ro- 
■aibing  p*nn>gn  of  Scripture,  we  cafltiot  fail  to  pei^ 
«in  that  the;  foicibly  »fV^J  to  the  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
ltd  Id  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  onl]'.  Thtu,  in  Pw.  icli, 
!l,iti>aud,"Th*  il){hIeous  ihall  douriih  like  II  palm- 
Inland  ipnad  abroad  like  a  cedur  or  Lebanon."  But 
Eakitl  (chap,  xxxi)  it  Joitly  adduced  aa  giiing  the 
bhM  magoiiicent,  and,  at  the  tame  time,  the  moat 
gn|ihic  deiCTiption  or  tfaii  celebrated  tree  (comp.  Ho- 
wr, /f.  liii,  S5U ;  Vir^./S'n.  ii,  6£S;  v,U7i  Honce, 
M.i(,£).  The  other  {vind  pal  pusagea  in  which  the 
ndar  Ii  mentioned  are  I  Kinge  ir,  33;  2  Kings  xix, 
O:  Job  xl,  17;  Paalnu  xxix,  fi;  Ixxx,  10;  dT,  16; 
«lirtii,9:  Cant.1,  17;  t,  16;  Tiii,  9;  Im.  ii,  IB;  In, 
10;  xiT,  8:  xxxvii,  !4;  ill,  19;  iliv,  14;  Jer.  ixii, 
;,ll,t3;  Eieh.  xvil,  3,»,  !3i  Amos  ii,  9;  Zepfa.  ii, 
tl :  Zecli.  xi,  1 ,  ! ;  and  in  the  ApociyptiB,  Ecclns.  xniv, 
It;  l,li.     SmTbee. 

The  conditions  to  be  tiilfllled  in  order  to  answer  all 
iIk  dsarriptioDs  in  the  BiUe  of  a  eedai-tree  are  that  it 
•tvald  be  tail  (lu.  ii,  18).  spreading  (Eaeii.  xxii,  S), 
abaidant  (1  King!  t,  6, 10),  tit  for  besmf,  pillars,  and 
baarii  (I  KinRs  fI,  10, 16 ;  vii,  2),  masts  of  ibips  tEiek. 
ixvii,  5),  and  for  carved  work,  as  imsgea  (Isa.  slir, 
14).    To  these  ma?  be  added  qualities  ascribed  to  ce- 
4sr-wDod  bj  profane  writers.     Pliny  speaks  of  the  ce- 
dar of  Crete,  Africa,  and  Syria  as  being  most  esteemed 
Hi  imperishable.      In  Effjpt  and  Sjria  ships  were 
taih  of  cedar,  aad  in  Crp""  ■  ■re*'  <•■■  ■:°t  d^w"  1^^ 
fact  long  and  proportion alely  thick.     The  dunbllity 
<f  oedai  was  proved,  he  saj-s,  liy  the  duration  of  the 
cedar  roof  of  the  Temple  of  Diana  >t  Ephasas,  which 
hsd  lasted  400  yean.     At  Utica  the  Iwiims,  made  of 
Ifanidiin  oedar,  of  ataniple  of  Apollo  had  ksted  1178 
.nan!  (Pliny, /ffK.  A'iri.  xlil,  5;  xvl,  10).     Vitmvius 
(B.  9)  ipuka  of  the  anlbeplic  pmperties  of  the  oil  of 
(edsr(eeaip.Josepbua,  Ant.  viii,  5,  i;  Sandys,  Tnttdi, 
p.  lU.  1(7).     The  corretpoDdiag  Arabic  word,  an,  is 
uedloexpnss  not  only  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  bnti ' 
St  Aleppo  tiu  Pliut$  aiflvatrit,  which  is  abundant  b 
oaai  that  dty  and  on  Lobanon.     A  similar  statement  i 
nil  apply  also  Id  the  Tkuja  artiixiala  of  Mount  Atlas,  | 
■hich  is  cslled  by  the  Arabs  tl-arz,  a  name  that  led  lo 
the  niitake  as  lo  the  material  of  the  Cordova  roof 
trtm  ita  dmilarity  lo  the  Spanish  akra  (Niebubr, 
Doer,  dc  FAnMe.  p.  ISl,  etc.,  and  Qmatiau,  xc,  1S9, 
Mt;  Plinr,  fl..V.,  iiii,ll,15;  Hay,  IKsri  Atrt.  c.  Iv, 
ii;  Gestnins,  TTif.  p.  148).     Besides  the  trees  which 
btlsBg  to  the  one  grove,  known  by  the  name  of  "the 
Cedars,"  groves  and  green  woods  of  cedar  are  found  in 
Mher  part*  of  the  range  (Buckingliam,  Trareli  among 
Ik  Araii,  p.  46S  ;  Enff.  Cftiijadia,  r.  V.  Syria  ;  Robin- 
•en. new  ed.  of  Au.  ill,  693 ;  Burckhardt,^fnii,  p.  19; 
Loodon,  AHKnam,  1v,  2406,  3407  ;  Celsius,  Uienl»- 
iiB.  i,  a9;  Belon,  Olu.  de  ariortimi 
omifait,  a,  161.  ISo,  166).     The  re- 
oaios  of  wiDod  used  in  the  Nineveh 
palaraa  were  supposed  by  Layard  to 
bs  esdar,  a  supposition  oonGrmed  by 
the  faucripllaas,  which  show  that  the 
Aayrian  Udk*  importod  cedar  from  J 
Labeaon,     This  wood  is  now  proved  | 
byoicnscopiceicamlnstiontnbevew    . 
'  Layud,  JVnh  owf  Ba6.  p.  S56,  357 ;  i 
LradoD,  at  K^.  p.  3431).     See  Fir.      . 

1  The  modem  cidab  or  Leba- 


Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Onfnii  Libani}. 

horizontal  branches,  when  the  ttee  is  exposed  on  all 
sides,  are  very  large  in  proportion  lo  the  tmnlt,  being 
disposed  in  distinct  layers  or  stages,  and  the  distance 
(o  wliicb  they  extend  diminishes  u  they  approadi  the 
top,  where  tliey  form  s  pyrunidal  bead,  broad  fn  pro- 
portion to  its  height.  The  hranchlets  are  disposed  tn 
a  Bat,  fan-like  manner  on  the  branches  (see  Shelby, 
forest  Trta,  p.  622).  The  leaves,  produced  in  tufts,  are 
straight,  about  one  inch  long,  sWder,  nearly  eylindri- 
cal.taperingtoapDint,BndareonBhortfootaUlks.  The 
male  catkiiu  are  single,  solitary,  of  a  reddish  hue,  alMUt 
two  inches  long,  terminal,  and  turning  upwards.  The 
female  catkins  are  short,  erect,  roundi^,  and  rather 
oval ;  they  change  after  fecundation  into  oral  oblong 
cones,  which,  when  Ihey  approach  maturity,  become 
from  2|  inches  to  6  inches  long.  Ever;'  part  of  the  cone 
■bounds  with  resin,  which  sometimes  exudes  from  be- 
tween the  scales.  As  its  leaves  remain  two  yean  on 
the  branches,  and  as  every  spring  contributes  a  fresh 
supply,  the  tree  is  an  evergreen,  in  this  resemliling 
other  members  of  the  fir  family,  which,  the  larches  ex- 
cepted, retain  the  same  suit  for  a  year  or  upwsrds, 
and  drop  the  old  foliage  »  gradually  as  lo  render  the 
•' fall  ofthe  loaf  in  their  case  imperceptible.  As  far 
as  is  St  preeent  known,  tbe  cedar  of  lobanon  is  con- 
fined in  Syria  to  one  valley  of  the  Lebanon  range,  tIi. 
that  of  the  Kedisha  RivM,  which  flows  from  near  the 
highest  point  of  tbe  range  wastwaid  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  enters  the  sea  at  the  port  of  Tripoli.     The 


nil  k 


wtdel; 


•evading  tree,  generally  from  60  to 
'Otict  high,  and,  when  standing  sin- 
t)f,  often  covering  a  space  with  its 
■xancbes  the  diameter  of  which  is 
Meb  gnater  than  lb  height.  The 


Iviev  of  lbs  Cedars 


Goot^lc 


CEDRON 


172 


CEILING 


gnvc  li  at  the  yeiy  nppar  put  of  the  valley,  abont  IS  | 
milu  from  tba  tea,  SOOO  f»et  above  that  level,  and  Ibeii 
position  U  moreover  above  tlut  of  all  other  erboraoai 
regetation.  Belon,  who  traveled  in  Syria  abont  IMo, 
found  the  cedara  aboat  £8  In  numlier,  in  a  valley  on  the 
udea  of  the  mountaina.  RauwDlf.who  viaited  the  ce- 
dan  la  15T4, "  could  tell  no  more  bat  M,  that  >t«od 
round  aboat  in  a  drde  ;  end  tiro  othen,  the  brancboa 
vhanef  ire  quite  decayed  ttom  age."  De  la  Roque, 
Id  less,  foand  bat  HI.  Haundrell,  in  1696,  found  them 
reduced  to  16;  and  Dr.  Pococke,  who  viaited  Syria  In 
17M  and  1711^  dlgcovered  only  16.  "  The  wood,"  be 
aaya,  "doca  not  differ  from  white  deal  fn  appearance, 
nor  doea  it  aeem  to  be  harder.  It  haa  a  flue  smell,  bnl 
il  not  Ki  fragrant  aa  the  juniper  of  America,  which  is 
commonly  called  cedar,  and  it  alao  (alia  abort  of  it  In 
beauty."  M.  Umartine,  In  1882,  aaya,  "Theie  trees 
dimlnlah  In  every  ancceedlDg  age.  There  an  now 
)nit  7.  Theae,  however,  from  their  die  and  general 
appearance,  may  fairly  be  preaumedto  have  existed  In 
Ubiical  times.  Around  theae  andeDt  wltneuea  of 
ages  long  since  piat  there  still  remaina  a  little  grove 
of  yellow  cedara.  appearing  to  me  to  form  a  groap  of 
tntta  400  to  SOO  tieee  or  abrulM.  Every  year,  in  the 
montb  of  Jnna,  the  inlulritanta  of  Beahlenl,  of  Eden, 
ofKandbln,  and  the  other  neighboring  valleya  and  vil- 
lagea,  climb  up  to  theae  eedan  and  celebrate  mass  at 
their  feet."  Dr.  Graham  gives  the  following  meas- 
nrementa  of  the  twelve  largest  cedars  :  the  circnnirer- 
ences  of  the  trunk  at  the  base  respectively  40  feet,  88, 
47,18^,80,  2Si,  S8,  i&i.  Slt§,  391,  22,  !St:  the  largest 
having  thoa  a  diameter  of  nearly  16  feet  {JonUm  atut 
Oe  JOmt,  p.  26).  Within  ■  few  yean  past  a  chapel 
has  been  erw^ted  there  (RoblnKin,  LeUrr  Stt.  p.  590, 591 ; 
S-aniey,  Smai  and  Pal.  p.  140).  See  Trew'a  treatlaea, 
Cedror.  Libam  But.  and  Apohgiadecfdro  lA.  (Norimb. 
17S7  and  1767) ;  Pnsy  Cydiif>.  a.  v.  Abies;  Thnmaon, 
Land  imd  Bmk,  1,  292  sq.;  ei^clally  Dr.  Hooker,  in 
Uu  Nal.  Hidory  Reviae.  Jan.  1862.  p.  tt-lS ;  and  Hr. 
Jenup,  in  the  Boan  at  Homr,  March  and  April,  1867. 
Ce'dron,  the  name  of  a  place  and  of  a  rivulet. 

1.  (4  TtiSpvv  V.  r.  Kt^pu.)  A  place  fortifled  liy 
CendebauB,  under  the  orders  of  king  Antiochaa  (Side- 
tea),  aa  a  atatlon  from  which  to  command  tlie  mads  of 
Jndu  (1  Mace,  xv,  BO,  41 ;  xvl,  9}.  It  was  not  far 
from  Jamnia  (Jabneh),  or  Ihim  AiotUB  (Aahdod),  and 
had  a  wint«r.torrent  or  wady  (x«l<o^>'C)  on  the  east. 
ward  of  It,  which  the  army  of  the  Hsccabre*  had  to 
CMBB  before  Cendehsaa  could  be  attacked  (ivi,  fi). 
Theae  condltiona  are  well  fuiSIIed  In  the  modem  place 
Katra  at  KfUrtA,  which  Ilea  on  the  marithne  plain  be- 
low the  river  Rubin,  and  thiWB  miles  Boulh-weetorAkir 
(Ekron).  Schwan  {Palat.  p.  119)  gives  the  modern 
name  aa  Kaeb^iBt,  hot  this  wants  conflrmstion.  Ewald 
(Jir.  Gat\.  Iv,  S90,  note)  aUKgeats  TtU-Turmia,  tive  or 
ejz  miles  tkrther  south.  The  Syriac  haa  Ift/tnm,  and 
the  Volg.  Grdor,  which  some  compare  with  the  village 
Oedna  (Kiiavc),  mentioned  by  Enaebiua  and  Jerome 
(Ormnail.  a.  v.  rilnif,,  Gnlur)  aa  lying  ten  miles  thnn 
Diopolis,  toward  Eleutheropolia. 

2.  In  this  form  la  (liven  In  the  N.  T,  the  name  of  the 
brook  Kidron  Cl^^p  l>ri_3  =  "the  black  tflrrent")  in  the 
ravine  below  the  eastern  wall  of  Jemaalem  (John  x  viii, 
1).  .  Lachman,  with  codicea  A  and  D,  has  ];iifinppouf 
Tov  Kicpi;^'  1  but  the  Rec.  Text  with  B  haa  riv  Ki- 
fpwv,  I.  e.  "the  brook  of  the  cedara"  (so,  U»,  the  Sept. 
in  2  Sam.  xv,  23).  Other  H83.  have  the  name  even 
BO  far  cormftod  aa  rofi  titpov  (ao  K).  cedri,  and  ruii 
tlvifmv.  The  word,  however,  has  no  connection  with 
"  cedar."  In  English,  the  nimp  in  thla  form  la  often 
eironeooaly  pronounced  (ai  if  written  Krdrun)  with  a 
hard  C    See  Eidkon. 

Cel'lan  (Kftov.Vnl-.  Ciaio\  n  pcr-on  named  H 
Eadr.  V,  IG)  aa  the  family  head  (In  connection  with 
Aielai)  of  aixty-aevjn  hraelites  ubo  returned  from 


Babylon  ;  bnt  llie  Heb.  texU  (Eara  li,  16 ;  Ndi.  Til,  SI) 

not  contain  either  name. 

Ceiling.  Tlura  are  three  Heb.  words  amploycd 
in  the  Old  Teat,  which  our  tranalalora  have  rendered 
"  ceiled"  or  "cdling."  1.  hBH  (ctqutoA',  to  cover  or 
ottriaii,  aa  it  ia  elsewhere  rendered)  occara  2  Chron. 
Ill,  G,  where  it  ia  aald,  "  He  ceiled  the  greater  tntiae 
with  flr-tree."  2.  '^^  (at^iaa',  to  •caaucat  or  plank  : 
elsewhere  rendered  "  cover,"  once  "  seat,"  Deut. 
xixili,  21)  ocean  Jer.  xxH,  14  :  >'  It  ia  ceiled  with  (»• 
dar,  and  painted  with  vermilion."  Honsea  flnisbed  in 
tbla  manner  were  called  "  ceiled  honaes"  (Hag.  I,  4). 
The  "ceiling"  of  the  walls  Itself  ia  likewise  spoken  of 
CDS,  lippun',  1  Kinga  vl,  16).  Ia  Eiek.  ill,  16,  the 
word  rendered  "ceiled"  Is  Cj'^riti  (alacA^',  from  tw- 
iag  hewtd  tim),  a  board  aimply,  used  tor  that  pnrpoee- 
Theae  ceiUnjia  were  adorned  with  ornaments  in  stucco, 
with  gold,  ailver,  gema,  and  Ivory.  Oriental  hooaea 
appear  to  have  been  the  levene  of  such  aa  we  inhabit, 
the  ceiling  l>eing  of  wood  richly  ornamented  and  palot- 
ed,  and  the  floor  plaater  or  stucco,  tbe  walla  being  gen- 
erally wainscoted.  The  Egyptian  monuments  atill 
exhibit  elegant  apedmena  of  painted  ceilings,  no  doobC 


greatly  resembling  those  mentioned  in  tbe  above  texts 
(Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egfpt.  il.  Igfi).  According  to  Mr. 
lAyard,  in  the  ancient  Aasyrian  houses  alao  '■  the  ceil- 
ings overhead  were  divided  into  square  compartments, 
palBted  with  flowers  or  with  the  flgurea  of  animals. 
Some  were  Inlaid  with  ivory,  each  compartment  being 
surrounded  by  elegant  borden  and  mouldings"  (A'oie- 
trk,  II,  208).  The  Ibilowing  remarks  are  IVom  Smith's 
[M,  s.  v. ;  The  descriptions  of  Scripture  (1  Kinga  Ti, 
0,19;  vll,  8;  2  Chron.  iii,  6,  9j  Jer.  xxii,14;  Hag.  I, 
4)  and  of  Josephns  {AiU.  vlil,  S,  2-9;  xv,  II,  b)  show 
that  tbe  ceilings  of  the  Temple  and  the  palacea  of  the 
Jowiih  kings  were  fermed  oir  clear  pisnka  applied  to 
the  lieama  or  joints  crossing  from  wall  to  well,  [Oohs- 
lily  with  aunk  panels  (farvw/jnro),  edged  and  orna- 
mented with  gold,  and  carved  with  incised  or  other 
patterns  (fiaSvKitXoif:  yXwfoIi),  sometimes  painted 
(Jer.  XKli,  14).  It  is  probable  that  both  Egyptian  and 
Aasyrian  moilela  were  in  this,  aa  In  other  brancfaea  of 
architectural  conatruFtion,  followed  before  the  Roman 
period.  See  AncHiTiiCTiiRe.  The  construction  and 
designs  of  Auyrian  ceilings  in  the  more  Important 
boiidings  can  only  be  conjectured  (I.ayard,  Smmh,  ii, 
2C6.  289),  but  the  proportlona  In  the  walla  themselves 
answer  In  a  great  degree  to  those  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture (A'l'n.  and  Bab.  p.  642;  Fer^usMm,  Hand-boJc  of 
A  rrfclerfurc,  i,  201).  Examples,  however,  are  exUnt 
of  Egyptian  ceilings  in  stucco  painted  »lth  devices  of 
a  date  much  earlier  than  that  of  Solomon's  Temple. 
or  theae  devices,  the  principal  are  the  gnillorhe.  tbe 
chevron,  and  the  ecroll.  Some  are  painted  in  blue, 
with  stars,  and  others  bear  repTesentatlnns  of  Urda 
and  other  emblems  (Wilkinson,  Ak.  Kggpl.  il,  SSff)- 
Tbe  excessive  use  of  vermilion  and  other  iiiaring  col- 
ors in  Roman  houae-palntinz,  of  which  Vltmviua  al  a 
later  date  complains  (vli,  5),  may  have  been  Introdnced 
from  Egypt,  whence  alao  csme.  in  all  probability,  the 
taste  fnr  vermilion  painting  rhown  in  Jeholakim'a  pal- 
Bce(Jer.xxli,I4:  AmDsiil,I6:  Wilkinson,  1.19).  See 
also  the  descriptions  given  by  Athennue  (v,  196)  of  the 
tent  of  Ptolemy  rblladelphna  and  the  ship  of  I^kpa- 
tOT  (tb.  206).  and  of  the  so-called  aepnichm  of  the 
kiD^afSyria,near'I^re,byHaBM]qalet^UtS).  Tbe 


CEILLIER  i; 

[■ml  ■iii>  in  ocQiiig*  which  bu  b««n  de>crlb«d  i>  | 
fosad  ia  Oncntol  and  Nortb  AlHcaii  dwalling*  of  Uta  ' 
■nd  madtm  tlma.  Shiw  docribss  tbe  ceilings  of 
Jloiriili  bouMS  in  Barbuj  u  of  viia>cot,  alChtr 
"  to;  utfollj  paintad,  or  elte  thmurn  lalo  ft  vmlety 
of  piBali,  with  ifikled  mouldiDsi  lud  Kralla  oftba  Ko- 


Moten  BfTpikui  t;iJUiis  vtlh  dUhnnI  Cokn. 
nd  LntomixBd"  (TVsv.  p^  306).  Mr.  PfnliiT  deacrlbefl 
Ibt  talioga  of  bouM  at  Damaiciu  u  delicatcl;  tHinc- 
id^uidiBtbc  mora  incicDt  hDiiHi  wilb  "arabctqufi" 
nooopuijiig  panala  of  blue,  on  wfaich  are  inacrilied 
TOMi  and  cbaptcr*  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic ;  alM  a 
bnb  rt  EUinjra,  with  a  ■tana  ailing  baaDtifullr  pin- 
tlM  uid  paintad  (Damatem,  i,  84,  S7,  67,  60^  i3S; 
tanpL  Dont.  tI,  9;  see  alw  Lena's  Uod.  Eggpt.  t,  37, 
K;  Thomaon,  Land  amd  Boct,  il,  G71).  Many  of  the 
nnu  in  the  Pulan  oftha  Uoon  at  the  Alhambra  vera 
«M  and  onumenCsd  with  the  ricbeat  g«om«trleal 
pUMCBt.  Tbe  anciaot  Egrptiaua  naed  colond  tiles 
Lg  tUr  bnUdinga  (Atbau.  t,  206 ;  Wilkinson,  li,  SS7). 
The  like  taate  is  obaenred  bj  Chudin  to  have  prevail- 
■tln  IVda,  and  he  nwntiani  baantifnl  apeclinenB  of 
Donie,  afabeaqna,  and  inlaid  wmd-work  In  celling 
U  Ii^akau,  at  Koom  in  tho  nwaqna  of  Fatiina,  and 


Pasal-wn-k  i 


m  EgyptlBD  OalUD^a. 
It  Atderil.     TfaaM  ceilings  wer«  constrncted  on  the 
rreoBd,  and  hoistad  to  their  poaitlon  bv  nuchineiy 
(Ckirdia,  VorV-  <'>  *^\  >'<  ^^  :  ^'>  ^'^  i  "'''i  ^< 
pliM  US;  Oleariui,  p.  Wf.     See  House. 

CtllUsT.  DaiK  lUMr,  an  eminent  French  tbeidogl- 
u.  was  hom  at  Bai^Ie-Duc  in  1688.  He  entered  tbe 
(inter  of  SL  Benedict  In  170I>.  and  becanw  titnlar  prior 
•f  FlaTignj.  In  1718  he  pabllsbed,  Apiogie  de  la 
manJt  da  Ptm  de  F^glite,  roitn  /eon  Barbfyraei 
bat  tbe  work  of  bii  lUb  was  hie  Hiiloin  GImrraU  da 
A^mn  Sacrtt  tt  EtxUtiaMiqnt  (17S»-I7I>8,  SB  volg. 
<la)— a  work  mors  complete,  and  perhaps  more  aecn- 
nia  than  that  of  Dnptn,  allhongb  infcrinr  to  faim  in 
the  iDtljtii  of  books.  A  new  edition  hai  appeared 
[Pub,  IB60-SG,  15  Tolf.  Bvo),  with  additioni,  bnl  tra- 
hnanatolj  thus  far  without  general  Indenes.  The 
thkf  faperiorlt;  of  Celllier  over  Dnidn  Ilea  In  hia 
tnatacBt  of  tiba  wiiten  of  the  lint  aii  antarfes.  In 
•bicb  be  had  tbe  nM  of  TUlamont,  and  also  of  tbe 
BeoadktlDa  editiona  of  the  hthers.  In  the  Middle 
A(as.  and  eapeciallf  in  the  scbolattie  tbeologr.  An 
■bicb  be  had  no  tarte,  be  daw  not  aqoal  Dnpin.  Cdl- 
Uiir  died  KoT.  17, 17S1.— Wr^  UfiverKlU,  t.  v. 


'3  CELESTINE 

C«lineU«rc)ue  (Hi^ifXiopxii.  hapert  qfAt  taeni 
eunb},  a  dais  or  inferiorofficcn  in  tbe  ancient  church. 
They  bad  charge  of  all  uteneile  and  precious  tbinga 
Uid  op  in  Che  aacred  npoaltoiy  of  the  charcb.  The 
name  Keaopiytaz  Is  nsed  In  the  same  significaUon ; 
also  dmriopk-ilai,  or  aatot  arckimnm,  custodian  of  tbe 
rolls  or  archives  (Suicer,  Tknaunu,  ii,  971).  This  of. 
fleer  was  commonly  s  presbyter  ^  Macedonius  was  both 
presbyter  and  sceuophylax  of  the  church  ofConsUnti- 
nople ;  and  goiDmen  styles  Theodore,  presbyter  of  An> 
tioch,  wlu>  snllBred  martyrdom  in  the  days  of  Jolian. 
^ii\aita  Taiv  iai/iti\iaiv,  "keeper  of  the  sacred  utea 
sila."  He  was  put  to  death  because  he  would  not  de> 
llrer-np  what  he  had  in  hia  custody.  In  the  Greek 
Church  tbe  chaitophylai  acts.as  the  patnaicb's  sub- 
stitute, excommnnlcating  and  licensing  prea  by  ten  and 
deacona,  and  sitting  as  supreme  ecclesiastical  Judge  in 
many  cases.— Bingham,  Orig.  Ecd.  bk.  !ii,  cb.  zlii,  j  3 ; 
Sozomen,  Uiil,  Ecd.  v,  8. 

Celeatiiie  (fit  CaLUTiN)  I,  Pope,  a  Roman  by 
birtb,  waa  elected  P<qie  in  4tii,  on  the  death  of  Booi. 
fkce  I.  Daring  his  pontlHcate  Ih^  Council  of  Ephe- 
sus,  against  Nestorlus,  was  held,  upou  which  occasion 
he  wrote  sevenil  letteia  to  the  Eastern  churches.  He 
claimed  anthority  and  primacy  in  the  Roman  See,  and 
sought  to  exercisa  it  orar  tbe  African  Church  in  vain. 
In  the  Nestoriau  dispute  above  mentioned  he  waa 
more  snccessful,  as  Cyrit,  in  order  to  put  down  Neeto- 
rias,  accepted  tbe  authority  of  Celeatine  againft  him. 
He  left  thirteen  letten;  among  them  is  a  complaint 
aa  to  the  dreta  of  bishope ;  but  it  la  doubtful  whether 
it  means  that  tbe  clergy  should  dress  like  the  laity,  oi 
should  abstain  Trom  same  special  icarment  wbich  some 
had  adopted.  He  died  March  S6  (or  Julv  26).  *Si. 
Celeatine  is  said  to  have  aent  Palladina  and  SL  Patriclc 
[  as  mlsaionaTlea  to  Ireland,  bat  tbe  stoiy  Is  very  donbt- 
I  ful.  It  Is  not  clear  that  either  of  Ibem  ever  had  any 
conucction  with  Rome.  His  letten  ara  preserved  in 
the  Collection  of  Councila.    He  Is  counted  among  the 

aainta  of  the  Chnrch  of  Rome Bioj.  Umh.  vil,  497 ; 

Cormenln,  Livei  oflKe  Fopa,  i,  79. 

II.  Pope,  originally  Guide,  of  Cittk  di  Castello,  In 
Tuscsnv,  atodied  under  Abelard,  and  aucceeded  Inn<»- 
cent  II  September  S6th,  1118.  He  died  in  March, 
1114. 

I  IIT.  Pope,  a  Roman  named  laclnto  Orainl,  cardinal 
of  Santa  Haria,  waa  elected  POpe  Mareb  80, 1191,  at 
alghtyflre.  He  crowned  Henry  V  and  his  wife  Con- 
Btance,  and  made  a  great  dlsplsy  of  arrogance  in  doing 
it;  entered  warmly  into  the  scheme  for  delivering  the 
Holy  Lend,  on  which  acccwnt  he  espoused  the  causa 
of  Richard  I  of  England,  and  nilmlniled  cenaurea 
■gainst  Leopold  of  Austria  and  the  emperor,  who  de- 
tained Ricbard  prisoner.  He  died  January  8. 11W>. 
During  his  last  Ulnass  he  pmpoaed  to  transfer  his  pi- 
pal  authority  to  cardinal  Colonna,  to  which,  of  count, 
the  cardinals  objected. 

IV.  Pops,  originally  called  GofTredo,  of  the  fkmlly 
of  Castigliona,  of  Milan.  He  was  elected  Pope  Oo- 
tober  36,  ISil.and  died  en  the  17th  of  November  fulr 

V.  Pope,  origloally  Pielro  do  If  umne,  was  bom 

ISIG  at  Isemle.  With  a  few  eompaniane  be  wllhdiew 
to  a  cava  on  Monte  Hsjetla,  where  ha  lived  a  life  ef 
ennme  austerity.  After  a  Ihne  his  disciples  mulli- 
pHcd  so  greatly  that  he  was  Induced  to  form  them  Into 
a  new  order  (called  Ural  tbe  congragation  o( SI.  Damiat. 
bnt  subsequently  the  order  of  CeieniuH).  under  the  rule 
of  SL  Benedict  This  order  was  conftrtned  bv  Gregory 
X  in  the  Svnnd  of  Lyons,  1274,  On  the  6lh  of  July, 
J394,  be  was  elected  pope,  and  took  tbe  nama  of  Celes- 
tine  V.  He  proved  to  be  too  Ignonnt  of  tbe  world  and 
its  wavs,  as  well  aa  of  litantuie,  for  the  office  which  ha 
waa  so  suddenly  called  upon  to  undertake.  Feeling 
hia  nnAtnesa,  arid  finding  tbst  many  abases  ware  com- 
mitted in  hia  name,  he  resigned  Dec.  1%  1294,  and  re- 
tired to  his  BoUtada.    He  wia  cruelly  imprisoaed  bj 


CELIBACY  r 

pTMChMttanlf  InpnctiM.  It  •rt»Tirgintlyf»r»ho»«' 
marriBge,  and  ngmrds  lovriaga  00)7  In  iti  upect  of 
ncgatln  ntili^.  In  tb*  nogb  duitUkb  of  ■  print  it 
■eei,  In  a  msuure,  a  Beetutwy  avil — at  bMt  odIj  a  cod- 
dltiniMl  good,  a  whoIeKime  concauion  to  tfae  Beali  for 
the  pnnntioD  of  immonlHy— ■□dnqnirra  orlMhlgb- 
cit  office-bearen  total  abrtinniM  rrom  all  matrimoulil 
Interconne.  It  vavcn,  thenfnra,  between  a  partial 
parmiukin  and  a  partial  condemnatioD  of  prisitlj  nur- 
rUga"  (Schaff,  Cluirti  Hitlmy,  ii,  %  60). 

V.  Sines  til  EifoniiatiaH.—The  evUi  bnxtght  opon 
the  Chnrch  bj  the  celibacy  ef  the  clergy  farmed  un» 
came  of  the  monment  towards  nforai  wblcb  calmi- 
Dated  in  the  16th  ceDtury.  The  leading  Raformen 
declared  against  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  aa  unfounii- 
ed  in  Scripture,  and  contrary  to  the  natnral  ordinance 
of  God,  and  the  spell  wai  finally  broken  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Lnthar  with  Catharine  Bora.  His  aiample 
wu  goon  widely  followed ;  and  his  writinga,  and  tlKwe 
of  hia  coadjatort,  nan  put  an  end  to  celibacy  among 
all  the  reforming  clergj-  (comp.  Lutiier,  EratAainig  an 
taaerl.  Maj.  1&30,  etc.;  De  VoUi  MoMuHai).  Calvin 
apeaka  as  fbilowi  of  the  eTil  of  clerical  celibacy,  aa  de- 
veloped among  tba  Romanitta :  "  With  what  Imponity 
fiwDkation  rage*  asaoog  them  It  ia  anneceieary  to  re- 
mark; emboldened  by  their  pallnted  celibacy,  thev 
h*Te  became  hardened  to  every  crime.  Yet  thia  pro- 
hibition clearly  •bowa  bow  peatilent  are  all  their  tra- 
ditiODB,  ainoe  it  haa  not  only  deprived  the  Church  of 
nprlght  and  able  paatora,  but  haa  fmned  a  horrible 
golf  of  enormltiea,  and  precipitated  many  aonla  into 
the  abyae  of  deapair.  The  interdiction  of  marriage  to 
prieata  waa  certainly  an  ad  of  Impiooa  tyranny,  not 
only  conliaiy  to  the  Word  of  God,  but  at  variance  with 
every  principle  of  juatlce.  In  the  flrat  place,  it  wii  on 
no  account  lawful  for  men  to  prohltdt  that  which  the 
Lord  had  left  free.  Secondly,  that  God  had  exprcMl.v 
provided  in  his  Word  that  this  liberty  abonld  not  be 
infriDged,  1«  too  clear  to  require  much  proof  (/*- 
lOiiie;  Iv,  IS,  13>  The  ProteaUnt  Conlteaiona  of 
Faith  generally  touch  on  the  subject  more  or  leu  di- 
rectly :  e.  g.  the  Augaburg  Confession  has  a  long  arti- 
cle (xxiil)  on  the  subject,  fhim  which  we  extract  a 
passage :  "  Matrimony  is  moreover  declared  a  lawful 
and  honorable  estate  by  the  laws  ofyoor  imperial  maj- 
esty, and  by  the  code  of  every  empire  in  which  justice 
and  Uw  prevailed.  Of  late,  however.  Innocent  sub- 
jects, and  especially  miniaten,  are  cruelly  tarmcDted 
00  account  of  their  marriage.  Nor  la  auch  conduct  a 
violation  of  the  divine  lawa  alone;  it  ia  eqnally  op- 
poeed  to  the  eaoons  of  the  Church.  The  ipoetle  Paul 
denominatas  that  a  doctrine  of  devils  which  Ibrbids 
marriage  (1  Tim.  Iv,  1, 3) ;  and  Christ  saya  (John  viil, 
44),  'The  devil  is  a  murderer  tmm  the  beginning.' 
For  that  may  well  be  r^arded  aa  a  doctrine  of  devile 
which  forblda  marriage  and  enfbrces  the  prohibition 
by  the  abedding  of  blood."  Tfae  Cbntrh  of  England 
"'Art,  xxxiL  0/ At  Marnage  n/ frinto.— Biahopa 
priests,  and  deacons  are  not  commanded  by  God's  law 
either  to  vow  the  estate  of  single  life,  or  to  ■ ' 
ftom  marriage;  therefore  It  is  lawTDl  fbr  them, 
all  other  Christian  man,  to  many  at  their  own  djarre- 
tlon,  *s  they  shall  judge  the  rame  to  serve  better  to  god. 
liness."  See  also  the  Helvetic  Conf.  I,  ch.  imvii ;  Ii, 
ch,  xxix.  All  the  modem  evangelical  denominations  ' 
are  agreed  in  rejecting  enforced  celibacy  as  nnscriptural 
and  immoral.  "When  an  institution  baa  been  tried 
during  a  doien  centatiea  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
haa  uniformly  been  found  productive  of  the  same  evil 
eOhita,  there  cannot  well  lie  a  doubt  what  sentence 
aught  to  be  pronounced  on  it :  CUil  dotm.  That  the 
papacy  ahould  have  refrained  (tarn  pronouncing  this 
sentence-that,  on  the  ccntraiy,  it  shoold  have  retain- 
ed  and  npheM  that  Institution  with  dogged  pertinac- 
ity, notwithstanding  the  horrors  which  streamed  In 
vbelmiog  torrents  fhm  It,  is  perhaps  the  most  damn- 
lag  proof  how  the  papacy  recklessly  sacrifleed  every 


6  CELIBACY 

moral  consideration,  recklessly  sacrlQced  the  sonls  of 
ita  mlaiaterB,  for  tbe  sake  of  maintaining  its  own  pow- 
er, by  Burronnding  itself  wi^  an  InDuraerabie  hoot  of 
spiritual  Haioelukes,  bound  to  it  by  that  which  sever- 
ed IheiD  from  all  social  ties.  And  thia  la  the  Chnrdi 
for  which  our  modem  dreameti  claim  the  exclusive 
title  of  holy— a  Church  headed  by  his  holintM  Vaps 
Alexander  Uw  Sixth !  This  whole  question  of  the 
celibacy  of  the  clsrg;  has  been  treated  in  a  masttriy 
manner  by  Jeremy  Taylor,  in  that  wonderful  book,  hla 
Dttctor  DMtamtiMm  (b.  iil,  c  iv,  rule  20),  when  (in 
%  28)  be  gives  the  following  summary  of  hta  objec- 
tions 1 '  Tbe  law  of  the  Chunb  waa  an  evil  law,  made 
by  an  authority  violent  and  usorpt,  inaufficicnt  aa  to 
that  charge.  It  waa  not  a  Uw  of  God;  itwaa  against 
the  rights  and  against  the  Drceasitiea  of  Mature ;  it 
waa  unnatural  and  unreasonable ;  it  was  not  for  erfiO. 
cation  of  the  Church ;  it  waa  no  advantage  to  spirit- 
ual life;  it  is  a  law  that  ia  therefore  agsiOFt  public 
honeaty,  because  it  did  openly  and  secretly  introduce 
diehoneaty;  it  had  nothing  of  tbe  tvquisile*  ofagcod 
law— no  consideration  of  human  frailty  nor  of  boman 
«mfbrla ;  it  waa  neither  Deccssary,  nor  profitable,  nor 
nnocent — neither  fitted  to  time,  nor  place,  nor  person ; 
t  waa  not  accepted  by  them  that  ronld  not  bear  h ;  it 
•as  complained  of  by  them  that  could ;  it  was  never 
idmitted  in  the  East;  it  was  fought  against,  and  de- 
'laimed,  and  railed  at  In  tbe  We«t ;  and  at  last  It  is 
aid  aside  In  the  churches,  especially  of  the  Kortfa,  aa 
tbe  most  intolerable  and  moat  nnreafonable  tyranny 
In  the  world ;  for  It  was  not  to  be  endoTrd  that,  upon 
the  pretence  of  an  unreasonable  perfection,  ao  mudi 
impurity  should  be  brought  Into  the  Church,  and  so 
many  souls  thrust  down  to  hell.'  " — Hare,  CanteM  wiik 
A»w,  p.  2GS. 

At  dltTerent  periods  since  the  Conncit  of  Trent  tbe 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  basbeen  atoi^c  of  dispute  with- 
in tbe  Church  of  Bome,  and  many  of  the  clergy  have 
sought  to  free  their  body  from  tbis  yoke  of  bondage. 
In  Anstria,  Joseph  II  confirmed  it  by  an  ordinance 
under  date  of  June  11,1787,  which  wonid  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  some  hopes  of  ila  nullification  were  enter- 
tained by  the  Austrian  clergy  at  that  time.  When,  in 
conaeqaence  of  tbe  Concordat  of  1801,  eccleaiastical 
Communitiea  were  ra.establiFhed  In  France,  the  rule  of 
celibac}-  was  maintained,  and  was  rkilAilly  defended 
by  Portalis  in  the  aetsion  of  the  Corpi  Li^da^J  of 
March  21, 1802,  In  1BI7  the  quaHion  waa  again  moot- 
ed by  the  theolt^icol  faculty  of  l*nd»lint,  who,  com- 
pluining  of  the  scarcity  of  candidates  for  holy  orders, 
pointed  to  celibacy  as  one  of  its  censes.  In  ISSS  cer- 
tain Roman  priests  of  Baden  and  Silesia  made  another 
attempt,  but  without  success.  Similar  attempts  were 
also  made  after  IfSl  in  the  gtand-ducby  of  Hesae, 
Wnrtembei^,  and  Saxony,  snd  petitlona  aiking  fac  the 
abolition  of  celibacy  presented  at  tbe  diets.  The  dvil 
autboritics  felt  the  leas  inclined  to  such  a  step,  as  the 

clesiastical  low,  or  whether  it  could  be  abrogated  by 
the  civil  antfaorities,  is  not  yet  decided,  In  Fnnce, 
again,  the  question  was  eagerly  disconed  from  ISSS  to 
1832.  In  Siwn,  the  Academy  of  Ecclalastiial  Science 
took  the  subject  into  conaideration  in  a  meeting  held 
In  IW2 ;  while  the  Portuguew  Chambers  had  previoua- 
ly,  in  1835,  dlscnased  It,  though  wilhont  result.  The 
same  took  place  in  Braiil  about  1827.  Doring  the 
commotions  of  1848,  the  subject  waa  again  brought 
into  prominence  in  Germany.  The  'IGerman  Cslbo- 
lics"  fa  *.)  had  already  abolished  celibacy ;  snd  a 
™eral  measure  was  caHed  for  In  the  Frankfort  Par. 
Hament,  in  the  Fnisdan  Awembly,  and  In  the  press. 
En  Austria,  also,  voices  were  raised  sgalnrt  It;  b« 
took  the  side  of  the  pope,  who,  In  a  boll 


of  1847,  had  added  fresh  stringency  to  the  rule  of  cdi- 
bacr  and  condemned  ita  infringement.  Since  ttie 
lulUn  Ubei-Uon  War  of  18*6,  hnn^  of  the  ItohaP 
clergy  have  unlled  to  refiirm  the  Church,  and  qoa  <A 


Ikt  ipMbl  point*  daauodtid  ii  tbe  mbolltlon  of  e«11- |irInrab«d«TDtodbimMlf  toOrlanUlUngnagM.  Vben 
teT.  I  tba  Aoabapdata   uow,  be  wroM  uid  ipokfl  agidiitt 

Oa  (b«  otbar  lu&d,  ttag  RoKuniiing  puty  In  tba  tbam,  upeciallj  dgaiiut  Stock ;  bot  fliully  he  Joiaed 
Ckofh  of  England  tstm  Inclined  to  niTlre  celibacy  ,  tbsm  hlmaelr.  AbontlMO  be  give  up  thli  entbiulaim 
udtbe  inctant wtmintiDii  of  vlrginl^.  S«S  Shipley,  und  went  to  Bula,  luuming  the  name  of  Boirbaiu. 
rb  dvot  tmi  tkt  (forU  (Vaux'e  Euar),  LaadDn,  Ha  became  proleHor  of  rhetoric  there  in  1680;  of  the. 
l«a,§ni.  >1og7,1544;  and  died  Oct.  II,  lS64._MElchiar,  Adun, 

UMimn. — For  tbo  older  writeTa  On  both  >id«,  Ha  |  I'if.  Enditoim ;  Htnog,  KtaLEnqtlop.  i.  v. 
"?^,?*'r'^  n«t>?™,  t.  802 ;  liiM.    Aiilaterj      Cell«rl,«,  JaOobM.      Sea  Kbllm. 
mkril^  beaidea  tboH  cited  in  tbia  article,  tee  Glese- 

K  CI.  Biitaij.  i,  S  96,  IS4 ;  li,  5  SO,  65 ;  ScbtB,  Apot-  Cellitea  {Fralm  CMta\  a  aociety  which  aroae  ■( 
tJ.  OUrc*,  f  IH  i  Schaff,  CL  SutBry,  X.  c. ;  lJrtn.no,  I  Antwerp  about  1300,  and  >o  called  from  tdh,  becanst 
1*1  TMra  ■■.  Anidn,  art.  »x«U ;  Bnmet,  O.  (*« -1  .'-"'•?  P™"!!"!  gtavea  for  the  dead.  Tliay  were  alia 
b-^tit-KXilii  Uteklntath,  EMail  PkiloKipkt,  i  a;  '  »I»d  the  AlexUn  Brethren  and  Siatan,  becwiee  Alex- 
■tt,kr.  Amciml  Ckriitiamtj.  i,  198,  888  (N.  York  ad.);  ! ''"""""''P*'™"-  Aathadorgyofthat  period  took 
SMdar.  namting,  etc.,  i,  2W  iq. ;  Ibid.  Charch  Nit-  l"™*  «•"  "  '"«  "'"  »»"•  <!?'"&  «ni3  do»art»l  snch  a* 
(>*|.ii.M7i  It,  W  Crnrrey-a) ;  Atterbuty.  *n»oi»  ie- ; '"« 'n*'**'*^"'''' l'«"ll«''''^'liwrdeT»,K)meconipas- 
>.  Ik  Sow  0/  <i«  CfcjOT  (Doc.  8,  IT09) ;  Tbiarach,  ,  "ionate  peiwina  in  Antwerp  formed  tbamaelyaa  into  ■ 
rarest  rKatkokumufmdPrBHttamlitmM;  rwt  88;  '"«'*"/  *'"  ""  performance  of  theaa  reilgioni  dnttei. 
H«MhiakB,/iH(M.^yai6(>f.9t9,aDdreliBreneeathere;  j  They  vWted  the  aick,  auiated  the  djinB,  and  bnried 
Hfluc  ant-EmtyUupadk,  H.  771  i  Wetwr  u.  Welte,  ""  ''"^  "'^  •  •«'«"''  '""'"l  dirge,  and  were  on  that 
Aird^Lentoa,  11,  GH  (Ibr  Romanirt  view);  Palmer,  ,  "count  called  Lollaida  (from  Mfea,  or  liJUn,  to  »in^. 
<>•  Aa  Clnul.  pi.  rl,  cb.  ii ;  Cramp,  Tat-iooi  of  Po-  \  S«  LoLLABDg,  Societiea  of  Lollardi  wf  re  formed  in 
■       »,§*j  EUlott,iWa»««»o/«oiM»i™,hk.  .""»[»"*  of  Germany,  and  ware  aupportad  partly  by 


t'CatreryfBUtreatmentoftboanbJect);  Bornet,  ffi^  ,  t""""*'  l»l«f   ""J   Partly  by  charitable    donation*. 
■>'I>^C>/'<>rma«ioii,U,li3aq...  Uacaolay,  ifiitorj  o/ : '"  "7S,  Charles,  duke  of  Bargnody,  obtalnet 
Efbrni,  nL  U  th.  U:  VJlMmdig»  Sammlwg  d.  mi-    ffom  Pope  Sixlua  IV  ordering  thattbaCeUite. 


■  (Fnnc  18!3>:  Thelnar,  Dk  EbtfOknimg  d.    lardi  ihonldbs  ranked  amongtha  raligioun 
Kolna  Ehrlongktit  a.  On  Folgnt  (Altenb.  1K»)  i    ^lali^■e^ed  from  tba  jurisdiction  of  the  hishopt.     Of  the 
a,  Gfck.  d.  CSBtaU  (Aug..  1880) ;  SnUar,  Die  \  Alojtlan  brethren,  a  few  hoaaea  are  left  In  the  archdi- 

__j|»Crtedr>»ra.f9md:(3ftta<fBH(«(CDnat  ,  <«•"  of  Cologne  (ColoK^^  Aii-la-Cbapelle,  Dtiren^ 
OH) :  Laa.  SaeiTd.  Cdiba^  (PhiTa.  1867,  Sto)  j  Stan-  \  ■"'1  "^  *■  •'•»•".  """  >">»""  'n  Germany  (Cologne, 
k.,*lMt.awol,p.!W!  Hi1maD,ZA.Ct>t«t0%,lii,  DnweWorf),  Belgium,  and  France.— Wat»r  u.Wella, 
1«  iq.    Sac  llaKHiAOB ;  Uohacuuk  ;  Vieoimti.     Ktrektn-Ltiiam,  i,  16S ;  Fairar,  fierf.  Diet.  ■.  v,  (  Hoa- 

C«U  (LaL  nflnV  helm,  C^itrtA  Hitiorj/,  li,  39S.     Soe  AlezIaXs  ;  Lo[<- 

L  la  -'*—'—'  archBology  ttUa  la  applinl  to  a  cave  .  '^>*''*- 
ar  cellar  to  pnMmi  winr,  oil,  or  other  proriaion.     It       Celosyrla.     So*  Colk-Stria. 
a»  waa  apidled  to  the  eadoaed.p«:e  of  a  tample,  to        c.IbIh.,  OT.*r,,  «  exegetjcal  writer  of  Sweden, 
ka^Mw,  W  tbo  alaapinK  ap.rtm.nl.  of  riavo,  I  waa  bom  In  1870.     He  wa.  a  mini.Ur  of  the  Lutheran 

V^  t  ^L!f  J'  .?'  T  ,  "  *"  '~"**'"^  Church,  and  profe.aor  of  theology  aud  of  the  OriantJ 
»*.  fiMTtb  "ntary  to  the  .leaping  apjrtm.nt.  of  1 1.^^^^,  ,t  ^ho  Univor,itv  of  Upaal.  He  wa.  twice 
Mbudnana  in  cloUten  (q  v.).  Theee  at  firat  |  offen^tbedignityofarcbbi«hopofUpeal,bnt  declined. 
k-U  On*  or  fooT  oecopaiitP,  bat  Utor  they  naoally  re-  ,  „,  biiahad  many  di».rtatloni  on  point,  of  tbeologi-, 
'™t^"^J'^-  P™  ""T  T";  r' !  hLt^rv,  md  antiquitie..  His  moat  di-tinKuiabedlk: 
«.  dwr  and  window,  and  are  generally  plainly  for-  ^^„  ,,„  „„  ,h,  „,(„„,  ^^^^  „f  the  Bible.  By  di- 
"TTl    ,  ,  „  ,_  .    .      „.         rectlon  of  Charles  XI,  he  triTe'lled  over  the  principal 

!J^*°^  T  t""^  ■  °"'"^"  dwolbug,  j  ,1.^  „,  K„  ta  d.i™ine  the  different  plants  m^- 
•tbar  br  a  ringla  monk  or  for  a  commnnity,  aubor-  jionrf  In  the  Bible,  and  the  mult  of  hi.  labor.,  wven- 
l^i^'^JI^L^^i^  t°™^  ""  T  '  1 1"'"  db^ertation^  publl.hed  at  interval,  from  1702  to 
^abod.  of  b.rmlta,««l  er«ted  b.  Hlltaiy  pl.«s.  !  1741,  ,^  afterwards  collected  into  one  work  called 
^^^^^^  "t^"  *!»"'"' >'«^«'R"™""iJ7im*otea™,  .M.  d.  pi,>nli.  .Sa..cto,  adpl^r^  dlf 
A)  cdli  of  tke  eoMUTO  (q,  r.).  .frtottoM.  i™«j  (Vpni,  17JS  and  1747).  ie  still  in  le. 

CmOar  C^^fitt,  ttmr',  sOTnathiDg  faid  IV  in  store).  Lule  a.  one  of  tbe  most  important  books  on  the  luth 
Tkta  ««ri  fa  in  1  CbTDD.  zivii,  38  tendered  "  cellar,"  '  ject.     He  died  !n  1754.     See  lUemoiri  of  the  Soeietg 
*''ie  same  chapter,  "trea.uro,"    q^SfinirM  d/'£;'pm/,  vol.  ii;  Biojr.  (Taiwrt  ..  v. 
wblch  w.  may  conclude  (hat       coUn*.  a  philo*.pher  of  the  second  century,  sup. 

.,         '"".^  .    ".'^         ■  JT  I  P0«-1  to  have  bean  of  the  Epicurean  sect,  but  IncUned 

?J*T^T/^!ff .K  ^  ^"1^        I  t™d«  Pbwonlsm.     He  lived  towaMs  the  clo«>  of  th. 
Unga  ^  61)  and  of  the  king  (.iv,26).        J  reign  of  Adri.n,anddnringpartofthatofM.  Aur.  Anto- 

CaUailaa,  or  CalUrsr,  an  oflcar  in  monasteries  .ninua;  and(lf  Origan  be  correct)  wrote  an  attack  npon 
kiib^  bdongodtbacareofprocoilngprDrisionBfor  jtbe  flUth  and  moral,  of  Christiana,  which  he  called 
btartnbllahiDeat.  Sea  Arbet.  He  waa  one  of  the  '  A<iyoc  d^-iBijc,  or  "A  Tme  Dieconrse,"  the  date  of 
1« ataritMwv,  or  great  oScsra:  nnder  his  ordering  which  Lardner  supposes  to  have  bean  about  A.D.  176. 
'■tfca/a^-Mw.ofbake.honse,  and  tbe  trofTwaw,  or  I  Our  onlv  knowledge  of  it  Is  derived  from  Origen's  re. 
'-T-howfc  Id  tiM  richer  bouaea  there  were  lands  plj  to  it  (contro  Ctlmm,  lib.  viii),  which,  bowever, 
•t  apit  fcr  tba  Maintenance  of  the  offlce,  called,  in  gives  extracts  .ufflcle ntly  copiooi  to  allow  a  pretty 
'■man  wrttiaf*,  ad  dbum  momaeiormm.  HI.  whole  ,ure  judgment  of  It.  contenU  and  purpose. 
*»  had  n^w«  to  that  orteln.  He  was  to  see  the  Of  the  llfi>  ofCel.u*  little  or  nothlngl.  known.  Lu. 
■»>  r«  la,  and  laid  up  In  the  granarifa :  bis  wage,  clan  dedicated  hla  life  of  tbe  magician  Alexander  to 
■liMad  of  a  poition  of  the  property,  nanally  flxed  at ;  Celsn.  Uie  Epicurean,  snd  Oriffen  Identifies  Ibl.  peraon 
•  iWMmUh  pwt  of  tba  whole,  and  a  ftirred  gown.  '  with  the  antbor  of  the  book  against  wbicb  he  wrote. 
>h*Aaa«waqBivalenttDlhatof  inraar.— Fosbrooke,  j  The  spirit  of  tbe  book  I*  far  more  Platonic  than  Efacn. 
^^aa**.  1, 177  ;  Farrar,  Eeci.  Did.  t.  t.  rean.     Tbe  at.[nmenta  fin-  and  against  tbo  Identity  of 

Ctllwiua,  Hartliltia  (samamed  Borbhads),  the  two  persons  thus  named  are  stated  In  Neander, 
•*<tana(ilattgndtlnUW;  atadiad  at  Tubingen.  ,Clmrfk  BtMmj  (Torrey's  tnnal.  I,  160  sq.) ;  and  In 
W  rftvnrd*  at  Wltleaberg  (nwlar  HelanctlMuO,  ;  Baur,  GetckiM'  in  dm  crKan  JatuXmlertt,  p.  S71. 


CELSUS  178  CELSUS 

"Bothconclnde  th*ttbepenoiu  weredifTcrcnt,  Ths  Ul  (Hguub,  (ba  nacnd  agoaj  (ii,U\l»  tntA 
evidence  of  their  oihubu  li  cbUOy  Orion's  conjecture  ject  of  nmirkB  chinieCeriEed  no  leu  Ly  coai 
that  tbe;  were  t]ie  ume  person  (ami.  CeiMiun,  iv,  S6).  '  tute  and  anfiitDeu,  than  to  the  Chrigtbn  miud  by  ir. 
The  evidence  against  it  u  :  (1.)  That  Lucian's  friend  reverence,  tnitead  of  hi>  heart  t>einK  tooched  by  tlia 
attacked  magical  riCeaj  the  Celans  otOrigtniWRia  to  msjet^  of  our  Saviour's  aarraw,  Celana  only  finda  an 
have  believed  them.  (2.)  That  Lncian'a  friend  wii  '  argament  againit  the  divine  chiracter  of  the  adorable 
probably  an  Epicureao ;  tin  other  Celaua  a  Platonlit  lufferer  (ii,  IG).  The  wonden  occinnpanying  Chrirt'i 
or  Eclectic.  (3.)  That  the  former  ia  praiaed  for  tds  death  are  treated  aa  Icgendi  (Ui,  SB) ;  the  refurmtion 
mildneaa ;  the  Utter  ahowa  want  of  moderatloa.  Pre>-  regarded  as  an  inveDtion  or  an  optical  deluajoa  (iii  50, 
eenai  (TVoi  Prem.  Si«fc<,  vol.  ii,  105)  rcKurds  them    66, 67,  78). 

■a  the  same  peraan"  (Famr,  Frrt  ^^yU,  p.  61).  It  "  After  Celani  has  thoa  made  the  Jew  Ibe  meuia  of  a 
ii  quite  in  harmony  with  the  whole  apirit  of  the  book,  ruthleas  attack  on  Chriatian%,  he  himself  diracts  a 
■9  well  as  of  the  Pagan  philoeophy  of  the  time,  tn  >up-  I  ainiilaT  one  against  the  Jewish  religion  itaelf  (iU,  J  1 
pose  that  Celaus  is,  aa  Origen  supposed,  the  Epicurean  <  and  elsewhere).  He  goea  to  the  origin  of  their  hia- 
Mend  of  Lueian ;  and  that,  in  this  treatise,  ha  argnea  :  lor;- ;  descrjlies  the  Jews  as  having  IbH  Egypt  in  a  se- 
on  any  principles  that  nuy  aerve  his  purpose.  But,  j  dition  (iii,  §  6) ;  as  bring  true  types  of  the  Chriatians 
whoever  Celsu  may  have  been,  hie  wiitlnEl  an  very  in  IbeiT  ancient  fiictiODsneiB  (iii,  |  b) ;  coniidera  Ho>«a 
Important  to  ChrisUan  apologetics.  They  "  are  val-  !  to  be  only  on  a  level  with  the  early  Greek  legialators 
nable  on  account  of  their  admissions  of  the  gtand  facts  ^  (i,  17, 18;  i,  2S);  reganls  Jewish  rjlfa  like  rirciuncifion 
and  doctrines  of  the  Goapel  as  preached  by  the  apos-  :  to  be  borrowed  from  Eg}'pt ;  cbargce  anthrupomor- 
tlea  and  contained  in  their  wriUngs,  by  an  enemy  j  phism  on  Jewish  theology  (iv,  Tl ;  vl,  62),  and  declines 
who  lived  little  more  than  one  hundred  and  thirti-  allowing  the  allegorical  interpretation  in  explanation 
years  after  the  ascension  of  oar  Lord.  He  liaa  nearly  I  of  it  (iv,  48)  j  examines  Jtwith  propbecy,  parallels  it 
cigh^  quotationa  horn  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- !  with  heathen  oracles  (vii,  S;  Till,46),and  clainia  that 
nwnt,  which  he  not  only  appeals  to  aa  existing,  hnt  as  j  the  goodness,  not  the  truth  of  a  prophecy,  ought  to  I  e 
DnlverBa[1;y  received  by  the  ChrisUans  of  that  age  as  I  considered  (vli,  14) ;  points  to  tbe  ancimt  idolatry  of 
credible  and  divine.  He  la  most  minute  In  his  rrfer-  !  the  Jews  as  proof  that  thry  were  not  better  than  Dthcr 
rncea  to  the  circumstances  of  the  life  of  Christ  and  hia'nstions  (iv,23,S3);  and  to  the  destruction  of  Jemf*- 
DpoatUs,  which  sbo»s  that  be  waa  well  acquainted  with  '  lem  as  proof  tiiat  they  were  not  special  favorites  of 
them,  and  that  no  one  denied  them.  He  everywhen  '.  heaven.  At  last  be  arrives  at  their  idea  of  ovation 
ridicnles  the  idea  of  onr  Lord's  divinity,  contrasting  (iv,  74  ;  vi,  40,  etc.),  and  here  reveala  the  real  ground 
with  it  that  of  his  poverty,  snOttrings,  and  death ;  |  of  his  antipathy.  While  he  ol^ecU  to  details  In  the 
which  proves  not  only  that  the  Christians  of  that  early  |  narrative,  such  as  the  mention  of  daya  before  the  ts- 
age  avowed  their  belief  In  the  doctrine,  but  that  Celsus  irtence  of  the  snn  (vi,  60),  hia  n*l  hatred  ia  against  Ibe 
himself,  though  sn  anbeliever,  (bund  it  in  the  docu-  I  idea  of  tbe  unity  of  God,  and  the  freedom  of  Deity  in 
mentsto  which  he  refers,  as  the  source  of  his  acquaint-  !  the  act  of  creaUon.  It  ia  the  llroirgle  of  pantbciim 
ance  with  the  Christian  system"  (Buck,  s.  v.).     More-  '  against  theitm. 

over,  he  Is  tbe  "original  representative  of  a  kind  of  in-  |  "^'henCelanshasthasmadeaseoftbeJow  larcfnUi 
tellect  which  has  preaented  itself  over  and  over  again  '  Christianity  fVom  the  Jewish  stand-point,  and  after- 
in  the  various  attacka  made  on  Chriatianity  i  wit  and  .  wards  refuted  tbe  Jew  from  hia  own,  he  proceeds  to 
Bcntenesa,  without  earnest  purpose  or  depth  of  re- 1  make  his  awn  attack  on  Christianity ;  in  doing  which, 
asarch ;  a  worldly  understanding,  that  glances  merely  he  flrst  eiumines  the  lives  of  Christians  (iii),  end  af- 
on  the  surface,  and  delights  In  hunting  up  difficulties  terwords  the  Christian  doctrine  (v,  vi,  vli),  Uius  Fkil- 
and  contradictions.  Hia  objections  agilnst  Christian-  fully  prejudicing  the  mind  of  hia  readers  against  tbe 
ity  serve  one  important  end:  they  present  in  tho  persons  before  attacking  the  doctrine*.  Healludeato 
clearest  manner  the  opposition  between  the  Cbristbn  the  qaarrelsomenesB  shoun  In  the  various  oecta  of 
standing-ground  and  that  of  the  ancient  world  ;  and,  '  Christians  (iii,  10),  and  repeata  the  calumnione  aoipi- 
in  general,  the  illation  which  revealed  religion  will '  cion  of  disloyalty  (iii,  G,  14).  want  of  patriotiFm  (iii, 
aver  be  found  to  hold  to  the  ground  assumed  by  natu-  §  65 ;  viii,  7S),  anil  palltlal  uselestnese  (viil,  6U),  and 
ral  reason.  Thus  many  of  his  objections  and  strict-  hence  defends  the  public  perrecntion  of  them  (viil.  C9). 
ures  became  testimonies  for  the  truth"  (Keander,  i.e.).  '  Tilled  with  the  caoteric  pride  of  ancient  philofopfay,  he 
Lardner  (rrtf/nonuw,  chap,  xvill ;  Wurlt,  vii,  SIO  reproaches  the  Christians  with  their  csnfulnws  to 
sq.)  gives  full  summaries  of  tho  book,  classed  under  protelytite  tbe  poor  (ill,  44,  EO)  and  to  convert  the  *i- 
diSerentheadSjespeciallj  withiefennce  totheauthen-  clous  (iii.  69, 6!,  74),  thus  unconaciouily  giving  a  tut- 
ticatlDnorthaliooksoftbaN.T.,fDr  which  these  tllu- I  Ue  testimony  tonne  of  the  most  divine  ftstnrFa  incur 
sions  and  citations  are  of  special  value,  as  coming  IVom  re1i|;iDn,  and  testifying  to  the  preaching  of  the  doo- 
B  heathen  opponent.     A  f^ill  analysis  is  also  given  by    trine  of  a  Saviour  for  sinners. 

Neander,  Ch.  Huloiy,  1, 160  sq.  (Torrey's  transl.),  and  "  Having  thns  defamed  tbe  Christians,  he  panes  to 
by  Tiscblmer,  FaO  dn  nridnlkmu,  i,  SSO  sq.  Pres-  the  examination  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  in  lu  form, 
ttnth,\-a\t\i  Hial.de  te^iit  da  TnAtPnm.Riicbii^^A  its  method,  and  ita  Fnbstance.  His  nlhetic  sense, 
series,  II,  140  sq.),  attempts  ingeniously  a  reprodnctlon  ruined  with  the  idolatry  of  form,  and  unable  to  appre- 
of  Celsns'a  treatise,  as  gathered  from  Origen,  which  ciate  the  thought,  regards  the  Gospels  as  defective  and 
Farrar  follows  (Cntieal  Hitlors  of  Frtt  Tiovffil,  lect.  rode  thnmgh  simplicity  (Iii.  66;  viii.  87).  The  melb- 
li)  in  the  outline  which  we  here  present.  The  refer-  od  of  Christian  teaching  alao  seems  to  him  to  be  de- 
ences  are  to  tbe  Benedictine  edition  (Paris,  17B.S).  fective,  as  laclcmg  phIla«o[diy  and  dialectic,  ai>d  aa  d«- 
Celsusintoducesajewlsh  rabbi  as  opposing  Chrisiian-  nnnnclng  the  nse  of  res  son  (vii, 9;  i,!;  1,9;  il],S9; 
Ity  from  the  Hebrew  monolheiatic  point  of  view.  "Th^  v<.  111).  Lastly,  he  tnms  to  the  substance  of  the  dog. 
rabbi  first  critlrises  the  dncfimimli  of  Christianity,  and  mas  themselves.  He  dlstlnguishea  two  elemenlB  In 
then  the  facts  narrated.  He  points  out  difficulties  in  !  them,  tbe  one  nf  which, as  bearing  leremblance  to  phl- 
tlie  Goapel  narratives  of  the  genealogy  of  Christ :  i  losophy  or  to  heathen  religion,  be  regarda  aa  incoDtest- 
uttera  the  moat  blasphemona  calumnies  concerning  ably  true,  but  deniea  ita  originality,  and  endeavMa  to 
the  incarnation;  turns  the  lurrative  of  tbe  infancy  '  derive  it  Ih>m  Penia  orftom  Platonism  (vl,16;  TiiSS, 
Into  ridicule ;  imputes  our  Saviour' a  miracles  to  mag-'  68,  62;  v.  63;  vl.  1),  resolving,  for  example,  the  vor. 
Ic;  attacks  hia  divmity;  and  concentrates  the  Utter-|  ship  of  a  human  being  Into  the  ordinary  phenomeoon 
eat  raillery  on  the  affecting  narrative  of  oar  blessed:  of  apotheoaia  (iii,  22;  vii,  £8-80).  Tbe  other  class  of 
Lord'a  most  holy  passion.  Each  fact  of  deepening'  doctrinea  which  be  attacks  as  Iklae  eon^pta  of  those 
•orrawin  that  dlvina  tragedy,  the  betrayal,  the  men- '  which  relate  to  creation  (iv,  S7;  Tl,49),tfas  incanw 


cELsrs  r 

lioa0T,U;  v,l;  Tll,S6),tIuir>U(lr,S!,70),ndfnir- 
Uoa  (V,  14 ;  vU,  !6,  S6 ;  vi,  78),  hud'i  pUe«  In  cni- 
tlBB  ^v,  T4,  TB,  S8),  tnonl  OMiTCnbHu  (lii,  OS),  mod  the 
laonection  at  the  daul  (v,  14, 15).  Hii  point  of  view 
br  oitidainK  tb«m  ia  derived  from  the  fuadnmeiital 
juliim  of  the  Platonic  srgtem ;  the  eternal  aevtnar^ 
•t  nutter  mod  mind,  of  God  and  the  world;  and  th< 
rifcreuM  of  good  to  the  region  of  mind,  evil  to  that  ot 
nutter.  Thns,  not  content  with  hia  (bnntr  attack  oi 
the  idea  of  cnitlan  in  discnaslon  with  the  Jew,  ho  re 
tanu  to  the  disctugion  fhim  the  phihnophical  side 
Hii  Platonimn  will  not  allow  him  toadmtt  that  thi 
abnlnta  God,  the  flnt  Caoae,  can  have  any  contar 
with  matter.  It  leads  blm  alto  to  kItb  Importance  to 
the  Idea  of  Aii/iovrc,  or  divine  medUlors,  by  which  the 
chann  t*  tilled  between  the  liteal  god  and  the  world 
(rj|,«8;  TlU.  [3-14]  35, S6),  not  being  able  otherwise 
la  intgine  the  action  of  the  pare  ilia  of  God  on  a 
•rorid  of  matter.  Hence  he  blames  Christiana  for  at- 
tiibnting  an  eril  nature  to  demons,  and  flnds  a  reason- 
aU*  interpretation  of  the  bMthen  worship  (rill,  S). 
~  le  dualist  theorr  extiagnbhea  the  Idea  of  the 


9  CELTIC  RELIGION 

Literatim.  —  Besides  tha  works  alreadj  dted,  Me 
Cave,  Hiilay  of  LiUrahm.  i,  96;  Pond,  in  Littrary 
tmd  TtHotogiaU  Reriac,  iv,  £19,  684;  Cudworth,  InUl. 
leetuii  SgMaH,  U,  S40  sq.  (American  edition):  Sbedd, 
ffiMlonf  of  Doctriaa,  bk.  ii,  cb.  il;  Bindemann,  M 
lUpn'i  Ztiluhift,  etc.  IB4!,  Heft  2 ;    SchaS;  Chirdt 

\  llUlory,  I,  §  SU;  Jachmann,  De  Celto,  etc.  (Ragjom. 
1836,  Ito):  litie,Ckunktlitlors,%bl:  Feager,  tb  CUu 
A>ii'fiirio(18!8,ero;  msintsini  that  Celsas  was  not  ■ 

I  Flatonist);  Gieielsr,CA.  Bin.  i,  J  S9  (note);  Moshdm, 


t  ii.  S  19  (arxnes  tb 


t  Celaui 


Alexandrian  Plsbinist)  :  BnpHit  Quart.  1668,  Jan.  and 
j  Apr.  See  also  Apolodbtics  i  Afolooibb;  Obioex. 
I      Celtlo  C&nrcli  or  CtulBtiMiB.    SbbCiildbeb; 


if  God;  I 


d  also  the  d< 


trine  of  the  fijl,  Inasmacb  as  psychological  deteriora- 
tiDsi  I*  Impossible  if  the  aool  be  pore,  and  If  evil  be  a 
Mceatary  attribute  of  matter  (It,  99).  With  the  fall 
ladnnptioa  also  disappears,  because  the  perfect  cannot 
admit  of  change;  Christ's  coning  could  only  be  to 
comet  what  God  alimdy  knew,  or  rectify  what  ought 
te  have  been  corrected  before  (iv,  8,  7,  IS).  Farther, 
CdsDs  srgnea,  if  DiTinlty  did  descend,  that  It  would 
bM  aasBme  so  lowly  a  Ibrm  as  Jesas.  The  same  rlg- 
oreas  hiicic  charges  on  Christianity  the  nndue  elara- 
Uiiii  >f  man,  as  well  as  the  abasement  of  Qod.  Celsas  ' 
OB  neither  admit  man  mora  than  the  brutes  to  be  the  I 
iBol  cause  of  the  universe,  nor  allow  the  posdbillty  ' 
of  man's  nearness  to  Ood  (i*.  74).  His  paulhelsm,  | 
dasttoyiag  the  barrier  which  Mp*rataa  tin  material : 
bam  the  moral,  obllteratsa  the  perception  of  the  fict 
that  1  aintcle  free  responsible  being  may  he  irf  more 
dicnltythiu  the  nnlvene."  | 

The  order  in  which  the  ob}ectioni  of  Celaas  are  ar-  ; 
ranged  in  Origen'a  reply  to  him  ia  different  from  that 
above  given  in  some  respects,  and  it  Is  therefore  here 
sabjound:  "The  first  half  of  book  I  is  prefatory  (eh. 
l-il):  the  second  half,  together  with  book  II,  contains 
the  attack  hj  the  Jew  on  Christianity  given  in  lect.  ii. 
The  aarly  part  of  book  ill  (1-9)  conUlns  Origan's  ref- 
HstisnaftheJew.  The  snbsequentpartx  andremaln- 
iof  books  give  Origen's  refutaUon  of  Celsus's  own  at- 
tack u  Christianity.  First,  Celsns  attacks  the  char- 
aM(r  of  Christians  in  the  remainder  of  Iwok  lii.  In 
bonk  i*  he  retarns  to  his  attack  on  Judaism,  and  on 
the  Scriptonia  of  Ihe  Old  Testament,  eapn^Uy  on 
■any  of  the  narratives,  eitiier  regarding  them  as  false 
er  es  bonuwed,  and  objecting  to  their  anthropomorphic 
ekuaiter;  also  objecting  to  the  acconnt  of  man's  place 
il  crestion,  and  of  divine  Interftrence.  In  book  v  he 
Mntinuea  bis  attack  oo  the  doctrines  of  both  religions, 
dticBy  so  far  as  he  considers  them  to  be  nntrue;  snd 
b  boi^  vi  so  far  a*  be  cnneiders  them  to  be  borrowed, 
diaggiag  to  tight  the  difference  which  existed  between 
Jndaism  and  Christiaally.  In  book  vli  Ihe  tobject  of  i 
propbecy  and  some  other  doctrines,  as  well  as  the  eth- 
ics of  Christianity,  are  examined;  and  In  book  vlil, 
whan  the  attack  on  Christianity  is  mainly  over,  a  de- 
hnn  of  paganism  is  oSbred  by  Ceint*.  Such  ia  the 
type  of  a  philosophical  objector  against  Christianity  a 
littlelBterthanthemiddbioftheseeondcentory.  Wei 
Bstt  here  for  the  first  time  a  remarkable  eObrt  of  pa- 
gan tboeght,  eadeavoriiig  to  extingnlah  the  new  ralig-  | 
bo :  the  deHnlta  statamenU  of  a  mind  that  investigated  I 
ks  daims  and  rejected  iL  Host  of  the  ab>ectionB  of  | 
Cabna  an  aopbiaUcal,  a  faw  are  admitted  difficulties,  | 
btt  the  phihtsnphieal  clasa  of  them  will  be 


CeltiD  Rellgloii.  Unless  preceded  by  the  Ibh 
rians,  the  Celts  formed  the  lint  of  those  vant  waves  of 
Indo-European  immigration  that,  first  from  the  Hima- 
layas and  then  fiom  the  Caspian  Sea.  spread  tiiem< 
selves  over  Europe.  This  people,  of  nnknown  antiq- 
nity,  not  only  at  one  time  held  all  of  Western  and 
Central,  bat  also  an  important  port  of  Soothem  and 
Eaatem  Eorope,  atid  their  armies  threatened  Rome 
and  Alia  Minor.  Pressed  back  liy  the  German  tribes, 
and  then  conquered  by  the  Romans  and  Saxons,  tfao 
Celts  have  now  ceased  to  be  active  agents  In  history 
ai  distinct  national  bodies,  and  have,  indeed,  a  dear 
descent,  si  an  unmixed  race,  only  in  Brittany,  in 
France,  Ireland,  Wales,  and  put  of  Scotland  and  the 
■mailer  British  Ides. 

The  Celts  occupied  a  low  atage  of  culture.  They 
despised  agriculture,  were  skilful  trsders  and  miners, 
and  paosbnately  fond  of  war,  piracy,  ornaments,  and 
wine.  They  were  cruel  to  their  wives  and  children 
on  the  death  of  chieb,  practised  polygamy,  bad  fbw 
road*,  but  built  many  fortified  cities  and  tillages. 
They  had  no  compact  Dstlonsl  union,  but  were  divided 
Into  dam  and  districta.  baving  hut  a  sliKbt  federativa 
union.  Their  society  gradually  became  more  aud  more 
aristocntic,  10  that  feudalism  seems,  from  Ita  many 
points  of  resemblance,  to  be  but  the  development  of 
the  Celtic  social  order. 

Tha  Celts  bad,  however,  a  powerful  bond  of  union  In 
their  religion  and  priesthood.  In  msny  features  the 
prissta  resembled  those  of  the  andentEg}-ptians.  The 
numerous  and  powerful  body  of  priesta  called  Drvidi 
irat  only  fulfilled  all  the  offices  of  religion,  but  they 
were  also  the  lodges,  the  expounders  of  civil  law,  the 
physicians,  the  astrologers,  the  instmctora  of  the  youth, 
and  bad.  In  abort.  In  their  hands  all  the  spiritual  lifto 
of  the  entire  people.  Tbey  wen  not  bdd  to  military 
service,  paid  do  taxes,  and  bore  none  of  the  burdena 
of  the  state.  With  such  iHiviUgea  attached  to  their 
order,  the  children  of  rich  and  noble  bmllies  often 
were  placed  In  the  priesthood,  or  sought  It  of  their  own 
willa.  These  ikovkea  were  placed  under  n  training 
'bich  often  lasted  twenty  years,  bdng  compelled  to 
'  It  of  versei  con- 


the  cenllary  fmn  bis  gaaenl  principle  before  ex- 


talnlng  the  secrets  of  the  rellgloc 
permitted  to  commit  these  verses  to  writing,  most  of 
Ihe  pirticuiars  of  the  Celtic  religion  have  been  lost. 
The  Drulda  were  a  aecrct  or  close  corporation,  wore 
a  peculiar  costume,  had  various  grades  of  priesthood, 
and  were  preaided  over  by  a  bigh-priest  elected  by  tha 
whole  body.  To  the  onlinan/  priulM  wore  intrusted 
the  preservation  of  the  sacred  Irgends,  and  the  teach- 
ing of  them  to  the  young  priests.  Tbey  usually  hsd 
their  places  of  residence  and  instruction  in  retired 
places,  as  In  deep  forests,  dark  valleys,  or  In  islands. 
The  Rtfei(seers)dwelt  in  cities  and  vlllaKCS,  and  there 
conducted  the  prayers,  sacriAcee,  and  other  religious 
rites,  and  tbretold  tbe  future  and  the  counsel  irf  tha 
(rods  ftmn  the  flight  of  birds  and  other  phenomena  of 
Nature.     The  it^di  preserved,  developed,  and  song  to 


CELTIC  RELIGION  I( 

(ppcaredon  the  battle-field,  flring  the  aoldien  to  dasdi 
of  heroic  vklor.  By  tfaa  toaching  tonei  ot  tbeir  lym 
uid  Kiiigs  duy  o(tan  atajed  the  flow  of  blood  between 
hoeine  cUdi.  In  the  early  agea  ttae  lurds  atood  In  the 
btgheat  eateem.  At  CnaarV  time  tbey  bad  ronk  to  be 
baggar-poeta,  aeeking  thair  living  by  eingliig  Battel^ 
lug  aongi  in  the  palaces  ot  ricb  men  and  prtncei. 

Tbe  Ttkpiai  of  lit  Draidi  teems  to  bare  been  origin- 
ally a  monotfaflUi^i  vhich  developed  Later  Into  tbe  del- 
Hcatlon  of  tbe  powera  of  Natnre,  and  the  final  incor- 
pantlon  of  them  aa  deitiea.  Tanant  (the  Tbondenr) 
waa  the  god  of  heavaD,  the  ruler  of  the  nniverae,  the 
bigbest  ]ud^,  acatteriaft  the  thanderinlta  of  h<a  ven- 
geance among  moitala.  Belttt  waa  the  benevolent  aon 
of  God,  who  givea  life  to  tbe  vegetable  world  and  heal- 
ing power  to  planla.  Ham,  Sou  or  Su,  orljdnally  the 
founder  of  the  religion  of  the  Dmlds.  vas  the  god  of 
war  and  of  agricultural  labor.  TeutateM  waa  the  god 
of  mannfactnres,  the  itta,  and  trade,  therefore  waa 
identified  bjthaRomani  aaMercory.  f'airitt,  "moth- 
erly virginn,"  were  frmale  deitiea  wbo  fpun  oat  tlio 
thread  of  life  and  of  fiate,  and  who  were  goardian  an- 
gela  of  both  landa,  cities,  and  individual  pcreona,  and 
in  the  minda  of  tbe  people  were  clothed  with  all  attrae- 
tiona  and  virtoea.  Many  places  had  also  their  local 
female  deitiea. 

The  HUfractton  tn  Ai  tciooU  of  tbe  prleata  conaiated 
largely  in  tracing  out  the  attribtttea  of  their  deities. 
Tbia  waa  done  with  a  anrprlalng  compleleneaii.  In- 
Btniction  waa  also  given  conceminK  the  atara  and  their 
courses,  the  liie  otthe  universe,  the  nature  of  matter 
and  of  exlataDce,  and  eapcdally  of  the  human  aoul. 
The  Dmidi  tBnt:ht  the  innorfnJtff  of  tbe  aoul ;  thnt 
after  death  It  enten  Into  another  body,  and  that  it 
leada  in  a  more  beautiful  world  than  tbia  ■  happy  li: 
like  the  earthly  Vitt  in  Its  better  phases,  with  tbe  aai 
cocnpationa  and  enjoyments,  so  that  the  dead  and  li 
tng  stand  In  a  certain  communication.  At  burial,  let- 
tera  were  thus  oRen  thrown  into  the  flames,  that  the 
dead  might  read  tbem.  This  belief  gave  the  Celts  a 
high  regard  for  their  dead,  and  spurred  thrm  to  deeds 
of  great  bravery.  But  It  alao  bronght  with  It  deeds 
9f  harrible  cruelty.  In  tbell'  eariler  hlatory  it  was  not 
unoanal,  on  the  death  of  a  man  of  station,  for  aome  of 
his  nearest  friend*  to  throw  themaalraa  into  (he  flames 
of  hia  funeral  pile.  Thia  led  to  tragic  resatta.  Thus, 
after  the  feudal  system  of  the  late  Celtic  period  had 
developed  Itself,  it  waa  not  rare,  on  the  death  of  a 
chleftiia,  for  aome  of  bis  fovorite  slaves  or  followers  to 
be  killed  and  burned  on  his  pile  or  buried  In  his  grove. 
The  warrior's  favorite  steed,  his  arms,  dress,  and  oms- 
nients,  were  also  haried  with  bim,  that  be  might  lack 
nothing  in  tbe  other  life. 

Saerifieet  formed  the  chief  part  of  the  Celtic  relig- 
ious rites.  Human  sacriRces  were  frequent,  being  re- 
garded as  the  most  effectual  and  acceptable  way  of  ap- 
pewdng  Deity.  It  waa  believed  that  Due  human  lifo 
coold  only  be  redeemed  by  tbe  lifb  of  another  human 
being.  Thus,  a  person  suflering  ttma  a  dangerans 
eichneu,  a  person  In  danger  or  In  battle,  otRTed  to 
the  deities  instead  of  animals  a  human  being,  or  vowed 
to  do  so,  availing  themaelvea  of  the  Druids  to  fulfil 
tbe  vow  for  them.  In  behalf  of  tbe  atate  alao  the 
Druida  offered  human  aacridces.  Great  figures  in  the 
human  form,  nude  of  wickei^work,  were  filled  with  hu-  | 
man  beings  and  then  set  on  Are.  Tbe  sacHflce  of  j 
laidered  especially  grateful  to  the  del- ! 


When 


were  lackin, 


offered  up.  For  a  long  time  also  prevaiied  the  custom 
nf  aacriflclng  all  priwners  of  war,  accompanying  the 
dreadftal  offering  with  loud  aonn  and  wild  music,  and 
out  of  tbe  flawing  blood  and  quivering  meml-era  to  di- 
vine the  future. 

The  Celts  also  lud  DrtaJntet,  or  female  priests,  who, 
however,  had  leas  respect  and  privileges  than  the  Dru- 
ids. Companies  of  these  prlesteeae*  inhsbited  certain 
islands,  which  no  man  dared  to  aet  foot  upon.     When 


10  CENCHREA 

they  wiahed  to  have  interconrae  with  the  peoplaof  ttt 
main  land,  thay  had  to  acme  in  boats,  and  then  retura 
to  their  islands.  These  isUnda  were  avoided  by  sailors. 
aa  their  fancy  attributed  to  the  Druidesaes  tbe  powei 
of  aending  tempeala  to  destroy  them.  Onoe  each  year 
theae  priesteaacs  had  to  remove  the  roofs  bum  their 

the  snn.  If  one  of  them,  crowned  with  ivy  audtrther 
leaves,  let  a  atiek  fall  while  at  thia  work,  the  othen 
tell  upon  her  with  wild  criee  and  tore  her  to  pieces. 

All  ifjui  jHMfioM  were  decided  by  the  Ih^lda.  All 
tbe  Druids  gathered  every  year  at  Cbartres,  and  therw 
decided  all  matters  of  dispute,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate. They  appointed  the  pnnishment  for  morder 
and  other  crimes,  and  decided  all  disputes  of  inherit- 
ance and  boundariea  ofeatates.  If  any  private  persoo 
or  chieftain  refused  to  stand  by  their  decision,  he  was 
refused  pennlaaion  to  attend  tbe  religious  rites — the 
moat  asvere  panisbment  they  could  inflict.  He  waa 
an  outcaat,  a  godleaa  criminal,  avoided  by  all,  and  de- 
prived of  all  rights  at  the  band  ofhia  fellow-nun  oc  of 
tbe  law  itaelf. 

The  suificiM  of  the  Dmida  consisted  mostly  In  Id- 
cantations,  tbe  plants  used  being  deemed  only  the  ve- 
hicles of  communicating  the  healing  Influence.  The 
meat  prized  plant  waa  the  mistletoe.  This  waa  gatb* 
ered  from  the  oak  in  dark  forests  on  winter's  nights 
nf  the  holy  festival  days,  and  was  cut  with  golden  sick- 
les.    It  was  called  the  '■  oiU«li»ff." 

Tidumotu  of  various  kinds  were  prepared  «ritb  In- 
cantstions  by  the  priests  and  given  to  the  people. 
1  he  eggs  of  snakea,  gathered  fay  moonlight  and  car> 
riad  in  the  bosom,  were  considered  the  most  powerful 
protection  sgalnst  evil  rectDne.  Many  of  these  ritea 
have  left  their  tracea  on  the  Teligiona  cnatoma  of  mod- 
em limea,  and  are  tlw  foandatjon  of  many  aapersti- 
tions  in  Celtic  landa  of  to-day. 

Canuv,  a  small  ii-illBge  in  Brittany,  has  remaina  at- 
tributed to  Dmidical  worrhip.  They  consist  of  four 
thousand  massive  rocks,  placed  npri^t  In  eleven  rows. 
Theae  rocka  are  often  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high,  and 
neariy  aa  many  feet  apart.  Over  these  are  aimOar 
rocka,  laid  horiumtally.  In  other  places  in  Western 
France  are  aimilar  remans  of  Druldical  irorsbip,  alao 
in  Angleaea  (Wales),  on  the  Isle  of  Han,  and  other 
'  esinKngland.  Tha  tombs  of  the  cbiels  are  mounda, 
lublerranean  chambera.  In  tbe  flnt  an  usually 
id  bronie  and  earthen  nma,  bnnes,  and  ashea ;  in 
tbe  latter,  skeletons,  earthen  vessels,  knivta,  battl*. 
chains,  and  other  articles  of  furniture  or  oms- 
.  — Amed.  Thierry,  Hitlmrt  dn  Gaotou  (Paria, 
186T,  i  vols.)  :  Eckermann,  CtlHuAi  Mylhohgir  (HaUe, 
1847);  Diefenbach,  CrUIca  (Stuttg.  IB31)-41):  Mone, 
CtU.  Fonehimpin  (Freiburg,  16*7) ;  Contien,  Watd»- 
ungtH  der  Crltm  (Ulpt.  1861).     See  Dbcii>8. 

Cemeterlea  (icoi^tirqpui,  dormiloriri,  or  Jrr^mg. 
plaea),  a  place  of  burial  for  the  dead.  The  word 
cemetery,  in  this  use,  Is  of  exclusively  Christian  ori. 
gin ;  the  burial-places  of  tha  ChHrtians  were  so 
called  lo  denote  not  only  that  tbe  dead  rested  fW>m 
their  earthly  labors  and  iarrows,bnt  to  point  out  tha 
hope  of  a  futnrs  resuircction  (Bingham,  Orig.  Ertbt. 
bk.  xxiii,  ch.  I).     See  Bdbml  ;  Catacohbb  ;  Sefci^ 


Cen'chreS  (rather  Ccnekria,  Kiyxp""').  the  east- 
em  port  (jwrvJiov)  of  Corinth  (I.e.  Its  harbor  on  the 
Saronic  Gnlf)  and  tbe  emporium  of  Its  trade  with  tha 
Asistic  shores  of  the  Hedlternnean,  aa  Lachanm  (bow 
Lutiki)  on  the  CnrinthUn  Gulf  connected  it  with  Italy 
and  the  weat  (Philo.  Orf-  II.  M9 :  Theodoret,  w  JIkk. 
zri).  A  line  of  walla  extended  fnmi  tbe  chadel  of 
Corinth  lo  I.echmim,  and  thcts  the  Pass  nf  Cenchreie 
was  of  pecullsrmilitary  Importance  iu  reference  to  the 
appmach  along  the  iatbmua  from  Nnrlbem  Greete  to 
the  Mona.  See  ConnrTH.  The  apoatle  Paul  sailed 
from  Cencbrea  (Acts  zrili,  IB)  on  hia  retnm  to  Sjiia 


CENDEB^US 


181 


CENSER 


{Mm  hU  MOODd  TPittI'MiBT  joDTDcjr;  and  vhea  ba  i  Hutrr."  Tba  well-koowD  hfmD,  "Jam,  nj  all,  U 
WTota  hi*  epiMle  to  cbe  Konuna,  in  tha  conrw  ot  tha  '  bakven  U  gone,"  «u  writMn  br  Cenniek.— Suven*, 
tkinl  JoaniB}-,  an  o Vaoiud  churcb  ueins  to  have  bMU  ffutoty  a/  JJetlioJitm,  i,  1&6 ;  UatliD](,  CyeJcjudu  £tk 
ivmad  hcT«  (Boni.  xvi,  1^  protjablj  a  bianch  of  tbat  .  UoffrapAica,  t,  615. 

is  Corinth  (lea  Pauli,  in  tb«  MiterlL  Oaitb.  i.  SI  tq.).  I  C«iu«r,  a  venal  In  whieb  IncSDH  vaa  preMnted  in 
See  Phihbk.  Tbe  6nl  libbop  of  (bii  cbarcb  u  uid  ,  tho  Tsmple,  being  uwd  bj  the  Jews  In  the  dally  oBer- 
{ipttl.  Coiwt.  vii,  IS)  to  bave  been  aamed  Luciiu,  and    ing  of  InceiiM,  and  yearlj  ou  tha  Day  ot  Alcnement. 


\  appointed  by  Faul.  Tbe  dlMance  or  Cen- 
dutot  from  Corinth  waa  WTcnty  Madia,  or  about  nina 
■ilo  (Strabo,  vUi,  380 ;  Uv.  iixil,  17  ;  Plinj*,  iv,  i ; 
ApolaJ.  MitaiK.  a,  p.  i56,  BIp.  ed.)-  Pansaniai  (ii,  B) 
doerib**  the  road  u  bavint;  tomb*  aiuLa  gni*e  of  cy- 
piagsi  by  the  nayiide.  Tbe  modarn  village  otKit- 
ria  tetiini  the  ancient  name,  nbkh  i>  conjectured  by 
Dr.  Sibtboipa  to  be  derived  from  the  millet  (.ajicpO 
vhich  itUl  growa  there  (Walpole's  Trimli,  p.  41). 
Tb*  liie  u  DOW  occupied  by  a  single  finn-hoiua.  CloM 
M  tbe  tea,  and  ia  patta  even  covered  by  ita  walen, 
the  foBodjitlona  of  a  variety  of  boiidings,  ' 
wiiicb  may  yet  be  traced,  aa  the  walla  at 
the  height  of  (tam  two  feet  to  three  feet  and  a  half. 
Saaie  tracaa  of  tbe  moles  of  the  port  are  also  stUl  visi- 
bk  (Leake'a  Morta,  iil,  !3»'3S6).  Tbe  toUowlDg  cola 
eihibita  tbe  port  exactly  as  It  waa  described  by  Pau- 
KBiaa,  with  a  temple  at  tbe  eztramlty  of  each  mole, 
and  a  Katoe  of  Neptane  on  a  rock  between  tbem  (aeo 
Caoybaan  and  HowioB,  SL  Paul,  U,  195). 


igb-priest  entered  the  Holy  of  Hollea  (i 
Chron.  xxvi,  IS ;  Eiek.  vlil,  11 ;  Eccloa.  i,  9).  On  the 
latter  occaaioa  the  prleat  filled  the  censer  with  live 
ooala  fttim  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar  of  bunit-offor- 
Ing,  and  bore  it  into  the  aanctuar;,  where  he  threw 


t  inc 


small"  which  be  bad  brought  In  his  hand  (Lev.  ivi, 
1?,  IS).  In  this  case  tbe  InceDH  was  barat  while  the 
high-priest  held  the  cenaar  in  bis  hand;  but  in  the 
dally  ofl^rinK  tbe  censer  in  which  tbe  live  coali  were 
brongbt  ttom  tbe  altar  of  bnrnt-oSennjt  was  set  down 
plana  of  I  npon  tbe  altar  of  incense.  Tbls  alone  would  augg«at 
the  probability  of  aome  difference  of  shape  between  the 
cenaen  used  on  these  occuiona.  The  dally  censen 
muf  t  have  had  a  base  or  stand  to  admit  of  their  bdnj; 
placed  on  tbe  golden  altar,  while  those  employed  on 
the  Day  of  Alonement  were  probably  fumiabei)  with  a 
handle.  In  fact,  there  are  diSerent  names  for  theae 
vessela.  Those  in  daily  nie  were  called  ^^St^13 
(jKiiU'rtIi,  occurs  only  in  2  Chron.  xxvi,  19;  EmIi. 
vili.  ll),from  ^^ps.  Incenaa;  whereM  tbat  used  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement  ia  diatlngalahad  by  tbe  title  of 
rmrt-g  (maekalk',  umetUng  to  lale  6n  teilK),  or  eoal- 
poa' (often  "flre-pan"  in  tbe  Engllah  version).  We 
learn  also  that  tbe  daily  eenaan  were  of  brass  (Sum. 
i-vi,  89)  (according  to  the  Mishna,  Tamid,  v,  G,  In  the 
second  temple,  alao  of  ailver),  whereat  the  yearly  one 
wai  of  gold  (Jotaphua,  AiU.  xiv,  i,  4).  The  latter  la 
alao  said  to  have  had  a  handle  (Hiabna.  yoma,  iv,  i\ 
which,  indeed,  at  twlng  held  by  the  priett  while  the 
incente  waa  barning.  It  seems  to  have  required.  It  It 
(Kn^iA,lot\  «  general  left  by  conjectured  tbat  thia  distinction  ia  alluded  to  in  Kev. 
VII  (q.  v.)  in  command  (.rrp»n,Tricv.r.  ;„-'•■  8  i  '"i- »■ ''^"  '^e  angalj.  rep™.nl«d  w.tb  a 
«Mr,YOtaadiiro<rTpar,Yit)oftheaea.board(7r<.oo-  golden  "cenaer  (A,^«,roc.from  Ai^«f,  inoeiue), 
Xiari  of  Palestine  (IMacc.  xt,  3S  «,.)  after  tbe  defeat  """J  ""  twenty-four  eldert  a«:h  with  "golden  "vial 
rfTiyphon,  B.C.  138.  He  fhrtiSod  Kedron  (q.  v.)  and  .  (*«'*l3-  I"  »>»  i,P«*7P^,  •""''  <-^  ?^- "•  "'  " 
htiassHl  the  Jawa  for  aome  time,  but  waa  afterwarda  ,  "»"  "  B^tn  (1  MaccA  M)  ""nser*  Q,^^)  '" 
defaUcd  by  Jodaa  and  John,  the  sons  of  Simon  Mecca-  tlmilarly  referred  to.  Paul,  In  Hah.  Ix  4,  speaks  of 
h«B.wlthgrwllosa(lM«x.Jirt,l-10).  Theaccounl :  the  golden  "censer  aa  a  thing  which  belonged  to  the 
orjosepboa  (dut.  xiii  7,  8  j  ITor  L  2, 2)  ii  somewhat '  Taliamaole,  bat  tha  Greek  word  Oviuariipiov,  which 
ai&„p7  ,  there  occnra.  may  tignlfr  "alUr  of  incense"   (see 

-      .   _.  _,,        ,     „„        ,  ,    „,    .V    '  Bleek,  CcMwciU.  p.  488;   Meyer,  BiieilnU.  p.  7  sq,; 

Cendavl-.  according   to   P  iny  (xxxvi,  26).  Uie    j,^  ^^  ^^^  g^  ^  Jtri.  1829 ;  U,  W2  «,.).     The 
aunsofa  lake  l^m  which  the  nverBelna(q.v,)  Lake.    ^       ■         ,^„  ^^^^  „^  ^^,  ,^ 

H^,  ««  Mt-  Carmel  (see  Reland  /■flW.  p.  267); ,  ia,t™ment  to  aelae  or  hold  burning  coda. 

prob.blythefonntaln.now»Uedffard«,,nearShefr,      J;,  (     „^       ,,^  ,„^l^  „  ^^e  appendagea  of 

Aoar  Crhom*>n,  t<»i  ™d  Boot,  I,  488).  |  ^^,  ^^^^  ,,j^^  ^^  ^,j^„  candlestick  Ten, io^  In 

Cine.     See  LEoasE.  )  Exod.  xxv,  88 ;  sxxrii,  28  (in  which  tensea  It  aeoma 

Cannlok,  Jokn,  waa  originally  one  of  Wealey'i  I  rendered  In  tha  Sept  by  itrapurrpit,  iTapttrSjp.  or  per- 
Ity  pnachert,  who  appointed  him  aa  a  sort  of  lay-chap-  haps  uiruOiiAa).  It,  however,  generally  bean  the  lira- 
lain  at  Klngswood  School  In  1789.  In  a  year  or  two  ited  meaning  which  properiy  belongs  to  tbe  ftormer 
ha  began  to  preach  agalnat  Wealey'a  Arminian  doc-  |  word,  viz.  a  small  porUhle  reaael  of  metal,  on  which 
tiiBei,  and  to  raise  a  party  within  tha  Wesleyan  So-  tbe  Incense  was  sprinkled  by  the  prieat  to  whoae  office 
citty.  AnarnnavaJlingdelaytandoverturesofpeace, ;  thiaexclnaively  belonir«i(2  Chron.  xxvl,  18;  Lnke  I, 
Waaley  read  pnbllcly  a  piper  declaring,  "  by  the  con-  |  9).  Thos  "Korah  and  bis  company"  were  bidden  to 
teat  end  approbation  of  tbe  Band  Society  of  King)i> ;  Cake  "cenaers,"  with  which,  in  emnlitlon  of  Aaron  and 
wood."  that  Cennick  and  bit  tollowiin  "  were  no  Ion-  '.  his  sons,  thev  had  perhaps  provided  tbemtalvea  (comp. 
(IT  membera  tbereof."  Cennick  afterwards  united '  Eiek.  vIK,  11) ;  and  Hoses  tellt  Aaron  to  Iske  "Ot 
with  the  WhlteHeld  Uetbodtits,  hot  did  not  continue  cenwr"  (not  o,  as  in  the  A.V.^,  I.  e.  that  otthe  aano- 
big  with  them.  He  became  atlaat  a  Moravian.  He  tuary  or  that  of  tbe  higb-prieat,  to  stay  the  plague  by 
was  a  good  though  weak  man,  and  bia  sulvsequent  ear- 1  atonement.  The  only  diatinct  precepta  regarding  the 
■aat  and  laborioaa  life  abows  tbat  he  deaervea  more '  use  of  the  censer  are  Iband  In  Num.  iv,  14.  when 
laaily  than  baa  naually  been  accorded  to  him  by  Math-  among  tha  vesaela  of  the  golden  altar,  1.  e.  of  incenaa, 
•dUiwriitn.  Alter  many  yeanofdiligenc  labor  aa  an  "censen"  are  rwkoned  ;  and  In  Lev.  xvi,  12,  where 
nangeliit,  he  died  Julr  4, 179G.  Hia  Diicaariri  were  |  we  find  that  the  bigh-prieat  was  (o  carry  it  (here  alao 
rri>liabedinl770(ST(ilt.tm.8vo)t  and  a  new  edition,  it  la  "Iht,"  not  "a  censer,"  that  be  Is  ordered  to 
with  a  "lifc,"  waa  pabliahed  In  1882  by  Matthew  ,  "take")  into  the  moat  holy  place  within  tbe  vail, 
WUka,who  aaya:  "He  poaawsed  a  sweet  abnplioitv  of  where  the  "incmise"  waa  to  be  "pii 
qiilt,  with  an  ardent  aaal  In  Hia  eanae  of  hia  divin?   on  the  coala  tn  tbe  o 


CENSORSHIP  II 

mwt  bkve  batn  on  tha  Day  of  Alonemtut,  for  then 
only  vAfl  thmt  place  intend.  Solomon  prnpand  "cen- 
Mn  of  pure  gold"  u  put  of  tha  uma  fumitore  (1 
Klnt;>  vU,  60 ;  2  Chron.  iv,  i2).  Foulbl}'  their  gen- 
enl  use  sn^y  ba  axplained  by  the  lo^agery  of  Rev.  vtiL, 
S,  i,  and  may  have  been  to  take  op  c«l*  from  the 
Imien  altar,  and  convey  the  incenie  while  burning  to 
the  "ifolden  liter,"  or  "altar  of  Inconia,"  on  which  it 
wa*  to  be  offered  morning  and  evening  (Exod.  xxi, 
7,S),  So  Uaziah,  wIhd  he  wai  intaDding"to  bum 
Incenaa  upon  the  liter  of  Incenie,"  took  "■  codht  in 
bii  band"  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  16, 19).     See  Altab. 


Tbeee  fntimationi  help  an  to  conclnde  that  the  Jew- 
lab  ceneen  were  nnlilce  thoaa  of  the  claulcal  aoclenta, 
with  which  the  aculptaiu  of  Greece  and  Home  have 
made  ne  familiar,  a>  well  ai  tbote  (with  perforated  lidt, 
and  awang  by  chaioi)  which  are  UMd  la  the  Cliurch 
of  Borne.  It'll  obeetvable  that  in  all  caHi  tha  Egj-p- 
tlan  priota  had  their  co>t1y  incenee  made  up  into  small 
round  pellet*,  which  thay  projected  nacoeaalvFly  fhnn 
iMtwaen  their  finger  and  thumb  into  tha  center  at  aoch 
a  dlatancB  that  the  operation  matt  have  required  a  pe- 
culiar knack,  ench  as  conld  have  be<n  ecqoired  only 
by  much  ju'ictlce.  As  the  ineenae  need  by  the  Jewa 
waa  made  opinio  a  kind  of  paste.  It  was  probably  em- 
ployed in  the  eame  manner.  See  Sonneechmid,  De 
T^iattria  imetiaimi  (Vllab.  1T2B)  ;  Derling,  Ob- 
teno.  ii,  666  iiq. ;  J.  G.  Hiehaalia,  in  tha  Mia.  Brrm. 
li,  6  sq.,  and  in  Ugolinl  TkeKmr.  xi;  Wenti,  in  the 
Non  BibBmh.  Bnm.  v,  SS7  iq. ;  Zeildch,  De  rAaWAttfo 
atoro  (Gerl.  1768);  KOchar,  id.  (Jen.  1769);  Bnnn. 
Selfda  aura,  p.  2W  eq. ;  Rngal,  De  AunbuUt  (Ragiom. 
17!4i  bIm  in  Ugolini  71m.  x\).     See  IvcEneE. 

CENSER,  in  Roman  Catholic  wonhlp.     See  Thd- 

CeruoTBhlp  or  Books,  anpervlsion  of  pnbUo- 
tioni  by  meana  of  a  preliminary  examination  and  au- 
thoriution,  under  Church  or  atata  law.  Tha  deaign 
of  censonhip  baa  alwaye  been  to  hinder  the  poblica- 
tion  oCwritingi  auppoaed  to  be  dangeroua  either  to  the 
■tale  or  to  religion  (L  e.  onder  Roman  Catholic  au- 
thority, to  the  Chorch).  Tha  pracdce  has  been  de- 
fended (1)  by  the  eiample  given  in  Acta  lix,  9,  where 
the  "books  of  cnrioDi  arts"  were  burnt;  (2)  by  tbe 
reaponniUility  ofthe  Church  for  the  aonla  of  the  Sock, 
liable  to  be  destroyed  by  bad  booka ;  (S)  by  the  duty 
of  teaching,  which  includen  tha  withholding  of  bad 
doctrine  as  weU  as  the  fomishinK  of  good. 

Before  the  invention  of  printing,  it  was  compara- 
tiveiy  eaay  to  control  the  circulation  of  manuacripts, 
and  to  destroy  them  when  tfaonght  nacestary.  Rut 
the  discovery  of  that  art,  and  tha  spread  of  the  Refor- 
mation In  the  aixteenth  century,  indoced  atrongei 
measnna  and  rules  on  tbe  part  of  the  Roman  Church 
then  had  liccn  known  before,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
difl^ision  of  heretical  Utaratura,    A  centonhip  waa  offi- 


!2  CENSURES 

cully  aaUbliahed  by  the  bnll  of  I.eo  X,  Uay  U,  ISIE^ 
commanding  the  blahopa  and  inquiiitun  to  examine  all 
worka  before  publication,  end  not  to  tolerate  any  <rf 
heretical  tandancles.  Tbe  Cooncil  of  Trent  eiprnaly 
prohibited  tbe  printing  or  leading  of  heretical  booka 
in  the  terms  following:  "  No  one  ahell  be  permitted  to 
print,  or  cause  to  be  printed,  any  books  relating  to  re- 
ligion without  tbe  name  of  the  antborj  nehber  shall 
any  one  hereafter  aell  anch  books,  or  even  retain  them 
in  his  possession,  unlesa  tbey  have  been  Brst  examined 
and  approved  by  tbe  ordinary,  under  penalty  of  anath- 
ema, and  tha  pecuniary  One  idjodged  by  the  last 
Council  of  Lateran.  And  if  they  be  reirulaia  they 
shall  obtain,  beaides  this  examination  and  approval, 
the  license  of  their  auperiora,  who  shall  examine  the 
booka  according  to  tha  forms  of  their  statutes.  Tbooe 
who  circulate  or  publish  them  in  minnacript,  without 
being  examined  and  approved,  shall  be  liable  to  the 
Bamo  penalties  as  the  printera;  and  those  who  possess 
or  read  them,  unless  tbey  declare  the  antbora  of  them, 
ahalJ  tbemaelvea  he  considered  as  the  author.  Tbe 
approbation  of  books  of  this  defcrlpcion  shall  ba  given 
in  writioK,  and  shall  be  placed  in  due  form  on  the  title- 
page  of  tbe  book,  whether  manuscript  or  printed ;  and 
the  whole,  that  is,  the  anamination  and  the  approval, 
shall  ba  gratuitons,  that  what  la  deserving  may  be  ap- 
proved, and  what  is  unworthy  may  be  rejected"  (StM- 
non  IV).  A  committee  was  appointed  to  carry  out 
this  law  by  proper  etuctmenta,  which  resulted  in  tbe 
Index  Liironm  fmiibilonait,  or  Inda  EiparyatormM, 
and  In  the  eatablishment  of  the  Omffngalioit  o/"  ihi  Jn- 
dfx  ss  a  perpetual  censorship.  The  popes  sought  alao 
to  obtain  the  aaalgtsnce  of  the  civil  autboritiaa  in  the 
carrying  out  of  the  censorship,  snd  wa  find  that  several 
German  sUles  publUhed  edicts  In  16U,  16S0,  IMI, 
1648,  1667, 157T,  etc.  recommending  a  stricter  contnl 
of  thepreu.  Still  stricter  regulations  were  afterwsrda 
enacted  in  Spain,  luly,  and  France.  In  1621  the 
legate  Chiareirati  maintained  in  tbe  tn»  town  of  Ku- 
remberg  that  It  was  right  to  take  and  bum  all  worka 
printed  without  authority,  snd  that  the  prinlera  and 
publiahera  of  such  works  wen  punishBllie.  In  moet 
Roman  Catholic  countries  there  arose  a  twofold  cm- 
sontaip,  that  of  the  blahopa  and  that  of  tha  state.  Id 
many  caeee  the  two  were  united  into  one.  The  proccaa 
was  simple :  the  ceuf  or  or  licenser  read  over  the  MS. 
to  be  printed,  and,  after  striking  out  eny  olijectionable 
riaesages,  certified  that  the  work  might  be  printed. 
Hence,  in  old  books,  we  sea  the  w^ord  imprimatttr  (Ifit  it 
1  a  printed),  followed  by  tha  signstnrea  of  the  anthori. 
tiea.  In  England  a  cenMrthIp  wss  OFtablished  by 
net  of  Parliament  In  IBCi,  IS  Char.  II,  c.L8:  "  An  act 
for  preventing  tha  frequent  abuses  In  jirinting  eedl- 
tious,  treasonable,  and  unlicensed  books  and  pam- 
phlets, and  for  regulating  of  printing  and  printing- 
presses."  This  was  a  temporary  act,  renewed  tnrm 
time  to  time ;  end  it*  renewal  was  refosed  In  1G98, 
owing  to  a  quarrel  between  tbe  House  of  Commoii* 
and  the  licenser.  Since  thst  time  there  has  been,  geiw 
erally  speaking,  no  restriction  on  what  any  men  may 
publish  ;  and  ha  is  merely  reeponsible  to  tbe  law  if  in 
bit  publication  he  should  commit  any  public  or  private 
wrong.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  eensorvhlp 
became  generally  less  ftringent  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  peace  of  Weetphalia,  although  Leopold  I  and 
Francis  II  continued  to  enforce  it.  It  was  aboliiibed 
in  Denmark  In  1770;  Sweden,  1809;  Fiance,  1W7( 
Bel^■ium,  1830;  Spain,  IBFS;  Germany  and  Austria, 
1H48.  — Pierer,  Unmrrml  Leziitm,  e.  v.;  Chaml^eta, 
Enrydopadin;  Milton,  Ubertg  of  UmiiTtHttd  Prmtimgi 
TStxi^ttti,  LUtrars  Polity  »f  lie  Ck.  of  Somt  t  M-Crie, 
Be/onmitien  in  Jlalj),  ch.  v.      Bee  Ihdsx  (Exrnxoa- 

CeiutirAB,  Church  (Cennma  tcelaiattior\  tin 
penaltiea  by  which  crime*  are  viaited  by  Chun^  an. 
tbority  (potaata*  Jinnpnuii),  the  acriptmal  anthority 
fbr  which  ia  (bund  In  locb  pasMges  aa  Tit.  i,  13;  ii^ 


CENSUS  It 

10;  1  Tim.  <r,  SO;  H*tt.  xtII,  17, 18 ;  John  x.t,  29 ;  1 
Cvr.  V,  a )  1  Ibw.  lii,  6,  7 ;  Oal.  v,  1!.  ThaM  ccn- 
lana  an,  in  tlie  lUta  cborclu*,  admonitim,  itfin- 
ditko  (q.  ▼.),  cxeomiDnnioUloa  (q.  v.),  eaapenaion, 
BiHilict  (q.  T.),  ■nd  Imgulirlty  (q.  v.),  wliich  hln- 
den  >  man  from  Mng  *dmitled  into  higher  ordan, 
"The  canoniiU  deAne  an  «ccl«eiuticsl  ceninre  to  be 
■  Ti'<t"*'  panuhmaul,  inflicted  b;  nme  sccleBiutlcal 
jadga,  whereby  he  deprivai  a  person  baptlied  of  the 
■w  of  iDnie  apiiitnal  things,  which  condnca  not  only 
to  bit  preaent  vellkre  in  th«  Church,  but  llkewiie  to 
bii  htore  and  eternal  ulTation.  It  differs  from  civil 
poaiihiDeBta,  which  eonilat  only  in  tblnga  lemponl — 
uan&Bcatian  of  gooda,  pecoalary  mulcti  or  fltiet,  uid 
(he  like;  bat  the  Chnrcb,  by  iti  csniurei,  doei  notda- 
ItJTe  a  man  of  all  tpirituaU,  but  only  of  some  in  par- 
tkakr.  Thii  dellDltion  ipaaki  of  such  tbingi  ai  eon- 
due  la  eternal  MlTition,  in  order  to  inuiileat  the  end 

istend  tb«  dcatioyiag  of  men'i  aoula,  but  only  the  anv- 
ins  ItRm,  by  eDjolciag  repealaDce  for  put  errora,  a  re- 
lam  from  contumacy,  and  ao  abataining  trom  fntnre 
•ia>"(Haok,  Omrfk  Dktioaarg,  >.  v.).  AH  chnrchea 
duu  lbs  right  of  eeiuure.  Art.  SO  or  the  Westmtn. 
Iter CoBfeanon  ia  aa  faUowa:  "OfCkurtk  Cmutrtt.— 
The  Lord  Jntu,  u  king  and  bead  of  bis  Church,  hath 
Ibona  appointed  a  goremmentin  the  band  of  Church 
eficen,  distinct  tn/m  the  civil  magistrate.  To  these 
oOrers  the  k«ya  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  are  com- 
altled,  by  virtue  wbeteof  they  tiave  power  respectively 
to  retain  and  remit  sins,  to  shut  that  kingdom  against 
the  hnpenitaat  both  by  the  word  and  censures,  and  to 
opa  It  unto  penitent  tiuneta  by  the  ministry  of  the 
Gospel,  and  by  abaolution  from  censures,  aa  occasion 
■kail  require.  Church  censnree  are  neceisary  lor  the 
ndaimiug  and  gaialn)!:  of  ofTending  brethren ;  for  de- 
(■rriiig  of  othera  trom  like  offenses;  for  parglng  out 
gftkit  leaveo  which  might  Infect  the  whale  lump;  for 
g  the  honor  of  Christ,  and  the  holy  prolba- 
af  the  Goapel;  and  Ibr  preventing  the  wrath  of 
Ged,  Hhich  might  Justly  fall  upon  the  Chnrch,  if  they 
itooM  suffer  hla  covenant,  and  the  seals  thereof,  to  Iw 
jnfsBed  by  notorious  and  obstinate  offenders.  For 
iIh  better  attaining  of  these  ends,  the  offlcers  of  the 
Qirch  an  to  proceed  by  admonition,  suipensioD  from 
tile  sicruMat  of  the  Lord's  Supper  for  a  season,  and 
l>y  ticoaimunicatioD  from  the  Church,  according  to 


iTchea,  censure*  can  only  ha  io- 
Ccted  iRer  trial  by  the  peer*  of  the  accused  person. 
Oa  the  persons  liable  to  Church  censures,  and  the 
aima  Ibr  which  they  were  InOicled  In  the  ancient 
Cknreh,  see  BingbMn,  Orig.  Etdo.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  Ul; 
ud  en  the  rlghtfUnaM  of  Chnrch  censures,  Burnet, 
DsitclrtH^art.SS;  Palmer,  On  (*<  CAwt4,  ii,  377  ; 
VUBon.  Tlfot^otfiCWu,  il,GOO(N.T.ed.).  See  also 
llnl^ruNB;  Excoh>i<iiiicatio:(. 

Cauiu.  a  term  that  does  not  occnr  in  the  A.  V. 
^litboagh  it  I*  found  In  the  orl.dnal  text  of  the  K.  T. 
Ig  the  r.reek  form  c^vrmc,  ■'Iribate,"  HatL  xvil,  !S, 
<(c),  while  the  act  denoted  by  it  is  several  limes  re- 


3  CENSUS 

ferred  to  both  In  the  Heb.  and  Or,  Scrlptnittl  C'5?'?, 
or  n^pa,  "  immbtriHg"  comlnned  with  lustration, 
froai  I^D,  to  nrvrjF  in  order  to  purge,  Geseoias,  Tlia. 
p.  11^0;'8ept.  rip(C)io[;  V.T.  droypafii;  Vulg.  di- 
maitratio,  dttcriplio).     See  PoruLinoH. 

I.  JrvuA.— Sloses  laid  down  the  law  (Exod.  xxz, 
1?,  IS)  that  whenever  the  people  were  numbered  an 
ulhring  of  half  a  shekel  shonld  be  made  by  every  nun 

propitiation.  A  previous  law  had  also  ordered  that  the 
tirst-bom  of  nun  and  of  beaM  ihouid  be  set  apart,  as 
well  as  the  first-fruHs  of  agricultural  produce ;  the  first 
to  be  redeemed,  and  the  rest,  with  one  exception,  of- 
fend to  God  (Exod.  xili,  IS,  IS;  xxii,  29).  The  Idea 
of  lustration  in  connection  with  numbering  pndoml* 
nated  also  In  the  Roman  census  (Smith,  Diet.  o/Clatt. 
Aniiq.  B.  V.  Lustrum),  and  among  Mohammedan  na- 
tions at  the  present  day  a  prejudice  exists  against 
numbering  their  poaaessions,  etpectally  the  fToits  of 
theflald  (Hav,  lPaleniBariaT7.  p.l&i  Crlehton,  ^4 ro- 
i^  ii,  ISO ;  see  also  Luie.  Mod.  Eggpt,  11,  73, 7R).  The 
Instances  of  numbering  recorded  in  the  0.  T.  an  aa 
follows : 

1.  Under  the  Bxpreaa  direction  of  God  (Exod, 
Kxxrili,  SO),  in  the  third  or  fourth  month  after  the 
Eiodus,  during  the  encampment  it  Sinai,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  money  for  ttie  Tabernacle.  The 
numhen  then  taken  amounted  to  608,660  men,  which 
may  be  presumed  to  express  with  greater  precision  the 
round  nnmbers  of  600,000  who  are  said  to  hare  left 
Egypt  at  first  (Exod.  xil.  ST). 

!.  Again,  in  the  second  month  of  the  second  year 
after  the  Exodus  (Num.  i,  S,  S).  This  census  waa 
taken  for  a  doable  purpose :  (a.)  To  ascertain  the  num- 
ber of  fighting  men  tnnn  the  age  of  SO  la  60  (Joseph. 
Ant.  lii,  13,  4).  The  total  number  on  this  occasion, 
exclusive  of  the  Leritcs,  amounted  at  this  time  also  to 
603,690  (Num.  U.  it):  Josephus  saja  003,660:  eacb 
tribe  was  numbered,  and  placed  under  a  special  leader, 
the  head  of  the  tribe.  (6.)  To  ascertain  the  amount 
of  the  redemption.a(FeTin((  due  on  account  of  all  the 
first-bom,  both  of  penuns  and  cattle.  Accordingly,  the 
uumhers  were  taken  of  all  the  flnt-bom  male  persons 
of  the  whole  nation  alMveone  month  old,  including  all 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi  of  the  same  age.  The  Lerites, 
whose  numbers  amounted  to  23,000,  wen  taken  in  lieu 
of  the  Sret-bom  males  of  the  restoflsrael,  whose  num- 
liers  were  33,376,  and  for  the  surplus  of  378  a  money 
payment  of  1366  shekeK  or  6  shekels  each,  was  made 
to  Aaron  and  his  sons  (Num.  iU,  30,  61). 

If  thanumlwrs  in  our  present  coplee,  from  which  those 
given  by  Jusephus  do  not  matorialiy  diS«r,  be  correct, 
it  seems  likeiy  that  these  two  nnmberinga  were  in  fact 
one,  bnt  applied  to  different  purposes.     We  can  hardly 
otherwise  account  for  the  Identity  of  numbers  even 
within  tbe  tvK  months  of  interval  (Calmet  on  Num.  i ; 
Kitto,  Pielorial  BMe.  lb.).      It  may  be  remarked  that 
the  system  of  appointing  hesd  men  in  each  triln  as  lead- 
ers, as  well  IS  the  can  taken  In  preserving  tbe  pedi- 
grees of  the  families,  corresponds  with  the  practice  of 
tbe  Arab  tribes  st  the  present  day  (Crlchton,  Ara- 
bia, \i,l«S,i86 ;  Nlehahr,/Vser.*f^ro6v,p.H; 
Duckingham,  ^ra6  Tribr,,  p.  88;  Jahn,  Hil.  bk. 
li,  8,  11;  Ualcolm,  Sitldui  »/  Ptnia,  xiv,  167, 
IM). 

a.  Another  numbering  took  place  B8  yean  rf- 
terwards,  previous  to  the  entrance  into  Canaan, 
'  n  the  total  number,  eirepting  the  Levitt*, 
unted  to  601,760  males,  showing  a  decrease  of 
I.  All  the  tribea  presented  an  Inrrease,  except 
Reuben,  which  had  decreased  3770;  Simeon, 
87,100;  Gad,  6160;  Ephnim  and  Maphtali,eOOO 
'.    The  tribe  ot  Levi  had  increased  737  (Num. 


ubkhU 


AMienl  KcTP*>*n  Krfkinulun. 


Zlmri  (Calmst  on  Kun 


CENSUS  11 

V,  9).     On  tlia  other  lund, 

otS0,5O0:  Benjimin,  10,300 1  Asher,ll,900;  and  Ihi- 
clur,9900.     None  went  DDoibered  atthii  centas  who 

the  aecond  jear,  eiceptlDg  C*leb  and  Joahu*  (Num. 
xiTl,  63-66). 

i.  The  next  lonatl  numberiDg  of  the  whole  people 
wu  in  the  reign  at  Utvid,  who  in  ■  momeDt  of  pre- 
MunptioD.  coDtrsTy  to  the  idvice  of  Joab,  gmve  orden 
to  nnmber  the  people  without  requiring  the  aUtutable 
ofTerlngofa  h*lf-«hekel.  The  men  of  larael  ibove  30 
]r«Biii  of  Bge  mere  800,000,  and  of  Judnh  500,000;  tola], 
1,800,000.  The  bonk  of  Chron.  gives  the  Dumben  of 
land  1,100,000,  (nd  or  Jud>h470,000|  toul,  1,570,000; 
hot  Infcirma  aa  that  I^vl  and  BeDjunln  wets  not  num- 
bered (1  Chron.  xil,  S;  xsrii,  24).  JoMphun  gives 
the  numbtra  of  larael  ajid  Jndah  respecUvel/  900,000 
and  400,000  (2  Sam  sxlv,  1,9;  and  Calmet,  in  Idc.  ; 
1  Chron.  xii,  1,6;  «ivii,Z4;  Jowph.  J«/.  vii,  13, 1). 

6.  The  cenana  of  D^vld  waa  completed  bv  Solomoa,  j 

qocred  pationi  resident  within  Paleatine  to  be  num- 
bared.  Their  number  atnoantcd  to  153,600,  and  they 
were  employed  in  forced  latfor  on  hti  Kreat  architect- 
ural works  (Josh,  li,  27 ;  1  Rings  v,  16 ;  ix,  20, 21 ;  1 
Chron.  xxli,  i ;  2  Chron.  ii,  17, 18). 

Between  this  time  and  the  Captivity,  menlian  U 
made  of  the  namberi  of  armies  under  aucceaaive  klnga 
of  Israel  and  Jndah,  from  which  maj'  be  gathered  with 
mora  or  leaa  probability,  and  with  due  consideration 
of  the  cirtumatances  of  the  times  aa  influencing  the 
numbera  of  the  levies,  eatimatea  of  the  population  at 
tba  various  times  mentioned. 

6.  Bsboboam  collected  from  Judab  and  Benjamla 
180,000  men  to  fight  against  Jetoboam  (1  Kings,  xil, 

ay. 

7.  AU)Bh,witb400,000men,madewaronJenibaam 
with  800,000,  of  whom  500,000  was  aUio  (2  Chron. 
1111,8,17). 

8.  Asa  had  an  anny  of  300,000  men  from  Jndab,  and 
980,000  (J  OHphna  saya  350,000)  bmu  Benjamin,  with 
which  he  defeated  Zerah  the  EUiiopUn,  with  an  army 
of  1,000,000  (2  Chron.  xlv,  6,  9{  Joaephui,  Am.  vlii, 
12,1). 

9.  Jehoahaphat,  besides  men  !n  garrisons,  bad  nnder 
■miB  1,160,000  men,  including  perhaps  aubject  fhrelgn- 
cn  (2  Chron.  xvii,  14-19;  Jahn,  J/iH.  V,  ST). 

10.  Amaiiah  had  fhnn  Jodah  and  Be^tamln  800,000, 
bealdaa  100,000  metcenariea  from  larael  (2  Chron.  xxv, 

^6). 

11.  Usitah  conld  bring  into  the  field  807,fi00  men 
(307,000,  JosephDH),  well  armed,  trader  2600  offlcera  (2 
Chron.  xxvi,  11-15 ;  Joseph.  Ant.  ix,  10,  S). 

Beaidea  these  more  general  atatements,  we  have 
other  and  partial  notices  of  numbers  Indicatine  popo- 
lation.  Thus,  a.  Gideon  from  t  tribes  collected  82,000 
men  (Judg.  vi,  35  ;  vil.  3).  b.  Jephthab  put  to  death 
12,000  EphraimitaB  (Judg.  xil,  6).  The  numbera  of 
Epbraim  300  years  before  were  32,600  (N'nm.  xxvi, 
87).  c.  Of  Benjamin  25,000  were  slain  at  the  battle 
otGlbeah,  by  which  aUughter,  and  that  of  the  inhab- 
itants oTlta  ciarr,  the  tribe  wu  rednced  to  600  men. 
Its  nnmlwrs  in  the  wilderness  were  45.600  (Num.  xxvi, 
41 ;  Jodg.  XX,  S5. 46).  it  The  number  of  those  who 
Joined  David  after  Saul's  death,  besides  the  tribe  of 
Isucbar,  was  340,022  (1  Chron.  xii,  2S-R8).  .-.  At  the 
time  when  JehoBbaphat  could  muster  1,160,000  men, 
Ahab  in  Tsrsel  could  only  bring  7000  against  the  Syr- 
ians (1  Kings  XX,  16).  /.  The  numbera  carried  cap- 
tive to  Babylon,  B.C.  598-82,  from  Judab  are  said  (2 
King*  xxlv,  14, 16}  to  have  Iwen  from  8000  to  10,000, 
by  Jeremiah  4600  (Jer.  Ill,  80). 

IS.  The  number  of  those  who  returned  with  Zcrub- 
habel  in  the  flrat  caravan  ia  reckoned  at  42,360  (Eara 
11,  MX  but  of  these  perhaps  12,642  belonaed  to  other 
tribea  than  Judab  and  Benjamin.    It  ia  thua  that  the 


14  CENSUS 

diSbrance  between  the  total  (v,  M)  and  tba  tararal  d^ 
tails  is  to  be  accounted  for.  The  purpoaa  of  lUa  cen- 
sus, which  does  not  materially  differ  fkom  tb*  atato- 
tneut  In  Nehemiah  (Neb.  vli),  was  to  saUle  with  refen- 
ence  to  the  year  of  Jubilee  the  Inheritancea  in  tbt 
Holy  Land,  which  had  been  disturbed  by  tb*  Captiv. 
ily,  and  also  to  aacertaln  the  family  genealogies.  Bail 
ensore,  aa  faraa  possible,  the  purity  of  the  Jewish  rmcm 
(Ezra  11,  59;  x,  2,8,18,44;  Lev.  i XT,  10). 

In  the  second  caravan  the  number  was  1496.  Wgni* 
en  and  duldran  are  in  Deitlier  case  Included  (Eetb  rili, 
1-14). 

It  was  probably  for  kmdied  obfecia  that  the  pedi- 
grees and  snumerations  which  occupy  tbe  flrat  9  cbap- 
ten  of  the  let  book  ot  Chranidea  were  either  c«n- 
posed  before  the  Csptivlty,  or  compiled  afterward* 
from  existing  records  by  Em  and  othen  (1  Chron.  iv, 
28,  82,  88;  V,  3;  vi,  67,81;  vii,  28;  Ix,  !).  In  tfa* 
course  of  these  we  meet  with  nottcaa  of  the  numben 
of  tba  tribes,  but  at  what  perioda  ia  unoouin.  Tho* 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Hanasaeh  an  set 
down  at  44,760  (v,  IB),  Isaachar  at  87,000  (tU,  6),  Ben- 
jamin 59,484  (vii,  7, 9, 11),  Aaher  26,000  (vii,  40).  Be- 
sides, there  sre  to  be  reckoned  priests,  Levites,  and  Tes- 
idents  at  Jerusalem  from  the  tribes  oit  Benjamin,  Eph- 
ralm,  and  Manasaeh  (Ix,  3). 

Througboot  all  th»e  accounts  two  points  are  clear. 
I.  Thst  great  paina  were  taken  to  aacertain  and  regia- 
tar  the  numben  of  the  Jewish  people  at  varloos  thnea 
for  the  reasons  mentioned  abors.  2.  Tlat  ttie  anoi- 
bers  given  In  some  cases  can  with  dlBknlty  be  recon- 
ciled with  other  numbera  of  no  very  distant  datr,  aa 
well  as  with  the  presumed  capacity  of  the  connti7  for 
supporting  population.  Thns  the  entire  male  popule- 
tion  above  20  yean  of  age,  excepting  Levi  and  Ben- 
jamin, at  David'a  census.  Is  given  as  1,800^000,  or 
1,670,000  (2  Sam.  xxlv,  1;  1  Chnm.  xxi),  atranfier* 
158,600;  total,l,453,60D,arl,728,000.  Theeennmber* 
(the  excepted  tribea  being  borne  in  mind)  represent  a 
population  of  not  less  than  4  times  this  amount,  or  at 
least  6,814,000,  of  whom  not  leaa  than  2,000,000  be- 
longed to  Judab  alone  (2  S«m.  xiiv,  9).  About  100 
years  after,  Jefaoshaphat  waa  able  to  gather  from  Judah 
and  Benjamin  (including  subject  foreigners)  an  ann; 
of  1,160,000.  besides  garrisons,  representing  a  popula- 
tion of  4,640,000.  Fifty  years  later,  *— — |.li  conld 
onlv  raise  800,000  from  the  ssme  i  tribes,  and  27  yeera 
after  this,  Uiiiah  bad  807,600  men  and  2600  officers. 
Whether  the  number  of  the  foreignen  suhfect  to  Je- 
hoehapbat  conatitntes  the  diStorenoe  at  Ibese  perioda 
mast  remain  uncertain. 

To  compare  tltese  estimates  with  the  probable  ca- 
pacity of  tbe  country,  the  wiiole  area  of  Palestine,  in- 
cluding the  trans^Jordanic  tribes,  so  (u  as  it  ia  p«ai- 

exceeding  11,000  sqnsre  miles;  Judah  and  Bei|Ja»lD 
at  8136,  and  Galilee  at  980  square  miles.  Tbe  popn- 
lation,  making  allowance  tiir  the  excepted  tribea,  woald 
thua  be  not  less  than  680  to  tbe  square  mik.  Thia 
considerably  exceeds  tbe  ratio  In  nust  European  cotm- 
tries,  and  even  of  many  of  the  countiea  of  Engiand. 

But  while,  on  the  one  hand,  great  doubt  rests  on  the 
genuineness  of  numerical  cxpressiona  In  0.  T.,  it  most 
be  considered,  on  the  other,  that  the  readings  on  which 
our  version  ia  fbnnded  give,  with  trifling  variationp, 
the  same  resulu  as  those  pfescnted  by  the  Sept.  and 
by  Josepbus  (Jahn,  v,  86;  Glssse,  PltU.  Sarr.  ik  caaaU 
compiifmli,  i,  §  23;  vol.  11.  p.  189).      See  Numbeb. 

In  the  list  of  cities  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Judab, 
including  Simeon,  are  found  128  "  with  their  villagea," 
and  by  Benjamin  26.  Of  one  city,  Al,  situate  in  Ben- 
jamin, which  like  many,  if  not  all  the  others,  waa 
walled,  we  know  that  the  population,  probably  exclu- 
sive of  children,  was  12.000,  while  of  Gibeon  it  ia  said 
that  it  waa  larger  than  Ai  (Josh,  vlii,  25, 29;  x,!;  xv, 
21-62;  xviii,21,28;  xix,l-9).  If  thne  " cities"  may 
be  taken  as  samples  of  the  rest,  it  ia  clear  that  Saatb' 


CENSUS  1 

OB  hlestlDe,  *t  l«ut,  wm  very  popnlooi  Ixfora  the 
aKnna  of  tbt  pcopli  of  Itnel. 

But  JoAephiu,  in  tui  mccoEmte  (1.)  of  tbe  population 
otGklllM  in  hi*  awn  time,  aod  (!.)  of  the  nBinben 
angra^tBd  at  Jemulon  itths  thna  of  tha  Pauover, 
iboTI  a  large  popalation  inlubLtlD^  PoleltiDB.  He 
■an  llwn  vera  many  citlea  in  Galilee,  b«idea  ril- 
lijna,  of  wliich  the  leatt,  whether  citiea  nr  villages  ii 
out  quite  <«naiD,  bad  not  leu  than  15,000  intulntanU 
(»'<r,ill,S,3  and  «j  cooip.  Tacit.  i/u(.  v,  8).  After 
tlu  defeat  of  Ceatiu*,  A.D.  66,  belbre  the  formal 
bnak  of  the  war,  a  ceniiu  taken  at  Jeroaalem  by 
prieMf,  of  the  number!  aaaembled  there  for  the  Paoo- 
Tfr,  foimded  on  (be  uamber  of  lamlia  aacrificMl,  com- 
pwed  with  the  protable  uamber  of  penoai  partaking, 
give  tTOO.OOO  penwna,  besldea  foreigner!  and  thoae 
who  ware  excluded  by  cenmoniai  defllement  (ue  Ta- 
at.BU.T,  12).  Id  tbe  riege  iCulf  1,100,000  perlihed, 
ud  daring  the  war  97,000  were  made  captivei.  Be- 
ndca  these  many  deeerted  to  Lhe  Romanj^,  and  were 
iBimiwal  by  them  {War,  vi,  8,  9.  3).  These  nnm- 
lien,  an  any  lupposidon  of  (breign  influx  (i/iufuAov 

ud  SS  years  later,  intho  lasnrrectiaa  of  BarcliochatHU, 
IHiKi  Canios  eays  that  60  fordfled  towns  and  980  vil- 
li«u  wer«  deatroyed,  and  660,000  persons  were  slain 
hi  war,  besides  a  omntless  mnltitude  who  perished  by 
badae,  fire,  and  diaease,  so  ttiat  Palestloa  becama  al- 
DOst  depi^uUted  (Dion  Case.  Iiii,  14). 

Lastly,  there  are  almndant  traces  throntchont  the 
■liole  of  Pslestine  of  a  much  higher  rate  of  fertility  in 
(omr  as  nmiparvd  with  present  timss-'a  Tertility  re- 
ntrfced  by  profane  writers,  and  of  which  the  present 
ntgieded  ftat«  of  cultivation  affbrds  no  test.  This, 
(oailiiBed  with  the  positiva  divine  promises  of  popu- 
iHsaees,  inrreaaea  tha  probability  of  at  least  approxi- 
■ita  eerrectnesa  in  the  foregoing  eMimatet  of  popnla- 
liDB(TKit.tfH<.*,  6;  Amm.  Hare.  zlv.B;  Jo•ephu^ 
War.  iii,  3;  Jerome  on  Eieh.  xx,  and  Rabbinical  au- 
tknliesln  ReUnd,  cxxvi;  Shaw,  TVunefa,  ii,  pt.  ii,  <:. 
i.p.3ga,M0,and!7&;  Hasaelquist,  fnntfa.  p.  m,]^, 
IN :  Stanley,  Faltl.  p.  120,  374 ;  Kitto.  Pll)l.  Giogr. 
p.IS;  Ranmer./^i'da'ma,  p.8,S0,83,  App.  Ik.  Comp. 
Gin.  xiii,  16;  xxil,  IT;  Nam.  xxiii,  10;  1  Kings  Iv, 
K;  Acts  lii,  20).  See  Mabier,  Dt  Htbraarum  cewtfru 
(Langeni.  1764-66);  Zeibtch,  Ot  eeiushu  Hebraomm 
(Gsn,  1764-6).      Saa  PaLBsrm. 

II.  Rimutm. — This,  under  the  Republic,  consisted,  so 
br  as  the  present  pnrpoee  ia  concerned,  of  an  enrol- 
•uateTpenDaa  uid  properQ'  by  tribes  and  households. 
Ersry  piterfamilias  was  reqnirad  lo  appear  before  the 
fCBwti,  and  Rive  his  own  name  and  bis  father's;  if 
married,  that  of  bii  wife,  and  tba  number  and  agea  of 
Us  cbildrtn;  alter  this,  an  account  and  valuation  of 
bit  f^nperty,  on  which  a  tax  was  then  imposed.  Bv 
Ike  IbU  thni  obtained  every  man's  position  in  the 
•Us  w*s  tegulated.  After  these  duties  had  been  per- 
inied,  a  Ip(t<n(SB,  or  solemn  purification  of  the  people, 
bllmd.  tmt  Dot  always  InunediaMly  (Smitii,  Diet,  of 
CliB.  AK-iq.  s.  ▼.  Censna.  See  Dtonys.  iv,  15,  S2; 
Ocera.  A-  Lrgj.  iii,  S ;  Clinton,  FaH.  BtU.  iii,  p.  457,  c. 
Hy  The  census  was  taken,  more  or  \an  requlariy.  In 
lie  prarinces,  under  tha  repnhllc,  by  provincial  cen- 
Mn,  and  Ibe  tribate  ragalated  at  their  discretion  (Cic- 
ete,  tVrr.  ii,  Ub.  Ii,  53, 56),  but  no  complete  census  was 
■sde  belbre  tha  tim*  of  Augustus,  wlw  carried  out 
tine  Kcseral  iDipections  of  this  kind,  rii,  (1.)  B.C. 
«;(i,>B.C.8;  (j.)A,D.U;  and  a  partijl  one,  A.D. 
4.  Thg  nason  ofthe  partial  extent  of  this  list  was 
Ikst  be  (eared  distarbances  out  of  luly,  snd  also  that 
W  Bight  not  appear  as  an  exactor.  Ofthe  returns 
Bade,  AagnstDS  blmseir  kept  an  accnrale  (ccnunt 
(WntonBa),  like  a  private  man  of  his  property  (Dion 
CM.Iiv,3ai  lv,13;  Suetonluo,.i4ii9.?T,I01 ;  Tacitus, 
^■a-i.lt;  riii.^Bc|r.  ap.eme9tl,r<iaf.il,ieR).     A 

fi>  lb*  purpoat,  li  mentbnsd  in  tha  time  DfTiberiaii  | 


t5  CENSUS 

(Tacit.  Aim.  t,  81;  il,  6;  Uvy,  Ep.  134, 196),  In  the 
New  Teat,  twb  enrolments  of  this  kind,  executed  un- 
der the  Romsn  government,  are  mentiooed  by  Luka 
{awoypafii,  "  taxing").     See  Tix. 

1.  In  Acts  V,  37,  *  census  is  referred  to  as  at  the 
lime  a  well-known  event,  durlu'^  which  a  certain  Jn- 
das  of  Galilee  rjlsed  an  insurrection.  This  impart  of 
the  term  there  employed  is  snstained  by  Joaephus  (_AiU. 

of  properly  (uirDrr/ii|oii-  nSf  obffiuiii  or  jfpij/uiraiv), 
which  tbe  proconsul  Qnirinus  (Kivqviai',  Cyrenius) 
carried  out  on  behalf  of  the  empt'rur  AnguituK  after  the 
banishment  of  king  Archelsus  (A.D.  6),  in  which  Sa- 
msria,  Judna,  and  [dumna  were  Joined  with  tbe  prov- 
ince of  Syria  under  direct  Boman  rule.  Tbe  Latin 
name  for  such  a  vatnation,  which  was  occasionally  In. 
etitiited  in  bU  the  pnivincas  of  the  Bomsn  empire,  is 
tbe  well-known  one  cnuut  i  by  it  new  lists  (liiroyiia- 
^i,  tiibala  cmiana,  Polyb,  ii,  23,  S)  were  made  out,  of 
persons,  property,  and  business,  and  upon  this  hiuia 
the  lax  was  Imposed.     Sea  Assesshent.     The  matter 

cialiy  lo  the  Jews  [see  ruBLtcAul  not  only  nn  ac- 
count of  their  rellgluua  prejudices  [see  Zelotis],  but 
aleo  the  violent  and  extartionute  manner  in  which 
Oriental  taxation  is  always  enforced.  See  TbIDdTb. 
The  wordtivoypa^iTis  used  almost  invariably  by  Greek 
wrlten  of  tbe  Boman  period  (br  reMHj,  although  an 
enrolment  for  taxation  Is  mors  properiy  called  drori- 
liijaii,  a  sense,  however,  not  Inapplicable  (even  in  the 
Attic  dialect)  to  dvaypa^ii  and  drayfiafit&ai  (aea 
Wachsmuth,  llelle:  AUerth.  U,  71,  3S8,  260).  See  Ju- 
das (the  GAI.1I..BAM). 

i.  In  Lake  li,  1,  tiiere  is  mentioned  an  enrolment  or 
Axaypafli  as  having  taken  place  In  tbe  year  of  Christ's 
hirlii,  by  order  of  An^^uslus,  and,  as  the  words  seam  to 
express,  under  the  superintendence  of  Quirinus  or  Cy- 
lenios,  president  of  Syria,  extending  over  the  entire 
land  (wdaa  orcoufuvif).  This  seems,  according  to  the 
date  indicated,  to  liave  been  different  fnai  the  censni 
above  mentioned,  as  is  indeod  implied  in  the  langnace 
"this  the  HtM  tax-Ilst  was  made  while  Quirlnna  was 
governor"  (ailnj  i)  aieojpa^ii  wpiurij  ijiviro  ^yc^ 
viiiauTOC  Kuoiiviou).  Bui  this  psssage  contains  great 
historical  difficulty  as  well  as  inipnrtsnce  (see  Ilosch- 
ke,  f(6er  dm  mr  Ztit  dtr  Grburt  Chritti  gAabeiin 
Camu,  Breslau,  1840;  Wieseler,  .^ywjise,  p.  tS  sq.; 
Kirmss,  in  tbe  Jtnuer  I.il.-Ziiltmg.  lSi2,  No.  lOOsq.). 
The  principal  discrepancies  alleged  with  regard  to  the 
tax  itself  have  been  sddnced  by  Sttauss  (Ldtn  Jtm.  i, 
§  2H>  and  De  Wetto  (Cow™™*,  eh  Lve.  in  loc,):  1. 
Palestine  was  not  yet  directly  Roman,  or  immediately 
liable  to  such  a  mmi  (comp.  Joseph.  Anl.  xvii,  13,  S; 
xvlii,  1, 1 ;  Applsn,  CTr,  v,  76);  an  iwoypa^it  at  this 
time,  therefore,  as  being  neither  available  for  the  pur- 
poses ofthe  emperor,  nor  adapted  lo  the  relations  of 
the  Jewish  vassal-kings  towards  him,  would  have  been 
the  more  likely       '  '  ' 


tal  disti 


e  above  reteried 


t.  At  all  events,  no  bisbmcal 
usual  a  proceeding  occurs  either  in  Jorepbus  or  the 
Roman  writers  ofthe  period.  8.  Yet  some  notice  of 
this  event  is  the  more  to  be  expected,  inasmuch  as  tbe 
Avofpa^if  in  question  covered  the  whole  empire,  the 
restriction  of  its  lerms  ("  the  whole  earth"  or  lend)  to 
Palestine  being  altoRClher  srhitraiy.  4.  In  a  Roman 
"census"  the  subject*  were  assessed  St  their  actual 
residences ;  a  jonmey  to  tlie  £smlly  seat  could  only  be 
requisite  on  the  snppoeition  of  a  Jewish  geneslngical 
reuistry.  h.  As  wives  were  in  no  case  rrquired  to  re- 
pair to  the  Bssesson,  Hsry  must  have  undertaken  un- 
necesasrily  a  journey  to  Bethlehem,  and  a  slay  tliere 
1  her  condition.  Some  of  these  objec- 
'aned  liy  Panlus  (in  his  Cammenl.  In 
Inc.) ;  Tbolnck  (Clouhranfij*.  d.  rmmg.  Gurk.  p.  IBS 
.,),  lluscbke  (■(  up.),  and  others  have  pretty  effect- 
ually anawercd  them  all.     Thay  may  mostly  be  cjb^ 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


lee   CENTURIES  OF  MAGDEBURG 


■ted  by  aimpl}'  ind  Datmll; 

K  re;p)tnitioD  livUtaud  indeed  by  Ibe  Romui  einpe- 
nr,  but  executed  in  uxurdauce  with  the  local  nugei 
(*M  Stionn'i  Harmoai/  of  ike  Commit,  notes  to  J  vii>)- 
Sm  Cyrenius. 

In  tbe  fint  placs,  m  arofpaifn  vms  proper]}'  only 
■a  fnroimaU  of  tbe  inhAbltintB,  wfalch  may  ha^'e  been 
Mt  an  fiwt  for  statiatical  purpoue,  in  order  to  obuLn  » 
coinplete  HCconnt  o(  the  populntion,  perhopa  t»  ■  ba«ls 
for  A  levy  of  tfoops  ^m  thii  mm  a  subject  territory. 
Tbe  empeinr  Au^tnstus  eaaied  Buch  ■  roll  or  mbatrict 
to  be  nude  nut  ("breviarinm  totiue  imperii,"  Soetooi- 
ns,  Oclav.  101),  which  incloded  an  iccount  of  the  pro- 
vlnciul  alliea  ("qnintum  ■ocioram  in  annii,"  Tscitnt, 
Aimal.  i,  11),  and  fnim  this  Pnleetine  could  not  well 
have  iKcn  excepted.  The  ordering  of  soch  a  reffiater 
wu  not  iticonaistent  with  the  political  relaUone  of 
Herod  (a«  thought  by  Hoven,  OHa  Uttr,  ii,  S;  aq.).  •loce 
he  WM  hiinielrbut  «  dependent  monarch;  and  aa  the 
word  in  queetlon  baa  uaually  the  aense  of  a  tiat  with 

in  this  instance  can  certain!}'  not  be  denied.  Simili 
•xamplea  are  by  no  means  wanting  in  modern  times 
among  dependent  coantrle*.  Moreover,  Herod  waa  ao 
■ub)«ct  to  the  rale  of  An^^tua  tbat  be  did  not  even 
aaennie  to  Judge  two  ofhis  own  Bona,  but  referred  the 
trial  to  the  emperor  (Joeephui,  Anl.  xvl,  4, 1 ;  conp. 
xvli,  S,  8) ;  and  be,  in  fact,  lubmitted  to  an  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  tbe  emperor,  which  tbe  Jews  were  required 
to  take  (-4  nl.  xvH,  %  4).  Tbe  latter  circnmstance  may 
indeed  be  naturally  attributed  to  tbe  vaasalage  of  a  na- 
tion, but  the  former  was  a  Toluntary  act  on  the  part 
of  llerod,  who  nevertheles*,  without  such  ceremony, 
•xecnted  other  membere  of  big  family  (comp.  bow- 
ever,  JDaephu^  AtU.  »vi,  11,  1).  At  all  eve^t^  it 
abundantly  appeara  from  Josephua  that  Anguitup,  in 
momenta  of  paaaion,  was  capable  of  reaolving  to  pro- 
ceed to  extremities  with  Herod  (An(.  xvi,  S,  S) ;  and 
that,  after  Herod'i  death,  he  hesitated  about  trsnafer- 
ring  the  land  to  tbe  MM  of  the  Utter  <,Amt.  xn, 
11). 

There  are  monographa  In  Idtin  on  tbs  censna  of 
QnirinuB  by  Ammon  (Erlang.  ISIO),  Birch  (Hafn. 
1T90),  BomlUna  (Vltel'.  1650).  Breithaupt  (Helmst. 
ITST),  Deyling  {Obiervti.  ii,  S!fl  eq.),  Hasse  (Regiotn. 
ITD6),  Heumann  (GoUint;.  1783),  Janoa  (Viteb.  IT1&; 
also  in  Ikrnii  7V(.  ii,  424  Eq.),  Obrecbt  (Argentor. 
16TS),  Perizonius  (Dui.  de  Pnrtono,  a.  f.^  Pibbnann 
(AboB,  1786),  Richard  (Viteb.  1TG4 ;  ako  bi  Ikenii 
7'«u.ii,494  aq.),Volborth  (GattlnK.ITfG),Wedei  (Jen. 
ITOBXWeraadorf  (Viteb.1698,1720):  In  Greek, bv Fri- 
berg  (AtoB,  1780) ;  In  German,  by  Kiet  (Ulr.  1791), 
Pltscbnuinn  (Dki.  Bti.Bitt.  1, 1 -!5),  Stockmann  (GrOn. 
1756).     See  NATivrrY. 

CAUtTBl  America  eomptiaed,  in  1868,  (iTe  loTer- 
etgn  slates,  viz.  Coita  Rica,  Nicaragua,  Goatemsla, 
Honduisa,  and  San  Salvador.  Tbe  eastern  coant  of 
Central  America  waa  diacovered  by  Columbus  in  1602, 
the  western  by  H.  Ponce  In  1616.  The  SpanUrds 
soon  subjected  to  tbeir  rule  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  ;  but  on  the  Hoaqnilo  coast  the  Indians  main- 
tained their  Independence,  and  tbe  district  of  Pelen 
was  not  taken  posscasion  of  until  I6f)7.  lu  1821  the 
five  state*  overthrew  the  Spanish  mle  by  a  bloodlefs 
revolution;  in  18S2  they  called  a  ConelitueDt  Assem- 
tily,  and  in  1893  they  declared  thtmaelves  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  under  the  name  the  United  States 
of  Central  America,  The  now  confMeracy  was  con- 
tinually a  prey  to  civil  war,  ariung  principally  from  '. 
the  mutual  bostiliCy  of  tbe  three  races  :  the  whiU,  I 
which  prevails  In  CoaU  Rica ;  the  Indian,  to  which  in  j 
Guatemala  almost  90  per  cent,  of  the  entire  populattou 
belong:  and  tbe  mixed, which  is  predominant  in  the 
throe  other  states.  The  year  1H39  pnt  an  end  to  tbe 
union,  and  tbe  confederacy  was  divided  into  five  sover-  , 
elgn  and  independeqt  states.  ToKether  with  the  Span-  | 
lah  dominion,  the  ecclasiastical  nle  of  the  Roman  Catb- 


olic  Church  was  artabliahed  tbroughont  the  whole  ex> 
tent  o[  Central  America.  After  die  declaration  of  in- 
dependence, the  Cential  American  confederacy  ebowed 
itself  fuvorable  to  eccleaiaalical  reforms  and  to  relig- 
ioua  toleration.  The  Constituent  Aaaembly  forbade  tbe 
proclamation  of  papal  bulla,  and  the  receiving  of  mon- 
ey for  indnlgences.  From  1826  to  1831  all  tbe  con- 
venta  of  monka  except  those  of  the  Bethlehemites  (,q. 
V.)  were  aapptessed,  and  in  IBSG  an  annual  visitation 
of  the  female  convente  was  ordered,  in  order  to  aes 
that  no  nun  was  retained  in  a  convent  against  ber 
will.  In  18SS  religions  liberty  was  procUimed,  and 
Honduraa  even  abrogated  for  some  time  the  celibacy 
of  prieats.  Since  the  dissolution  of  tbe  union  there 
has  always  been  a  fierce  struggle  lietween  the  clrrical 
and  tbe  liberal  partiea.  Some  of  the  states,  In  partic- 
ular  GuHten  ala,  have  recalled  the  prieita,  and  re-en- 
forced the  moat  odious  laws  of  bitoleranco  which  fvti 
disgraced  a  papal  country ;  others,  in  particnlar  Hon- 
:  duras,  have  been  more  faitbful  to  the  principles  of  lili- 
i  eralism.  The  religious  condition  ofthe  people,  aa  in  all 
'  the  papal  countrleaof  America,  Is  very  low.  The  groaa- 
est  superstition  prevails,  especially  among  the  Indiajia. 
In  tbe  Indian  villages  tbe  rule  of  the  priest  is  almost 
sbsoluU.  Worthip  consiati  moctiy  in  prDcetaione  and 
in  the  veaemtion  of  the  images  of  the  saints.  Erttj 
Indian  endeavors  to  poeseaa  a  saint's  image,  which  U 
preserved  in  the  chnrch,  and  which  he  earriea  abont  at 
processions  on  a  gilded  pole.  At  ti>e  festival  of  tbe 
saint  the  possessor  of  tbe  image  gives  a  great  banqnel, 
and  the  priest  receives  fbr  tbe  mass  which  ho  aaya,  in 
honor  of  the  saint,  money  and  fowl-  If  the  poeaeesor 
of  the  image  dies  without  heirs,  it  is  Iwugbt  by  anoth- 
er Indian,  lest  it  be  rejected  from  the  church  ;  tar  tbe 
church  TVjecta  ever}'  image  Ilut  has  no  owner,  and  ev- 
ery such  rejection  is  expected  to  torboda  a  calamity  to 
tbe  village.  Tbe  processions  are  attended  by  flutea  and 
other  instruments,  by  immense  clouds  of  frankincense, 
andbyagreat  display  of  fireworks.  A  peculiar  cnstom 
is  observed  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  wimi  a  while  dore, 
omtmcnted  with  flowers,  is  placed  on  tbe  bead  of  tb« 
priest  who  atands  before  the  altar,  and  flowera  are 
showered  upon  him  from  all  sides.  Harriagea  are  con- 
ducted in  the  rillagsB  before  sunrise,  a  custom  piuba- 
b>y  trauimitled  from  the  times  of  Indian  raganism. 
Efforts  to  esUbliab  Prolenantlsm  in  Central  America 
have  been  repeatedly  made,  especially  by  missiona- 
ries  sent  out  by  the  venerable  Mr.Gossner  (q.  v.),  bnt 
tbna  far  without  great  permanent  fruit.  The  Uora- 
viana,  however,  have  hsd  (since  1818)  some  fiomiabias 
mirsionson  the  Horquito  Coast,  an  independent  diatiict 
t  f  Central  America  inhabited  by  about  30,000  Indiana. 
Their  missionary  statiaticB  in  1860  were  as  foUowa  t 
iUticns,ei  missionaries,?;  converts,  i  19.  The  Rd- 
mcn  Cslholic  Church  hi  the  five  atatea  of  Central 
America  is  under  the  jurisdicliDn  of  the  archlnsbrp  of 
Guatemala  (ubo  hi  atelated  In  his  diocese  by  two  bisb- 
ipe  iiKpnrt^bvi  infijriivm)  and  four  bishops,  at  San  Sal- 
vador, Nicaragua,  Comayagua  (the  capitel  of  Hondi^ 
rss),  end  St.  Josi  (in  tbe  state  of  Costa  Blca).  The  ag- 
gregate number  of  parifhes  in  the  five  states,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  accounts,  is  248,  with  4  missioni',  anl 
tbe  number  of  churches  716.  See  Reiclurd,  <7ii><n>- 
A<«rriai  (Brtmaw.  186]);  Irobel,  Smn  Yrart'  Troctt 
iaCenlra-AtnfHoi(,Lanil.lSSS);  Man,  Rait  mad  CtM- 
<raf-^ti>m'ca(Hsmb.  1^63,  2 vols.) i  Squler,  TkeStalet 
i-fCintnil  Amrrica  (N.  Y.  1868).     See  Amuica. 

CantUrttltOtB.  the  writers  of  the  CEtiTDBTB*  or 
Maodebuhq  {q.  r.)  are  so  caUed. 

C«ntniles  of  Mttgdebnrg  (CeKfuru  itagM»ay. 
nws).  the  name  gii-en  to  the  fl  rat  great  worii  on  Church 
History  by  Prnteatant  writers.  It  was  projected  hy 
Mntthisn  Flacius.  and  prosecuted  by  him,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Joh.Wigand.  UaU.  Judex,  Basilias  Faber, 
Andr.  Cnrvinus,  and  Tbnm.  HoUhnler,  of  Hagdeburg. 
Several  of  the  Protestant  princes  jcdned  to  delWy  the 


CENTURION 


pobitfd  to  nuTugfl  the  wbole  detlgn,  lad  ten  pmld 
igma  lupplied  the  necetuTy  labor.  Seven  of  Itaeu 
nre  mU-iaformed  itudenti,  who  were  smplayed  Id 
lukiog  rollectioiu  from  the  vaiioiii  pieceg  Ht  lierora 
tbds.  Two  otben,  more  advaand  in  yeftre,  and  of 
gmler  leunin^  uid  judgment.  Bmnged  the  mstCer 
tku  mllHted,  rabmitted  it  to  the  directun,  end,  if  it 
wm  approTcd,  employed  it  in  the  compoeition  of  the 
■srL  A>  fut  u  the  varloai  chapter!  were  compuKd 
■her  mm  laid  before  certain  iDnpector* ,  eelected  from 
(be  members  of  the  directors,  who  canfally  examined 
•bat  had  been  done,  and  made  the  oeceuary  altera- 
tion!; and,  fltiall;,  a  regnlar  amanuenaii  made  a  bir 
ctpj  of  the  whole.  At  length,  in  the  year  lti39,  ap- 
pBUodthe  first  volume  of  their  laborioaa  undettskin);. 
It  wu  printed  at  Basle,  wbera  the  thirteenth  and  final 
tdIudc  (M.)  appeared  in  1II74;  bat,  a*  it  was  pro- 
)>eted  at  Uagdebur^,  that  name  was  to  remain  on  ita 
title !  and  ttie  flret  graat  Protestant  work  on  Church 
lltaorj  haa  been  always  commonly  known  as  the  Msg- 
dsbsrg  (^ntnilea-  It  waa  in  every  point  of  riew  an 
eitnardinarj  production.  Though  the  flrat  modem 
ttUnpt  to  illustntc  the  bietory  of  the  Church,  it  waa 
vritten  open  a  scale  which  has  aoarcely  been  exceed- 
el  It  brongtat  to  light  a  large  quantity  of  unpub- 
lisbed  materials,  and  cast  the  whole  subject  Into  a  flx- 
fd  sod  zegnlar  form.  One  of  its  moet  nimaHtable  fea- 
tuna  is  tlie  elaborate  classification.  This  was  strictly 
erigioal,  aad,  with  all  its  Inconveniences,  andoobtsdly 
tended  to  introdnce  sidentific  arrangement  and  minnte 
■ccnaey  into  the  study  of  Church  History.  Eact 
toy  is  treated  separately,  in  slzLeen  heads  or  i 
tns.  The  first  of  these  gives  a  general  view  of  the 
kislixy  of  the  century;  then  follevs,  2.  The  extent 
ud  propagation  of  the  Chnrch  j  8.  Persecution  and 
tranqaiDity  of  the  Church;  4.  Doctrine;  I>.  Heresies 
C  Kites  and  Ceremonies ;  T.  Government ;  8.  Schisms . 
9.  CoundlSj  10.  Lives  of  Bishops  aud  Doctors ;  11 
Hentici;  12.  Martyrs  ;  IS.  Miracles;  14.  Condition  of 
Ike  Jews ;  la.  Other  reli|{ions  not  Christian ;  16.  Po- 
Gtial  changes  of  the  world"  (Hook,  Ckurch  l/iilory,  s. 
v.).  "The  work  enlisted  all  the  Protestant  teaming 
if  the  age.  It  was  distinguished  fbr  its  bmiliarlty 
■1th  ofiginal  authorities,  for  its  frequent  citations,  for 

OB  the  same  sulijoct,  and  fur  ita  passionate  style  of  con- 
iTDieny.  For  more  than  a  centnry  aflflrward",  noth- 
iag  was  published  hnt  text-hooks  formed  from  the  ma- 
Isrials  SDppliod  by  the  Centories,  and  written  in  the 
•aaMspirit'-(Hase,Ctarrt«u(ory,glO).  As  a  whole, 
Ihs  work  is  eontroversia)  nthar  then  purely  histori- 
cal; but  ita  epiiit,  ita  thoiBnghness,  and  its  method 
were  tar  in  advance  of  any  book  in  the  same  field  that 
hsd  ariHD  in  tbe  Roman  Church.  The"Annab"or 
Bannios  were  aiklertaken  In  order  to  coontenct  the 
ialiwnce  of  this  gnat  work. 

The  "Centuries"  do  not  reach  beyond  the  18th  cen- 
luy.  The  best  edition  Is  the  original  one  (fcdoint- 
iat  Hutiia,  etc.  per  aliqnal  Stadioirt  ti  pint  rinu  tn 
■*«  Hoffdrtvgiea  {Ba-iil,  1S69-7*,  IB  vols.  In  8,  fol.) ; 
Uedit.by  Lucius,  witb  alterations  (Basel,  IBH  IS  vols. 
10  3);  awedi/un,  to  be  extended  to  l&OO,  commenced 
by  Banmgirten  sod  Semlor,  but  reaching  only  the  6lh 
wntorv  (NOmb.  1757-66,  6  vols.) ;  Kpitome  up  to  1600, 
by  OiUnder  (Tab.  169*-18(M,  9  vols.);  Germ,  transl. 
ky  Count  MOnoich  (Hamburg,  185C).  See  Buddvun, 
/iBjose,  bk.  il,  chap,  vi,  |  Iv,  p.  787 ;  SchafT,  Ch.  Hitt. 
n>li,S7;  Schaff,  .4po(f.  fJurrA,  S  »,  p.  66. 

Centn'rloii  (iKtiTovrnpx^Z  ^^^  iKarvvrapxa^^  a 
•nailatlDa  of  the  Utin  enUvio.  which  siso  occurs  in 
Ike  Gnidied  fbnn  uvrupixv,  Mark  xv,  39,  H,  46),  a 
Human  military  officer  Id  corunjnd  of  a  himdrtd  imi, 
t  the  title  impliaa.  The  rnnnber  ander  him,  how- 
FTcr,  WIS  Dot  always  uaiTorm,  bring  enlarged  or  less- 


CERDO 


enad  according  to  drcnmatanoea  (see  Smith's  Dji.  of 
Claa.  Anliq.  s.  v.).  Cornelius,  tbe  Hist  Gentile  con- 
vert to  Christianity,  held  this  rank  (Acts  x.  1,  Si). 
See  Cornelius.  Other  centurions  are  mentioned  In 
MatLviil,5.8,lS;  Luke  vii,  :i, 6 ;  AGlsixi,S2;  xiii, 
86, 88;  xxiii,  17,28;  iiiv,  28;  xxvii,  1,6,11,81,43: 
xxviil,  16.  See  Arht.  The  centurion  at  our  Sa- 
viour's croes(Hatt.xxvli,M  ;  Lukexxili,47)issaldto 
have  been  named  Longinus  (see  the  treatises  on  this 
point  by  Goetie  and  by  MQUer,  Obu.  pkilol.  Koat.  1696, 
p.  4  sq.).     See  Captaih. 

CoolMd,  or  CaotPiBTH,  a  Saxon  monk  and  wri' 
ter,  was  bom  about  tbe  year  643,  in  the  kingdom  uf 
Northumberland.  In  674  be  is  mentioned  by  Bede  as 
aiding  Benedict  Biscop  In  building  the  monasleir  of 
St.  Peter  at  Wearmouth ;  and  when  Benedict  foundeil 
the  monusteiy  of  St.  Paul  at  Jarrow,  be  made  Ceul- 
frid  the  abliut.  Benedict,  on  his  death-bed,  designa- 
ted Ceoltrld  abbot  of  both  the  monusterie*  at  Wear- 
mouth  and  at  Jarrow.  Bede  describes  him  as  "amaii 
of  great  perseverance,  of  acute  intellect,  bold  in  action, 
experieniced  In  Judgment,  and  zealous  Id  rel%ion." 
He  died  on  his  way  to  Rome,  when  be  had  nearly 
reached  Lanures,  in  France,  on  the  S&th  of  Septem- 
ber, 716.  His  remains  were  csrried  to  Wearmouth. 
but  were  subsequently  removed  to  Qlastonbui^',  His 
letter  concerning  Easter,  addressed  to  Nsiun,  king  of 
tbe  Picts,  and  preserved  by  Bede,  is  distinguished  by 
strength  of  reasoning  and  clearness  of  style.  Dale 
altributeB  to  bim  some  homilies,  eidstles,  and  a  tract, 
Dt  na  Ptrtgrinatiunt.—yfTight,  Biog,  Brit.  Zif.  i,  3S4 
Bede,  Hut.  EccUt.  bk.  v,  ch.  xxi;  Hook,  Ecela. 


Cepenttla  (evidently  a  componnd  of  the  Hebnw 
^B3:  see  Capbab-),  a  town  of  Paleatine  mentioaed 
in  the  PtultHger  Tabit  as  lying  tietween  Ashkelon  and 
Jerusalem,  S  (or  IB)  R.  miles  fram  Eleutherc^Us,  and 
thought  by  Roland  {Falial.  p.  e&S)  to  be  tbe  same  as 
CapkaroTta  (q.  v.);  but  identified  by  Robinson  with 
"  a  deserted  village,  Ke/r  CTriri,  in  or  near  the  pUin, 
not  far  from  Tibneh  and  the  mouth  of  the  Snrsr"  (£e- 
Kordn,  ii,  648). 

G«'pha>  (Kqf  Sc ;  in  later  Heb.  or  Syriic  K^S), 
a  sumame  which  Christ  bestowed  upon  Simon  (John 
i,  42),  and  which  the  Greeks  rendered  by  ni'rpoc,  and 
Uie  Latins  by  Fetna,  both  words  meaning  "a  rook," 
which  is  the  signification  of  the  original.    See  Petbk. 

Ce'ru  {K>)j>a[),  mentioned  (1  Esdr.  v,  29)  as  one 
of  the  "temple  servants"  wbose  "sons"  relumed  from 
Babylon ;  evidently  the  Kebob  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb, 
texts  (Ezra  li,  44 ;  Neh.  vll,  47). 

Ceraatte.     See  Shbpbnt. 

Ceration,  Caratonia.     See  Hdbk. 

Cerdo,  or  Cerdon,  a  Gnostic  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Little  is  known  of  his  history.  Ireneus  savs 
that  be  came  lo  Rome  fVom  Syria  In  the  time  of  Hy- 
ginus,  A.D.  140.  Lordner  gathers  tbe  testimonies  of 
tbe  fathers  with  regard  to  bis  heresy  as  follows :  Cer^ 
don  taught,  according  to  Iren bus,  that  "the  God  de- 
clared in  the  law  and  tbe  prophets  Is  not  the  Father  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  For  he  was  well  known,  the 
latter  unknown ;  the  former  was  just,  the  latter  good" 
(IrennDs,  as  cited  by  Eusebins  (Hitl.  Ecdtt.  iv,  11). 
Epi[^anius's  summary  is  to  this  purpose  {Baer.  41) ; 
"  That  Cerdon  learned  his  doctrine  from  Heracleon, 
making,  however,  some  addldona  of  hi*  own  :  that  he 
came  from  Syria  to  Rome,  and  there  spread  his  notions 
In  the  time  of  Hvginns.  He  held  two  contrary  prin* 
ciples;  be  said  that  Christ  was  not  bom.  He  denied 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  rejected  the  Old  Tes- 

"Cerdon  sncceeded  Hpracleon,  and  came  from  Sj-ria 
to  Rome  in  the  time  ifHyginn*,  the  ninth  bishop  al^r 
the  apostles;  that,  like  many  other  heretics,  he  held 
two  principles  and  two  gads :  one  good  and  unknoim, 


CEREALIS 


18: 


■he  Fubor  of  Jwua ;  tba  other  ths  CrratOT,  evQ  and 
known,  who  Bpike  ia  tb«  Ijiv,  mppeared  to  the  pnph- 
utf,  and  wu  oftfin  ncn.  He  Uaght,  moreover,  ttut 
Jmos  wu  not  bora  of  H«r}',  and  tlut  be  had  fleth  in 
appeuann  ddIv.  Ha  denied  the  reaurrection  of  tie 
body,  and  rsje^  the  Old  Teitament.  He  mid  that 
Chriat  deacended  tnta  the  niiknown  Father ;  that  he 
cams  ta  overthrew  tha  empire  and  dominion  of  ths 
Creator  of  tha  world,  aa  many  other  heretic*  do;  and, 
bATing  been  a  rhort  time  at  Rome,  he  tranamitled  hia 
venom  to  Marclon,  who  aucceeded  him." 

Theodoret'a  account  of  Cerdon  ia  lo  this  effect :  "He 
waa  iu  the  time  of  the  first  AnEoaiDue.  He  taught 
that  there  is  one  God,  tha  Father  of  oar  Lord  Jeaaa 
Cbrlat,  unkDowD  to  the  prophcta ;  another,  the  Maker 
of  the  onlverae,  the  girer  of  the  Hoeakc  bw ;  and  thia 
bat  is  Just,  the  other  good.  For  he  In  the  law  erden 
'that  an  eye  should  be  giren  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth 
for  a  tnotbi'  but  the  good  God  in  the  Goapela  com. 
m«nila  lliat  'Co  him  who  amiteth  thee  on  tha  ri|;bt 
cheek,  turn  the  other  also ;' and  that  to  him  who  would 
take  away  thy  coat,  thou  sliouldeat  give  thy  cloak  also. 
He  in  the  Llw  directs  to  love  a  friend  and  bate  an  ene- 
my ;  bnt  the  other,  to  love  even  our  enemies.  '  Not 
obeervlnic,'  aav*  Theodoret,  'Chat  in  the  law  it  ia  di- 
rected that  if  a  man  meet  his  enemy 'a  ox  going  aatray, 
he  should  bring  him  back ;  and  not  forliear  to  help  bia 
beast  when  lying  under  hla  harden ;'  and  that  he  who, 
tKcording  to  him,  is  alone  good,  threatens  ^hell-fin  to 
biia  who  calls  bis  brother  fool ;'  and  abowlng  himself 
to  be  Juat,  aaid, '  With  what  meaaare  ye  mete,  it  ahall 
be  meted  to  you  again.'"  Irensua  aaya  that  whi 
Cenhin  waa  at  Rome,  he  several  times  renounced  ) 
erron ;  hat  at  length,  for  returning  to  them  aKaln,  or  ' 

flnallj  excluded  from  the  Church.  Cerdo'a  viewa  were 
ad<^ited  and  amplified  by  Hardon.  See  Monhrim, 
Coammlaiifi,  cent,  li,  f  6B ;  Urdner,  Wotii,  viii,  444 
aq. ;  Baar,  Die  Chrintidte  G«oiu,  p.  101,  378  eq. ;  and 
Uie  aiticlea  GNoaTicH ;  Habcion. 

Cerefllla.  PctiliDS,  ■  relative  of  the  emperor  Tee- 
paaian,  and  a  Roman  general  of  note  in  several  provin- 
cial campaigns  (Taciiui,^»i.xiv,3Si  ff«r.  lil,&9,T8. 
79;  Iv,  71,86:  Affr.  8,17}.  During  ths  war  of  Titus 
against  the  Jews  be  commanded  a  deticbment  against 
the  Samarltaiu  (Joaephns,  War,  01,  7,  US),  and  waa  ac- 
tive In  tha  ^ege  of  Jcraaalem  (ib.  iv,  9, 9 ;  vi,  2,  G ;  4, 3). 

Careals,  a  general  term  embracing  all  those  kinds 
of  grain  (p^,  "oera")  oTwhidi  breed  (q.  v.)  is  made. 
See  AaBiCDLTUBR.  These,  amoog  the  Hebrewa,  were 
the  following  (see  Jahn,  BiU.  Archaal.  §  68).     See 

1.  Wieal  (nan,  tmtak',  i.e.  na}ri,  like  the  Arabic 
Mnlak;  the  several  kernels  are  denoted  by  the  plur. 
0"'arii  Greek  xvpoc;  in  the  N.  T.  the  mora  generic 
terra  uTroc;  in  modern  Egypt  and  Barbary  ImcAiiit, 
Heh.  TfSp)  waa  the  meat  Important  kind  of  bread-cnm 
grown  In  Palestine  (Isa.  zxviii,  !G ;  Eaek.  iv,  9),  and, 
like  barley,  waa  raised  tbreaKbout  the  land  (Deat.  viii, 
8;  Jud(c.vt,Il,  13am.vi,]S;  2SBm.iv,6:  ivii,!8i 
comp.  Pliny,  xviii,  SI)  j  so  fully  eupplying  the  inhab- 
itants that  Solomon  waa  enabled  with  a  surplus  to  pro- 
cure the  servirea  of  king  Hiram's  artiiiiers  (I  Kings 
T,  11),  and  conaidcrable  exports  of  wheat  to  Tvre  are 
spoken  of  at  a  Uter  dale  (V.r.^\.  xitvii,  17).  The  cul- 
tore  of  wheat  ia  still  practised  there  (KoblnMin,  Rr- 
•«irc*«,  a,  27a  etc.).  The  finest  wheat  ia  aald  (Mii^b- 
na,  Mtnach.  viii,  1)  to  have  grown  in  Micbmaali,  and 
■n  unknown  locality  called  JfnvmciaJ  (nn'3^l^). 
In  Ezek.  (1-  cO  *  pMoKar  kfaid  of  wheat  {^^1"^  '•'^n, 
"wheat  of  Minnith")  la  spoken  of.  See  Miknith. 
The  sowing  of  wheat  fell  In  Marchcsvan  (Oct.-Nov.), 
and  the  reaping  (O'Sn  ^3p,  "  wheat-harvest")  at  the 
«ndofIIi«an(MBich-April).'   See C^LBtrcAlL   Wheat 


CEREALS 

atilt  ripens  In  Paleatina  sometimes  In  April  {EoMa, 
Aua,  p.  ]4S,4Bi;  Shaw,  TVuv.  p.  tWI),  allbongfa  it  ii 
usually  fit  to  cot  in  Hay  or  the  beginning  of  Jane 
(Robinson,  Aueorabs,  it,  W),  etc).  See  Fiut-fbuits. 
Wheat  flour  (0-^ri  nbb,  Exod.  sxix,  3)  waa  nscd  for 
bread  and  cakes  (q.  v.),  and  the  grains  were  also  roaft- 
ed  {>ae  Pabckhd  Corn)  when  green  (Juhna  v,  II ; 
Itutbil,^;  lSam.xvii,17;  S  Sam.  vii,»<).ms  is  i^till 
tbs  cose  in  Pslestine,  especially  by  the  reapers  (Has- 
aelqutst,  p.  91).  See  Hirvkbt.  The  kernels  were 
also  pounded  (Lev.  ii,  14;  xxiii,  14 ;  3  Kings  iv,  41) 
into  a  kind  of  grita  (^S-;i;).  See  Ears  (or  C0R.1). 
In  the  sanctuary  wheal  was  uaed  in  conoiderable 
quantity  (Eira  vii,  22;  omip.  vi,  B;  see  Bel  2> 
Wheat  was  univetealiy  cuhivated  in  the  landa  of 
hither  Asia  and  the  adjoining  paiu  of  North  Africa 
CEgj-pl),  from  the  earliest  timea;  but  how  it  was  iu- 
Iroiiuced  to  the  Hebrewa  ia  unknown.  See  geoer* 
allv  TJnk,  in  the  AbhtnS.  dtr  BttOter  Akadanir, 
1816-17.  p.  I2T  sq  ;    Celsii  BiereboL  ii,  112  aq.      See 

W II  BAT. 

2.  Barby  (H'^Sb,  aeiroA),  of  various  klnda  (chiefly 
the  aix-rowed),  waa  largely  cultivated  (Gen.  xxvii,  16; 
2  Chron.  ii,  11);  Ruth  ii,  17;  2  Sam.  xiv,  80;  Isaiah 
xxvili,  96;  Jer.  sli,  8)  by  the  Egyptians  (Exod.  ix.  31 
aq.)  and  Hebrewa  (as  one  ofthe  ataple  javdncla  of  Pal- 
eatlne,  Dent,  viii,  8 ;  camp.  Joel  i,  11),  and  was  used 
partly  as  fi^dder  (1  Kings  Iv,  28;  comp.  re$aek.  f.  iii, 
•d}  for  cattle  (Phedr.  v,  5,  S :  Juven.  viii,  154 ;  Pliny, 
xill,47;  xviii,  14;  ixviii,  81)  or  horses  {Mtop,  Fat. 
140;  comp.  Sonnini,  TVoe.  ii,  20),  partly  for  bread 
(Pliny,  Hit.  Nat.  xviii,  26)  for  the  poorer  cUases 
(Jndg.vll,18;  2  Kings  iv,42;  John  vi,9,13;  oomp. 
Eiek.iv,9:  Joseph.  IKa^v,  10,!;  fbilo,  U.SOT;  Sen- 
eca, Ep.  18,  p.  Sa.  Bip.;  Athen.  vii.  804;  Plutarcb, 
Ajyopk.  Ttg.  p.  6,  Lipr. :  Xenaph.  Attab,  iv,  6,  81 ;  era 
Weistein,  1,876  sq.);  for  the  Utter  parpoae  it  waa  re- 
garded as  wholeeome  (lAclan,  Afonvi.  6;  Pliny,  xui, 
66);  lot,  being  lesa  [ulalable  than  wheat  (Atbrn.  iii, 
11&).  it  was  not  usually  eaten  ctcept  under  the  prei«- 
nn  of  hunger  (Wilhelm  Tyr.  si,  22,  p.  i<fa\  and  thrrc- 
fore  constituted  the  regular  fare  of  Roman  aoldien 
when  undergoing  correction  (Livy,  xxvii,  13 ;  ^ueton. 
Aug.  24:  V'rpef.  Jfif.  1,  IB;  Dia  Casa.  ilix,  c.  'il  and 
88;  Polyb.vi,S»,4;  Polycn.  iv,  24),  aa  of  the  farrmita 
in  the  Christian  Church  (Jeri^me.O^.  ii,  (>) ;  although 
in  early  tlmaa  It  waa  a  common  article  of  food  (Din  v. 
xviii,  14 ;  Artemid.  I,  7]  \  and  is  slill  highly  relish^ 
by  the  Arabs  in  Morocco  (Hiht,  Nadir,  p.  IS3).  It 
waa  also  employed  aa  mslt  for  a  Fpeciea  of  mtoxicating 
drink  (q.  v.).  See  WiKi.  Bariey  waa  sown  in  the 
middle  of  the  month  of  Marcheavan  (q.  v.),  or  Korent- 
lier  (LightfiMt,  p.  340,  1004),  and  was  reaped  in  the 
month  AWb  (q.  v.),  or  April  (at  Jericho  in  March;  aee 
Duble,CaJeiniur./>aJiF(t.  aam.  p.  14,  23;  in  lesa  favor- 
ed BituaUonaeven  in  Hay,  Robinson,  Arj.  ii,  S9, 100); 
and  these  seasons  became  regular  notations  of  time  (2 
Sam.  xxl,9;  Bnth  i,  22;  Judith  viU,  3).  See  Haii- 
vrxr.  See  Kcntrallt'  Celslns,  HUnb.  ii,  2S9  aq.  On 
the  kinds  of  barley  known  to  the  oncienta,  see  Link,  in 
the  .4M(ndJ,ifer;%nfai/.  Cbu*e<lmlAi.;tr«wa.Jfai. 
dmwEif.K'ttanua.  1816-17,  p.  I!l8sq.  On  Num.  v.  15, 
i:,.m|j.  tbe  article  jKAtdaaT-OrFKRiKo,      See  B»u- 

B.  5pe£!(r^03,fauK'iiierA,'  Arab,  buxntnt;  Aram. 
»rm  ;  Trilieum  ipdta  of  Unn. ;  by  tbe  Latins  oiar 
or  adorfwn,  Adam,  Horn.  Ant,  ii,  4S4),  mentioned  in 
Exod.  ix,  va ;  Isa.  xxriii,  2S ;  Etek.  Iv,  9  [see  FrKH- 
Es],  ia  a  species  of  bread-cvra  with  a  faDr-pclalcd 
lilunt  calyx,  hermaphrodite  liloraoma,  followed  liy  lit- 
tle bearded  slender  ears,  reemingly  shorn  (hence  the 
name,  from  CDa<  to  CVfoiO,  whoaa  grains  adhera  ao 
firmly  in  the  hutk  as  to  ba  with  difficulty  aepanlu) 
from  ii  It  grows  about  aa  tail  aa  barley,  and  waa 
eottivalad  in  tha  eontbern  parte  of  Europe  (Strabo,  ▼ 


CEREMONY 


181 


mX  M  nU  w  In  Egypt  (Herod,  li,  86 ;  PHn?,  xrill, 
U),  Knhitt,  and  PaliHtine  (wbcre  it  is  Mill  railed),  of 
Nnnl  Y«rwtle«,  tha  winter  gnin  baing  eatAemed  tbe 
belt  (Eiod.  It,  39).  AmouK  tbe  Itnulitea  it  wu  oau- 
iHt  iMOcialed  «lth  burle^  u  ■  fl«Id-crep  (lu.  1,  •:.). 
vie  atml  ii  fine,  ind  whilar  tlun  wbwt  aonr  (Pliny, 
iriU,I1);  tlMbTwdnud«orit(Pbocaj,c.S8)uTnani 
brittlg  and  leu  uMritlaiu  than  wfaeaten  (Dfaxcor.  ii, 
111).  Coinp.genenl]7Celaint,flHr(it.ii,98K|.  " 
riooi  otber  algriliicatioDi  of  the  sbora  Hab.  term  nuj 
be  tea  in  Lindcrti  Ltx.  //tb.  li.  10O7{  amcmE  mod- 
mi,  Shaw  (TVm.  p.  861)  nndentanda  rice  (pryut. 
Lion.);  tba  Sept.  hu  iia  in  iaa.,  but  uAopn  in  ' 
ihe  other  paiaaKM  {boih  era  ivnonTmoin  I 
Herod,  ii,  »4).  Comp.  Link,  Unttil,  i,  4M  aq.  See 
SrtLt. 

4.  MiOet  appean  to  be  denotod  bj  tbe  Heb.  ^m, 
Awioa'  (Anb.  thidma}  of  Ezek.  iv,  D,  which,  how- 
(nr.Geaeniaa(7Vj.  p.  S3n)regirde  as  «  generic  term, 
ID  diMinction  from  Iho  liidiim  miUd  (^H-iickui  docina, 
Lino.),  a  npeeiee  of  cereal  (Pliaj,  xxvii,  G.<)  pi^atlai 
tir  ilB  hermaphrodite  or  two-bejirded  and  mnatly  two- 
petiled  calvi.  It  atanda  quite  Lill,  and  bears  prolaK 
tnvn  kemela  pressed  together  snd  reaemiilin:^  rice, 
ItUoMoms  In  Ei;7pt  (RoHllini,  ifonum,  eiv.  i,B63  aq. ; 
Fonkil  fonnd  It  at  Koaett^)  in  the  be|{innin/  of  Ko- 
rember,  aod  U  also  now  cnltivated  in  Arabia  (Well- 
lied,  TVuv.  i,  295),  when  the  grain  la  omhI  for  a  pooi 
Mtt  of  bread  (Niebubr,  Rfite,  i,  lAB).  See  generallv 
CeUi  Hknt.  1,  4fi8  aq. ;  Oedmann,  SammL  r,  S~ 
aeaUuxn-. 

Some  distioct  ipeelee  of  grain  is  thought  bj  i 
(m  tbe  Sept.,  Aqaila,Thead.,  and  Vulg.)  to  be  desig- 
nitad  by  tbe  term  1^03,  awmaa',  of  Isa.  iitI 
wbrther  ■  Tariety  of  millet,  spelt,  or  barley,  or 
totally  dilhrent  cereal, la  not  ai^reed;  but  the  word  la 
pnbap*  rather  an  appellaU-rs  indicative  (ao  the  A.  V. 
"appointed"  barley)  of  a  barley.fleld  (see  RoaenmCl- 
In  aikd  Gesenius,  in  loc.).  Other  modern  gramineous 
l-laota.  aa  rye,  oata,  maise,  rice,  etc.  do  not  appear  la 
U  meBtjoned  in  Siriplore.  See  Rtk.  Some  of  tbe 
■aialler  graaaes,  however,  seem  to  have  been  employed 
aafitinacea.  See  CcMiii;!.  Certiiln  legumes  also,  aa 
I ..,_  ^^^  1^^  f^  rimilar  cnlinary  pur- 


poses. 


ePuLS 


Cersmony,  Latin  on-vnMso,  a  word  sanctioned 
by  Ckeroniao  u«ag^  but  of  ancartaln  etymology,  and 
nriiMsly  derived:  (1)  from  Ctm,  and  tbe  offerinKs 
■Ida  Id  her  1  (!)  from  Cart,  the  Etnrian  town,  whith. 
B  tbe  sacred  thinita  and  Vestala  of  tbe  Romana  were 
Moveyed  for  safety  from  the  Oauls  (Forcellinj,  jU*.  lol. 
£«».):  (S)fhmi  Carere  :  (4)  nrom  Corvi  and  CariUu; 
(1)  tnm  Cenu,  an  ohaoleta  Latin  wurd  -pimi,  imetut, 
L  e.  ptoo*,  sacred  (Scaliger) ;  (G)  from  Coira  =  Cum 
(Seargea'  Laibm);  (7)  from  CUn,  as  though  it 
•baatd  be  CmUmma. 

Partkolar 


rfdetbere(1)wbetber  the  term  iiaaaitable 
tMe  Cbrialiau  church  eerrices,  and  (!)  Its  Import  in 
(teeda  and  symbolical  boolu,  makini(  fVee  nse  of  Pal- 
■er'a  article  in  Henog,  lieal.i;<KyUop.  (Snppl.  i,  S14). 
^'beaever  the  word  ceremony  la  naed  in  an  indefl- 
aite  way  of  a  rellgloDa  act,  we  most  not  overlook  the 
diNlDetka  between  the  eaaential,  neceaeary  part  of  Che 
Kt,  witboot  which  DO  worship  can  be,  and  ita  accooi- 
fmyb'f  forma,  which  only  aerra  to  give  it  greater 
■laninily,  and  Mng  out  more  itrlklngly  the  contrast 
•ilh  amnion  life.  This  non-essential  part  only  li 
"laauaj.  To  lilnatrata  farther:  tba  religjoui  act  may 
In  deHned  aa  Mmalhing  done  in  obedience  to  divine 
nannand.  and  therrfon  neeeaaary  to  aalvatlon ;  while 
wwiany  rspre*ent*  man's  voluntary  work,  tb*  olT- 
Viag  of  tbe  connection  of  tbe  religlmu  Impalie  and 
Mi  nthetic  tast?.  Hence  reaalta  the  truly  Prolcataot 
toriae  that  tbsae  hrtm,  because  tbay  are  inbjectlve- 


CEREMONY 

ly  conditioned,  may  vary  acDarding  to  timaa  and  plaeea, 
Tbe  Romin  Catholic  Cbarch.  in  spite  of  her  longing 
for  absolute  unity,  ia  unable  to  prevent  some  freedom 
and  variety  in  this  reapect,  and  allowa  that  particular 
rites  (rilai  parficnUanii  need  not  be  everywhere  ex- 

lala)  must  be  obeerved  always  and  everywhere  alike. 
On  this  point  Melanethon  riijhtly  aaya,  "  We  do  not 
fully  understand  what  our  opponenta  mean*'  (Nonaatla 
Intelllgiroos,  quid  velint  adversarii);  for  by  tbe  dis- 
tinction nf  universal  and  particuUr  rites,  the  I'mteal- 
ant  view  la,  In  fact,  conceded  to  lie  correct,  and  tbe 
onl}-  qoeation  would  aecm  to  be,  which  Htea  belong  tr 


Yot,n 


Romish  view,  we  have  only  to  rank  among  the  nnlver 

ing,  and  arbitrary  things,  and  thus  make  them  obliKa- 
tory.  In  tbe  distinction  of  the  divinely  commanded 
and  the  bnmanly  devised,  we  must  keep  in  view  (I)  ' 
that  tbe  Mosaic  law  made  what  we  call  ceremony  the 
subject  of  divine  enactment,  and  did  not  leave  It  tt 
man'a  choice ;  and  (i)  that  thia  cboicE  is  not  individual 
caprice.     Whatever,  through  the  Church's  tendency 

ritual  fonna — whatever  has  Iwcoiue  settled  practice  In 
the  ChuTcb,  should  be  respected  by  tbe  individual,  aa 
a  cuatom  Inherited  from  the  falben — with  the  condi- 
tion, indeed,  that  when  a  ceremony  has  lost  ita  origin- 
al, correct  meaning,  or  aaaumed  a  falaa  one,  or  when 
ita  ontwaid  form  has  become  opposed  to  the  moral  oon- 
sdouanew  and  condition  of  the  Church,  Christian  fTea- 
dom  may  atsert  lis  right  to  abollah,  aimpllfy,  or  rc- 

The  distinction  may  be  made  clearer  by  the  follow- 
ing illustrationi :  To  haptiie  ia  not  a  ceremony,  but  a 
neiesaary  church  act:  but  the  uae  of  a  cope  and  sur- 
plice, of  a  silver  baptismal  cup  and  bowl,  of  certain 
liturgically  prescrilied  words,  tbe  laying  on  of  tbe 
himda,  the  aim  of  the  cross — tbeee  constitute  ceremo- 
ny. Again,  we  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper  in  obedi- 
ence to  Chriat'a  command,  but  ceremcmy  preacribea 
how  we  shall  furnish  a  table,  as  *  Mew  Testament  al- 
tar; what  kind  of  vesaela  we  shall  use;  wbether,bke 
the  Lntherans,  we  ahatl  give  the  m/i-  to  each  com. 
municanC,  with  the  same  words,  or,  like  tbe  Keformed, 
shall  cut  the  bread,  etc. ;  whether  the  communlcanta 
ahall  kneel  or  not,  etc.  Theae  eximplea  ahow  that 
what  ia  nccesaary  and  what  in  voluntary,  what  Is  di- 
vinely enjoined  and  what  is  pleating  to  man,  tbe  ker- 
nel and  the  shell,  cannot  lie  mecbanically  separated; 
and  that,  though  some  ceremony  enters  Into  all  ralig- 
iouB  services.  It  should  never  be  mere  empty,  nnmean. 
Ing  form.  What  are  called  in  pnblic  life  conrt  cere- 
monials are  indeed  sueb,  Imt  the  minister  of  the  Gospel 
may  not  be  merely  a  master  of  ceremonies.  Injudicial 
proceedings  ceremony  may  have  real  aii^LAcance:  e. 
g.  in  the  taking  of  oatb,  the  raised  hand  and  set  form 
of  worda.  the  asnumption  of  a  black  cap  by  the  Jndge 
pronouncing  sentence  of  death,  and  (he  breaking 
of  a  staff  before  the  execution,  non-eaaential,  yet  sym. 
bolic  act.-,  powerfuUy  Influence  the  Imagination. 

~~  e  application  rf  the  term  ceremony  to  the  rllaa 
of  Chri'tian  baptism,  marriage,  burial,  ate.  Is  repng- 
to  our  feelings,  as  implying  excessive  formality. 
The  Soclnlana  alone  call  laptism  and  the  Ijjrd's  Sup- 
per ceremonies,  regarding  them  a*  essentialiv  onmean- 
bservance*,  though  enjoined  by  Christ^  On  the 
hand,  tbe  Koman  Catholic  and  High-Church  view 
aaaigns  to  certain  ceremonial  act^  somewhat  ofsaving 
itRcacy,  to  attain  which  duly  autborlied  forms  mutt 
le  observed.  The  evangelical  Pmteatant.eachewing 
■itber  extreme,  accepU  a*  helps  in  the  Christian  life 
luch  ritual  forms  as  by  their  ontwatd  conespondeilce 
sFith  the  religiooB  idea  lend  to  edi^ ;  but  be  does  not 
trust  In  them  as  having  power  to  save ;  for  him,  far 
nore  Important  than  sprinkled  water,  folded  bauds, 
:hriam,  or  holy  vessel,  la  tha  Word  iff  God,  understood 


CEREMONY  11 

hy  sit,  md  pointing  bim  to  tin  ■■criAce  of  Chrlat  ■•  ] 
hll  hope  Bod  salvalion.  We  Ke,  therefan,  tfalt  the  I 
term  ceremony  is  leis  (requendj-  applicable  to  tbe  ser-  j 
vicei  of  the  Protestuit  tban  to  those  of  the  Rortiui 
Ctthoiic  or  Greek  Church ;  And,  indeed,  in  this  hum 
tbe  word  ia  TBtbet  (bceign  to  Proteituit  ecciealutical 
ind  KienliAc  Unguag*. 

The  Befonnen  ven  not  panctilioaa  In  thli  reipeet, 
however;  hut,  in  their  symbolicai  books,  used  cere- 
mony M  aynonymoaa  with  ri/ia  eccteiiiuliau,  and 
named,  u  aucb,  orcfo  Itctiamum.  oraliomm,  rtltitiu  ecrte- 
lituHcut  I*  aiia  liniSa  (Apol,  Conf.  xli;  Hue,  libri 
Sfob.  p.  2A0).  Frequently  ceremony  wua  confounded 
with  Iraditiima,  and  wliat  holds  good  of  (bsM  appilei 
■bo  to  it.  Kevertheleaa,  a  clear  perception  of  the  Im- 
port of  eeremanv,uid  itadiatinction  from  tbe  wsential 
church  act,  Is  afaown  in  their  doctrine  that  it  [a  not 
"ptr  M  eu/fw  diviaia<ml  aiigua  laUaKpari  dtviniail- 
tM"  (_Form.  Cimaird.  Epil.  cop.  x.  p.  661),  and  that  no 
genonl  coDformity  therein  is  reqaired  by  the  practice 
of  the  ancient  Church;  and  of  more  Importance  still, 
that  nojuatifying  or  saTing  power  belongs  to  tbe  per- 
ftormanca  of  ceremonial  arts  (_Apal.  riii,  p.  BOB.  Pao- 
Ua  Ideo  damnit  MoMJcas  ccrcmoniaa,  sicot  tnidiliones 
djninst,  quia  eiialimibantor  eiae  opera,  qu«  meren- 
tnr  >atitiam  coram  Deo).  If  anch  an  o[Hnlon  of 
their  value  olitaina,  (hey  muat  be  abandoned  (l.nther, 
Titchreden,  th.  li,  cap.  10,  3).  So  we  muat  not,  for 
the  sake  of  our  eare  or  pesce,  take  part  in  ceremoniea 
wbleh  conscience  diupprovea.  If  thow  In  nae  fall  to 
effect  the  true  aim  of  all  ceremoniea,  L  e.  the  teaching 
the  ignorant  and  producing  haimonv  of  worablp,  the 
Church  may  and  ebould  eatiblish  othen ;  h>  that,  on 
tbe  one  hand,  the  people  lack  not  thoae  seemly  forma, 
which  jnatly  apprehended,  "do  serve  to  a  decent  oider 
and  godly  diacipiine,"  and,  on  tbe  other,  be  not  so 
Overbardened  or  milled  by  tbem  aa  ''{n  the  bondage 
of  the  abadow"  to  loae  "the  fhiedom  of  the  apirit" 
(rrr/aa  to  EmglM  I^ayer-booi'). 

The  Articles  of  Keligion  of  the  Church  of  England 
declare  that ' '  the  Cbnrch  hath  power  to  decree  ritea 
or  ceremoniea"  (Art.  XX):  and  "every  particular 
<%arch  bath  authority  to  ordain,  cbanice,  and  aboliah 
ceremoniea,  etc."  The  Uethodist  Episcopal  and  Pro- 
taatant  Episcopal  churches  have  similar  artlclea.  "  If 
our  resaonable  aervlce  to  God  as  Chriatiana  Implies 
certain  exlemal  acta  of  worship,  these  external  acts 
mail  bt  performed  after  an  eTtemal  manner — that  la  to 
say,  there  nual  bt  certain  forms  and  ceremoniea  in  our 
diving  worship.  And  those  sects,  like  the  Quakers, 
who  have  pretended  U>  deny  this  ttct,  iiave  proved,  by 
their  own  quaint  and  pecoilar  ceremonies,  that  aone- 
lUof  o/Ihe  tori  ii  nee^ul  even  to  their  form  of  Chris- 
tianity.    Bnt  aa  it  ia  iwajrW,  u  likewlae  ia  it  adnm- 

Mligion."  Without  anch  inatitutlonfi,  religion  might  j 
be  preaerved,  indaed,  br  a  few  of  superior  nuderatand- 
ing  and  of  strong  poweraof  reflection,  bnt  among  man- 1 
kind  in  general  all  trace  of  it  would  soon  be  loat. 
When  the  end  fbr  which  they  are  appointed  is  kept  in 
▼i«w,  and  tbe  simple  examples  of  the  New  Testament 
are  observed,  they  are  of  vast  importance  to  the  prT>- 
ductlon  both  of  ploua  f^llnga  and  of  virtuous  condoct; 
but  there  has  constantly  been  a  propenaity  in  the  ba-  j 
man  race  to  mistake  the  meana  for  the  end,  and  to  con- 1 
aider  themaelvea  as  moral  and  religions  when  they 
scrupulously  observe  whet  was  Intended  to  produce 
morality  and  religion.  The  reason  b  obvioua:  cero-  j 
moniul  obsemncea  can  Ix 
great  lacriHce  of  propensicie*  and 
pjble;  when  they  are  obaerved  liy  men  who,  in  the 
tenor  of  public  life,  dn  not  act  immorally,  they  are  re- 
garded by  othera  aa  Indicating  high  attainments  in 
virtue ;  and  through  that  aelf-deceit  which  so  wondrr- 
fully  mialeada  the  reason,  and  inclines  it  to  minister  to 
the  passions  whkh  It  should  restrain,  men  have  Iham- 
■elvea  become  penuadcd  thai  their  acknowledgment 


«  CEEINTHCS 

of  divine  authority,  implied  in  their  Kspectto  the  rit- 
ual which  that  authority  is  concetred  to  have  sane* 
tioned,  may  lie  taken  aa  s  proof  that  tliey  have  nothing 
(oapprehend  from  the  violation  of  tbe  law  under  which 
they  are  placed  (Watson,  a.  v.). 

"  The  ritea  and  ceremonies  of  the  Chriatlan  Cburch, 
agreeably  to  the  general  rulea  of  Scripture,  ought  to 
he  of  such  a  kind  as  to  promote  the  order,  the  deceDC7, 
and  tbe  solemnity  of  public  worship.  At  the  Faina 
time  they  ongbt  not  to  be  nnmemna,  but  shonld  pT«> 
serve  that  character  of  simplicity  which  is  inseparable 
from  true  dignity,  and  which  accords  especially  wiA 
the  spiritual  character  of  the  religion  of  Chrbt.  Tbe 
apoatlea  often  remind  Christiana  that  they  are  detiv- 
ared  from  the  ceremonies  of  the  law,  which  are  atyled 
by  Pelar  'a  yoke  which  neither  their  fathers  nor  they 
were  able  to  bear'  (Acts  iv,  10).  The  whole  tenor  of 
our  Lord's  discoursea,  and  of  tbe  writings  of  his  apoa- 
tlea, elevates  tbe  mind  above  those  auperttitiooa  obserr. 
ances  In  which  tbe  Pharisees  placed  the  subManc*  of 
religion ;  and,  according  to  tbe  divine  saying  of  Paul, 
'  The  kingdom  of  God  is  not  meat  and  drink,  bnt  rigbb 
ouaneas  and  peace,  and  joy  In  the  Holy  Ghost'  (Bom. 
liv,  17).  The  nature  of  this  kingdom  is  forgotten 
when  l^volaua  ohaervancea  ate  maltlplied  by  humBD 
authority  ;  and  the  complicated,  espensive  paiceaDirT 
of  Roman  Catholic  worship,  together  with  the  still 
more  childish  ceremonies  which  abound  In  the  Eactcm 
or  Greek  Church,  appear  to  deserve  the  application  of 
that  cenaure  which  tbe  apostle  pronoanced  when  he 
represented  the  attempts  made  in  bis  days  to  revive 
the  Mosaic  ritual  as  a  'turning  again  to  weak  and  b^- 
garly  elements.'  Further,  all  tiie  Scripture  mlea  and 
'  examples  pugreat  thit,  in  enacting  ceremoniea,  regard 

dicea  of  those  to  whom  they  are  prescrilied,  and  that 
those  who  entertain  more  rnlightcDed  views  upon  the 
Bubject  ahouid  not  deppise  their  weak  brethren.  Upon 
the  same  principle,  it  is  obvious  that  ceremonies  ought 
not  to  be  lightly  changed.  In  tbe  eyes  of  moat  peo> 
pie,  thoae  practices  appear  venerable  which  have  been 
handed  down  from  nmole  antiquity.  To  manr  the 
want  of  those  helps  to  which  they  have  been  accus- 
tomed in  tbe  BKerclsea  of  devotion  might  proTe  very 
hurtful,  and  frequent  cbangea  in  the  external  parts  of 
worship  might  shake  tlie  steadbstnesa  of  their  faith. 
The  last  rule  deducible  from  the  Scripture  examples  b 
this,  that  the  authority  which  enacts  the  ceremonies 
should  clearly  explain  tbe  light  in  which  they  are  to 
be  considered ;  should  never  employ  any  eipressiona, 
or  any  means  of  enforcing  them,  wl^ch  lend  to  convey 
to  the  people  that  they  are  accounted  necersat^'  to  sal- 
vation ;  and  should  beware  of  aeeming  to  Inch  that 
the  most  punctual  observance  of  things  In  themselves 
indifferent  is  of  equal  importance  with  judgment,  mer- 
cv,  and  the  love  of  God.  "—Hill,  Ltdum  on  DmnHy 
(N.  Y.  ed.,  p.  773).  See  also  Palmer,  in  Uenog's  Bmt- 
SmyHnpSdie,  Sopplem.  I,  .^14;  Farlndon.  ScnnoiBa,  ii, 
180,  161;  iii,  27,  39ej  Cimmon  PrOfer  (Ch.  of  Eng. 
land),  Of  Cenmonia;  Barrow,  ITiirii  (N.  Y.  od.),  I, 
S93;  ii,  HS9j  iii,  168. 


Cerlnthlana,  follow 


■BOfCeri 


«(q.v.). 


CeTinthns  (K^i^t),  a  hereaiarch.  who  lired  in 
tbe  time  of  the  apostle  John,  towards  the  end  of  the 
flrst  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  centur}'. 
The  accounts  of  the  anclenla  and  the  oi^nloua  of  mod- 
em wrilcra  are  equally  at  variance  with  respect  to 
him.  He  was  a  Jew  by  nation  and  relif^n,  who,  af- 
ter having  studied  in  the  schools  of  Alexandria,  ap- 
peared in  Palestine,  and  apresd  his  errors  chiefly  in 
AaU  Minor.  Our  aourrea  of  information  aa  to  Us  doc- 
trines are  Irenaius,  udn.  Hot.  i,  90;  Eusebins.  ffisf. 
A'cd.  iii,  28  ;  vii,  !G ;  Bpiphanlu^  ^for.  S8 ;  and  The- 
odoret,  i'ab.  Bar.  li,  8  (0pp.  lorn.  iii).  Epiphanlna 
makea  him  to  have  been  one  of  th«B  Jews  w1k>,  in 
ttaair  leal  for  the  law  of  Moses,  troubled  the  Chorcb 


CEYLON  li 

TIm  additian  by  confoaion  diuiiig  the  yvar  I86E  wai 
•sly  18,  whils  9  vera  removed  by  dentb  and  3  hj 
tuamnnnicatioa.  Tb«  aggregalo  DUmbcT  reporUd 
u  iltaudiDg  the  Sabbath  moraing  exercise!  at  S  or 
ibe  10  itatiiiai  wai  1S3S;  46  preaching -places  were 
nporttd,  and  6!  aerTices  are  conducted  each  week ;  IS 
■dalU  and  38  children  were  bapdied.  The  contribu- 
tioM  of  tlia  chnrchei  fbr  18S5  ameaDled  to  £10!  7*.  !}d. 
TIm  income  oTthe  Nati*a  Evangelical  Society  waa  £61. 
Tine  were  7  itatiooe,  T  ■ub-BtatioDv,  6  mlialonariea,  1 
^f  sidan,  8  female  sulstant  miuianarieB,  3  native  pu- 
lon, !  licensed  preacben,  20  catecbists.  6  teachen  \a 
■cminirio,  40  Khool-teachera,  and  9  athei  helpers. 

«.  ne  Ciarch  Mimmary  Sociity.  —  Tbe  Chureh 
UuiDiury  Society  lent  fuur  miBsionailea  in  1813  to 
Cerlan.  Two  of  them— Mr.  Mayor  and  He.  Lam. 
bnck-«Uli0Ded  themKlvea  in  Kandy.  The  town  it- 
idf  his  only  about  SOOO  people,  but  la  the  neigbborin); 
DDanCiias,  to  which  the  Ubora  at  these  missiouariea 
nlended,  there  is  a  popnlation  of  !00,000.  The  fmits 
or  ihia  miHioD  among  the  Kandians  hare  been  ven' 
itiall.  The  secluded  and  aoUlary  condition  of  the 
Eandian  tBtritary,  within  which  European)  aeldom 
ulend,  hid  kept  this  region  under  the  sway  of  Buddh- 
llji,  iDd  the  Kandians  preserved  a  rigid  conformity 
la  all  iti  rales.  Alter  five  years  five  icboolt  had  been 
established,  nambcriug  137  pupils;  and  in  1833  tho 
munber  of  schools  had  increased  to  13,  and  the  Dumber 
of  Mbalsra  to  400.  During  the  last  twenty  years  Eu. 
npeanshavs  settled  among  the  Kandlan  Hlllg,  causing 
ionie  irritation  to  the  peasants,  but  aflbrding  protection 
to  the  minkm,  which  is  still  continued.  It  is  stated  in 
1  rmnl  report  that  the  labors  of  the  missionaries  are 
coDfined  in  a  great  meaaure  to  Bojonmers  fh>m  the  mar- 
itime  piovinoes,  who  reside  at  Kandv  aad  other  places 
in  Uu  interior,  and  who  are  Dominal  Christians,  and 
that  the  native  Kandlanabave  received  compaiatively 
liule  attention. 

IIm  Church  mission  station  at  Baddagame,  in  the 
low  coonby,  ten  miles  north  of  Point  de  Galle,  com- 
BiBctd  at  the  same  time  as  that  at  Kandy,  has  been 
nss  lesc  Fncceeaful.  Schools  bave  been  eatahlishsd, 
prfctcd  books  have  been  circalated  and  read,  and  many 
hsi-e  been  made  acqoainted  with  the  principles  of 
Chhatianlty.  StUl  there  bave  been  but  few  conver- 
lioai.  In  the  annual  report  for  185*2,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Fsnons,  one  of  the  missionaries,  says ;  '*At  this  place 
tbecborch  is  built  (it  was  dedicated  by  bishop  Heber), 
aid  here  are  the  miaslon  residences,  seminary,  and 
pris'  school ;  but  here,  alas  I  is  the  greatest  indiSer- 
ntt  lu  itt»  good  news  of  salvation." 

Oy  hr  the  meet  important  of  the  stations  of  the 
Cborcfa  of  England  mission  in  Ceylon  is  that  at  Colta, 
I  popnIoQs  district  within  a  few  miles  of  Colombo. 
H*R  the  mission  commenced  Its  labors  In  18S3,  and  a 
(olUgiats  InstitDte  was  founded  in  1827  fut  the  train- 
ing of  native  teachers  and  assistants.  It  commenced 
with  ten  pupils,  and  has  continued  to  the  present  lime 
with  tncceSB,  being  resorted  to  by  the  Tamils  of  Jaffna, 
ihs  Kandians  fkom  the  hills,  and  the  Singhalese  from 
tin  low  conntry.  In  this  "  Oriental  college"  there 
wire  in  1851  H  stadents  In  Greek  and  Utin,  Euclid, 
Scripture  Hiatory,  etc.  A  printing-press  baa  been  for 
MUM  yeaia  in  operation,  which  has  issued  a  translation 
<f  the  Scriptorea  known  as  the  "Cotta  version." 

7.  Watrym  MtOodut  J/unmu.  ~  The  British  Con- 
roena,  stimulated  by  the  earnest  appeals  of  Dr.  Coke 
(q.  v.),  and  by  the  wishes  of  Sir  A.  Johnstone,  chief 
jaStce  of  Ceylon,  determined  in  181B  to  organize  a 
mission  in  Ceylon.  Dr.  Coke,  accompanied  by  six 
miiuooaries,  Messrs.  William  Ault,  James  Lynch, 
Cwrge  Enkine,  William  Martin  Harvard,  Thomas 
Ball  Sqoance,  and  Ben^in  Gongh,  set  sail  from 
IVtiiDouth  on  the  SOth  of  December,  I8ia  Two  of 
the  par^,  Harvanl  and  Scjuance,  were  acquainted 
■itt  tbe  management  of  the  prinCing-press,  which 
■it>ssqDealIy  became  the  chief  InatnuieDt  In  tlie  mi>- 
V—7 


3  CEYLON 

slon.  On  the  6d  of  May  Dr.  Coke  died  on  the  passage. 
The  missionaries  landed  in  June,  and  were  moat  cor- 
dially received  by  the  British  fiinctionaries  on  the  isl- 
and. It  waa  decided  to  occupy  at  first  only  four  sta- 
tions, viz.,  Jaffna  and  Balticaloa,  for  the  Tanil  divi. 
lion  of  tbe  island;  Galle  and  Matura  for  tbe  ^in^itiZfae  ; 
Messrs.  Lynch  and  Squance  to  be  statiunet!  at  JalFna, 
Hr.  Aolt  at  Batticalos,  Mr.  ErskJne  at  Matura,  and 
Mr.  Cloogh  at  Galle. 

It  is  impossible  for  us  to  enter  into  details  concern- 
ing this  most  interesting  and  successfui  mission.  By 
1818  there  were  TO  members  of  tbe  Westeyan  Church  j 
in  lefiB  there  were  over  50  churches  and  shout  2200 
members.  The  literary  labors  of  tbe  Wesleyan  mis- 
sionaries have  been  more  extended  than  those  of  any 
others,  and  their  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of 
Buddhism  are  of  priceless  value.  "  The  Methodbts," 
says  Sir  E.  Tennent,  "  have  been  tbe  closest  inveati- 
gators  of  Buddhism,  the  most  profound  students  of  its 
sacred  books  in  the  original,  and  tbe  most  accomplish- 
ed acholara  both  In  the  classical  and  vernacular  lan- 
guages of  Ceylon."  Their  publications  in  Singhalese, 
against  Buddhism  and  in  favor  of  the  evidences  of 
Christianity,  have  been  of  great  service.  One  of  the 
missionaries,  John  Calloway,  published  a  Dictionary 
of  Singhalese,  with  several  sermons  and  tracts ;  W. 
B,  Fox,  a  Singhalese  and  Portuguese  Vocabulary-; 
Robert  Newstead  tranalated  the  N.  T.  and  the  Hymn- 
twok  into  Portuguese;  Alexander  Hume  translated 
the  first  part  of  Pilgrhn'a  Progress  into  Singhalese. 
Tbe  most  eminent  names  in  literature  among  the  Cey- 
lon missionaries,  however,  ore  those  of  R.  Spence  Hardy 
(author  of  fostem  Uonadutm ;  Mamai  of  Baddiim  ; 
and  other  works),  and  of  the  Itcv.  D.  J.  Gogerly  (t  1832), 
lata  general  superintendent  of  tbe  Wesleyan  Missions 
In  South  Ceylon,  who  stood  at  tbe  head  of  Pali  achol- 
anbip  at  tbe  time  of  his  death  (see  Gooeblv).  So 
great  has  been  the  effect  of  the  preaching  and  of  the 
literary  labors  of  the  Wealeyan  missiotiaries,  that  the 
BuddhiMa  have  formed  a  society  (since  1860)  to  prop- 
agate the  doctrines  of  Gautama  by  itinerant  preaching, 
the  preaa,  and  cnlportage. 

In  I8B9,  tbe  sia<i>ti«  of  Wesleyan  Miaaiooa  were  as 


Tbe  following  sUUsltca  for  1889-90  ara 
he  Miaiomiry  Y(ar-B<xA,  New  York,  1 

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CUABARE  II 

LUtratart. — Beddea  the  voiki  ilrasdj  clMd,  bm 
Tnmoni,  EfUomt  (/"  (*«  HiiloTy  nf  Cryion  (Colombo, 
1886);  Knt^ton,  Hittmy  «/  Ceglon  (London,  184G); 
Tannent,  OrUtotily  »  Ccj ton  (1860,  Hvo) ;  Teonsnt, 
Ceghm;  PUjfBcaf,  Bulorical,  etc.  (London,  1869,  8to)  ; 
Hebtr,  Jamnug  in  IikUo,  mti  Nota  in  Cegim  (PbiU. 
1829,  Sto)  ;  Zowto*  Quarterls  Saiew,  April,  1868,  art. 
T  (Tbe  Ceylon  Weelejaa  Hiiaion);  Atmital  RiporU, 
A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  «nd  of  Wedeya*  Mitriimaiy  fiocwty ,' 
Uanhall  (Roman  Catholic),  CAruMon  Miuiaiu  (Lond. 
and  Naw  Yoifc,  1864,  S  voli.),  toI,  I,  p.  SiT-409;  Sta- 
vens,  Uittoiy  a/Mttho^itm,  roL  Ui,  ch.  zU. 

Chabllri.     S«e  Achabah*. 

Chnbatatselstli.    Sea  Robe. 

Clia'brl*  (Xo^piic  ▼■  i-  'A/3pic,  Tulg.  omiti),  tlia 
Kin  of  Gotlioiilel  (u  r»u  r.),  one  of  tha  limt  "  rnlon" 
{dpxaynt)  m  "ancianti"  (wpivfiiripai)  of  Balliolia 
(q.  V.)  Id  tha  time  of  Judith  (Jud.  vi,  IG;  vili,  10|  x,  S> 

Chad,  St.,  Uefaop  of  York  In  tha  7th  centm;,  «u 
edncated  nndar  Aldan  attbo  monaatnyof  Llndiabma. 
For  gome  yaan  ha  waa  head  of  tha  monaater}'  of  Loa- 
tlagra,  Clareland.  King  Oiwl  made  blm  blihop  of 
York ;  but  at  Wilftid  bad  before  bean  contecrated  to 
that  aoe  by  Fnnch  biihopa,  Chad  gave  it  up  at  the 
■uggBitloii  of  Theodore  (q.  v.),  and  waa  appointed  to 
the  ««  of  Uchfleld.  which  he  bold  till  bis  death,  March 
2,  A.D.  G73.  Hla  name  la  Mill  ptsMTred  In  the  Cal- 
andar  of  tha  Church  of  England  (March  !),  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Ltchlleld  la  named  St.  Cfaad'a.— Chnrton, 
Earlf  S^M  Chirck,  chap.  W. 

Cfaad0rtOIl,LADBENCB,tbefint  muter  of  Eman- 
ncl  College,  Cambridge,  waa  bom  at  Chatterton,  In 
Lancaatdre,  in  IMS.  Hii  parenta  wen  of  the  Romiah 
niligion,  but  tbe  *on,  after  studying  the  law,  went  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a  Kholarsbip  in  Chrtat's 
College,  lor  which  hi*  faLber  disinherited  him.  In  15TS 
betook  bis  degree  of  B.D.,  and  was  chosen  lecturer  of 
St.  CleDient'a  Church,  Cambridge,  where  he  preached 
many  years  ^  and  snch  waa  bis  reputation  that  Sir 
Waller  Hildmay  declared  that.  If  he  would  not  accept 
the  mastenhip  of  hii  college,  the  fbundatlon  ahonld 
not  go  on.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Jamea  I 
he  was  appointed  one  of  tbe  divines  at  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference,  and  he  was  also  one  of  the  IruiaU' 
toTB  of  the  Bible,  tranalatlng  from  Chroalclea  to  the 
Canticles  incloaive.  In  1612  he  took  his  doctor's  de- 
gree. He  died  in  1640.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on  Jus- 
tlflcatioD,  and  a  eennon  preached  at  St.  Paul's  Croea.— 
)tow,A«H&at.SM9.^)K(.Tl,ia2{  Hook,  £edL  Su^o- 
pit,0i,M5. 

Cha'cUac,  named  (1  Ewir.  v,  30),  in  connection 
with  Ammidioi,  *i  one  of  the  (7)  places  thim  which 
ii2  persona  ("  they  of  Chadios,"  ot  Xaliavar)  letomed 
from  Babylon  with  Zembbabel ;  liat  the  He- 
brew lists  (Ezra  ii,  26;  Neh.  vii,  SO)  do  not 
conlain  tbe  name. 

ClUB'reaa  (Xaipiac),  a  brother  of  Tlmo- 
tbeas,  the  leader  of  the  Ammonites  against 
Judas  MiccabMUS  (1  Mace,  t,  G),  who  held 
Gaaara  (Jaaar,  I  Hacc.  v,  8),  where  be  was 
slain  on  the  capture  of  the  fortreaa  by  the  Jaws 
(2  Mace,  x,  82,  37). 

Chaff  (properly  y'l^,  note ;  ixvptiv),  tbe 
tefiue  of  winnowed  grain,  separated  by  the 
breeie,  and  conilsting  of  huahs  and  broken 
straw.  It  wBi  tbe  custom  in  the  Eaat  to  bum 
the  chair  after  winnowing.  There  was  dan- 
ger lest,  after  they  bad  been  separated,  tbe 
chuff  should  be  blown  again  among  tbe  wheat 
by  tbe  chanpng  of  tbe  wind,  and  to  prevent 
this  they  put  fire  to  it  at  tbe  windward  side, 
which  crept  on  and  continued  to  bum  till  it 
had  consumed  all  the  chaff  (Psa.  IxxxiU, 
13 ;  Iia.  V,  i ;  Hatt.  ui,  IS).     Sea  AoBictn^ 


4  CHAIN 

Tbe  word  reitdered  "cEalT'  in  Iia.  v,  H;  zxzlil, 

11,  is  idtin  (dasAiuA'),  and  means  rather  dried  graia 
or  iag.  In  Jer.  xxlii,  2S,  it  ia  yzTi  {le'ben),  elaewber* 
"  stiaw."  In  Eaod.  v,  12,  we  read  of  15^  Og,  UtOtU 
/or  MmiD;  so  that  It  is  Dot  [he  same  aa'stubble.  It 
means  straw  cut  Into  small  portiona,  in  which  state  it 
waa  mixed  with  the  mud  of  which  bricks  were  mad« 
to  give  it  conaiatency.  See  Sthaw.  Id  1  Kings  ir, 
28,  mention  is  made  of  a  mixed  provender  loi  horaea 
and  camels  of  barley  and  pljl,  such  aa  the  Arab*  call 
(ibt  to  this  day.  In  Dan.  iJ,  B6,  the  term  ia  the  Cbal- 
dee  1*S  (w).    See  THRumno. 

(^ff  in  the  Scriptures  Is  a  f^nent  emblem  of 
abortive  wickedness  (Psa.  i,  4;  Matt.  Iti,  13,  etc.). 
False  doctrine!  are  called  chaff;  tiny  are  unproduc- 
tive, and  cannot  abide  the  trial  of  the  word  and  Sfdrit 
ofG<id(Jer.  xxiii,2S).  See  BAmau  or  Fibe.  The 
carr}-ing  away  of  chaff  by  tbe  wind  is  an  ordlnaiy 
scriptaraJ  image  of  the  destmctlon  of  the  wicked,  and 
of  their  powerlessneas  to  resist  God's  Judgments  (lea. 
xvll,  18;  Hoa.  liii,  8;  Zepb.  il,  2). 

Chagab.     See  LocosT. 

Cliagigah.     See  Talxdd. 

Ctanln  (repreaenled  by  several  Heb.  and  Or.  terms). 
Cbalns  of  different  metala  appear  to  have  been  used 
by  the  ancienti  for  various  purposes,  aimilai  to  those 
of  modem  rimes. 

1.  At  a  Badgt  qf  Offiet.—Tbe  gold  chahi  (T^i^, 
rattiT)  placed  about  Joseph's  neck  (Gen.  xli,  43),  and 
that  promised  to  Denial  (Dan.  v,  7,  named  ^'■3'cn, 
Amnii'),  are  inatanoes  of  tha  first  use  (comp.  1  Esdr. 
iii,  8).  In  Egypt  it  was  one  of  the  imrngma  of  a  judiir, 
who  wore  a  jeweled  Image  of  Tbmei  or  Tntth  attached 
to  it  (Wilkinsou'a  AtK.  j^^pt.  Ii,  26);  it  was  also  worn 
by  the  prime  minister.  In  Penia  It  was  considered 
not  only  a  mark  of  t«yal  favor  (Xenophon,  Auak.  1, 
2,  5  27),  but  a  token  of  inveslitun.  (Dan,  1.  c. ;  Uo- 
rler's  Steoad  Jpnnuy,  p.  93),  In  Ezek.  Evi,  11,  tbe 
chain  la  mentioned  as  tha  symbol  of  aovereignty.  Tbe 
breastplato  of  the  bigb-prlest  was  in  like  manner  fert- 
ened  to  the  ephod  with  golden  duina  (Ezod.  "»'»-, 
16,  SI).     See  Attibk. 

3.  Chains  fiir  omaowiilii'  parpota  (comp.  Judith  x, 
4)  were  woni  by  men  as  well  as  women  in  many  conii- 
trlea  both  of  Europe  (Smith's  Diet.  "/  CIuv.  AiLt-v. 
Torques)  and  Asia  (Wilkinson,  iii,  B75),  and  ptvbably 
this  waa  the  case  among  tbe  Hebrews  (Prov.  i,  9). 
The  necklace  (p39,  aamt')  consisted  of  poHi,  conls, 
etc.,  threaded  on  a  string ;  tbe  beads  were  called 
n^Tl^n,  cianmm',  that  la,  per/orated  (Cant,  i,  10, 
"chains,"  where  "  of  gold"  la  Interpolatad).     Be^dea 


CUAIlt  195  CHALCEDON 

IW  DvcUacs,  othtr  eluiiii  mn  mm  (Jodith  x,  4)  Utanl  mud  erm  monoUtenl  itaini.  Ha,  too,  «u  Ui« 
h-ngtng  dovn  u  (U  u  tha  mlM,  <a  iTan  lomr.  ;  flnt  wbo  diacoTand  tin  tma  ralation  of  tha  qairtaitl 
Sooie  irere  adonud  with  placu  of  metal,  ahaped  Id  Jttbirt.tonDingthemiUDiODic  ^nK.andtbeir  cbangai. 
tfaa  farm  of  the  moon,  nunod  C^iint?  (nbiraiaa',  I  It  wu  bs,  too,  who  Birsnged  the  Hab.  varba  itcordinK 
SipU  fOTnainM ;  Vnlg.  AfMito ;  A.  V,  roUKiI  bVu  tbU  (la  to  their  CDDjagatloiu,  diitrlbutiog  tfaem  ander  tvo 
HBo;  Iu.iil,lS);  ■  nmilit  onumant,  the  UiU,  itill .  ha>d* :  1.  Kal,  lig/U,  oat  bordentd  with  any  fbnaa- 
■xiftB  in  EgTpt  (Luia'B  Modtn  Egyptiaiu,  App.  A.)' '  tire  addltjona;  and,  !.  Cabed,  ieaiy,  baing  baidaned 
Tha  Itlduuiitai  adorned  the  neeki  of  their  camela  with  fanutlTa  addltlaiiB  ;  ud  fixed  liz  conjugiitionB, 
with  nch  (Judg.  Till,  21,  !6};  the  AnU  itill  nu  t'  yiz.  1.  Kal;  i.Nlpkal;  a.Jlipliili  i.  HHipad ;  b.  Pual 
niiiiUTonuiiiast(Wellned,  1,801).  To  other  chaiiu  tod  HcjAal;  tad,  6.  PieL  Thla  amngamant  has  bean 
wen  nspaDded  variooi  triolieta,  u  itent-bottlai,  TIS  «il«tiio(ially  adopted  by  all  granunariani,  and  ii  ex- 
CTinffa«»'i<»*t'BiM*,(oftfa.or*««,^il««i^    biblted  In  aU  the  raKiawp."dipn.  of  the  verb  given 

_,    ^^    ,    -      _~„,    aJ,.l ■.-■?.  ' ,  ^    Hebrew  gramman.     These  ducoyenea  and  scienHfic 

w«  .M«h«l  to  tha  «.kl«ing^  which  .hortMBd  tha  ,,  ^^  --j^m  nin  nilnis  1BD.  ud  treabi  chief- 
itcp  and  ptodocad  a  mlDciog  gait  (las.  Ui,  16,18).    See   ,    _,  ,,    Ij;  1/1 ,, .;      .  ■..      ""  .,  „~ 

A«Vi«rNUii.AO«.  T^^riicnlB  feolje  ora-  I  '?  ="*■  f"*^  t"''  "  L  ""  "^"""^  "'  "^ 
»..t.  thiu  f,nia*d  in  lea.  iii,  19  (ritaJ,  wt.pbU',  -"d  book  1,  called  bpsn  -bSB  "ipO,  .i.d  treat,  ol 
Sept.  ™».^.VuJg.  (»,y»),  .ignliy  i^^  or  p^o.    veiU  who||e  .««J  and  thrrf  nid  «1.  are  riAe  =  ^,». 

Euuux}.  !  trealaDfUievowelpotntaandiccenti.   Original Ij- writ- 

a.  Tbaroeani  adopted  for  «m*wvpri«t«n-*  among  ton  in  Arabic,  these  martelloui  grammatical  discover 
tbc  Jawa  ware  either  manacln  or  fetlan  of  copper  or  lea  were  at  flnt  inaccaulble  and  nnknown  to  the  Ger- 
inm,  aimilar  to  onr  handraffa,  B«nDn3  (neehutAta-yim,  '.  mano-Freoch  IntCTprslera;  bat  they  eiercuHid  ao  ei- 
Itt.  1^  »ra»a,  M  Ihongb  mada'in  'halve.),  faatened  ^'^'^'^  »"  '"""•"f*  °P»"  «"«  SpanUh  «bool  of 
OB  the  wrista  ^d  a»kl^  and  attached  to  «ch  other  ^"rpreWr.  that  in  order  lo^k.  th«n  more  general- 
._        .    ._  ,-    ._    __riM     o  D  _    -.    oj     o  VI   _    Iv  naefni  they  were  translated  Into  Hebrew  by  Abeo- 

™  7^,'IJS,^  ^;ifr,.ir™™J;£l*™  Tl/i""  b—  P-Ml'b-l  ky  L..P  I>.k« 
XXV,  7;  Jar.  xxzix,7i.    It  was  a  caaiom  amonif  the  \  .~     .^     ^  -^a^^  „    \i.l       i_i  i^i. 

I„^  llk.«l>  »  Liu  .  pHouT  Win,  .  IlllM  <f""^S""-,™'','r\T'"'"'^lJ''';*",''?; 
I  -     -    .1.        ij-      —I.    _  ■  -  J  .  _i  u-_     of  the  life  and  lingniatlc  ducoveries  of  Chaliur  in  hla 

primer,  and  the  other  to  the  left  hand  of  the  soldier,  i  ***"  '""*'  ^"^  ■'"''■  '■  ]™- 

Thfa  ia  the  eiain  by  which  Paul  waa  so  often  bonod,  I  Cll«l«nii«li  (O""!?;!!),  a  pUee  In  PalMttne  man- 
and  to  which  he  repeatedly  alludes  (Acta  xxvUi,  20;  I  tioned  by  tha  TalmadisU  (i^ki  JbMoli,  1, 17)  ub- 
Eph.ti.tOi  2  Tun.  1,16).  When  tha  atmoat  aecority  ;  Ing  near  Naveh  (ReUnd, />ul>»(.  p.  TOS) ;  thooghl  by 
was  dsind,  tha  prisoner  waa  atUchad  by  two  chains  .  Schvarc  (PoIe$l.  p.  286)  to  be  the  wma  with  the  mod- 
Is  two  soldien,  aa  was  the  case  with  Peter  (Acta  xii,  era  ^wuiMi'fl.  -  See  JEbk. 
S;  n'alch,Ani*eu^/>«rt',JeD.lT58).  (See  Smith 
Din.  of  Ctan.  A  Mq.  a.  v.  Catena.)  See  FnnR. 
IdMa,  it  appeare,  were  Bxed  in  their  shrine*  with   ] 


xi,  IS).  Pride  la  emUamtie^  termed 
chain  which  keeps  men  under  ita  power  (Psa.  Ixxiii, 
(;  conp.]  Esdr.  I,  10;  WIsd.  xv^  87;  Ecdas.  vl, 

Chair.    See  CATrntCBA;  Seat;  Thkobe. 

Glials,  CiURLEs-FiBitBE,  a  Swiss  divine  of  tha 
BeAnned  Chnrcb,  was  bom  at  Gaoeva  in  January, 
'     '      In  1728  he  baeama  patter  of  the  I'rench 


Cbalcsdon,  a  city  of  Bithrnla.  It  was  tbo  seal 
one  of  the  so-called  Qenenl  Coaneils  of  the  Chorch. 
bald  A.D.  161  (the  foorth  cecnroaDieal  conncil),  which 
waa  called  by  the  araperor  Harcianns,  at  the  reqneil 
of  the  biabopa  (especially  of  Leo  I),  to  put  down  tbe 
Eatychian  and  NastinlaD  heresies.  The  emperor  bad 
first  anmmoned  the  biahnpe  to  meet  at  NIeaa,  but  whan 
the  lime  appnached  he  was  prevented  bj  political 
troubles  tma  (:oing  so  far  froni  the  liDperlal  city,  and 
tbeisfora  chaDged  the  place  of  meeting  to  ChaJcedon, 
in  Bithynia,  on  tha  Boephoms,  opposite  Constantlno- 


gRgalion  at  tha  Hague ;  and  he  remained  in  tliat  pie.  Ilia  Council  was  attended  by  680  bishops  a 
ehvge  DDtU  bis  death,  October,  1T86.  He  tiansla-  :  dapMie*,  all  Eastern  except  four  legates  sent  by  Leo  I 
tid,  from  the  English  of  Stackhouse,  £e  Sttit  Hlltral  j  from  Rome.  Tbe  aeeslons  began  Oct.  8,  4GI,  and  end- 
it  tEcrilKrt  BaimU  (Ia  Haye,  1738,  8  vols.  8vo) ;  |  ed  Oct.  81.  As  tha  two  parties  in  (he  Conndl  wen 
aod  also  pnbl^bed  a  coDHDantary  on  tbe  Bible  (La  ,  ronaed  to  tha  blKhest  pitch  of  passion,  the  proceed- 
BrMrti  SiUs  mw  vs  Cammtnl.  Kltiral,  tt  da  NoUt  dun- 1  ings,  espeeiallv  dnrins  the  early  sessions,  ware  vary 
Ml*  tt  tiria  dt  dkert  Mtntri  A  Hglau,  6  vols.  8vo;  La  ,  tumultuous,  until  the  lay  commissioners  and  senators 
Haye,  17^-77;  a  seventh  volnmo  was  Isiaed  after  his  had  to  urge  the  bishops  to  keep  order,  saying  that  such 
daath  by  Dr.  Haclaina,  with  preliminary  dissertations, '  Ic0o^{(C^*tF">rin"' (vnlgaroalcries)  were  disgracefol. 
17W);  aworicoB  Biblical  Theology  (TlaW.ife  r£cri.  [  (Seethe  accoont  fnnn  Uand,  died  by  Stanley,  foMns 
in  SoBrie,  «  la  Sdatet  dm  Salut,  2  volt.  8vo,  17G2) ; '  Chn^  lect.  II,  p.  166.) 

CMkiitmi  kittarijm  tl  iigmatiqat  (La  Haye,  1755,        At  tbe^frX  session  (October  8, 4G1)  tha  Conncil  a»- 
8vo) ;  and  nomenMi*  minor  werks. — Senobler,  Biileirt   aemblad  In  tbe  Church  of  St.  Enphamla ;  In  tbe  cen- 
IkLdtGrnht;  HoeRn,  JVoin.  Su^.  (JiMniJ^  Ix,  BH.     tre  aat  tha  oOcars  of  tha  emperor ;  at  their  left,  <a  on 
Clialse.     Sea  La  Chaise  ^'  epistle  ^de,  aat  the  bishops  of  Conttantliiople,  An- 

Chajtig,  Jbhuda  be»-David,  commonly  calbd  **'^*^~T.^^P'rt^'J^**""."!^.3'*f? 
C«tro,  and  In  Arabia  Almhana,  Jadja  B.  DM  d-  *«~«^  "^  P™'^  *•**  "*  "if"*'  '°8^'  "^ 
rort  strart-W,  «.d  JadUo,  a  Jawishwrltar  who  is  'i^ '^  }^*^]  o"  "*  oU>«r  "t*  «~  Koff"™, 
Kgaried  bv  Jewish  critiST  as  the  chief  of  Hebrew  ,  •'""nsl,  ThaWns  of  CBtai^  and  the  other  Hshop" 
or  Egypt,  Palestme,  and  Illyria,  moat  of  whom  bad 
bean  preaent  In  tbe  paendo-conndl  of  Epbesna.  In 
the  midst  were  the  Holy  Gospels,  placed  npon  a  r^sed 
swU.  When  they  had  taken  their  sests,  the  legates 
of  tha  pope  demandad  that  Dioecnrua  should  withdraw 
from  the  ataembly,  accusing  him  of  hla  icandaloDS  con- 
.      _    .  doct  at  Epheaus,  and  declaring  that  otherwise  they 

Hanti  hisu,  Ibo-Sarak,  maintained  that  there  weiv  U- !  would  depart.    Then  the  Imperial  ofilcen  ordered  bim 


I  (Q'<p'n[?;i1in  Tivn),  waa  bom  hi  Fai 
abMl  A.D.  lOSO-loio^'and  hence  la  sOBatima*  alao 
eaUad  Jduda  Fdd  OattB  rmm).  Ha  waa  tha  Brat 
srha  recogidsed  that  the  stem  word*  of  tbe  Hebrew 
fsiit  of  (traa  oooinsiMCt,  as  up  to  hla  time  aome  of  the 
cUet  etymiddgitta  and  expeUtort,  a.  g.  Snadia  Gaon, 


CHALCEDON  11 

to  witlidnw  from  tbs  Canodl,  and  to  take  hla  aeat 
■moDg  the  BccUMd.  The  uta  of  the  •o-ciUtd  "  Kob- 
ber  Council"  ol  Ephanu  (q,  t.)  were  ducuutd  and 
OHidtmued,  and  Dioacunu  was  left  with  only  twelve 
Ushop*  to  etand  bj  him.  Tho  Eutychian  hereiy,  that 
In  our  Lord  wen  two  mtiirea  before  bii  incamatiiHi, 
and  bat  one  aflerwardi,  na  ■natbematlied.  The 
majority  of  the  asiembled  toahopa  then  proceeded  to 
tnatbematiifl  Dioscurut  hlmiolf,  and  damandod  that 
he,  logetber  with  Javenal  of  Jerntalen,  Thilaaaiiu  of 
Coarea,  EuMhiaa  of  Ancyra,  Enstachiu*  of  Baytiu, 
and  Basil  of  Seleucia,  who  bad  pcealded  at  the  Coun- 
cil, should  be  depoaed  from  the  einacopate.     See  Di- 

OBCUBDS. 

At  the  tmmd  seuion  (Oct.  10),  tho  following  expo- 
aition  of  faith,  lubatantially  taken  fiom  a  letter  of  I.ea 
to  FlaTlona*,  was  approved,  and  ila  opponenla  anatbe- 
matiaed:  "The  divine  natare  and  this  hnnian  nature, 
each  nmaining  perfect,  have  been  unltad  in  one  per- 
MKi,  to  the  intent  that  the  aane  Mediator  might  die, 
being  yet  Immortal  and  impuslbla.  •  -  •  Neither  na- 
ture ia  altered  by  the  other ;  he  who  is  truly  God  la 
aUo  truly  man.  .  •  .  The  Woid  and  the  flesh  pre- 
■erve  each  ita  proper  fonctlona.  Holy  Scripture  proves 
equally  the  verity  of  the  two  natures.  He  Is  God, 
■iDce  it  is  written,  >  In  the  beginning  waa  the  Word, 
■Dd  the  Word  ww  €ad.'  He  ia  alao  iKni,  since  it  ii 
written, 'The  Word  waa  made  fleeb,  and  dwelt  amooK 
ni.'  As  pun,  he  wns  tempted  by  the  devil ;  as  God, 
he  ia  nilnislared  unto  by  angels.  As  man,  he  wept 
over  the  tomb  of  LaiBtoa;  as  God, he  raised  bim  from 
the  dead.  As  man,  he  is  nailed  to  the  croas ;  as  God, 
he  makes  all  nature  tremble  at  bis  death.  It  Is  by 
i«ason  of  the  unity  of  person  that  we  say  that  the  Son 
of  Han  ceme  down  from  heaven,  and  that  the  Son  of 
God  waa  cmcilled  and  bnried,  although  he  iraa  so  only 
as  to  hia  human  nature." 

At  the  third  session  the  dcpoeitlon  of  Dlosci 
pronounced  irrevocable,  and  soon  titer  he  waa  banirb- 

•d  to  Oangra,  in  raphUgonla,  where.  In  tbs ' 

three  yaarr,  he  died. 

In  the  fijth  sessioo  the  Itallawlng  fermula  of  failh 
on  the  question  at  tsaoe  waa  adopted:  "We  ce-' — 
and  with  one  accord  teach  one  and  the  same  Soi 
Lord  JesuB  Christ,  perfect  In  the  divinity,  perff 
the  humanity,  truly  God  and  truly  man,  consisting  of 
a  reasonable  soul  and  l>ody;  consubstintiol  with  the 
Father  according  to  the  Godhead,  and  consnbstantial 
with  us  icconlinR  to  the  manhood ;  in  all  things  like 
unto  u«.  siu  only  excepted;  who  was  begotten  of  the 
Father  before  all  ages,  according  to  the  Godhead  ;  and 
in  the  last  days,  the  same  waa  bom  according  to  the 
manhood,  of  Mary  the  Virgin,  mother  of  God,  for  o( 
and  fbr  our  salvation ;  who  is  to  be  acknowledged  ont 
and  the  same  Christ,  the  Son,  the  Lord,  the  only  be- 
nutten  in  two  nature*,  without  mlMure,  eb  "  ' 

skm,  or  eeparation ;  the  di8orence  of  nature 
removed  by  their  union,  bat  ralber  the  propriety  of 
each  nature  being  preserved  and  concnirlng  in  one 
person  and  in  one  ua'ooraaic,  so  that  he  Is  not  divided 
or  oaparated  Into  (m  ptrtont,  but  the  only  Son,  God, 
the  Word,  our  Lord  Jeaus  Chriat,  and  one  and  ' 
■ame  pen<on.*'  At  the  later  seniODs  (Ix-xv)  a  n 
ber  of  questions  of  order,  supremacy,  discipline, 
uero  settled.  But  i^y  far  the  most  important  was  the 
S8lh  canun.seas.  sv.  by  which  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinoplo  wee  placed  on  equality  of  anthority  with 
the  l>ithop  of  Borne,  aaving  only  to  the  latter  priority 
of  honor.  The  Roman  delegates  protested  acainsmi  is. 
and,  after  its  adoption,  Lto  constantly  opposed  it,  upon 
the  plea  that  it  contradicted  the  sixth  of  NIcbh,  whicb 
Bsaigiied  the  second  place  in  digidty  to  Alexandria  i 
however,  in  »pite  of  hia  oppo^tion  and  that  of  his  suc- 
cessoia,  the  canon  remained  and  waa  eiecuted.  See 
Sdfrehaci  or  the  Pope. 

The  acta  of  this  Council  in  Greek,  with  the  exception 
of  the  anatbemaa,  are  lost.     See  Evagriuf,  HiM.  Eetl. 


CHAMUS 

Labbe  and  Ceoaart,  ConeXa,  ton.  It;  Hanal, 
d«a*'ia.vl.&90:  Undon,  Jfuii.o/CMmd't,p.  IIS-IK; 
Ulescler,  Cjh>n4ft>l(Hy(Cannlngbam'8},i,!40;  Moa- 
heim,  Cktirdi  Hiatory,  bk.  li,  cent,  v,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  j  IS, 
Ifl ;  Neander,  ChurA  Butmy,  il,  618,  634  ;  Hefele,  Cim. 
eilitnffncliiciu,  ii,  392;  eapeclaJly  Domer,  Pfrton  of 
Ckritl  (Edinburgh,  div.  ii,  vol.  i,  p.  93-106) ;  Schaff, 
Oardk  EiH.  il,  §  5«,  65  ;  11,  S  141 ;  Shedd,  Uittory  •/ 
DottrriKt,  I,  B98  sq. ;  Elliott,  Dtlattatvm  of  Aomoums, 
Lk.  iii,  cb.  iii,  xi.  See  CuRiHTOLOOr ;  Codkcil*; 
Edttches;  NECroBiAHiaH. 

Chal'oedon;  (xoXni^uv)  occors  only  In  Ber. 
xzi,  19,  being  the  predoua  stone  with  which  tho  third 
foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  New  Jemadem  ia  gar< 
niabed.  According  to  Pliny  (ST.  S.  xxxvii,  8,  %  16X 
chalcedony  ts  a  grm  resembling  the  Callais  or  tnr- 
qnoise,  and  some  have  Judged  it  to  be  n  kind  of  cai^ 
liuncle  or  ruby.  Salmasius  differs  from  thoae  who 
make  the  color  of  chalradopyto  be  like  that  of  the  car- 
buncle, and  says  that  they  confonnd  rlv  rapi^bvtoit 
Xi'Sov,  which  Is  a  spedes  of  carbuncle,  with  rp  x^^'Q' 
lovii^  \  but  he  confesses  that  1(  is  by  no  means  cleac 
hat  stone  the  ancients  called  eki^tifiomtt*.  rigncUus 
n  Rev.  (xxl,  19)  says  that  this  Btone  has  the  color  of 
pallid  lamp,  shines  in  the  open  air,  but  is  dark  in  a 
ouse,  cannot  be  cut,  and  has  powers  of  attractioD. 
The  etymology  of  the  word  is  not  leia  doubtful  than  ita 
meaning.  Some  derive  It  fiom  xoi^of ,  from  a  belief 
that  it  rings  like  brsss  when  struck.  Others  have 
derived  it  IVom  XaXnifui'.  as  though  ^m  a  tocalitj' 
where  it  is  found,  and  otiicrs  from  KETpj^ij^ttv.  (Sea 
Braun.  ifc  Vtg.  mb.  li,  c,  ii,  p.  525  )  The  Chaladoiaua 
called  from  Chslcedon,  and  was  obtained  ^m 
the  copper  mines  there;  It  was  a  small  itone,  and  of  do 
great  value.  It  is  described  by  Pliny  as  resembling 
the  green  and  blue  tints  wbich  are  seen  on  a  peacock'a 
tail  or  on  a  pigeon's  neck.  Hr.King(J>i(>;iie  Grmi,  p. 
8)  uys  it  was  a  kind  of  inferior  emeiald,  as  PUny  un- 
derslood  h.  This  Tninetal  is  supposed  bv  some  to  be  th« 
same  that  occurs  in  the  Ileb.  ScriptBn»(rxDd.  xxviH, 
18)  nnder  the  name  of  ni?3.  no'pbtk  (trantl-ted  "em- 
cra1d").hnt  this  is  doubtful.  See  EmebalD.  Chal- 
cedony of  modem  la|ridaries  Is  a  variety  of  atnorphoos 
qaarti,  and  the  distinction  between  it  ind  agate  is  not 
very  satisfactorily  established.  It  is  harder  than  flint 
(spec.  grav.  S.IM),  commonly  semi-transparent,  and  ia 
generally  of  one  onlform  color  tbroDghout.  DsnoUy  a 
light  brown,  and  often  nearly  white  (and  then  term- 
ed "  white  cornelian") ;  bat  other  shades  of  cslor  an 
not  infrequent,  soch  as  gray,  yellow,  green,  and  blue. 
Chalcedony  occurs  in  irregular  masses,  commonly  fann- 
ing grotesque  cavities,  In  trsp  rocks  and  even  i;iainile. 
It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  tho  worid ;  and  in  the  East 
it  is  employed  in  the  folricstion  of  cups  and  plates,  and 
articles  of  taste,  which  are  wrought  with  great  >kill 
and  labor,  and  treasured  among  prrcinas  Ihin^.  In 
Europe  tt  Is  made  into  snuff-loxer,  button*,  knifc-ban- 
dles,  and  other  minor  ariicles.  (_See  Pnig  Ci/eifipmiiii, 
r.  V.  Qujirii.)    See  Gim. 

Cbalcidins,  according  to  Fabricius  {BM.  LaL  lib. 
ill,  c.  :),  a  Christian  PUtonist  of  the  4th  century.  Oth- 
ers  place  him  In  the  Gtb  centoty.  He  translated  the 
rimmuorPlalOiandaddedacommentary.  Cmvt{But. 
LU.  Sire.  Iv,  m.  380)  doubts  whether  he  was  pagan  or 
Christian,     Lardner  says, "  1  dare  not  be  positive ;  Int 


It  hew 


*  Ilaton 


pber,  who  was  willing  to  be  on  good  terms  witb  Chris- 
tians, and  I  place  him.  with  Cave,  about  A.D.  830."  In 
his  Commentaiy  on  Timsus  he  refers  to  the  0.  and  N. 
T.  n'peatedlv,  and  mentions  the  "  star  in  the  East."— 
Lardner,  iroVt«,vll,  670;  Bnicker,  ffti*.  CK(.  f *it  iii, 
472 ;  Murdoch's  Motheim,  Ckurck  Jliitmy,  bk.  U,  cent. 
iv,  pt  i,  S  1^,  '^*t  Cndwortb,  InldL  Syltm  (Limd. 
IS4G},  ii,463sq. 

Clialcia(\'oX«'c).acltyofPaie 
Josephns  {A  «t.  xir,  S,  ! ;  7, 4 ;  xix,  6, 1 ;  8, 1 ;  i. 


CHALCOL  1 

I.  Is  War,  1, 9,  3 ;  ii,  1!,  1)  and  Stmbo  (xvi,  2,  IB,  p. 758, 
lU)  u  IvliiK  nndw  Mount  L«b«aon,  near  Huliopolii ; 
tot  tboDght  by  Reland  (^Pdtat.  p.  S15)  to  be  different 
frwn  (be  Chalcla  in  Sfria,  placed  bj  tbe  Anlimine  Itm- 
Bvrf  between  Beroa  (Bens*  or  Beiea)  *nd  Aodrona. 
Uodcm  Itavellen  (IliomKia,  in  Che  BibSolheca  Sacra, 
lM8,p.761;  8eelien,Ji™e,l,!62;  Porter,  i,H-16; 
Bobhuon,  Lai.  BUL  Bn.  p.  497,  498}  have  tought  itj 
die  in  the  conildenble  roina  aeiT  Medjel  AoJ.ir,  S 
bonn  S.  oT  ZaUeh  (Tan  de  Yelde,  Mtnmr,  p.  BOa). 

Chal'ool  ( Heb.  KakBT,  ^Z^I,  perhipB  twta- 
■OKc;  Sept.  \al>:aX  V.  r.  XnXxdJ,  Joiephiu  XaXcioi', 
il«<.Tiu,  i.  9),  one  of  the  foul  xtna  of  Hahol,  who  vers 
batnu  (or  their  wiedoio  before  tbe  t[me  of  Salomon 
(1  Kings  iT,  31).  B.C.  ante  1010.  In  1  ChroD.  ii,  6 
(where  the  name  is  Auglidied  "Celcol")  he  and  hU 
kotben  ira  eoDineritcd  u  the  aon)  of  Zerah,  the  ion 
of  Jadah.  perhaps  by  an  eiror  (br  tbe  name  Hamul  pre- 
eedio^.  wliich  maj  b«  •  Muupgntion  for  Mabol.    See 

Cbaldn'a  (Jar.  I,  10 ;  H,  34,  W ;  Eiek.  ivi,  SO ; 

ixtU,  16;  Gr.  i(  \a\ioia,  far  the  Reb.  B^nbS,  elie- 
wheie  "ChaldBane")  Is  properlj  an]]'  the  moat  aoatli- 
*rn  partloa  of  Babylonia.  It  ie  oaed,  however,  in  oar 
vmion  for  the  Hebrew  ethnic  appellotivo  Katdin  (or 
"Ouldees"),  nnder  which  term  tbe  inbabitanta  of  the 
(■tire  oonntry  it  designated,  and  it  will  therefare  here 
ba  taken  Id  this  axlendedunee.  Tbe  origin  of  the  term 
B  tei7  doobtful.  XudJin  baa  been  derived  b;  some 
rNm  Kesed  O^^).  tbe  son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  zxil,  2!); 
bU  if  Ur  waa  already  a  dtj  "of  the  Cbaldeea"  before 
Abnbm  qniltad  it  (Qen.  li,  S8),  tbe  natna  Kaadlm 
cvuiol  poseibly  have  been  derived  fn>m  hli  nephew. 
On  ibe  other  band,  tbe  term  Chaldaa  baa  been  con- 
Darted  with  the  city  Kabcadha  (Chilmad  of  Etakiel, 
ufii,  13}.  This  is  possibly  correct.  At  any  rate,  in 
•aarcbbiK  fbr  an  etymology,  it  ibould  be  borne  in  mind 
Ibal  Kai£  or  Kaidv,  not  Katitm,  is  tbe  native  form 
(KaarlioaoD.  Btrod.  i,  S33,  noM).  The  Chaldieana  are 
Aationed  In  the  cunelfonn  inscriptions  (q.  v.).  In 
hfriao  cDneirorm  tbe  name  of  Babylon  or  Babylonia 
b  written  very  diSbrently : 

cf  iiT  =irr-«<r^ 


Tbe  Babylonian  cuneiform  writes  it  in  many  ways, 
bu  BODS  have  any  rcaemblance  to  Katdim  or  KdidL 
St*  Babtlo:'. 

1.  Exitmt  md  Bmndaria. — The  tract  of  coantiy 
viewed  in  Scriptore  as  tbe  land  of  tlw  Chaldnans  is 
that  vast  aUovial  plain  which  has  been  fonned  by  the 
itfotila  of  the  Euphrates  and  tbe  Tigris-^at  least  so . 
tir  as  it  lies  to  the  west  of  the  latter  etream.  The 
camtry  to  Ibe  east  it  Elam  or  Suslann ;  but  tbe  entire 
tract  between  the  rivers,  aa  well  as  the  low  country  an 
tba  Arabian  aide  of  the  Euphrates,  which  is  cultivable 
by  iirigition  ftum  that  stream,  most  be  considered  as 
(ompiiBed  within  tba  Cbaldna  of  which  Nebuchadaez- 
ar  was  Icing.  This  extraordinary  flat,  unbroken  ex- 
Beptbytbe  Korki  of  man,  extends,  In  a  direction  near- 
ly N.E.  and  S.W.,  a  dialance  of  400  miles  along  the 
<««ne  of  tbe  riven,  and  is  on  tbe  average  about  100 
ain«  In  width.  A  line  drawn  fhnn  the  Junction  of 
tba  rim  Khabur  with  the  Euphrates  to  that  of  the 
UsKT  Zab  with  Che  Tigris  may  be  considered  to  mark 
its  northern  limit*  i  the  eastern  boondary  is  the  Tigris 
hself;  Che  Hmtbem  the  Persian  Golf;  on  tbe  west  its 
Inoidsiy  is  somewhat  111  defined,  and  in  fact  would 
Tirr  acrording  to  the  degree  of  skill  and  industry  de- 
nted to  tbe  regulation  of  the  waters  and  tbe  exCansion 
•f  works  lilt  irrigation.  In  the  most  flouriahiog  times 
af  the  Child«an  empire  the  water  seems  to  have  been 
Imght  to  the  extreme  limit  of  the  allDvinm,  •  canal 
kaving  bean  cut  alooK  the  edge  of  the  tertiary  forma- 
tko  on  the  Arabtan  side  thnmghont  ita  eDtlra  extant, ' 


mnnlnit  at  an  avenge  distsnoe  from  the  Enpbrate*  of 

about  SO  mllw. 

2.  GfaenJ  Ck-iraelir  of  At  Coonfry.— The  general  as- 
pect of  the  country  is  Chua  described  by  0  modem  trav- 
eller, who  well  cunCraats  ita  condition  now  with  the 
appearance  which  it  must  have  presented  In  andenl 
times.  "  In  former  days,"  he  says,  "the  vast  plains 
of  Babylon  were  nourished  by  a  complicated  system 
of  canals  and  water-courses,  which  spread  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  country  like  a  net-work.  The  wants  of  a 
teeming  populaCioa  were  supplied  by  a  rich  soil,  not 
leas  bountirul  than  that  on  the  banks  of  the  Egyptian 
Kile.  Like  islands  rising  from  a  golden  sea  of  waving 
com  stood  froqnent  groves  of  palm-trees  and  pleaaant 
gardens,  aJTording  to  the  idler  or  trsveller  their  grate- 
ful and  highly- valued  shade.  Crowds  of  passengers 
huRied  along  the  dusty  roads  to  and  from  the  busy  ci^. 
The  land  waa  rirh  In  com  and  wine.  How  changed 
la  the  aspect  of  ll:_t  reftion  at  the  present  day  !  Long 
lines  of  mounds,  it  Is  true,  mark  the  courses  of  those 
main  arteries  which  formerly  diffused  lEfe  and  vegeta- 
tion along  their  banks,  but  their  cbannels  are  now  be- 
reft of  moisture  and  choked  with  drifted  sand ;  the 
smaller  offsboota  are  wholly  effaced.  'A  drunght  Is 
upon  ber  waterr,'  says  Che  prophet,  'and  tbey  shall  be 
dried  npl'  All  that  remains  of  that  ancient  civiliu. 
tion — that  'glory  of  kingdoms'  -  'the  praise  of  the 
whole  earth' — is  recognisable  in  the  nnmeroos  mould- 
ering hes|w  of  brick  and  rubbish  which  overspread  the 
anrfuee  of  the  plain.  Inatead  of  the  luxuriant  fields, 
the  groves,  and  gardens,  nothing  now  meets  the  eye 
but  an  arid  waste — the  dense  population  of  former 
timet  is  vanished,  and  no  man  dwells  then"  (Loftus's 
Claldaa,  p.  14, 16).  The  cause  of  tbe  change  la  to  be 
Ibnnd  in  the  neglect  of  man.  "  There  is  no  physical 
reason,"  tba  same  writer  observes,  "whj-  Babylonia 
should  not  be  as  beautiful  and  aa  thickly  inhabited  aa 
in  days  of  yore ;  ■  tittle  care  and  labor  l>estowed  on 
the  ancient  canals  would  again  reatoie  tbe  fertility  and 
popnlation  which  it  originally  possessed."  Fbe  pros- 
perity and  fertiliCy  of  the  country  depend  entirely  on 
the  regulutiDD  of  the  waters.  Carefully  and  properly 
applied  and  husbanded,  they  are  sufficient  to  make  tbe 
entire  plain  a  garden.  Left  to  tliemselvos,  tbey  desert 
Ibe  river  courses  to  accumulate  In  bkes  and  marshes, 
leaving  large  districts  waterless,  and  others  most 
scantily  supplied,  while  they  overwhelm  tracts  former- 
ly under  cnltivatlon,  which  become  covered  with  a  fbr- 
cst  of  reeds,  and  during  the  summer  heats  breed  a  pes- 
tilential miaama.  This  is  the  present  condition  of  tba 
greater  part  of  Babylonia  under  Turkish  rule ;  tbe  evil 
Is  said  to  b«  advancing,  and  the  whole  cuuncry  chnat- 
ens  to  become  within  a  ehort  time  either  marsh  or  desert. 

S.  .DspuiOHs. — In  a  country  so  unifbrm  and  so  devoid 
of  natural  features  as  this,  political  divisions  could  be 
only  BCcidenCsl  or  arbitrary.  Few  are  Ibund  of  any 
importance.  The  true  Chaldjea,  as  has  been  alresdy 
noticed,  is  alwsys  In  tbe  geographers  a  distinct  region, 
being  the  portion  moat  southerly  from  Babylon,  lying 
chiefly  (if  not  solely)  on  the  rigfat  bank  of  the  Euphra- 
tes (Strabo,  xvi,  1,  §  6 ;  Ptolemy,  v,  20).  Babylonia 
above  this  is  aeparaled  into  two  dlatricts,  called  re- 
spectively Jaunfacia  and  AaramtU.  Tba  fbrmar  is 
the  name  of  the  central  territoij  round  Babylon  itself; 
tbo  latter  la  applied  to  the  regions  toward  tbe  north, 
where  Babylonia  borders  on  Assyria  (Ptol.  v,  20). 

4.  CWei.— Babylonia  was  celebrated  at  all  Umes  for 
the  number  and  antiquity  of  Its  cities.  "  Bsbel,  and 
Eiech,  and  Accad,  and  <^neh  in  tbe  land  of  Shinar," 
are  tba  first  towns  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Gen.  X, 
10).  The  "vast  number  of  great  cities"  which  the 
country  poaaessed  was  noted  by  Herodotut  (i,  ITS), 
and  the  whole  region  la,  in  fact,  studded  with  huge 
mounds,  each  mound  itiarldDg,  beyond  a  doubt,  tba 
site  ofa  considersble  town.  Tbe  moat  important  of 
those  which  have  been  identified  are  Barsippa  (now 
BtTt-Nimna),  Slppua  or  Sepharvaim  (MotaOi),  CuCba 


Oenenl  Mip  of  the  CtuldBtD  and  uMoLiied  Kmplrra, 

(/trojUm),  Calnah  (JVi^),  Ench  (^War*a),  Vr  (Jfw-  towns  mentionsd  In  the  (ngcrlptioni.     Two  of  UiMO 

gieir),  Chilmad  {Kaliewiha),  Lannch*  {Seidenk),  U  plaofls— Ur  and  Bdrsippa-~are  of  paiticalar  note.     Of 

\bO),  Donbft  (AUrrbff);   bnt  of  thsn  not  fully,  the  reat,  Encb,  Linncho,  and  Cilnoh  wen  In  taAj 

tnd  of  many  oUien  not  at  all,  hava  tbe  exact  altn  timet  of  the  moat  conieqaeaijc,  while  Catha,  Sippara, 

been  detemiined,  aa  tha  Aecad  of  Geneaii  (x,  10);  the  and  Teredon  attained  their  eelebiltjr  it  a  oompuatiTe- 

TaradoD  of  Abydeniu  (Fragta.  S) ;  AM,  Riibeti,  etc.,  I7  racent  period.    (See  each  lunw  In  Ita  place.) 


CHALDMA  199       CHALDEAN  PHILOSOPHY 

G.  Omidt. — Thaw  eanstitBt«d  cms  of  &»  ma*t  n- 1  but  than  ii  little  cnftlntioD,  tb*  inbabltaatt  nibaUt- 
Baik&ble  faatcnaa  of  uichot  Bkbyloola.  Tbrw  piJo-  ]  iag  chieS]'  upon  datei,  Uore  thia  half  the  couDtiy 
cipal  cBiali  canlad  off  ths  mtsn  of  tha  Eaphntaa  to- '  U  left  dry  and  waatc  from  tbe  want  of  *  pnipaf  ■jttem 
waid  ttw  Tigria,  oban  Babylon.  TheM  wen,  1.  The  I  of  inigation,  while  tbe  Teiiia)iiini{  half  ia  (o  a  gnat 
arigiakI"Bi^^riTar,"DTj4r.J/<iJeJlitofBeroaiu,irbich  j  e^ent  coTored  wiUi  manbcs,  owing  to  (he  iama  neg- 
bft  tha  EophnlM  at  Fnliabar  or  Anbar,  and  fallowed  lect.  Tbiu  it  ia  at  ddco  true  that  "  tbe  >u  ha*  come 
tbe  Una  of  tbe  moiUni  SaUoKsA  canal,  pualug  by  up  upon  Babj'loo,  and  she  in  covered  with  the  wavea 
IkkeAaf;  and  aniaring  the  Tigris  ■  bule  below  Bag-  tbateof"  (Jer.  11,  42);  that  >he  ii  made  '^poaseaaion 
dad;  !.  thebaic  IfaUa  of  tha  Arabs,  which  branch- I  for  tha  Uttera,  and  pooli  of  water"  (Iw.flv,3B);aDd 
ed  off  at  BidblvaniTefa,  and  ran  acroas  to  tbe  lite  of  '  also  that  "  a  dronglit  is  npon  ber  waten,  and  thejr  ara 
Sdauda;  and,  S.  the  Ifalir  Kudta,  whioh,  stanlng  dried  up"  (Jer.  I.  38X  that  aha  is  "wholly  desolute"— 
fran  Uw  EaphtBtaa  abont  twelve  miles  above  Moaaib.  '  "tbe  hindemuut  or  the  nations,  a  wildeniBis,  a  dry 
passed  tbroogh  Cntha,  and  fall  Into  the  Ti,<rii  twenty  land,  and  a  desert"  (ii.  IS.  13).  (See  Loftus's  Chaldaa 
tnifaa  below  the  site  of  Selencla.  On  the  other  aids  of  and  Saiianai  Layard's  Mn.  and  Bt^.  ch.  xxi-xxiv; 
tha  itiemm,  a  large  canal,  perhaps  tbe  most  important  RawlinionV  Berodalut,  vol.  i,  Essay  ix  \  and  Mr,  Tay- 
ofall.  Wring  the  EnpbTBtes  at  Hitj,  where  the  ailavisl  lor'a  Paper  in  the  Jmimal  of  Iht  Aiiitic  Socfajf,  vol, 
plain  eeaunmcea,  skirted  tbe  deposit  on  ths  west   xt.)    Sm  Babtlohta. 

aloog  ita  enOv  extent,  and  fell  into  the  Persian  Gulf  |  8.  /nAoMtoiXt.— The  monnments  of  Babylonia  far^ 
at  the  head  of  the  Bablan  creek,  abont  twenty  miles  niah  abundant  evidence  of  the  fact  that  aHamitic  race 
natof  tbe  Shat  el-Arab  j  white  a  second  nuinarteiy  bald  poaaasslon  of  that  country  la  the  earliest  times, 
(the  Pallacc^ai  of  Arrian)  branched  from  the  Eapbra-  and  continned  to  be  a  powerful  element  in  [he  papnl»> 
tea  neoriy  at  Uoeaib,  and  ran  into  a  Kreat  lake  in  tbe  tion  down  to  a  period  vcrj-  little  preceding  the  acces- 
aaigfabarhoad  of  Bonlppo,  whence  the  lands  to  the  ,  sion  of  Nebncfaadneiiar.  The  most  ancient  hiriorical 
■OBtb-wcst  of  Babylon  wen  Irrigated.  From  these  records  fbund  in  the  conntiy,  and  many  of  tbe  relig- 
aad  other  sintUar  channels  nnmeroDa  branchea  were  ions  and  scientific  documents,  are  written  In  a  lan- 
lanifd  out,  tmn  which  further  craas  cats  were  made,  guoge  which  belongs  to  the  Allophyllian  family,  pre- 
mitil  at  length  eraiy  field  was  duly  inpidiad  with  tlie  aentlng  affinities  with  tbe  dialects  of  AMca  on  the  one 
predons  Snid.  hand,  and  with  those  of  High  Asia  on  the  other.    Tbe 

6.  Sta  o/ fftdjrf,  Ckaldam  MarAtt,  clc— Cbaldssa  people  by  whom  this  lao)cuage  was  spoken,  whose 
contuna  one  natunl  (eatnre  deserving  of  special  de-  principal  tribe  was  the  Akkad  (Accad,  Gen.  x,  10), 
scription — the  "ftreat  Inland  fresh-water  sea  of  Med- '  may  be  regarded  as  represented  by  tbe  Chaldaans  of 
yd"  (Loftaa,  p.  4&).  This  sheet  of  water,  which  doee  the  Greeks,  tbe  Kasdim  of  the  Hebrew  writers.  This 
not  owe  ita  origin  to  the  inundaliaUB,  but  ts  a  perma-  !  race  seemi  to  have  KniduBll}'  developed  the  type  of 
nent  lake  of  considerable  depth,  surronnded  by  cliffd  lanenage  known  as  Sbeniitiani,whicb  became  in  course 
of  a  reddish  aandstoaa  in  places  forty  feet  high,  ex- '  of  time  the  general  language  of  the  conntiy;  still, 
tcndi  In  a  south-easterly  direction  a  distance  of  forty  however,  as  a  priest-caste,  a  portion  of  tha  Akkad  |h«- 
■ules,  trom  abont  lat.  SJ°  G3',  long.  44°,  to  Int.  81°  !  served  their  ancient  tongue,  and  formed  tbe  learned 
W,  toDg.  44°  So'.  Ita  greatest  width  is  tbirty-flve  '  and  sclentiHc  Cbaldaisns  of  later  times  (Rawlbwon, 
BHisa.  It  lies  thna  on  the  right  bank  of  tbe  Euphri-  Bmdotat,  1,  588).  Their  language  was  the  language 
tei,  ttttm  which  it  is  distant  (at  the  nearest  point) '  of  scienca  in  those  countries ;  and  tbe  ChaldieanB  de- 
abont  twenty  mllea,  and  receives  from  it  a  certain  voted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  sciences,  and  e*- 
qnantity  of  water  at  the  time  of  the  inundation,  which  peclally  astronomy.  See  ChaUDsan  PuiLosoniT, 
Sow*  tbroogh  it,  and  Is  canitd  back  to  tbe  Euphrates  The  scieotiflc  tableta  discovered  at  Nineveh  are  all  in 
at  Saoiava  by  a  natoral  river  course  known  aa  the  this  dialect.  These  facts  throw  new  and  clear  light 
Shot  el-Atcban.  Above  and  below  the  saa  of  Med)ef, '  on  tbe  many  allusbns  to  tbe  Chaldaan  wise  men  in 
t^DB  the  Bira-Klmmd  to  KqA,  and  btaa  the  south-  tha  Bible  (Dsn.  i,  4;  ii,  i;  Ir,  7;  Eiek.  xxiii,  14> 
tsMam  extremity  of  tbe  sea  to  Samava,  extend  the  :  The  influenca  and  power  of  the  Chaldieans  mpidly  in- 
fanOBi  Chaldiean  manbes  (Strab.  xvi.I,  §13;  Arrian, '  creased,  so  tbat  In  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century 
£rp.  .4  jlvii,  22),  where  Alexander  was  nearly  lost;  but  B.C.  they  became  the  dDmhiant  race  in  Babylonia, 
tbeae  ore  entirely  distinct  fW>m  the  sea  itself,  depend-  and  gave  tbat  kingdom  their  name  (!  Chron.  xzxvl, 
ingeo  tbe  aUte  of  tbe  Hindlyeb  canal,  and  disappear- j  17;  Dan.  Ix,  1).  Daring  the  eighth  ceotui]-  B.C.  a 
ing  altogether  when  that  is  effbctnally  closed.  I  number  of  tbem  emigrated  from  their  native  plains, 

T.  Prwlw^uiu.— Tbe  extraordinary  fertility  of  the  '  and  aettled  in  the  mountoina  of  Armenia.  Thb  is  pos- 
^'*""*""  BoU  has  been  noticed  by  various  writers,  sllily  the  trae  explanation  of  the  occumnce  of  tbe 
It  Is  said  to  be  the  only  ooantry  In  the  world  wbere  ,  Cbaldcana  in  that  region,  as  noted  by  many  ancient 
wheat  grows  wild.  Berosus  notlcod  this  production  ,  writers  (Xenopb.  Awib.  Iv.  8,  4;  Strabo,  xiij  Stcpb. 
(fn^M.l,  g  !),  and  also  the  spontaneons  growth  of  '  Byx.  s.v.  XoA^nia);  and  this,  too,  shows  why  (iesenins 
barley,  seaame,  ochrys,  palms,  apples,  and  many  kinds  '  and  other  recent  autbon  were  led  to  believe  that  the 
of  shelled  fralL  Herodotus  declared  (1, 198)  that  grain  I  Cbaldmna  of  Babylonia  were  a  colony  tnm  the  north- 
oomnMnly  retarned  200-rold  to  the  iower,  and  occa-  em  mountains,  settled  In  that  conntiy  by  one  of  the 
ahnally  aOO-hld.  Stnbo  made  neariy  the  tame  aa- 1  later  Assyrian  roonarcba.  (See  Rawlinson,  /Vn  Gritd 
sntion(xvi,l,|14);  aiidPlinysaid(ff«t.A'ativ«i,IW™ir(A«'#,  Lend.  1864  sq.;  Ditmar,  Foterlmd  i 
17)  that  tbe  wheat  was  cat  twice,  and  afterwards  w»  '  CAoMiler,  Berlin,  1786;  Polmblad,  Di  rOu*  Bain- 
good  keep  fbr  beasts.  Tha  palm  waa  undoabtedly  one  hmkii,  UpsaL  1820 ;  Bocbatt,  arosraphg.')  Sm  ChaIt 
of  tbe  principal  objects  of  cnltivation.     According  to    DUis. 


Cbaldn'aiL    See  CaALVum ;  CsAUiBBa. 


Stnbo  it  hmiabed  tbe  nallvea  with  bread,  wbie,  t 
agar,  honey,  porridge,  and  rapes ;  with  a  foal  equal  _ 

ctanrcoel,  wtd  with  •  roeani  of  ftttanlng  cattle  and  Ctl«ld«eai)   Fhllosophr.     Bitter  (ButDry  qf 

■boap.    A  Persian  poem  celebrated  iuatO  uses  (Strab.  i^ibxTitj.  bk.  ii,  ch.  1)  remarks  that  ha  puaea  over 

Xvi,l,H).    Herodotus  says  (1. 198)  that  tha  whole  of  tbe  philosophy  of  the  Cbaldaans  without  spedal  no- 

Ibe  flat  conntiy  waa  planted  with  palms,  and  Ammlo-  tice ;  both  "  because  the  frsgrnenta  of  Uanetbo,  Bero- 

BBS  Uanellinna  (xziv,  8)  observes  tbat  from  tbe  pdnt  ens,  and  Sancbonlatho  are  not  fi^  trom  nui^clon  aa 

iHcbad  by  Jolion'a  army  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian  to  gennlnenees  and  antiquity,  and  also  because  the 

Oolf  waa  one  oootinDons  forest  of  verdure.     At  pree-  ideas  and  conceptions  prevailing  in  them  are  of  little 

sol  palm*  are  alraoat  conSned  to  tbe  vidnity  of  tbe  value  philosophically."     Beard,  in  Kitto's  Cfd-jKniia 

Jtntw,  and  even  tbere  they  do  not  grow  tbkklv  except  (».  v.  PUlosophy),  remarha,  nevartheiese,  that  tha  Bob- 

about  tba  vOlagea  on  their buka.    The  (df  ia  lieb,  Ject  lB"of  InterMttothostadentof  tbe  Kble,liicw 


CHALDEANS  2C 

wqnesce  of  the  gaosnl  uid  deeidsd  inflaann  whlcb  the 
BkbjlDoiui  philotophy  axertad  on  Iba  opinkmi  and 
numner  ortbinking  of  the  Iraaelltca  diuiog  their  oap- 
tivity  In  Babylan,  u  tha  Italibiui  theniHlTH  mdmit,  in 
■IlegingthAttbenainuofthsuigcliuidofthe  monthi 
vent  dflrivrd  by  tha  hoUM  of  larad  from  Babylon  (Jbwi 
Batlkuali,  p.  66).  Sea  CAmvmr.  The  Byatem  of 
opinloD  ai^  mannor  of  thinking  which  the  captivea 
met  vith  if  Babylon  wu  nude  np  of  eleroenta  wbow 
binhpUco  waa  in  varioui  parta  of  the  Eaat,  and  which 
appear  to  have  toond  in  Babylon  ■  not  uncongenial 
aoil,  where  they  grew  and  coaleaced  into  one  general 
tyitem.  Of  theaa  elements  the  two  principal  were  the 
Cbaldaan  and  the  Hedo-Peraian  or  Zonuitrian. 

'^Tbe  fbnaar  of  theee,  which  alone  we  Ahall  hen  con- 
aider,  aeemi  to  have  originated  In  the  cnltiration  of 
utronomy  (q,  v.),  a  icienee  very  early  paraaed  under 
the  clear  eky  of  Dabjlonia,  althangh  generally  cor. 
rupted  with  ■  mixture  of  aatiology  (q.  v.).  Iai^  nat- 
urally came  to  be  regarded  at  a  divine  principle,  end 
the  hearenly  bodiea  were  worahlpped  u  the  recidence 
or  impeiwlDatiou  of  Deity.  This  aoon  diverged  into 
polylbeiam,  aa  the  csleatial  Inminarica  were  aaiigned 
to  aeparate  powen  of  Natnre.  See  Idolatbv.  An 
observation  of  the  aatronomtcal  phenomena  led  not 
only  to  the  formation  of  horoecopea  whh  a  vlow  to  di- 
vining the  futnre,  bnt  it  likewise  induced  a  belief  In 
certain  intermediate  powen,  which  were  aappoaed  (aa 
by  the  now  diacovflr«i  bond  of  gravitation)  to  link  all 
bodiea  together,  and  whose  preaence  waa  made  to  lili 
the  void  between  tbem  and  tha  inviaible  Being  at  the 
centre.  Thm  aroae  the  emanalion  theory,  which  Ak- 
ares  ao  coniplcaoualy  in  the  Cabbala  (q.  v.)  and  in 
Gnoallciam  (q.  v.).  Theae  intermediate  or  derived 
exiatencea  were  Inveatod  with  intelligence,  and  form- 
ed again  a  link  iMtweeo  apirit  and  matter,  giving  rite 
to  a  whole  world  of  damimt  (q.  v.),  of  varlooa  charac- 
tera  and  capaciliei.  Jo  guard  againat  the  malignant 
Influeneeofaome  of  theae,  laliamana  (q.  v.)  were  need, 
and  the  arta  of  aotceiy  (q.  v.)  were  rc«orted  to.  See 
Chaldbes. 

"  The  fngmoDta  of  Beroaoa,  preserved  by  Enaatdoa 
and  JoMpbus,  and  to  be  found  in  Scitliger  (De  Emm- 
dat.  Temp.\  and  more  fully  in  Fabiicioa  (Sii.  ffr,  xiv, 
ITfi),  aSbrd  some  intbmiation  on  the  anbject  of  Chal-  , 
dtean  philosophy.  BeroaUB  wai  a  prieit  of  the  god* 
Baal,  at  Babylon,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  tha  Great. 
The  Talmud  and  other  worka  of  the  Jewish  Rabbine  I 
may  bIhi  be  advantageoiuiy  conanlted.  together  with 
the' following  authorities:  Eanb.  Pnrp. Emmg.  li,  10 ; 
Vhilo,  Dt  Miff.  Mun. ;  Selden,  AiZi»9%ru,Proteg.Sj 
Stanley's  Biitory  of  Orient  PAifcuopij ;  Eoaenroth, 
Cabbaia  demtdata  (t.  1,  Solisb.  1677,  t.  !) ;  '  liber  J< 
ban.  restitutai'  (Francof.  1C84) ;  Kleaker.  £n 
lehre  bei  den  KabbaSiUn  (Riga,  17^6)  |  Holi 
fa«7JUc>IcrCMcAicAte(1827-R);  Hartmann,lV 
dtM  A.T.mk  ckm Nam.  (1831) ;  Friti, KtUer-LaOBn 
(1S38);  Brucker,ffu(.(>ir,PiUll;  Notfc,  F«vIe>aUBfe 
ilj/lhoiogie  (Lpi.  1836)."     See  Haoi. 

Chaldeans,  or  Chali>,eak  CuRmuHg,  a  name 
by  which  the  Meatoiians(q.  r.)  call  themaelvea.  Here 
commonly  It  ii  used  to  designate  that  portion  of  the 
Nostorians  who  have  acknowledged  the  aopremacy  of 
the  Pope. 

The  writings  of  Ibaa,  bishop  of  Odesaa,  and  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  school  of  Odesaa,  diaaeminated  the  Neeto- 
rian  doctrine!  in  Meeopotamia,  Aaayria,  Pereia,  and 
other  Eaitem  conntriea  [n  the  Gth  centory.  The  ad- 
herents of  these  doctrines  received  th>m  the  orthodox 
parti'  the  name  of  Nestoriana,  while  they  chose  for 
themaelves  that  of  Chaldean  CbriatlanB.  Thus  separ- 
ated fVom  co-operation  with  the  IVeitern  Church,  and 
the  braaeb  being  inbseqnently  widened  by  the  schism 
of  the  Greek  Chnrch,  they  formed  a  separate  organiia-t 
tion,  and  establlahed  an  ecclesiastical  aystem  of  their 
own,  having  at  its  head  Cleaipbou,  patriarch  of  Selen- 
eia.     After  tha  Council  of  Finance  (q.  t.)  h«i  to  acme 


0  CHALDEE  LANGUAGE 

1  extent  reonlted  the  Greek  and  Latin  Cborcbeii,  ■  larra 

number  of  Nestoiians  letnmed  to  them.  Tinvitbena, 
archtdshop  of  the  Nestoriana  of  Cyprus,  among  othen, 
'  abjured  Neatorianism,  and  waa  nceived  into  the  Bo- 
man  Charch  in  virtue  of  a  boll  of  Pope  Engene  IT 
(1446),  which  bull  also  decided  that  the  name  a'  Km- 
torians  should  no  longer  be  applied  to  the  Chi.Mcan 
Christiana.  After  this,  partial  acccssloni  of  Keatori- 
,  ana  to  tha  Roman  Catholic  Church  took  place  from 
time  to  time  ;  a  number  of  them  joined  It  during  tb* 
reign  of  Pope  Julina  111  (1!>62).  when  Sind,  patriarch 
of  the  Nestoriana  of  Hoanl,  aaked  and  obtained  the  rat- 
iflcation  of  hia  election  by  the  Pope.  This  union  was 
continued  by  the  patriarch  Elias,  who,  in  IGIG,  assem- 
bled a  synod  at  Amid,  where  the  patriarch,  together 
with  five  archbishops  and  one  bishop,  endorsed  the  Ra- 
man Catholic  Confesnon  of  Faith,  and  declared  in  fa- 
vor of  union  with  Borne.  Yet  aepantionii  occurred 
from  time  to  time.  Under  Pope  Innocent  IX  a  large 
number  of  Neatoriini  joined  the  Bomau  Chnn-h,  and 
he  gave  them,  as  well  as  to  all  Chaldean  Chrittiana,  a 
patriarch  in  the  peraon  of  Joseph  I,  who  made  hia  resi- 
dence at  Amid,  uaoally  called  Diarbekir.  From  tbii 
time  forward  the  Roman  Catholica  of  Chalda*  have 
had  a  patriarch  of  their  own,  bearing  the  title  of  patri- 
arch of  Babylon,  and  residing  at  B^dad.  They  aUo 
preserve  a  ritual  of  their  oirn  in  the  Chaldaic  lan- 
guage. Besidee  the  patriarch,  the  Chaldeaina  hare 
archbishops  at  Amadie  andSeleucia  in  Asiatic  Toi key, 
four  bishope  in  Turkey,  and  two  in  Penia.  "This 
sect  la  accessible  through  the  missions  of  the  A-  B. 
C.  F.  M.  at  Oroomiah  and  Diarbekir,  bnt  principally 
through  the  station  at  Mosul,  where  aome  of  the  mem- 
liersof  the  Protestant  Church  are  converted  Chaldeani. 
Becently,  through  pspal  Intrigues  with  the  peahm,  the 
large  Chaldean  village  of  Telkaif  has  been  dead  to 
miaslonary  efforts,  and  even  Proteitanta  who  own  prop- 
erty there  have  been  forbidden  to  viiit  it  Bnt  audi  a 
state  of  things  cannot  last,  and  we  may  hope  aoon  to 
hear  that  ancb  measores  have  redounded,  as  ther  at- 
waya  do,  to  the  furtherance  of  the  truth"  (Newcsmb^ 
Cfdap.  nfUitaom,  213).— Wetier  Dud  Welte,  Kinit»- 
leribm;  Schem,  TtarjMok  for  1869,  p.  SSj  Aaaemanl, 
BaHoA.  OrifnI.  t,  I,  p.  203-261,  548-M9;  ii,  p.  «7; 
111,  part  ii,  p.  412;  Gnriel  (a  Chaldean  priest),  f/ewoa- 
la  Imgaa  CtaUaira  guihut  aaedil  leriti  Polriaitiaiiim 
CkaUreormt  (Rome,  1860) )  A  nnali  of  lie  Pnpagaliim 
oftkeFaiACiMS);  PericinB,£i7b  Teanamtmstlulff. 
tmim  Chrittiaiu  (H.  Y.  I84S).     See  NsaroRiAna. 

Chaldee  Iiangnage  is  the  name  by  which  Qm 
elder  or  Eaatem  form  of  the  Aramaic  idiom  is  general- 
ly distinguished  (see  the  Introd.  to  Wlner'a  Chald 
Gramia.  Sd  ed.  tr.  by  Prof.  Hackett,  M.  Y.  1851,  p.  9 
sq.).  Whether  there  is  any  authority  in  the  Old  Tee- 
tament  for  applying  thla  designation  to  the  Arnaiaic 
language  is  a  question  which  depends  on  the  senaa  in 
which  the  expreaaion  "tongue  of  the  Chaldeea,"  in 
Dan.  i,  4,  ia  to  be  taken,  and  which  involvea  such 
important  hialorical  points  that  it  does  not  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  article  (see  Heogstenberg,  AMiiaitU 
det  Darnel,  p.  810).  Another  preliminary  question  is, 
whether  there  is  any  praprie^  In  the  common  defini- 
tion of  the  Chaldee  langnacs  as  the  £iii<eni,  and  espe- 
cially aa  the  Btiykitim  dialect — or,  indeed,  even  aa  a 
dialeci  at  alU-of  the  Anmaic.  Hupfeld  strenuously 
maintsina  the  negative  of  all  these  propositioUB  in  tbo 
Theeiogitthe  SluStn  for  1830,  p.  290  sq.  Avoiding 
these  debatable  points,  however,  we  apply  the  name 
Chaldee  language  to  that  Aramaic  idiom  which,  in 
our  preeent  text  of  the  Old  Teitament,  ia  emidoyed 
in  the  passages  of  Daniel,  from  ii,  4,  to  vil,  !8j  in 
Ezra,  tmm  iv,  8,  to  vl,  18,  and  vii,  ttom  12  to  M;  in 
Can.  xxxi,  47-.  and  in  Jer.  x.  II ;  aa  also  to  that  in 
which  several  tranolationa  and  paraphrases  of  poRiona 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  so-called  Targoma,  are  writ- 
ten. The  langnage  is  thus  dlstlnguiahed.  aa  to  the 
natnn  of  the  documanla  in  which  It  ia  employed,  into 


CUALDEE  PARAPHRASES       201  CUALDEES 

HhScal  aod  Itesnaleal  ChddB*.     Vbm,  bmnTaE.  |  iMnnKiimn,  and  aridnitlr  finm  >  nnt  of  pciMt  elm, 
nprdiag  UngaUiMl  chuactnMlci  cbitflj,  disUtt-   wiw  bare  a  peculiar  "  tougna"  and  "  laaning"  (1,  4), 
gidihna  ihMM  giada*  <f  IM  pnittj' :  the  Ungu^  aa  |  and  an  oDD«all«d  b;  the  king  cm  reU^mia  mitiaiit*. 
fcand  !■  the  ^rgniB  of  Onkaloa,  ■■  dmM  &«•  from  !  Tha  aaim  varirty  appaan  in  [mifaoB  wittsOt     Bq> 
BebiBlaaa;  tbaOUieilCbaldn.irtaiob.aaitfrw^wtn'   nwiu,  th*  native  biatodan.  biauelfi  ChaldMa  in  the 
Ij  inlertnixw  cenais  pecollarltiM  of  Hetoew  (u  tin  i  narrawar  hdm  (Tstiao,  Or.  oib.  Cr.  68),  uiea  Ibc  tann 
n  ottbe  arUela,  tha  plonil  ending  B~^,  the  dual  fbrm,  i  °nl7  "<  tl>*  "■'lar  huk,  while  Herodotua,  Diodanu, 
tad  the  ooqjiig.tian  H<ji*aO.  ranka  below  the  flnrt    S*"l».  ">*  ">•  l""'  -ri""  "l"""'  univeraally  em- 
ckM;  »od  the  idiom  oftheoAoi-TurgnniB,  which  not    ploy  itto  (ignify  «  sect  orponlon  of  the  peoplo  whom 
ool*  aboand.  wHh  ftnign  word!,  but  poi««e»  Mver-    th«y  regard  eiUier  a»  priaata  or  ».  phiio«>pberf.    WlIJi 
J  ^ieoIUr  Ibnntiona  bordarfng  on  thoee  of  the  9yr-    J?",^-  ho-ewr,  >.  Joined  BNlfa«,  >>«»ly.  that  th. 
IK  and  of  BabUoieal  Hebrew.      See  Taroum.     Tha    ChaldBD.  are  the  inh^UWa  of  a  paitiBuUr  part  of 
iaacoag*  itf  the  lUmndla  also  mnjaij  c»Ued  Cbaldee :    B^l">*^  'n*.  the  country  bordering  on  the  l-eniaa 
ladTif^  exoapt  the  Miahnah  (which  i>  written  i„  an  ,  G"tf  ■»*  on  Arabia  (Stoib.  xvi.  I,  g  fl ;  PluL  v,  «.,  3). 
idiom  not  ao  vorr  far  removed  ftom  Biblical  Hebnw,  :  S*"  BiBTi^ioA. 

with  a  tinctare  rf  Chaldee),  H  i«  tme  of  the  Gemaru  1      ^  •'  t-Vf"  that  the  ChaUBmu  (foUca  or  KaUi) 
thatlbeyarewritteninsncbverymm.pfCbaldeBthatI™?.'"''*  ««riiBrt  tlmm  mnly  one  of  tha  many 
tbair  idiom  i>  more  properly  deaignated  aa  the  TU-  '  Cn^it"   tribes   inhabiting  tin  great  allariai  plain 
mndleal  dialect.      S«  TiLMcn.  I  «»o^  afterwnrda  aa  Chaldaa  or  Babylonia.     Thdr 

Under  tha  article  ABAnaAH  LAiretFAOs  have  been   •P«»l  "•»  ''"  proh.bly  that  Kmeham  ponten  of  the 
»tk«I  tboae  HTeial  featnres  which  tin  Chald«  poii-  I  «>"»y  '"i'^  i»  ft"""!  to  hare  »o  late  retained  the 
.-ea.ineoimnonwlththeSvTi,c:anditnowreniiiiK;™™'rfChJd—.     He.,  w  Ur  "of  tha  Chaldoe.,'' 
ID  dcOne  IhoM,  eertainly  n^  marked,  charaeteri«tk»  i  ">•  "»»*««'  Mnghair,  which  Ilea  aantb  of  tlie  Enptom. 
bv  which  it  hi  diitingnbhod  from  it.      TheM  are— the  '  •"-  "•"  "*  J'™*'""  -"iO^  *•  SI"**  aJ-Hle^      «"«• 
pNdominance  of  the  a  wund  wh<ce  the  Syriac  baa  o ;  i  '""^''  ""^i"?  """>  "■»"  "  'I™'  '»"'1»  ^^^^^•" 
tlie  aToidaoce   of  dipbihongs  and   nf  otiant  iMlere  ■  |  "iw  were  ln»tnllBHlt^  rimoltaneoualy  with  Ifce  8ab». 
the  B«  of  dageah-fbne ;  the  regular  accentuation  of  i  "»■  •"  t""*  affllrtion  "t  Job  (i,  16-17).      In  proceaa  of 
Ibe  La«  irllahle;  and  the  fonnalioii  of  the  inanilivc^    «"'^  "  •*»  *'***  (n™  in  power,  their  name  grad- 
acsDt  ia  Ptal   wiibout   ilic  prefotmaliva  V.      rif '"tOyxmridhiAovathMotibeotbtwMhn  mbmbitinB 
y^  .       ....  .    ,         ,  ,  ^.       ..„  ,      U»  countrv,  and  by  the  era  of  the  Jowiih  Captivity  it 

>ade  of  wcitmg  n  alao  much  1f»  drf.ch»  than  ia    ^  begun  to  be  uid  geoerallv  (»  all  the  iuh.bit«ta 
*^j.  1,         .    J..  -  ..     ...  .1.     rn.  ,..  of  Babylonia.     We  niav  »U!T)ict  that  when  the  name 

Work.  »""ll«rT  to  tita  atudy  of  the  ChaUee :  -  ,,  ^^(^  ^  b,„^  ^  ,^,  dvna.ti«  which  proc<Mled 
G«*>c»AR8!  Cellariua,  C™»™<.  iiiiff.  C*aJ<l.  (CiiB,  the  Syrian,  it  U  bv  wav  of  nrafapii.  The  dynartr 
J?*;\2£f'^*°^"'S'?r-  '^^^■■'^f^-  oTNSl^r,  be^"»r%,  OuTprotabW  "2^ 
(Kiel,  IfiOb);  Hegtlnraier.  CAaW™.  «>*'«• /«"*,-  ci„ld„„,  .ud  tbia  greatly  helped  to  ettablUh  tin 
r^  (TW-.  1-0) :  J.  D  Michael!,,  Cr™™aft™  O-J.  \rid^  „^  ,rf  .fc,  .pi;^ti<i..  iVLi  thu.  ™ne  br 
^*'?iS,''-«?2i^T'--''"".:r;:?,T '^*^-  thi.«me  to  h.vet»^.en«^  both  ethnic  in  the  o.;e 
(L™««,1iC7>:  Schroeder,/™MB(.odCAaiii«Bi.ifrt.  ii  „„  (h«  gnidal  appellative  of  a  particular  rme  to 
^17«7. 1«10)=  Wittkh  C™fr^  A  &.K  «  «T,.  ^^^  i  :.S,girf,.m  tba  r»noC  time.;  in  U. 
a^..M»  (l*ipng.  1W4)|  Hlnet  fl.  aaUoum*  ^„  „  d„ip,rtod  the  nation  at  large  in  which  thia 
^^'i,"^' '^^'' *  T  1  ii  ^""^'.  '  ^  r«,ewaa  predominant-Smith,.. v.  Probably  it  wa. 
'^^A^^^^'^^T-  '^"""•^.^■/"^"f'"  a  bran<*  of  the  .am.  p«>ple  that  ar.  .poken  of  io 
*  CWJj.  CLo»d.  laaU)  :m^  .!'"««•'  "/CA^H.  /^  Gt«k  wrlara  a.  an  Jcoltlvatad  tiibe  ofmountian- 
PBJ.IN.Y.  I8M):  Giirid(aCbald«n  pne«l,  fi/e-  «ra,  „„  the  CaMucblan  monntaln.,  in  the  neighbor- 
«■«  t^,  CWJa.™  Bonn.  1860) :  FOr-t,  iMr^  .,  ^  ^  Armenia,  -bom  Xcnophon  .Urib-TLv. 
*T^  i^  "T*-  ^**"  <.V^P*-  '^'\  ^'"  ^"^  """-  "nd  ftnd  of  fnedom  (CV™.  i,  Bl  i  J«i.  iv,  8, 4,  7,  8, 
t,  ?  *^r'  '"■'rr^  t";!"-  ^"^^^^  ^  f  ■  'rS"  I  ^f)-  '■>  H"b.  1, 6-10,\h.  Chid-n.  at,  .p^koTof  1.: 
ud  by  Profo.«,r  ,H«ket  ,  Gram^  o/  fA«  (7AaU«  I  correeponding  term..  The  drcnmatanc^oweover, 
Liagvist  at  camlatKd  M  t*.  BMt  and  Targumt  (N.  Y.  y^t  a  Sbemitic  dialcot  is  found  to  bare  prevailed  in 
\M}.  Th*  ra»t  ""P*"*  '•-"?"^'"L'»^?"'^''  Babvlon.  corroborate  th.  idea  that  thi  Chaldjauia 
Z«w.  aoifr»<ghi»Aoo-roi*»CT«.  (Bnil.  laiB ;  a  |  ,^  ^f  ,  ^i^^  character.  Sea  C«ald*a. 
°"j!i^-S!?  «»1  Galbe  »  am™j™d,Lp..  IWS  |       j  ^,  „„^„„  ^y„  C^jj^  i,  ^^^  y„ 

MLJ'';?::^l^^\S:"^:;r^  rf;:;£3:\'s?r^^r*urhai:n^^i^ 

c |.       /.       fc.  ^L.e-^      T    ^    ert  /j    wf r  _.    i     i  **  fortfa  nnacT  the  .vmboi  of  a  Hon  having  eagle. 

,,       ,",.^       1      SI.     -,....    » r,;  ij  J  wmgs.     The  government  wa«  deepotic,  ana  tbe  will  of 

(Lft.I»66,«.).     Tha  Biblical  Chaldea  words  are  eon-  ,.    * i.      u.  i__  .i.    .i.i       f  ..  i,i„„    r  Li._>' 

yr^  .    ..     ,r  til*.  T  the  monarch,  who  bore  the  title  of  **  king  of  kinga 

tanwd  ID  the  Heb.  lexloona.     CHRBSTOiuTHiRa  have  ,t,.„  ,,  _,  '    .  .„„™„  i._  ..  „.„  i,„  iL„  i„  n.„ 

, ji*  J  L     n     _  /v I    1.  i-ma-i     ¥  1  L     ....r-  (U«n.  iL  b7).  wfl.  Bupremo  law,  an  mav  i«  seen  m  IJan. 

Jj.  JWk,B.«.<N.^n.b.l7M);  J- J.b«  (»»».  |,,„.',|,'„.     Th.  kl.,,  Ih-ri  I«i«..lUl.  »  U»lr 

l»»)i  G™»(I««^1),  m,^JJi  t-4.^1  „l*il.;..ll-|,«^..d?.U„.d..»,l,«.,l,i.,«l. 

a.*,  rajyun,  ■.  Aumtri:.  ■.  lyartrfBHter  (Ltintig,  ..    '     _.     .  d  _-        /v-     „..i.  ^ i^..m.7 ..  _<■ 

Uli),  P?E«ld.  'Kri.  ^J«i,"  JwT  »  ,ffi  I    r™  I?^«<         '■i'SS.hSll^sf 

HwS^(B«.l.  IWO).     TtaBili^l  CliM«  1.  I  "'  "■  "'    ,T^,.T.     ,1  lT^™  l.^^C™ 

_  .  '     J  1  \l    tt  I  1*'.^  **■  not  nmall:   in  l>an.  vl.  1,  Uanns  la  BBia't&  have 

-aUmediuUnHeUBrtJ..  setoverlhe  whole  kingdom  no  l*wer  U»n"a  bnndred 

CbaUv*  Panphrasas.    See  TABoima.  and  twenty  prlnon."    The  chiaf  ofltan  appear  to 
Ctol'dW.  (or  "CbaldBan.,"  Babrew  Katdtm;  ■  '".V  '""'^  ""."V,*?"^-  of  the  i»lace,"  or  prime 

C-!??,  Sept.  X«W«i«.  Chald.  r«?b?,  or  R^^^X)  "jl^^jJ'J^;^  '''m..!:lf.,'S."  uS- ^aXm"^ 

•ff«i  in  Sertp|«re,  until  the  tim.  of  the  C|;ptivity.  a,  ^^:„  '^  i^„  ^j      .,        h..  (j^.  h,  u))  ,^  ..'.  ^„ 

*.  peepJa  of  th.  country  which  ha.  Babylon  for  if  ^„'^th.  magician,,"  or  p™,ide„l  ^the  magi  (Dan. 

aqitalCiKmg.  dt;  I«.ilu,IB.  x^li^l3:  amp.  j     gy     Dbillnct.  probel.ly,  from  tbe  foregoing,  wa,  the 

l-.xlv^^»;  Jer.xj..*;  Mtxii,2e,.;  E«*.  xjrii,  cU»  tem>ad(Dan.  1[1,24,"!T)  "th.  king-M  coun»llora." 

liiMc.),  and  which  i.  itaelf  termed  Shinar  (-rp);  .bo  Hem  to  have  fwmed  a  kind  of  "privy  council," 

W  in  tha  bnk  of  Duiel.  wbil.  tfato  meaning  is  still  or  even  "cabinet,"  fbr  advieiiHE  the  monuvh  and  gov- 

'"wl  (v.  3D,  and  in,  l).aDew(f-n<eahowsitBelf.    The  cmiag  the  kingdom.     The  aotire  empire  was  divided 

^bere  claaMd  with  tin  magklani  and  into  Mveral  proTincaa  (Dan.  ii,  4R:  iii,  1).  preaidMl 


CHALDEES 


CHALUERS 


™rhyofflc™of™ion.r.nk..    An  M.niner.lioi.  of  663:  i,  9*.  «*■>;  >»'"1'"  «?"*'*"•  ■««.J"«''','^'- 

,ever»l  kinds  nuiv  h.  fonnd  in  D«d.  iii.  2.  3.    The  elled  agunat  the  Oudd-*™  of  tha  tnipire,  .ud  m- 

bod  officers,  who  unit^  In  thBra»«l»«»  the  bighaat  detd  it  wM  but  partially  deatrved  >o  Uw  u  Iha  reiffO 

dvU  snd  mUiUry  powsr,  irere  denominated  D^lJp,  of  Augmtua  (aee   Strabo,  itl,  1.  §  6).  __Joa*i.bi», 

■'rulers-  (Jcr.  li,  28,  28,  57),  or  rSB^'JCtll*,  "P"»-  ^*''"'  "•       ' 
Wents"  (Dan.  vi 


I  the  word  in  tbU 


le  title  of  ring,  "  govem- 


Upon  tbe  valla  of  tbe 


.ssjrian  palaces  ai 


i"  (I''8B-  '•  ^i  "i  2i  "n  Chald.  Rt^JllS).  The  ad-  resenlations  of  TarJona 
ministration  of  criminal  justice  was  rigorous  and  crtiel,  magi,  aU  disliiigalsbed  by 
will  being  subatituled  tor  Uw,  and  human  life  sod  hu-  a  peculiarity  of  dreas.  It 
man  sntTering  being  totally  diaregiirded.  Nebuchad-  may  be  difficult  to  deter- 
Qoiiar  (Dan. ii,6)docUrta  to  the  college  oftbo  magi:  mine  tbe  claaa  t»  ubich 
"  If  yc  will  not  malte  known  unto  me  tbe  dream,  with  they  respectively  belong, 
the  inlcrpteWtion  thereof,  ye  abaU  be  cut  in  pieces,  buttbereiBone{BotU,pl. 
and  your  houaes  shall  be  mads  a  dnag-bill"  (aee  also  xliii)  who  may  be  particu- 
Daa.  iii,19;  vi,  8;  Jer.  s«ix,  22).  The  religion  of  lariied  >e  a  diviner,  and 
the  Chaldeea  was,  as  with  the  ancient  Aisbians  and  probably  of  the  Chaldnan 
Svrian5,the  wombipofthobeavenlybodies;  theplan-  race,  for  bis  pfTSon  is 
ets  Jupiter,  Mercury,  and  Venua  were  honored  as  Bel,  much  thinner,  and  hia  fea- 
Nebo,  and  Meni,  besidea  Satnm  and  Mars  (Geaeniua,  tures  are  more  delicate 
Jem  il  832  m).  The  language  spoken  in  Babylon  than  are  those  otlhe  other 
was  what  ia  designate*!  Chaldee,  which  Is  Sbemilic  in  attendants  of  tbe  court, 
iisMigin.DelonginglotheAramakbrancb.  SeeCHAi^  indicating  a  different  op- 
i)Eu  LANOUiOB.  ,  ^"    "f    occupations,    and 

8.  That  tbe  Ki^i  proper,  bowevM-,  were  a  Coshite  !  an  exemption  from  the 
r»ce,i8provedliylheremainBof tbeirlanguage.which  ruder  and  more  active 
closely  reaembles  the  GaOa  or  ancient  language  of  employmenla  of  life.  See 
EthiopiSk  Now  it  appears  by  the  inscriptions  that  Divimkr. 
while  both  in  Assyria  and  in  later  Babylonia  the  Sb«^  i  CtuOice  (L»t.  caliii),  the  cnp  in  which  the  wine  of 
mitictypeofapeechprev^ledrorclvilpurposes,  thean-  the  Encbariet  b  adminitlered.  At  first,  when  tba 
dent  Cushite  dislect  was  retained,  aa  a  learned  Ian-  Chriitians'were  pcor,  tbe  cups  were  of  oomnion  msta- 
guage,  fbr  scientific  and  religious  literature.  This  ia  rUle ;  but  when  they  grew  rich,  the  cup*  were  of  the 
no  doubt  the  '■  learning"  and  tbe  "  tongue"  to  which  moet  costly  materials  they  could  afford,  such  as  onyi, 
reference  is  made  in  the  book  of  Daniel  (1, 4).  It  l»-  sardonyi,  silver,  and  gold.  The  chalices  are  of  two 
came  gradually  inaccessible  to  the  great  mass  of  the  kinds,  the  greater,  containing  a  large  qnantilv  of  wine, 
people,  who  were  Shemitiiod  by  means  (chiefly)  of  A»-  ,nd  tbe  less,  called  miniiltriala,  becanae  the  priests 
Syrian  inHueoce.  But  it  was  the  Chaidmn  learning,  deliver  the  wine  to  be  dmnk  out  of  tbem.— Bingbam, 
in  the  old  Cbaldnan  or  Cusblte  bmgnage.  Hence  all ,  Orij.  Ecclti.  bk.  viii,  ch.  vi,  g  SI;  Donght«us.  <k  Ca- 
who  studied  it,  whatever  their  origin  or  race,  were,  on  . /if ,  £-u(.jjar.  Va.  (Helmst.  1726) ;  Si(«el,  .iZMrauairr, 
account  of  their  knowledge,  termed  ChaldKans.     In  1 1,  61. 

this  sense  Daniel  himself,  tbe  "  master  of  the  Ch^-        dialt     The  Heb.  T-l,  «r,  thus  rendered  in  Im. 
d-an."  (Dan.  v,  11),  would  no  donU  have  b«n  "ck-  ^^  ^^^     ^^  _^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

oned  among  them ;  -"d  ~  J"  I"."!  ,^'"'='^,'  *'"*J^   of  the  Hebrew  altars  tike  limMtones  is  to  cmmble  an* 
calledaChald«anbyStTaboCivi,l,§6).     It  may  be    a„t„y  t^„.     See  Lin.. 

,       CliallalL    See  Tauidd. 


CliaUiFan  Dlvtner 


doubted  whether  tbe  Chaldnans 

priests,  though  no  doubt  priests  were  required  to  be 
Chaldeans.  They  were  really  tbe  learned  class,  who 
by  their  acquaintance  with  the  language  of  science  had 
become  Its  depositaries.  They  were  priesU,  magi- 
cians, or  astftinomers,  as  tl»eir  preference  for  one  or 
Other  of  those  occupations  inclined  tbem ;  and  in  llie 
last  of  tile  three  capacltiea  they  probably  edited  dis- 
coveries of  great  Importance. 

According  to  Strabo,  who  well  distinguishes  (zvl,!, 
g  6)  between  tbe  learned  ChaldieanB  and  tbe  mere  race 
descended  from  the  ancient  Kaldi,  which  continued  to 
predominate  in  the  country  bordering  upon  Arabia  and 
the  Gulf,  there  were  two  chief  seats  of  (Chaldean  learn- 
ing, Borsippa,  and  Ur  or  Orcho*.  To  these  we  may 
add  from  Pliny  (H.  JV.  vi,  26)  two  others,  Babylon, 
and  Sippara  or  Sepharvaim.  The  Chaldieans  (it  would 
appear)  congietnited  into  bodies,  forming  what  we  may 
perhaps  call  universities,  and  pursuing  the  studies  in 
which  they  engaged  togelhor.     They  probably  mixed 

even  in  the  earllrr  time*,  but  they  certainly  made 
great  advances  in  nutronomical  science,  to  which  their 
serene  sky,  transparent  atmosphere,  and  regular  hori- 
zon specially  invited  tbem.  The  observations,  cover- 
ing a  space  of  1903  years,  which  Callisthenes  sent  to 
Aristotle  from  Babylon  (iimpWc  orf  ^nX.rfe  CW.ii,  p. 
128),  indicate  at  once  tbe  antiquity  of  such  knowledge 
in  the  connby,  and  tbe  care  with  which  it  had  been 
preserved  by  the  learned  class.  In  later  times  they 
aeem  certainlv  to  have  degenerated  intu  mere  fortune- 
tellers (CicBr^,rfe  Dit.  1,1;  Aul.  Gell.  1,9;  Juv.  vi. 


ChallamlBh.     See  FuitT. 
CbBilamutli.    See  pDBSLi.tit. 

Chailenge.    See  Staoi-i  Comsat, 

Cttalloner,  RtcaABD,  an  English  Romaniit,  wm 
bom  at  Lewes,  Sussex,  Sept.  29, 1691.  His  parenU 
were  Protestants,  but  he  was  led  over  to  Rome  by  bis 
tnlor,  Mr.  Gothar,  a  Romish  chaplain  at  Warwortb, 
Nonhamptonshire.  In  1704  he  went  to  ihe  English 
college  in  tbe  University  of  Dooay,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  poetiy,  afterwards  of  rhetoric,  in 
ITIS  of  phllosopby,  and  in  1718  of  divinity.  In  I'W 
be  became  vice-president  of  his  college,  and  ten  years 
aflerwarda  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  England.  He 
now  commenced  a  series  of  contnvenial  works,  among 
which  waa  a  reply  to  Conyers  Middleton's  lAtterfrBm 
Romt,  In  1741  he  was  made  titular  bishop  of  London 
and  Salisbury,  and  vicar  apostolic.  He  was  accused 
of  acting  against  tbe  anti-papal  bw  of  Willivn  HI, 
but  waa  acquitted.  In  ITHD  be  was  again  in  danger 
IVnm  Lord  Ijeorge  Gordon's  riots.  He  died  in  1781. 
See  Barnard,  £/«  o/  Atoliirrf  Cioifoner  (I  ond.  1784, 
8vo).  Among  bis  writings  are,  I.  Jltr  Calkolie  Ckrit- 
Han  imtnitleit  is  Ihe  Saeranieiitt,  Sarrificf.  and  Crrt- 
moaiit  of  ike  Church  (against  Middleton's  Coti/ormilf 
btlaem  Popery  and  Paffanitni.') : — 2.  Bn'laitia  Saarla 
(Memoirs  of  British  Suott.  1T46,  2  vol*.  4tt>) :— 3.  A 
Caveat  agaimi  Mfthoditm.  etc. — Gortnn.^tq;.  Dic6im- 
arg,  B.  V.  1  MYibonc,  Dict:,.niTii  of  AaAoTi,  1,  361. 

CIulm«n.  TuoHAB.  D.U.,  LL.D.,  eminent  alike 


CHALMERS  203  CHALONS 

u  pnachd,  phiUnthinput,  Bud  philosopher,  w>i  born  I  intellection,  bnt  in  the  wtum  and  virid  light  or  a  po- 
IE  AnMralheT,  in  Fifubire,  Scotland,  March  17, 17S0,  '  etic  faocj.  The  '  bod;  of  divinity,'  or  eChica,  which 
Ht  «■>  sent  at  an  earl;  age  to  the  ancieDt  Uuivenity  In  the  bands  of  other  analytic  became  a  akelelon  of 
of  St.  Andrew 'i.  He  devoted  himHlfchieflv  to  phys-  rattling  bones,  by  hln  pludc  touch  wu  tniufocmsd 
kil  Kicnce,  especially  to  aiCronomy,  in  wUch  he  be- ,  into  an  image  of  living,  breathing  beauty,  warm  and 
nsH  ■  proScieDt.  In  Uay,  1803,  be  was  appointed  i  bright  wltb  a  glorious  life.  The  Btslraclions  of  cold- 
■inisler  of  Kllmany,  in  Fifeebtre.  During  his  &nt  er  and  more  logical  minds  were  to  bitn  concrete,  eiD- 
VCU1  of  HTvice  there  tn  gave  himself  more  to  science  bodied  Tealities.  Bat  when  we  examine  hi*  sermons 
Ihu  to  paatoral  dnties,  and  published  his  first  impor-  {  critically  we  find  much  to  condemn.  There  is  an  ul- 
tinl  work,  the  /aju'ry  ■n'o  ll>'  Kxtent  and  atabVilt/  of  ,  ter  disnigBrd  of  all  Ibe  laws  of  style  and  language. 
.Viriiou' Araoarcu,  in  which  two  points  are  especially  |  The  sentences  are  long,  involved,  and  tangled.  Tbe 
pmninent — an  intense  dislike  of  the  spirit  of  trade,  \  veriest  colloquial tsms,  (be  most  nnsuthoriied  idioms, 
ai  a  burning  military  ardor.  About  1809  ha  was  ^  and  in  some  cases  even  an  approach  to  vulKariams,  ap- 
rngiged  to  write  tbe  article  on  Christianity  for  the  I  pear  in  his  language.  Thus,  in  one  of  his  most  mag- 
EJ^iurgK  EHrydopiTdia.  Id  prosecating  tbe  studies  nificent  efforts,  he  tells  his  hearers  that  he  does  not 
DKeaaiy  foe  ibis  article,  he  began  to  perceive  that '  expect  by  such  appeals  to  break  the  '  am/uundai  spell' 
lh«e  was  something  in  Cbriitlanity  which  be  had  that  chained  them  to  the  world.  Tbe  most  offensive 
uver  yet  comprehended.  Tbe  refiectioos  to  which  a  ]  trait  in  his  style  Is  its  endless  omplificotkin  and  repe- 
!tren  illness  gave  rbe  completed  bis  "  conversion,"  .  titlon"  (Itloore,  died  bdoaj. 

ud  on  his  rei'orecy  he  begun  to  confess  publicly  liia  We  cannot  assign  Chalmen  a  high  rank  as  an  en. 
prtviott!  blindness,  and  to  preach  Christ  crucified.  In  \  positor  of  Scripture.  His  Ltctam  on  Somotu.  and 
mS  be  was  invited  by  the  town  council  of  Glasgow  '  still  more  fally  his  Foilllumoai  IVorij,  prove  that  his 
la  takr  charge  of  the  Tmn  Cburch  and  parish  In  that  eiconiions  into  this  vast  field  were  but  short  and  nar- 
cily.     ll  was  here,  perhaps,  that  the  highest  triumphs  :  raw  in  their  range. 

of  his  eloquence  wetvacbicved.  In  1823  he  wiis  trans-  The  IVorjti  n/"  i)r.  ChiJinert  are  published  in  a  uni- 
fecred  lo  tbe  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  tbe  Unlrer-  '  form  edition  by  T.  Constable,  Edinburgh  (25  vols, 
•ilj  of  St.  Andrew's.  The  ethical  claes-reom,  which  ]2ma).  They  are  as  follows:  ffalural  Theoliyg,  2 
bid  licrore  presented  a  beggarly  account  of  empty  vols. ;  ChriMiatt  Endouxt,  2  vols.  \  Moral  Phitat^ji, 
beaches,  was  soon  crowdedwith  classesof  enthusiaatic  1  vol, ;  Commerrial  Duetmrtri,  1  vol.  j  jl Mrononiicaf 
■tBdents.  In  ISIB  be  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Dita/uritt,  1  voL;  Omgrrgatiorud  Sermmu,  3  vok. ; 
IhtatDgy  in  the  College  of  Edinborgh — the  summit  of  |  PubSe  iSrrmoiu,  1  vot.  i  Traett  owJ  Eti^,  1  vol. ;  Ht- 
nclesiasticsl  elevKtJon  and  infiuence  in  the  National  ti^  on  CkriitiaB  AulMon,  I  vol. ;  (%rurun  and  £co- 
Estalilishment.  In  this  post  lie  continued  to  labor  un-  '  noniic  PoUly.  3  vols. ;  C%urci  Ettablithmtnli,  1  vol. ; 
111  tbe  diamption  of  tbe  EetabllshmenL  See  Frbb  Charck  Extrmiaii,  1  vol. ;  Politicat  Eomomg,  2  vols. ; 
CatBCH  or  S<x>Ti.AND.  In  May,  1843,  the  pride  and  Parodiiat  Sysfcm,  1  vol. ;  Leetsret  on  Bomatu,  i  vols, 
pevsrof  the  ancient  Cburch — four  hundred  ministers.  Besides  these,  his  Poethnmous  Works  contain.  Daily 
with  Chalmers  at  their  head — departed  from  her,  and  Serijiturt  Riadiagi,  8  vols,  j  Sabtath  Scnpture  Rtad- 
irguuied  the  first  "General  Assembly  of  the  Free  ingt,  2  rols.j  ZXsciiurau  kUhtrio  anpubtithed,  1  vol.i 
Cbarch  of  Scotland,"  over  which  be  presided.  "With  /.iKtura  on  Bvtler,  Bill,eti:.  1  vol.;  /mtitaUi  of  Ckri't- 
tbe  Rapendous  exertions  that  were  then  put  forth  to  tiaaily,  1  vol.  His  L^o  and  Conttpondence,  by  the 
«Mt  churches,  mantes,  school-bouses,  and  colleges ;  Rev.  W.  Hanna,  D.  D.  (4  vols.  12moX  is  not  equal  to 
to  send  misiions  to  Jews  and  heathen,  and  to  set  on  the  reputation  of  Dr.  Chalmers.  An  abstract  of  his 
(Ht  sU  tbe  machinery  of  an  efficient  Church;  with  Theology,  by  the  Rev.J.  M.  Manning,  is  given  in  tbe 
tbe  imaihig  labors  of  Chalmers,  who  travelled  over  Bib&itiKa  Sacra,  liil,  477  sq.— Moore,  in  the  UethBd- 
dM  length  and  breadth  of  Scotland,  breathing  his  own  M  Quari.  Srviao,  Oct.  1849 ;  Hanna,  Life  a/  Cialmen 
liuniinp  spirit  into  every  class,  while  he  seemed,  like  i  (New  York,  Harpers,  1860);  N.  Brit,  Reriew,  vi:,  299; 
the  co^e,  to  bave  renewed  hie  yoath;  and  with  the  viii,  210;  xvil,  110;  PrinceUm  Rmien,  xlii,  30. 
vondarful  success  tliat  crowned  these  exertions,  we         — .     ,  g^  „ 

tauw  be  drtainod  without  exceeding  our  Umils.    3uf-        ^-OaiOn.     EMw  HALi. 

fice  it  to  Biy  that,  in  a  great  measure,  by  tbe  infusion  Chalona,  ■  town  in  France,  on  the  Saone,  on  11m 
of  lus  own  nnUring  energy-  into  every  dasn,  rank,  aita  of  the  ancient  CaUOnuiin.  Sec  Frakce, 
and  sge.  the  stupendous  struclun  of  the  Free  Cburch  Several  pmrincial  consntjt  were  held  here  during 
WMI  np,  like  AUddin'i  palace,  as  it  were  in  a  single  the  Middle  Ages,  of  which  the  most  important  was 
il^t,  and  the  world  stood  amazed  at  the  unparalleled  that  of  A.  D.  813,  ordered  by  Charlemagne.  It  pnb- 
ipectsck."  Chalmers  was  appointed  principal  and  lished  aixty'dx  canons,  of  which  tbe  first  eleven  re- 
fcofctaor  of  theology  in  the  Free  Churcb  College,  in  late  to  bishops,  and  direct  that  they  shall  read  the 
■hich  post  he  condnned  Ull  bis  death.  Busied  with  holy  Scriptures,  tbe  councils,  and  the  pastoral  of  St. 
Ha  infeaiorshlp,  with  the  preparation  of  bis  InttHtOa  Gregory ;  that  they  shall  preacb  to  their  people  and 
"/  Titaiogy  and  hia  DalJy  Scr^/tun  Reading;  he  yet '  edify  them,  establish  schools,  etc.  The  twenly-sev- 
fcniid  time  for  varied  works  of  benevolence  and  phi-  enth  forbids  the  repetition  of  confirmation.  The  thir. 
halhropy.  On  Sunday  nlghl.  Hay  30, 1847,  he  retired  i  ty-second  declares  that  spiritual  sins  must  be  confess- 
to  his  chombet  apparently  in  his  ordinary  health,  and  |  ed,  as  well  as  bodily  sins.  The  thirty-sixth  declares 
wssfeund  dead  in  his  bed  next  morning.  ,  that  almsglvingavails  only  to  release  (hun  venial  sins. 

In  analyzing  the  "  intellectaal  character  of  Dr.  I  arising  IVom  frailty,  and  reprtives  those  who  go  on  in 
Cbalmen  we  find  but  two  prominent  peculiarities,  j  sin,  thinkint;  lo  escape  panishment  for  their  much 
Tbe  first  is  the  lar^  development  of  the  perceptive  |  otme^civing.  The  forty-ninth  orders  prayers  for  the 
bcnlties.  It  was  this  peculiarity  that  directed  his  '  dead  lo  be  said  at  every  moss,  and  declares  it  to  be  an 
mtaul  to  natural  science,  and  flttad  him  to  excel  in  '  ancient  custom  in  the  Church  to  commend  to  the  Lord 
those  departments  that  demanded  the  exercise  uf  the  the  spirits  of  those  asleep.  The  forty-third  declares 
perapdve  powers ;  ttiat  determined  his  thoughts  to  the  ordination  of  certain  priests  and  deacons  conferred 
(he  druils  of  economics,  poor-lawi,  statisdcs,  etc.;  I  by  certain  Scotch  bishops  to  be  null  and  void,  b^g 
■hat  famished  him  with  the  exulwrance  of  illustration  dime  without  the  consent  of  their  diocesans,  and  with 
that  adorns  hia  discourses,  and  led  him  generally  to  I  suspicion  of  umony.  The  forty-fifth  condemns  pil- 
Rosoo  by  analogy  rather  ttiBU  on  abstract  principles  j  grimiges  nude  in  order  to  obtain  remission  of  sins, 
V  by  metapbysical  deductions.  The  other  prominent !  which,  on  that  pntext,  the  persons  about  to  make  tha 
bet  in  his  inlclIeclualstTUCtare  was  imagination.  He  pilgrimage  go  on  comroltliDK  more  freely;  pilgrim- 
did  nM  look  at  a  subject  in  the  cold,  dry  light  of  pure  ,  ages  made  from  proper  devotional  motives  ore  com' 


CHALUZA  204  CHAMELEON 

nMDded.  Tba  fDrty-Mvanth  ordsn  ill  CbriMUaa  to  .  imta  opprMson,  they  derive  atriking  eincidatioo  ft«in 
nccire  tbs  holy  EucbirUt  on  Msaiubty  Tbnndkj'. —  j  the  goTgeont  faalU  of  tha  Aw}Tuia  paUcm  lataly 
L>bba  Md  Coiwt,  CamcU,  %.  vil,  p.  1S70;  Lutdon,  brongbt  to  light  by  LiTard,  wltb  their  long  linu  of 
Miamal  ofCmataU,  «.  t.  >  Kulptund  ■niniali,  and  kinga  wonhippiBg  bafon  tbom 

ChaluM.    Soe  Cbuj-bs.  ,  (^'««*.  "■  «<»)■     »«  Imaqbsi. 

"ChunbarlDK"  (mrni)  algQiSei  In  Rob.  xiv,  18, 

Chamber  (tha  tmuUtioa  of  TUlnu  Heb.  woida).  'that  lewd  aaaoclalion  with  <7og: '  

OrianUl  hoiue.  have  in  geaaral  >  court  in  th.  eantre,  !  t^^um  th«  was  >  peculur  ft 

with  rlobt«n  and  a  gallwj,  into  which  the  chambere  I  of  that  age      See  HABt.OT 

open,  the  apaitaianto  ottho  wonHm  being  at  the  b«l^  I      chamborlala  (0"0,'  «™',  I  Klnga  x,Hl,  18  ; 

and  only  to  be  approached  by  paasing  throogh  tha  -^i  •    ,      ,  V,  ^  ,    ,.. 

othen.     To-aidlh..tr«ti«»deadw«ll,irithaporeli.    a  It    '      ,    i       ■    'L>  ^i  "■  l"- "i  'v  4,  S;  7*.  i.  "  I 

OTM  Which  i.  a  ch«nb,r,  K>n»tim«  n»d  a.  a  iJdglng  ,  ^P*'  "f^^y""">''X''<:~  t""  »»";-»;,  aU  ..gnjfytag 

wdl %uiWd  for  either  of  th...  pnrpou.,  by  being  o^-      »"™^  >'  ,  P"' '^f™  "PP"^'".'"''*  ^T"  "PP"'?  •<> 

-      ■■     -  ..     .      r     t~      ;    ■   .    ^"       I    I  officers  confidenlially  employed  alwut  the  perwni  of  the 


iiMtsl  with  lb*  rat  of  Ibe  hoiue  by  a  door  in 


I  thua  Potiphar,  who  wai  alw  captain  of  tba 


gnard,  in  the  Egj^itiaD  court,  ia  e^led  thoa  (G«n. 


lery.  and  having  a  Mpajata  italrcaae  opening  Into  the 

tiUe  RabMm  (q.  v.).     The  title  "chamberlain"  («'- 
icafioc),  in  Rom,  xvi,  33,  probably  denotaa  the  atew- 
d  or  treoiurer  of  the  city,  called  by  tlie  Romans  th« 
_  latbir.     The  Vulg.  renders  it  by  arrariiu,  which  waa 
the  title  of  a  cIbh  of  inferior  maKiatrBtea,  who  bad  the 
charge  of  the  public  cbeM  {area  puUico),  and  were  un- 
der the  anthority  of  the  aenale.     They  kept  tlie  ac- 
counts of  the  public  revcnnei.     (See  Reintaiua,  Sgn- 
lagm.  Inter,  f.  in ;  La  C«rda,,/1rfnn.  Socr.  cap.  66  : 
'  Elaner,  Obi.  Saer.  ii,  p.  G8 ;  and  a  note  by  Reine^iua  to 
the  Marmora  Oztmiruiia,  p.  S]5,  ed.  1732.)     Blsstiu  is 
'  .aid  In  Acts  xii,  20,  to  hare  bern  "  the  king's  (Herad^) 
^  ,  chEmbertain"  (u  iiri  roD  miT-iivoc  ro6  jiaaiXiiufy,  by 
,  '  which  ia  probably  meant  his  personal  attendant  or  rttlft 
t  :  6t  cinmirv.      It  waa  a  poat  of  honor,  which  itivulvnl 
''  I  great  intimacy  and  influence  with  the  king.    The  mar- 
_  '  gin  of  our  veraion  (rives  "  that  waa  over  the  king's 
I   j  bedchiiml>er,"  Oie  office  thus  corrvsponding  to  that  of 
the  finrftctat  mUnifo  (Suetonius,  Dam.  IG).      Sec  »- 

CbomberlBln,  Jeretntolt.  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 

minister,  was  bom  in  York  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan.  6,  ITM,  i^ad- 

nated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1BH,  and  studied  theol- 

Uodera  Oriental  "Cliuaberoa  (he  Wall."  og}-  at  Princeton.      He  vas  licensed  in  1817,  when  be 

«ju./i,  9.pt.  i,im».)  wbi.h  It.  sh....,!,. ,»»  ?»-•  v'"ST"°  '^"  J'?,  ■"S^'.'.'ii;"'""'' 

,%'  ...  '  1.  .  CT- i_     /a  BF.         j_  trts       a     I.  I  ^atcheE,  ftew  Urleans,  and  Mobde.      Jn  IslH  he  sutk 

■""J  ^  £"',■■/■  '  ^""  11  ,■?■  -  P>"  •'•  B«lford  ,h.,;b,  P.,  „d  to  18!!-JS  „™,-ll 
";  K"^»~T.™f.""™i  «V.  tl,l,r™  f.D«,.ilk,K,..l.lb,P,„ld»,;ofC.t,.CoU,g.u 
.Jmb.,  ,b™  «.»n.™.l.  m  m^..  •l«b  "••    „  ,„j  C\^^  l-^udeu  to  .  SUtt  to.Ul.tto.  .1 

™^i.  :  •■, i/^.  V  ?  T  ™  1  b.'.ti:  —d-y.  "i  >»»»  I" ™  »•''•  l^"""  "tO.kto.d 
upper  Btorv:  amons  tbe  net^rews  it  seems  to  nave  been    ,-^  „      '  fr,  -i.  i.       «#.        .l         .i,-,  .      ^ 

oSTorcoSnicted  with,  the  flat  roof  of  their  dweliinp,  College,  Claiborne  Co  M>s..,  the  esUbl.ahmenl  of 
C<»mp.Actaxx,8).  Thewi  upper  chami«rs  were  also  *^";*' *" '^*  T"'!  "I""'  "T  ^S^^T'"  .*."" 
^im<«  uaed  for  th.  perforiiVnce  of  idolMroua  rites  ""l''*l  ^  ^^  """  9*f-  ^."l-  ^^^  '''  '  .f"'^"'- 
(a  Kings  xxili.  Vi\  and  in  them  the  bodies  of  the  de«i :  ''«'  """"■V"  STS';"w  p",!fl.J'">-?L'''lHlL/ 
iMelddout(Actsix,e7).  Tb.  earlv  Cbriati.n^  too,  I  ^V^^  S^ '^  f'^hT^  ^"^^J  *^  ^""'*- 
held  their  meetings  for  worship  in  such  pUe...  B^  '  ?.«?'"  .S°"»  <>'  "is  ^ddrrwr.  and  L^.  were  pub. 
aide.  th»e,  there  V.™  inner  chambers,  or  a  '■cham-    ^  ±."'  '  n.«spapets.-Spr.gue,  A^uO,, 

bar  within  a  chamber-' (lKinpBXxii.2o),  such  as  that    "'■i,'"'      ^     ,    ,        „   »,       ,  ,   .  -   ., 

into  which  th.  me.»mger  of  Elisha  retired  to  anoint  „  ChHml>Bilaln.  ScbuylBr.  a  m'"»»'?jf  the 
J.hu  (2  Kings  ix,  a).     See  Hocai.  I  Methodist  Ep>«:o|»l  Church,  v.as  bom  in  V.oodtt^k, 

The  term  e*a«*er  i.  naed  mrtapborically  in  many  ,  Con"-.  Sept.  4th  IWXI  ^  InlBlK  he  jomed  ^e  first 
placesofth.  Scriptures,  as  Psa.  civ,  8,13;  Pro,-,  vii,  M't""^'"^  <^1^  f''™'^'' J^  Craftabuo^,  \  t.  He  w« 
27.  To  apply  ou^elves  to  «»«est  praver  and  suppli-  '«^»«i  '"'".'ha  ^«"  tngland  Conference  m  1828, 
cation,  and  to  de,«nd  on  tb.  promiHs  ^nd  provldelKie  ""d  during  h«  itinerant  car™  filled  a  number  of  mi- 
of  tii-l  for  specifll  protection,  istoent^rlntooor  cham-  I*'**"'  appoimmenls,  including  the  presidinK  elder- 
bers,  that  we  mav  be  safe,  a.  the  Hebrew,  were  in    -l^P-     He  died  at  Craftsbur,.  May  D,  IWJ.      Ho  ,«- 

.K.1,1 s,  from  the  destroying  angel  (Isa.xxvi,  20).  !'«»»«*  aupcriOT  abiUlies  as  a  |>reacher;  hb  style  was 

-      **      **     ^  !  oapy,  impnwsive,  and  attractive,  and  there  waa  great 

outh"  (Job  ix,  9)  are  the  '  cle.meM  and  definlteness  in  his  sermon..  He  was 
conateliations,  or  clusters  of  Stan,  belonging  to  the  <>«:««>  "'""  '""»»  "  delegate  to  the  Ganei^  Confer- 
»outbem  part  or  the  firmament.  See  AstkoNomy.  I  ""«■  He  also  represeuted  the  town  of  Crafhsbury  in 
The  t«m  '■ChamlK,™  of  Imagery-  (r.-si??  ^-.nTl,  ,  J^f  t^i*„«'j^""  '^"'  i^f>m.-lfm^  ^ C«/er^ 
J^rr-apartmrnli;  Sept.  roirrui'  rpcirrui.)  i 
the   prophet  Eiekiel  (viii,  \i)  to  denote  i 

which  he  had  of  the  abominations  practic  ..  ...   —  ... 

Jew.  in  the  distant  Jerusalem.  As  the  practices  then  the  wor-is  ko'ach  (ns,  ao  calkd  appaienUy  on  accouni 
denounced  wera  evidently  borrowed  from  their  Chal-    "f  its  fc-reut  lifigih)  and  HnOtntH  pT;^]?).  the 


*,  1863,  p.  104. 
Chameleon,  a  reptile  belonging  to  the  laaiM  or 
\  !  Iliunl-tike  order.     In  the  original  of  U«.  xi,  80,  occur 


CHAMIER  •■ 

■ntofvbtdi,  in  oarvenion,  is  Tendered  "chuneleDii 
(ifter  the  Sept.  and  Vnlg.  xifioiXiiui',  chamahom).  uid 
tiir  KcODd  '■  mala ;"  bat  Bucbirt  and  othen  con 
both  wordi  u  lelating  to  aniniaU  of  tbe  touru 
liiard  tribe,  aod  that  which  our  traiiBlatuni  bare  i 
ed  the  mole  u,  in  nwlity.  tiM  chameleon  (Xhaaudeo 
nfporw).  while  the  cbanieleon  of  our  vanion  is  ume 
otbet  and  larger  craatnre  of  the  aame  order,  (lerhiipt 
(  species  of  tbe  Und  crocodile.  See  >l«i.£.  "The 
duiuKleon  ii  a  »mall  ipecies  ot  lixard.  celebrated  foi 
the  hcalty  it  has  of  changing  the  color  of  \ti  xkin, 
Thii  property,  howei-er,  has  no  reference  to  the  8Ul> 
ttuce  it  may  he  placed  on,  as  generally  awerCed,  bul 
ii  Klely  derived  froni  the  bulk  of  Its  raBpiralory  orgini 
acting  span  its  mnipartnt  akin  and  on  the  blood  of 
the  animal.  The  chameleons  form  a  email  genua  of 
Miuiaiu,  eaiily  distinguubed  by  the  shagreened  char- 

diSeremly  from  (ho««  of  moet  other  animals,  there  be- 
ing, if  the  exprmxiou  may  be  allowed,  two  Ihamba  op- 
poHd  to  three  fingers.  Their  eyes  are  telescopic, 
more  separately,  and  can  be  directed  backward  or  for- 
ward. Chameleons  arc  stow,  inoffensive,  and  capable 
of  mnsiderable  abstinence  from  food,  nhich  consists 
tolsly  of  fiiea,  caught  by  a  rapid  protrusion  of  a 


Chamaln  A/HeanuA. 
ud  Tiscaiu  tongue.  Among  tbemielves  they  aie  iras- 
dhlf^  and  are  tlien  liable  t«  change  tlieir  colors  rapid- 
ly ;  iMik  yellow  or  gray  ts  predominant  when  they  an 
IB  a  qnleKSOt  itaM,  bat,  while  the  emotions  are  in  ac- 
IMty,  it  passes  into  green,  purple,  and  even  ashy 
bbclL  Tbe  species  foand  In  Palestine  and  all  Xnrtlk 
era  Afriri  is  tl)c  comnKm  '  Atr'wtn  cbimeleon,'  and 
ml«blr  ij-  that  rrferml  tn  In  l.ev.  xi,  SO,  where  an- 
dnn  uimals  are  mentioned."  (See  Peiin)  Ci/clopadia, 
*.■>.).    SeeLiEAui. 

Chamler,  DamiEl,  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
■SB  bora  in  IMS;  studied  at  Orange;  and  at  10  be- 
came one  of  tbe  professors  of  the  college  at  Xismea. 
la  IU3  he  went  to  study  at  Geneva,  where  he  was  or- 
daintd.  On  his  return  he  was  made  pastor  of  Tans, 
•nd  iflerwanl  of  .^utienas,  and  soma  time  after  suc- 
nedfd  his  father,  Adrian  Chamler.  as  pastor  of  Mont6- 
liBsr.  In  lAM  he  was  sent  by  the  province  to  tlie 
Hidmal  Synod  of  Saumur.  and  wveral  times  after- 
mit  to  tbe  Assemblies  of  Laadiin,Vendrime.  Saumur, 
andCbaMllennlt.  He  gained  tireat  credil  by  his  lirm- 
DMiinlhe  negotiations  relating  to  the  Edict  of  Kantei. 
In  16WI  be  distiiignisbed  himself  In  a  controversy  with 
Fidwr  Coton  at  Nismes,  and  the  next  year  with  the 
J«qil  Gaultier.  In  ISOl  be  became  a  delegate  to  tbe 
Ilalional  Synod  of  Gergeau,  and,  together  with  Hara- 
vil,  went  as  a  depuUtlon  to  the  king  to  ask  for  the  con- 
tisution  of  tbe  Saumur  Assembly  \  this  was  refused, 

piDied.  and  of  thli  he  also  became  a  member,  as  well 
ssof  Hveral  succeeding  asKmblies.  Made  pastor  of 
JCoetsuhan,  he  also  applied  himselfio  the  restoration  of 
ilseollep,  and  continued  his  labors  as  preacher  and  pro- 
fessor Bnta  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  at  the  siet:e 
of  that  city  on  Oct  !1,  J63l'  His  principsl  works  are : 
t^iftlt  ie  it  maHvm  dfi  niniitru  n,  CEgtut  Rrfnrmrf 
(UBocb(lle.l59)l,8vo);  £;>i.toraJmif:«F (Gen.  1599, 
*">;  CatfkUKM  ia  ditpnln  pipiUti  ICeTi.-iSM.i'.;.); 
biipidatio  iduAuHco-tlytalogita  de  acumnt'co  ponlificr 


5  CHAMOIS 

(Gen.  1601,  8vo)i  La   honle  de  Babglim  (pt.  1,  ISIS, 

ffime  adu,  pmtificioa  torput  (Gen,  Ifias,  4  vole.  fol. ; 
2d  ed.  Frankf.  ad  M.  16^7,  4  vols,  fol.):  Corput  Ikea- 
hgiam.  Ave  Loci  amunuma  (Gen.  1613,  fol.).  See  Me- 
moir of  Chamier  (Ix>Dd.  VSbi,  Kvo).— Haag,  La  Fnamt 
proleitanle,  iii,  31j; 

Chamois,  the  rendering  In  the  Auth.  Vers,  at 
Deut.  xix,  5,  of  the  Heb.  I^t,  K'mer  (ao  called  from 
leaping ;  Sept.  and  Vulg.  understand  tbe  giraffe,  ta/Aij- 
XoTrajiUdXic,  camefcfKirifafiu ,-  Lather  "elend"  or  tit). 
The  enumeration  there  requires  us  to  underetand  ze- 
mer  to  be  a  clean  mminant;  but  it  is  plain  that  the 
Mosaic  list  of  clean  sDlmals  would  not  include  sacb  aa 
were  totally  out  of  the  rsacb  of  the  Hebrew  people, 
and  at  best  only  known  to  them  from  specimens  seen 
in  £g}'pt,  consisting  of  presents  sent  from  Nubia,  or 
in  pictures  on  the  walls  of  temples.  The  camelopard 
ie  exclusively  an  inhabitant  of  iSouthera  Aflica  (comp. 
Strabo.xvi,77l!  xvii,827;  Pliny,  vUi,  S7),  and  there- 
fore could  not  come  in  tbe  way  of  the  people  of  Israel 
(see  Michaelie,  Suppl.  iii,  G28).  The  same  Direction 
applies  to  tbe  elk,  because  that  species  of  deer  never 
appears  further  sooth  than  Northern  Germany  and  Po- 
land(Cuvier,.4n>ni.K'iii^.  i,876sq.).  Astolhecham- 
<iit  (Gesenius,  Tlun.  I,  420),  thnagb  it  did  exist  in  tbe 
mountains  of  Greece,  and  is  still  found  in  Central  Asia, 
there  ii  no  vestige  erf'  its  baving  at  any  time  frequent- 
ed libanUB  or  any  other  part  of  Syria.  Zanniirr  ia 
still  osed  in  Persia  and  India  for  any  large  species  of 
mminanta,  partlcalarly  thote  of  the  stag  kind.     In 

ical,  but  strictly  specilic.  Ail,  or  "stag."  ia  men- 
tloiied,  as  well  as  several  Antikipida,  in  the  same 

hltberto  noticed,  and  withal  snSciently  important  to 
merit  being  nanted  in  auch  an  ordinance.    See  Dekr  ; 

GoAT;   GAZELt.E,  elC. 

The  only  species  tlut  seems  tii  answer  the  condi- 
tions required  is  a  wild  sheep,  still  not  uncommon  in 
the  MokaCtam  rocks  near  Cairo,  found  In  ^nai,  and 
eastward  in  the  broken  ridgea  of  Stony  Arabia,  when 
it  is  known  under  the  name  of  hrbtk,  a  alight  muta- 
tion of  the  old  Hebrew  3<9^,  iritb,  or,  rather,  b3S, 
hrbei,  which  ia  applied,  indeed,  to  a  domestic  sheep, 
one  that  gnsed.  This  animal  la  frequently  repre- 
sented and  bieroglvphically  named  on  Egyptian  mon> 
omenta  (WilMnsoD,  Ane.  Eg.  iii,  19).     It 'is  a  fearleia 


limber,  and  secure  on  its  feet,  amonK  the  sharpest 
nd  most  elevated  ridgea.  In  Mature  the  animal  ex- 
eeda  a  large  domestic  sheep,  thoucb  it  is  not  more 
lulky  of  body.     Instead  of  wool.  It  is  covered  wHh 


CHAMOR  21 

clow,  fine,  mftnu  balr :  from  tha  throat  to  tha  bragat, 
«nd  on  tha  uppar  inna  kbovc  tbe  kne«<,  there  is  abun- 
dance of  long,  loose,  reddish  hair,  forming  a  compact 
protection  to  the  knees  and  brisket,  and  indicating 
(hat  the  haliils  of  the  species  require  extmardinar^ 
defence  while  sporting  among  tbe  most  m^ed  cliff's 
(see  Bochan,  BUroz.  ii,  273  sq. ;  Kosenrallller,  A  Utrti. 
IV,  ii,I86*q.).  The  head  and  Ctce  are  perfectly  ovint 
the  ejea  an  bluish,  and  the  hums,  of  a  jrallowish  co! 
or,  are  set  on  es  In  sheep ;  they  rise  obliquely,  and 
■re  directed  backward  attd  ontward,  with  the  points 
1>eDdiag  downward.  The  tail,  aboat  nine  inches  long, 
is  heavy  and  round.    See  Abtelopb. 

CtiamoT.    See  Asb. 

Champaisn  C^?^-  "ii^aft',  desert),  an  open  or 
oninbabited  district  (DeuL  xl,  BO).     See  Ababau. 

Cliampeaax.     See  Wicliah  of  Chamfeadx. 

CllSinploii  ('^'IBA,  gihbor',  1  Sam.  snt,  il ;  else- 
where "  mighty  man' ■),  Tha  Heb.  phrase  0^|2ri-CJ''lt, 
uA  habJiemi'sm,  rendered  "champion"  in  1  Sam.  xvii, 
4,  23,  lltemlly  signifies  a  mm  btttiea  tht  too,  that  is, 
a  go-between,  an  arbiter,  or  one  who  offers  r.  chal- 
lenge, and  appropriately  denotes  the  position  of  Goli- 
ath when  he  Blood  Bp  between  the  Hebrew  and  Phi- 
listine armies.  Single  combats  at  the  head  of  uimias 
were  not  unusual  in  ancient  times,  and  in  many  i:a»es 
jt  was  a  condition  that  the  result  sbonld  determine  the 
national  qusTrel.  An  example  of  this  kind  is  the  com- 
bat between  Paris  and  Menelaue,  deecritied  by  Homer. 
A  similar  practice  olitains  in  the  present  day  among 
tbe  Bedoaln  Arabs.    See  Sikoi-g  Combat. 

Cha'luUbl  (Xavaav),  a  mode  of  Anglicizing,  or, 
rather,  Gnsdzing  the  name  Camaak  in  the  A.  V.  of 
the  Apocrypha  and  N.  T.  (Judith  v,  3,  9, 10 1  Bar.  ill, 
22;  Sue.  66;  1  Mace,  ix,  37;  Acts  fII,  II;  xiii,  19), 

Clia'DBaiilt«  (XsvavaiDc},  another  form  for  Ca- 

BAASITK  (Judith  V,  16). 

Ciumaxaal.    See  Frost. 

Chanoel  (Let  omwiB,  from  eaaetr,  a  lattice),  la 
modem  osoge,  put  of  a  church  set  off  from  the  rest 
by  a  railing.  See  CANCKL.i.na.  Modem  French  writ- 
ers use  the  word  cancel  in  Its  orl^nal  sense  of  a  lat- 
tice or  screen,  as  they  apply  it  to  tha  screen  (tratt' 
kwkO  which  separates  the  choir  or  side  chapels  from 
the  nave  or  main  body  of  the  church.  In  English 
Protestant  churches  the  term  chancel  is  applied  most- 
ly  lo  that  part  of  the  smaller  churches  cut  off  from  the 
nave  by  (he  caHCtl.  ot,  rather,  the  railing  where  for- 
merly the  eancti  ttaoA.  The  original  term  choir  (q. 
T.)  is  retained  in  the  larger  churches  and  cathedrals. 
The  chancel  is  reserved  for  tbe  use  of  the  clergy  in 
tbe  admiDisttation  of  their  offices  during  divine  ser- 
vice. In  tbe  GcTmao  churches  tbe  term  "kanttT'  is 
applied  to  the  pulpit,  which  pftijects  from  the  side  of  a 
gallery,  tbat  all  in  tbe  church  ma;  easily  hear. 

"By  tlwrnbricofthe  Church  of  England  before  the 
Common  Prayer,  it  is  ordained  that"  the  chancels  shall 
remain  as  they  have  dona  in  times  past,  "that  is  to  say, 
distinguished  from  tbe  body  of  the  church  in  manner 
aforesaid ;  against  which  distinction  Bucer  and  bishop 
Hooper  (at  the  time  of  the  Reformation)  inveighed  ve- 
bamently,  as  tending  only  to  magnify  tbe  priesthood ; 
but  though  the  king  and  the  Parliament  yielded  so  far 


>  allow 


nthel 


tbe  church,  if  the  ordinary  thought  fit,  yet  they  would 
not  suffer  the  chance!  to  Iw  taken  BWay  or  ^tered." 
See  Bingham,  Or'ff.  Eccl.  bk,  viii,  ch,  ili;'llank.  Church 
IHciiimarg,  s.  v. ;  Guericke,  Miuiaal  of  Antiquitia,  p. 
IM  (Engl.  Iransl.). 

Chaii<;«Uor  (Q'^'Vra.  hnVjrim'!  Sept.  BoXrnfi 
and  BaXniv).  The  original  word  signifies  a  command- 
er, or  lord  of  the  edicts  or  cause* ;  it  was  the  Chsldee 
tide  of  the  Peri-tan  governor  at  Samaria,  hut  is  render' 
•d  in  our  version  "  chancellor"  (Ezra  iv,  S,  9, 17). 


6  CHANDLER 

CHANCELLOR  (CmuW^oniu},  a  lay  oficer  wba  U 
judge  in  a  bishop's  court,  under  his  authority.  "In  an- 
cient  times  bishops  had  jurisdiction  in  particular  cnoaea, 
as  in  marriages,  adulter}-.  last  wills,  etc.,  which  ««T« 
determined  by  them  in  (heir  consistory  courts.  But 
when  many  controversies  arose  in  these  and  other 
canses,  it  was  not  consistent  with  the  character  of  • 
Inshop  to  interpose  in  ever;-  illigiooe  matter,  and  it  b*- 
,  came  necessary  for  the  bishop  to  depnte  soma  subordi- 
nate officer,  experienced  both  in  the  civil  and  canon 
law,  to  determine  those  ecclesiastical  causes,  and  thii 
was  the  original  of  diocesan  chancellors.  Henry  II 
of  England,  requiring  the  attendance  of  biehops  in  tais 
state  councils,  and  other  pnblic  aSiairs,  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  snbstltnta  cbancellors  in  their  room,  ta 
dispatch  those  causes  which  we>«  proper  to  the  bisb- 
op's  jarisdiction.  In  afewyearsachincellor  became 
such  a  necessary  oOlcer  to  tbe  blohop  that  be  waa  not 
to  be  without  him;  for  if  he  would  have  none,  the 
archbishop  of  the  province  mi^t  enjoin  bim  to  dppnte 
one,  and  If  ha  refused,  the  archbishop  might  appoint 
one  himself.  The  person  thus  deputed  bv  the  bbbop 
has  his  nutbority  tram  the  law.  ind  his  Jurisdiction  ii 
not,likethatof  a  aHHTniuarj',  limited  to  a  certain  place 
and  certain  causes,  but  extends  thronghoni  the  whole 
diocese,  and  to  all  ecclesiastical  matters ;  not  only  for 
reformation  of  manners,  in  punishment  of  cnTninalf, 
but  in  all  causes  concerning  marriages,  last  wills,  ad- 
min Istrationo,  etc."  (Hook,  Chwxh  DkHomary,  s.  v.). 
In  England  the  chancellor  presides  in  the  biehop'a 
cuurt,  and  is  called  his  vicar-gatrral,  ss  being  clothed 
with  the  bishop's  authority.  In  Ireland  the  chancel- 
lor has  DO  ecclenastical  jurisdiction,  all  matters  pef- 
taining  to  bis  office  being  executed  by  a  distinct  offi- 
cer, called  the  vicar-general.— Bingham,  Orig.  EccUt. 
bk.  11,  ch.  vii,  §  6;  Marsden.CAarcAeioiKf  Srrfi,  331. 

Chandler,  Edward.  D.D.,  bishop  of  Durham, 
waa  bom  in  Dublin  about  1670.  He  recaii-ed  bis  edu- 
cation at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
bis  degree  of  M.A.,  and  In  1608  he  became  chaplain 
to  bishop  Lloyd,  of  Lichfield  (afterwards  of  Worces- 
ter), who  gave  him  preferment  in  both  those  cathe- 
drals. In  1717  Dr.  Cbandler  was  nominated  to  the 
see  of  Lichfield,  from  whence,  in  1780.  be  was  transla- 
ted U  Durham.  He  died  In  London  July  lOtb,  1760. 
Among  his  writlnpa  are  A  Drfam  nf  ChrMnwUgfroiR 
lit  PrapAtdei  ijflht  0.  T.,  in  replv  to  Anthonv  Col- 
lins (London,  172S,  8va),  a  work  which  compelled  Col- 
lins to  produce,  in  1727.  his  Tit  Sdeme  of  I.iltral 
PnjAecg  cviiidered,  which  occasioned  a  second  answer 
from  the  bishop,  entilled  A  VimHcatiim  oftht  Drfrna 
of  Clm^iaialti,from  the  Pniphrciti  tjfllie  O.  T.  (Lond. 
1728),  He  also  wrote  Eight  OKonomil  Smmtnu  ,■  the 
ChroHological  Duttrlalvm  prefixed  to  Arnatd's  Etidtti- 
mticui;  and  a  preface  to  Cudworth's /einiiitaWe  Jforul- 
((y.— Kose,AVirflwpropA»oaii>ic(WBOt5,Tl,aoO;  Hook, 
Jicd.  Biographg,  ill,  650. 

Chandler,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  eminent  diaaenting 
minister,  was  born  at  Ualmesbnry  in  1693,  and  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Leyden.  In  1716  he  was  choHn 
minister  to  a  congregation  at  Peckhom,  and  during  bis 
stay  there  was  also  a  bookseller.  In  1718  he  was 
chosen  lecturer  at  the  Old  Jewry,  and,  abont  17W, 
pastor  at  tbe  latter  place;  this  last  office  he  held  for- 
ty years.  In  1718  tha  unirersities  of  Edinburgh  and 
<>lasgnw  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D.  He  died  May 
8,  1766.  Among  hie  nnmerous  works  are,  Sermom 
ptj^hfdfr.m  MS.  (Lond.  1768,  *  vols.  8vo) ;  .1  Crili- 
ro/  IliUiOry  of  David  (Lond.  1766,  2  vols.  8vo)j  a  VSs- 
dieatiaimf<h'i:kriiliimlbligion{lJmA.ni»,ivo);  The 
Bisbuy  of  Ptrittvliim  (l.ond,  1736,  8vo);  VinditaHim 
ofihe  Aulhonty  of  Daititrt  Pmphecia  (Lond.  1728, 
8vo) ;  Para/Araie  nnd  N"ttt  ok  Galatiaiu  and  f^ihe- 
sioBS  (Lond.  177!l,  4to)i  Par^>hrate  imd  CotnmaUarj 
on  Jorl  (I^nd.  173a,  4ta).  His  apalogetlcal  writings 
are  still  of  value.     In  theology  be  was  a  semi-Arian. 


CHANDLER 


.  .  _  .._..  a,iil,im :  AWibona't ZHelionarj 
^ JwAvri,  i,  366 :  Hom,  Nob  Bieg.  Dili.  yl,-m. 

Chandler, Thorn aa  Bradbuiy,  D,D.,aPn>tei- 
tut  EpiKopal  mininer,  «u  boni  in  Woodstock  an  the 
Hth  of  April,  1726,  iDd  graduated  at  Tale  College  in 
VU.  On  bia  return  ttom  Eoglaud  in  1761,  he  enter- 
ed npon  tbe  daties  Ot  ■  mlHion  at  ElizabetbtoWD  and 
Woodbridga,  K.J.  In  tbe  winter  of  1763-1  WhiCefleld 
Tiaited  ElizabsthlowD,  and  Mr.  Chandler  refused  him 
hii  pnl^A  on  the  ground  o(  "  the  ralea  of  oar  ecclsaias- 
lical  policT."  la  1766  be  wai  mada  D.D.  by  the  Uul- 
v«raity  of  Oxford.  Id  1767  a  controrersy  arose  lietween 
him  and  Etr.Channcy,  of  Boston,  on  tbe  subject  of  epia- 
npacy,  and  the  pam[jilet«  on  both  aides  abowed  great 
abilitt-.  The  ReTolulioD  did  not  enlist  the  aympathias 
-af  Dr.  Chandler,  and  be  retired  to  England,  where  he 
nouined  till  17S5,  when  he  returned  to  Eliiabeth,  bar- 
ing pnvioDsly  declined  tbe  appointment  of  bishop  of 
Kora  .Scntia.  He  died  at  Elizabeth,  June  17th,  1790. 
— Sprjgue,  Anrnt!;  v,  187. 

Cbandler,  WUUam  Penn,  one  oT  the  moat  em- 
inent Mrihodist  preacheia  of  bis  time,  was  bom  in 
Charles  Co,,  Maryland,  June  22d.  1764.  He  entered 
Ibe  Philadelphia  Conference  in  1797,  and  fllUd  in  suc- 
tt«doD  the  most  imporlant  Btations  in  the  Cburcb. 
He  Inok  a  superannoated  reUtion  in  1811,  and  located 
ta  I8l:l.  returning  to  the  Conference,  however,  in  1H2!. 
thayear  in  which  he  died.  As  a  Christian  and  a  min- 
iitcT,  Ur.  Chandler  was  a  man  of  no  ordinary  mark ; 
in  tbe  pnlpit,  tbe  divine  unction  that  rested  upon  him, 
and  the  eTangelical  energy  of  bia  sermons,  gave  emi- 
-nenl  snccesa  to  bia  tabors  {Minulu  of  CoaJiroKa,  i, 
Itrii.  Boebm  a^lea  him  "one  of  the  most  powerful 
nini^Iers  that  erer  wielded  tbe  sword  of  the  Spirit." 
Id  May,  tS30,  ha  bad  a  paralytic  stroke.  He  visited 
the  West  Indies  in  hope  of  Iteneflt,  but  returned  no 
better,  and  died  in  Pbibdelphia,  Dec.  8lh.  1822.— Ste- 
-noa.  nui.  eftkt  M.  E.  CKurcA,  iil,  409-413 :  Sprague, 
Jaailt,  vii,  287 ;  Boebrn,  Htmimnxtiaa  vf  Meliodun, 
cluf>.  \r ;  Ware,  AutMogn^fitg. 

Cliaiiga  of  Haiment     See  Qabiient. 

Changsr  of  Money,  or  Homr-cHAHOBn  («p- 


IBot'inee  of  Hams,  the  Jewa  wen  reqiilrsdlo  payta 


«7-changtra,  lilie  the  business  of  modem  brokers.  To 
oiitoiii  custom,  they  stationed  themselves  In  tbe  outer 
coaits  of  the  Temple,  the  places  of  general  resort  for 
Mnngenfriim  ever}' part  of  Jnd»a,  and  their  oiq>reas- 
)*■  and  fraodolent  practjcea  probably  jusllfled  the  al- 
lariOD  of  oar  Savionr  to  "a  den  of  thieves,"  Perhaps 
tbfV  wen  also  (I'kB  the  rpanZirai,  "exchangers")  | 
accustomed  to  pay  and  nceive  interest  on  loans,  and  . 
tUi  pnctloe  la  recognised  In  Matt,  xxi,  12 ;  xxv,  16, ' 
fi;  John  ii,  14.  At  tbe  present  day,  in  Oriental  cit- 
iH,  nonry-changers  are  found  in  tbe  most  public 
places,  ritting  at  littie  tables  covered  with  coins.    See 

Channel,  the  nnderint;  in  the  Antb.  Vers.  In  cer- 
tain passages  of  two  Heb.  words:  p^tM,  apUt', 
the  M  of  ■  brook  (2  Sam.  xxii,  16;  Psa.'xriil,  15; 
lia.  viii,  7;  elsewhere  "stream,"  "river,"  etc.)  ;  and 
rVa^j,  aliUo'faa,  ■  sfTTon  (laa.xxvli,12;  "flood," 
lWliii,S,»>. 

Cbamdng,  Wn.i.TAM  Ellkrt,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Dtitarian  divine  and  philantbro|riat,  waa  horn  at  New- 
port. Rhode  Island,  April  7tb,  1790;  entered  Harvard 
Univenity  in  bis  lllh  year;  graduated  at  tbe  age  of 
18 :  spent  a  part  of  the  eneaing  two  years  aa  a  private 
talarinRkbmnnd,VB.;  returned  toCambridge  as  re- 
cent I  a  aubordlnat*  oikce)  In  ISOI :  waa  aettled  as  pas- 


7  CHANNINQ 

tor  of  Federal  Street  Cburcb,  Boston,  In  Jnne,  ISOSi 
visited  Europe  in  1H22 ;  began  hia  celebrated  essays  on 
Milton,  Napoleon,  and  Pension,  which  distinguish  the 
commencement  of  bis  literary  career,  proper,  la  1826; 
visited  the  West  Indies  in  I8S0 ;  commenced  his  antt- 
slavery  labors  in  1836 ;  and  died  Oct.  2, 1642. 

To  the  American  community  in  general  ChaDning  is 
chiefly  known  aa  a  theologian,  while  on  tbe  other  ude 
of  tbe  Atlantic  bis  fame  is  chiefly  that  of  a  literary 
man  and  a  pbilanthrDpisI.  The  common  impresalon 
that  he  waa  the  leader  of  tbe  Unitarian  movement  in 
this  country  ia  false.  By  the  pubticatioo  of  his  cele- 
brated sermon  at  tbe  ordination  of  Ur.  Sparks,  in  Bal- 
timore, In  1819,  tbe  doctrinal  position  of  Unitarlanism 
was  mon  geneially  made  known  in  the  American  com- 
munity than  at  any  former  date.  By  this  accident,  and 
■till  more,  perhaps,  by  the  fact  that  bia  literary  npu- 
talion  elevated  him  above  all  others  engaged  In  the 
movement,  he  became  TBcogniaed  ai  its  head,  altboogfa 
it  could  boast  of  earlier  advocates  and  abler  polem- 
ics. He  la  perhapa  rather  to  be  classed  with  Samuel 
Clarke  and  Locke,  as  a  high  Arlan,  than  with  Prieat- 
le}-,  Belabam,  and  the  Socinians  generally.  He  is  de- 
scribed b}- hia  biographers  "as  a  member  of  tbe  Church 
Universal  of  the  lovers  of  God  and  lovers  of  Man." 
But  he  himwir  aaya  that  "be  bad  long  ceaied  to  at- 
tach any  importance  to  the  rank  or  dignity  of  Cbrlat, 
or  to  beliBvc  in  tbe  Trinity ;  that  the  idea  of  Christ's 
death  being  a  satisfaction  ia  nowhere  taught  in  Scrip- 
ture; and  that  evil  spirits  have  no  existence,  Satan 
Iwing  merely  a  figurative  personarion  ot  moral  evil.". 
Still,  according  to  his  peculiar  views  of  religious  faith 
and  duly,  Dr.  Channing  was  a  devout  and  serious  man, 
who  had  a  proftund  reverence  for  the  authority  of 
Scripture,  and  was  accustomed  bsbitually  to  view  all 
things  bi  connection  with  elemilj'. 

With  Unllarianism  as  a  sj-stem  or  movement,  be 
unqncalionably  did  not  fenl  aatisfled  in  his  later  veara. 
In  1837  he  wrote  aa  follows :  "  I  feel  that  among  lib- 
eral Christiana  the  preaching  has  been  too  vague,  baa 
wanted  unltv,  has  scattered  attention  too  much."  In 
ieS9  he  thus  expresses  himself ;  "  I  would  that  I  could 
look  to  Unitarianism  with  more  hope.  But  this  sys- 
tem was,  at  its  recent  revival,  a  protest  of  Ibe  onder- 
standing  against  absurd  dogmas,  rather  than  the  work 
of  deep  religions  principle,  and  was  early  paralyzed  by 
tbe  mixture  ofa  material  philosophy,  and  fell  toiynacb 
into  the  bands  of  scholars  and  poiiticsl  reformen;  and 
tbe  consequence  Is  a  want  of  vitality  and  force,  which 
glvea  us  but  little  hope  of  its  accom'plishlng  much  un- 
der its  present  auspices  or  in  its  present  Ibrm." 

As  a  preacher  Channing  was  pre-eminent,  though  he 
had  very  few  natural  oratorical  qualities.  His  pres. 
encs  in  the  pnlpit  was  not  commanding ;  be  was  small 
in  stature,  exceedingly  emaciated,  and  enveloped  in  a 
superabundance  of  clothing  ;  his  cheeks  were  sunken, 
bis  eye  hollow,  and  his  voice  feeble. though  remarkably 
He  geoerally  read  his  discourses.  Through- 
out his  long  ministry  be  was  the  most  popular  preach- 
er  in  Boaton.  In  philanthropic  enterprise  ho  was  tbe 
Chalmers  of  America.     His  journals  contain  "long 

lists"  of  plana  "for  public  works,  benevo'"' 

tions,  spedal  reforms."  These  plan 
ciations  among  Mechanics,"  a  '"Wora  to  oe  wnnen 
on  ardent  Spirits."  "Fire  Clubs,"  " Poor-bousee," 
"  Female  Employment  Socletioa,"  "  Provisiona  of 
Wood  on  a  large  Scale,"  "  Bake-bousea  for  tbs  Poor," 
"Associations  for  the  Relief  of  the  Sick,  Old,  Debt- 
ors," "  Societies  for  the  Advice  of  EmigrsnU,  for  the 
Reformation  of  Prostitutes,  tbe  Improvement  of  Afri- 
cans," etc.  His  liberality  was  not  alisorbed  in  dnU- 
wg  plana  of  good,  but  his  personal  charities  were  great. 
His  latest  and  matorest  strength  was  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  American  slavery,  and  no  writer  has 
mated  the  subject  with  more  candor  or  more  impress- 
ive rlninence.  His  lilerirv  reputation,  especially  in 
England,  was  acarcelv  paralleled  bi-  that  of  any  other 


nclude,  "Asao- 


CHANNUH^US  208  CHAOS 

Amcrleui  aiithar  of  bis  ttme.     H«  pWMmeil  the  Imt  |  ilng),  in  eeclsalastical  btmlicc  or 

eleniBnta  of  immediate  (ucoeM  is  a  writer — u  poetic  vide  for  the  chiinting  of  ni«Me«  ftir  lii*  repOM  of  tb» 

tempenmanC,  and  a  style  of  remarkable  tiaiiiiparency  saule  of  the  fODndeis.     Money  was  oflen  left  alao  for 

and  power.     The  graUest  ItaXtt  of  hia  style  are  repe-  the  baildJDg  of  a  chapd  in  which  the  muae*  were  to 

thkm  and  expuiaioii,  the  fine  gold  being  ofteo  beaten  be  cbanled,  and  bence  the  term  w*a  applied  alao  to 

oat  into  very  thin  leaf.     Channing*B  irarka  were  re-  snch  chapeU.     They  were  aomctimea  built  in  or  neAf 

viewed  by  Macaulay  mtha.£d»iiur^£«(<iwi(val.liix,  a  cburch,  hnt  more  naually  were  attached  to  an  abbey- 

p.  214).  and  a  p^F^c  tketch  uf  bim  ia  ffiven  bj  8ta-  or  monaateiy,  and  were  frequently  very  ridilT  deco- 

vena  in  the  Mniettiil  Quarierig  Senae  (Jan.  IS19,  art.  rated. 

(reprinted  in  En^and).  Manv  of  them  have  been  Chao»,  a  term  taken  fhim  the  Greek  mythologr, 
tnnalated  into  German  (Berlin,  1660-65),  alao  into  «coording  to  which  Chaoa  wae  the  firat  eiialenee  and 
French,  whb  an  Eaaay  on  hia  Life  and  Writing*,  by  "i*  ""^g'"  "'  •!'  sobdeqoent  forma  of  being  (nesiod, 
Labonlave— Jfa«i-.  imd  Cm-rapindmct  BfClumming'  Thtogrm.lVi;  Ovid,  Mttnmorfh.  i,  5).  The  word  it- 
(Boat.  lB4e.  8  yoU.  12mo) ;  Ware,  Awttrictm  Umlarian  ■  self  (In  Gr.  xaot,  immeasurable  jjwee)  aigniflea  the  \-«st 
Biografit/,  II,  189 :  Sprague,  Unilar,  P«]pit,  860  »q. ;  '  ''"'4  or  the  confuaed  maaa  of  elements  tkini  which  it 
Britiih  Quantrh/,  Nov.  1848,  art  i ;  Literary  md  Tito-  ,  w"  f  nppoaed  by  the  ancient  philoaophera  that  the  world 
logical  Reeiea,  i,  804;  N.  Ameriam  Saita.  xli.  866;  j  waa  formed.  It  has  been  employed  in  later  times  to 
Dtmocratie  Beri™  (Bancroft),  xii,  624;  WeibmimiT  (ienotothe  unformed  masaofprimeval  matterdeacribed 
Saitw  (3.  Martinaau),  1,  B17;  £diiiiayk lUview,  Isix,  t'7  the  "^"^  hialorisn  in  Gen.  i,  S,  correapondin g  to 
214;  Allibone,Z>te<.D/^((Mi>r(,  1,867.  the  H eh.  words  iKn,  to'ha,  and  Xna,  bo'tu,  a  tratle 

Cliantlittue'lU  (Xavoumioc),  giren  (1  Eedr.  viii,  ™d,  "  ikteti,  a  wale  tolitade,  rendered  in  the  Sept, 
48)  as  a  per«on,  several  of  whose  "sons"  (there  named)  "oparoc  Kai  otarao-iHunOTOi-,  ineinWe  mdmitkoiit  or. 
were  among  Ihe  priesta  or  Levltea  aecnred  by  Eira  to  ''r.  Theae  two  words,  combined  for  the  aake  of  tbn 
accompany  his  party  to  Jemaalem ;  eorreeponding  ap- 1  paronomaaia  into  the  phrase  ^n31  ViVi,  la  whicb  tbn 
parently  to  Merari  of  the  Heb.  text  (Eii»  viii,  19).       !  repetition  of  similar  terma  la  a  He'brsw  mstliod  of  dcs- 

Cliailt  (ann,para(',  to  chaOtr,  spoken  contemptu-  |  ign»tinK  intenaity  or  aaperUtiTeneis,  signify  simply 
oubIv;  SapL  iiruipnriiu)  occura  onlv  in  Amos  vi,  6,  I  ^'^'''''""'^i'^ 
where  the  pasaage,  "That  rtan*  to 'the  aound  of  the  I   ^^^^     '"^Jf"?  J^^       .'i'^'  'j.^.J^^lu'''^ 

the  haip."  The  Chaldee,  Syiiac,  and  Vulgate  read, 
"who  eing  to  the  Kound  of  the  psaltery;"  and  the 
margin  of  our  vera  ion  glvea  "quaver."  Joaephos  )n- 
forma  ua  that  the  inatrument  here  termed  wM  was  of 
a  triangular  «hape,  and  carried  in  the  hand.  In  the 
paintiimB  on  the  monnmenla  at  Thebea  we  Hnd  play- 
en  on  the  harp  in  the  act  of  singing  to  the  sound  of 
their  own  muaic.  (See  the  cat  below.)  Similar  scenes 
are  depicted  on  the  Assyrian  monamenta.  See  Mnsic. 
Both  among  the  Jewa  and  the  Egyptians  musical  in- 
■Cnimeats  were  chieSy  played  opon  by  women:  the 
Fsalmlat,  deacribing  a  mu^cal  procesaionf  savs,  "The 
singen  went  belbre,  the  players  on  inatrumenta  follow- 
ed after ;  among  them  were  (he  damsels  playing  wltb 
timbrels"  (Paa.  Ixviil,  26).      See  Uarf. 

CHANT  (okUiu,  a  song),  the  word  employed  in  the 
early  Cliunb  to  deaignate  the  Tocal  music  of  the  con. 
gregadon.  The  term  was  applied,  later,  to  special 
tunes  adapted  to  prose;  e.  g.  the  AmbToBan,  estab- 
liahsd  by  St.  Ambroaa,  and  the  GrrgonaH,  introduced 
by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who  eatablisbed  schoola  of 
chautera,  and  corrected  the  Church  music.  This,  at 
first,  was  called  the  Roman  aong ;  afterwards  the  ^n 
song,  as  the  choir  and  people  sing  in  nniaon.  In  mod- 
aCB  liturgical  worablp,  the  word  designates  the  musical 


AndnylMali.    _  __ 

Eaeh  thing  opnoaed  the  reet ;  since 

The  c(4d  with  no4  Ihhim  ttotight,  tli 

The  n)<l  Willi  hard,  and  light  whtilmir  i 

Thit  ttT<fe  thf  Oat  anil  tuull^i  Kalurt  f«. 

And  pnrtlng  llqald  tkj  from  thlrkEr  >lr. 

Dlijoliiaa  Id  vace,  were  tied  In  friendly  p( 
The  Bery  tbrce  of  hnveo's  velghllcH  arch 
Lcnped  forth,  and  choH  the  lo|qui»t  point 


Is  statement  bean  an  many  iiriking  resemblances 
to  the  Mosaic  accouDt 
of  the  creation  that  one 
can  scarcely  fail  to  re- 
gard it  aa  havio);  been 
deriTed  by  tradition 
tnm  the  aame  SAurce. 
There  is,  however,  this 
great  difference  l>r- 
tween  the  scriptural 
and  the  heathen  ros- 

former  sets  ont  with 

'    the  empbadc  dcclan- 

Aucieol  Egypilui!  (inen  Kiid  winiiciu  "infliit!  »  ihc  Harp,  l.jre,  BDd  doui.le  lip*.  ^„  ([„( y,e  unformed 

perfonnance  of  all  thoae  parts  of  a  pniae  1itur|:y  which    mass  was  the  creation  of  God  ;  while  the  latter  apeata 

are  permitted  to  be  pnng  or  recili>d  in  a  musical  tone,    of  it  as  the  alreacli-  o^^istinc  materiala  out  of  which  he 

In  a  wider  aense,  il  ia  iiaed  to  denote  those  forms  of    formed  the  world,  or  even  a*  itsrlf  the  cause  and  aulbor 

aacred  music  in  which  prose  (e.  ft.  passatres  of  Scrip    of  all  things.      Most  interpreters,  who  have  been  igno- 

ture)  is  anng  in  simple  harinonicr'.     .Sep  Mcstc.  '  rantofgeidoi.'ical  pbrnomeua,  have  ut  once  decided  that 

Chantry  (old  Fnnch  ehaaltrii,  from  cAait'cr,  to    thechaos  of  whicb  Mosei  speaks  was  tfacformin  whicli 


CHAPEL  21 

■Mtv  «M  fint  nrHtnl.  Some  h>Tii  ovni  dccUnd 
tku  than  cuinot  luiTe  bagn  uiy  such  inccrv*]  M  we 
ton  ■pokm  of  (Prof.  Stout,  ia  Bii.  Rtpoi.  So.  xxi, 
Jul.  ItlSG).  Bat,  on  tba  other  hand,  the  world  giv« 
liitiiiatiniii  ,  in  the  rocka  vhioh  compoK  its  cnut,  of 
miiHu  ind  long-Bmtlniisd  chutgea  both  of  ooadkion 
ud  of  inluliiUuiU.  Ueikca  weconclado;  (I)  that  the 
nrid  hu  sKiMed  dariag  some  loog  period  btferv  the 
Hoeaic  record  oT  cnutkni  in  Btx  Aajs  ^  (2)  that  during 
that  period  it  wu  tba  abode  of  aniouls  diffsring  in  or- 
(miutioii  and  structure  from  thuie  now  foond  on  its 
turface ;  and  (3)  that  it  hai  been  exposed  to  varioo) 
coBTulakau  and  reorganiiatiDns,  more  or  ls»  general. 
A  tarorite  mode  of  explaining  the  Uoiak  account,  a 
kw  yean  back,  wm  to  take  the  aix  day*  of  araalion 
iat  unluiitod  periods,  during  which  the  changes  we 
mr  npffclng  of  took  place.  This  ground  hui,  bow- 
«nr,  been  alnioat  coiupietelj-  abandoned,  both  because 
Ok  acoeuDt,  ao  understood,  does  not  agree  with  the 
jltjnal  pbeooniena,  and  becwiae  auch  an  inteipreta- 
tioo  k.  to  wmj  the  least,  hardly  admisailila  on  exegeti- 
ai  prindplea.  The  first  aentence  of  the  inspired  lec- 
nd  nay  llienfiire  be  regarded  as  the  majestic  declara- 
lini  of  a  fact,  which  the  world  had  IwC  ei)iht  of;  bat 
which  it  deeply  conceniHl  men  to  know.  What  ois- 
CBTTed  subeequently,  until  the  earth  was  to  be  ftimtsh- 
ed  for  the  abode  of  man,  is  to  be  gathere<],  not  from  tbo 
wntten  wcrrd,  bat  fioni  tbe  mernorials  enRnii-en  on  the 
laUet*  of  the  world  itself.  Tbe  succeedini;  vena  of 
Ibe  Hesaic  aocoont  then  relatea  to  a  atate  of  cbaoa,  or 
eoDttekin,  into  which  the  vorld  WM  tbroirn  immedi- 
atdv  bafore  thelast  reDrganixalionDflt.  Nor  is  such 
achus  appoeedtn  geological  phenomena,  which  pltdn- 


femed  the  cndle  of  the  human  race,  is  ■  distinct 
Vnatwn.  The  hmar  nippositinn  hiB  been  adopted  by  j 
Dr.  Pre  Smith,  in  bis  leclBtea  On  the  ReiiHon  bOwffti 
flmliiJfBerift>mtmdmmtPia*ff<:itologiealaat»er. 
To  tbeae  leetnrea,  aa  well  as  tii  tbe  Brtides  by  Prof. ' 
Rttcbceok.  in  tbe  BMical  Bfpmitojy  (Koa.  17 .18,  !0, 
aed  IS).aodu  Taiioiia  papers  which  have  aiqieared  at 
^flerent  thne*  In  tbe  Obwtun  Otmivu,  the  taader  ia 
ntefid  tar  a  fBUnr  diacnsalon  of  this  and  kindnd 
q«Mim"  (SMta.  C^iap.  a.  v.).  Tbe  difncnlt^  ad- 
raaead  b}'  aome  thU  geology  (i|.  t.)  glna  no  tntiniB- 
tiDBef  any  each  total  htaak  in  Uie  chain  of  otgulied 
Uags  as  is  implied  in  a  cbaottc  condition  of  the  gh^ 
iM  prior  M  Boo't  intrediteMen  upon  It,  ia  hardly  cnn- 
sirttM  with  trath  j  for  although  tha  rocky  lableta  of 
tte  earth'*  cmK  do  indeed  exUbft  a  contiBned  aeries 
«f  orgaaind  lilh,  yet  they  also  record  tcreat  changes 
rfqiBela.aBdann  wholesale  damolitions  of  Imperftct 
ardiaa,  nol  now  extant,  while  they  conliiiD  few,  if  any, 
■pstdnen'  Identiflahle  vith  those  that  inhabit  tJie  jsea- 
enlaarfeee  of  ourplaBet.  See  alio  Hltchc«ck's  Ad^ 
i:Da<i/CM<en'(Boston,18d5).     f>ae  Crxatioh. 

Chapal  (tiT^e,  takdaJt,  ho^  place),  a  general 
name  for  a  Kmcbtary  (ss  it  la  etaewhen  rendered)  or 
plan  of  worsbip,  occurs  in  Amos  vii,  13,  whore  Bethel 
b  called  "the  king's  chapeP' by  one  of  the  idol  priesls, 
hciDae  there  the  kings  of  Israel  paid  idoIatrDus  wor- 
•Up  to  the  golden  calves.  In  1  Mace  I,  47,  the  Greek 
■Bd is (I'raiktiai-. and  in  2  Maccz,  S;  xi,  8,  ti^tio^; 
bith  aaed  in  a  similar  sense. 

Cttapti  (Lat.  aipeOi.  a  little  doak  or  hood).  The 
kkgi  of  nanoe  ale  said  to  hare  prBserrad  a  piece  uf 
lbs  de^ofSt-Uartin  hi  a  little  charch.  and  to  have 
taksti  it  wUh  them  to  the  Held  of  battle.  The  tent  or 
cfaorchcDQtaining  thbf^rjK^  hence  received  itK  name. 
The  ton  wis  sflowsrd  applied  to  all  amall  chnrchen,  i 
tndaspecially  totheside  rooms  or  chapels  added  to  the  ' 
•ide  aialee  a(a  chnrch,  and  which  were  separately  ded- 1 
kalsd,  asaally  to  tha  aravice  of  sonie  aaiat.     Before  ! 


;he  Reformation  nearly  all  caatlea,  mi 

louses,  and  religions  or  charilahle  establishmenls  had 
luch  chapels.  These  had  not  tbe  right  of  sepulture, 
lor  of  sacramental  services. 

Thelc 

ts  of  V( 


Jtthe 


appLed  to  tbe 
■      ■  s  cel- 


fort 


ebration  of  tbe  t 
applied  to  a  choir  of  singers  ;  also  to  a  printer's  work* 
bouse,  or  o  body  of  printers,  because  printing  in  Eng- 
land was  first  carried  on  in  a  chapel  of  Weatmioster 

In  England  the  word  is  now  used  to  denote,  1.  Do- 
mestic chapels,  built  by  nolilemeu  for  private  worship 
in  their  families ;  S.  College  chapels,  attached  to  col* 
leges ;  S.  Chapels  of  ease,  built  for  the  use  of  parish- 
ioners who  live  at  too  great  a  distance  ttmn  the  parish 
church,  4.  Parochial  chapels,  which  differ  thim  chap- 
els of  ease  on  account  of  their  having  a  permanent 
minister  or  Incimibent,  though  they  ore  In  some  de- 
gree dependentnpon  tbe  mother  church;  5.  Free  chap- 
els, such  as  were  fbunded  by  kings  of  England,  ajul 
made  exempt  thim  episcopal  Jurisdiction  j  6.  Chapels 
which  adjoin  to  any  part  of  tbe  church ;  sncb  war* 
formerly  built  by  peraooi  of  consideration  as  burial- 
places.  In  the  great  Rnman  cathedrals  and  churches  of 
Europe  side-chapels  are  commonly  fltted  up  (or  prayer, 
with  an  altar  and  the  other  necessary  appendages. 

Tbe  Methodists  and  Dissenters  In  England  c^  their 
chnrches  chapeta,  and  this  erroneous  use  of  the  wud 
baa  crept  aomeMhat  into  use  In  America. 

Oupells  ttrdente,  a  peculiar  ceremonr  In  the 
Roman  Cbnrch  in  connection  with  tbe  misnrri  for 
the  dead.  Tho  ciaptUt  is  a  small  tent  in  which  the 
corpse  is  laid,  and  is  called  ardtnli  in  allusion  to 
tbe  lights  placed  round  the  catafalque.  Incense  is 
atei  is  sprinkled,  prayen  are  chanted, 
is  given,  ending   with   Ttgttiaoat  in 

Otuqfdiaipaimh.    Se«  M01.K 

ClUlptll,CKlTllt|D.D.,  an  eminent  Congregation* 
al  minister,  was  bom  hi  Springfleld,  Mass.,  about  1T64, 
He  graduated  at  Tele  in  17R8,  and  in  1791  became  tu. 
tor  in  the  same  college,  where  he  remained  until  March, 
1794,  when  he  was  ordained  pastor  at  Rocky  Hill.  He 
was  a  trustee  of  the  Conn.  Miss.  Soc.,  and  one  of  the 
flVB  orgsnizers  of  the  "American  Board  of  Coipmbi 
sioners  for  Fonign  Missions."  He  was  a  strong  ad* 
vocate  of  the  principle  of  "  total  abstinence."  He  was 
made  D.D.  by  Union  College  In  181S.  He  KF>igned 
his  pastoral  charge  tn  1B47,  and  died  March  IS,  IR.'il. 
Ha  published  several  sermons  on  fnneral  and  other 
occasions.— SpragDB,  Aimali,  ii,  628. 

duiptn,  Btopben,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
bom  at  Milford.  Mass..  Nov.  1, 1778.  He  graduaUd 
at  Harvard  In  1S01,  and  in  ISOfi  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  church  in  Hillslwmagh.  K.  H., 
from  whence  be  rcmoveil.  in  Nov.  IBOU,  to  the  Congre- 
gatiooal  church  In  Mount  Vernon,  N.  II.  Here  ba 
rsmained  nine  years,  but,  on  account  of  a  change  ia 
his  views  concerning  baptism,  be  was  discharged  Nov. 
IS,  1818,  and  the  same  month  he  was  received  n  niem- 
l>er  of  tbe  Baptist  Church.  In  the  fall  of  1819  he  nas 
insUlled  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  In  North  Yar- 
mouth, Me.,  where  he  was  ureatlv  eslremed.  In  1822 
he  was  msde  D.D.  by  Brown  Dnlremity.  In  1829  ha 
became  professor  of  Theology  at  Waterville  College 
Me.,  and  remained  there  until  bis  appointment  as  pres- 
ident of  Columbia  College,  Washington,  D.  C,  where 
he  was  inaugurated  in  March,  1829,  and  labored  for 
twelve  years  with  nnDagging  aeal  and  energ\'.  In 
ainsfqnence  of  growing  infimiilies  ho  resigned  the 
presidency  In  1841,  and  retired  to  a  small  farm  nesr 
Washington,  where  he  died  Oct.  1st. 1845.  Dr.  Chapin 
pnlilished  a  pamphlet  on  Baptism  in  lH19,and  n  nnm- 
lier  of  occasinnU  sermons,  addresses,  etc. — Spp^pif, 
AimaU,  vi.  678.  |  ^ 


CHAPITEK  21 

Chapiter  (Ciit*^,  nwA,  head,  u  it  ii  DstuU}'  render- 
ed ;  liul  in  tbe  account  of  tli«  Temple  it  ia  translated 
"top,"  u  I  Kings  vii,  16,  etc,),  or  Capitai^  as  It  le 
called  in  madem  archiEecture,  is  tbe  upper  Or  urna- 
roentel  pert  of  ■  column  (Ejtod.  ixvi.  38 ;  xxxviii,  17, 
19,  3S},  in  vhlch  pusagea  those  of  tbe  Tabernacle  are 
■poken  of  as  being  overlaid  with  gold.  See  Taber- 
nacle. In  1  Kinge,  vii,  ID,  tbe  cbaptere  on  the  tops 
of  tlifl  pillars  trere  fonrnid  of  "  III7  work."  See  Ja- 
CHIS.  By  comparing  theso  descriptioni  with  the  re- 
mains of  ancient  temples  in  Egypt,  we  find  thet  it  was 
the  practice  to  gild  and  paint  the  colamna  of  vaiioua 
colors.  The  lotus  or  lilj  ornament  was  also  a  ftvorite 
la  Egi'ptian  architecture.  See  Pili-ab.  A  more  die- 
ttnctive  term  thus  rendered  is  nCX  (ttt'plmk,  lilerally 
Bomelbing  ottrtaid),  which  occurt  in  S  ChroB.  Ili,  15, 
evidently  In  this  Sense.  In  oil  other  passages  the 
Heb.  word  thus  rendered  is  the  specifie  one  P^rs 
(kolhe'nih,  literally  a  arrotiet),  which  in  the  case  of 
tbe  Sanctuarj-  was  of  braat,  and  in  some  inetancfis  dec- 
orated with  artificial  pomegranata  (Jer.  lil,  2S).  See 
ARciciTECTUnE.  "Tbe  prevalent  Idea  of  the  Hebrew 
term  is  the  mwtdMsi  of  the  forms  which  characterized 

(FOrst,  Urbr.  WSrt.  p.  648).  The  hoDurrth  consisted 
of  two  portions,  the  crown  <ir  led);e  (in  which  sense  it 
is  applied  to  the  laver  [q.  v.],  1  Kings  vii,  31),  and  the 
'pommer  or  turban-shaped  bowl  beneath  (n^K).  Ac- 
cording to  R.  Levi  ben-Gemhoin,  this  chapiter  rather 
resembled  a  pairof  cruwns  orcspa,  so  joined  as  to  form 
an  oval  flgnre  of  five  cubits  biKh,  bulging  out  all 
aroundheyondtbebreadtbof  the  column  which  It  tttr- 
mounted,  not  unlike,  as  we  may  auppose,  the  truncated 
lotus-bud  capitals  of  the  grand  pillars  of  tbe  Memnon- 
ium,  Thebes  (see  Frith'e  Egypt  and  FalrriiiK  Pkcto- 
ffraphrd,  vol.  i,  pi.  Bfi).  Lightfoot,  vho  adopts  Ger- 
shom'e  view  (Dttcriptio  Tempd,  silt,  2,  a),  reconciles  the 
discrepancy  between  1  Kings  vii,  16.  and  "i  Kings  xxv, 
IT,  as  to  the  height  of  the  chapiters,  by  observing  (hat 
the  three  cubits  contained  (he  sculpture  or  "  wniathen. 
work"  mentioned  in  the  same  verse,  whereas  the  oth- 
er passage  included  two  belts  or  necks  of  plain  space 
oftwa  Tuore  cubits  below  the  omunental  portion.  The 
cha|nlers  were  feslooned  with  'neta  of  checker-work 
and  wreatbs  of  chain-work,'  with  sculptured  'pome- 
granate*,' forming  an  ornate  group  similar  to  that 
which  still  adoma  the  columns  of  the  beautiful  temple 
ruins  of  Wndy  Kardaasy  in  Nubia  (Frith,  ii,  pi.  i). 
Lightfoot  (at  tkpm)  traniUtes  thus;  'The  chapiters 
upon  tbe  top  of  the  pillars  possessed  lily-work  of  four 
cubits  over  the  porch,'  and  suppoaes  that  the  lily-wurk 
aumunded  the  column  ttndrr  and  not  around  tbe  chap- , 
iter;  the  lily-leaf  not  enveloping  the  cbapller.  which: 


already,  b 


glaf 


ally  , 


the  apace  of  the  porch,  and  occupying  four  culdta  of 
tbe  colonm  below  the  chajuter.  The  more  natural 
view,  however,  is  that  the  Hlv-leaves  or  lotus  orna- 
ments formed  the  capital  Itself.  A  vast  amount  of 
learned  information,  tciita  ancient  and  mudeni  sources. 
It  arcumulBted  on  the  sulked  in  Pletken's  Diaerlatio 
PhiMn-iica  dc  Columita  jEntU  (\'iiemb.  I'lg)."  See 
CoLl)l^. 

Chaplmin  (fiprll/ima).  a  person  who  performs  di- 1 
Tine  service  in  ;  enprlla  (chapel).  The  position  ofthe 
thnpliiiii  wnB  contiugpnt  upon  tbenatore  of  thenipfl/o. 
which  either  denotes  a  church  without  parochial  riiihts, 

particular  church.    Sl-c  CitArRt.    Thus  the  chaplain  ' 


istbeai 

amptedfr 


in  t  of  a 


.    The 


.  iBCO[«ljl 

w  clmplsins"  (eopi Hani 'f fi'i  or pnliuiio) 
nsnally  received  large  privileges  from  tjie  ihi|«,.  At 
the  head  of  the  army  chaplains  (caprlbmi  mililtim)  was 
■  chaplain  general  (('o/ir(i(iiiui  majm-  ngiiit),  to  whom 
nanaliy^^tniordinan-racultieBWeretransferred.  Tliere 


0  CHAPLTN 

'  w«n  also  special  chaplains  In  the  castles  of  i>ofal*D«n 

1  and  In  the  booses  of  wealthy  dtiiena,  The  chspUina 
'  ofthe  biabopsnaoally  served  as  their  secretaries.    The 

chajdaln*  attached  to  tbe  papal  court  wen  divided  Into 
three  classes :  titular  chaplains  (aiptUami  lumemrii), 
chaplains  aaaisting  at  the  pontifical  c«reinonl»  (cers. 
momarii),  and  cbapUins  employed  aa  private  secreta- 
ries of  tbe  pope  (captOam  tecrtti).  Chapl^na  warn 
also  commonly  appointed  for  the  religious  lervicea  Ea 
monasteries,  hospitals,  and  other  ecclesiaatical  inntitn- 
tions;  but  the  most  common  employment  of  chaplaina 
hi  the  Church  of  Rome  soon  became,  and  still  ia,  ser- 
vice at  non-parochial  churches  and  sanctuaries,  or  ■• 
assistants  of  the  parish  priests  at  large  cfaurcbes  re- 
quiring the  services  ofmore  than  one  clergyman. 

In  many  of  the  Protestant  churches  tbe  name  chap- 
lain waa  for  a  long  time  retained  for  the  assistant  cler- 
g}-men  at  lurge  churches,  but  this  use  has  graduallj' 
disappeared,  and  is  now  only  to  l«  fbund  in  a  lew 
places,  especially  in  Hungary.  It  is  naed  In  modem 
times  as  the  title  of  court  preachers,  of  preachers  ap- 
pointed for  tbe  chapels  of  ambassadors  or  for  prirata 
chapels,  and  more  commonly  Air  clergymen  appaint«d 
exclurively  to  minister  in  the  army  or  naiy  (armj 
and  navt  chaplains).  "In  England  then  we  4(1 
chaplains  ta  the  king,  who  wait  four  each  monlb, 
preach  in  the  chapel,  read  the  aervioe  to  the  family, 
and  to  tbe  king  in  his  private  oratOTT,  and  aay 
grace  in  the  absence  of  the  clerk  of  'the  doaet. 
While  in  waiting  they  have  a  table  and  attendance, 
but  no  eolary.  In  Scotland  the  king  has  aix  chap- 
lains, with  a  salary  of  £60  each ;  three  of  them  hav- 
ing, in  addition,  the  deanery  of  the  chapel  royal  di- 
vided between  them,  making  up  above  £100  to  each. 
Their  only  duly  at  present  is  to  say  prayen  at  tb« 
election  of  peers  for  Scotland  to  sit  in  ParlianKnu' 
In  England,  "when  the  system  of  army  chaplaina 
was  remodetied  in  1796,  a  dnptavt-^auni  waa  ap- 
pointed: this  office  was  abolished  by  the  Dnke  of 
Wellington  soon  sfler  the  termination  of  tbe  Kreat 
war,  but  revived  by  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  In  lft46.  The 
chaplain-general,  who  receives  £1000  per  annum,  has 
,  dnties  partaking  somewhat  of  those  of  an  arcbdeaom. 
i  He  assists  tbe  War  Office  in  selecting  chaplaina,  and 
I  In  regolating  the  religious  matters  ofthe  army.  His 
office  forms  one  of  tbe  IT  departments  under  the  new 
I  organliation  of  the  War  Office.  There  are  about  SO 
I  chaplains  on  the  ataff,  besides  assistant  clenc'men  and 
'  chapel  clerks.  The  commissioned  chaplains  receive 
I  from  16t.  tn  23i.  per  day,  and  there  are  always  some 
on  half  pay,  while  the  assistant  clergymen  rerrive  Aom 
£200  to  £40U  a  year.  The  whole  expenditure  for 
commissioned  chaplaina,  assistant  clei([}-men,  chapeU 
I  clerks,  and  church  and  chapel  books,  flgnrca  in  the 
Army  Estimates  for  1860-61  at  about  £46,000.  In 
tbe  navy  every  ship  in  commission,  down  to  and  hi- 
clnding  flfth'rates,  has  a  chaplain.  The  Navv  Esti- 
mates (1860-61)  provide  fiir  99  commissioned'  chap- 
lains, at  stipends  varying  from  £160  to  £2Ui  per  an- 
num ;  e  others  in  dittfict  guard-abips,  at  averaE"  "f - 
pends  ofaliout  £175;  and  66  on  half-pay,  at  bt.  to  lOi. 
per  day.  Ths  chaplains  perform  divine  service  at 
dialed  timea  on  shipboard,  visit  the  sick  sailon,  and 
assist    in   maintaining   moral  discipline   among   tbe 

In  the  United  States  the  national  government  has 
not  only  army  and  navy  cbaplain«,  but  also  chaplains 
lot  both  houses.  Senate  and  Representative*.  Many 
ofthe  state  Legislatures  have  chaplains  also, 

Chaplet  (French  rkapttrt),  a  string  of  beads,  or 
other  msterinl.  used  I7  Komanlsts  in  coimting  the 
number  of  their  prayers.  It  bmore  oommanly  called 
the  Rosary  (q.  v.). 

Ctutplin,  Daniel,  I>.D.,  a  Congregational  nun- 
inter,  and  native  of  Rowley,  Uoss..  wu  bom  Dec.  10, 
1743.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  177S,  and  wu  made 
D.D.  by  tbe  same  college  in  1817.     He  waa  ordainel 


CHAPLIN  21 

patH  at  Grolon,  Jan.  1,  17T8,  ind  nmalnMl  In  tha 
•uDC  charge  for  Bftv  yean.  Ilia  great  piety  and  de- 
d^n  of  clunctcr  gavo  him  grsat  inflaence  in  tbe 
■tonnj  ^mea  of  the  BeTolntion^  and  hia  long  ministry 
■ai  acceptable  and  naefol,  DDtil,  tovard  the  close  of 
Us  life,  part  aftiis  congragaUon  cliou  a  Unitarian 
miiiiBter.  He  dtod  in  pew»  in  laSl.— SpragBe,  An- 
■all,  ii,  160. 

Chaplin,  I  Taiwnlah,  D.D.,  a  Baptitt  minister, 
vai  boni  at  Georgetown  (then  Rowley),  Mass.,  Jan.  3, 
ITTG:  gndnaled  at  Brown  UBiTenity  in  1799.  and 
tnik  cliarge  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Danven,  Haas., 
about  1802.  In  1817  he  tiecame  principal  of  a  tbao- 
kfical  scbooi  in  Walerrllte,  Me.,  of  which,  after  its 
bdn«  chartered  as  Waterville  College  in .  1830,  hi 
WIS  elected  President.  He  held  the  office  thirtcei: 
yvira  with  great  succesa.  He  was  made  D.D.  by  tba 
College  of  Sontfa  Carolina  in  1SI9.  In  ISBS  he  reslgo- 
«d  tbe  presidency  of  the  college,  and,  after  preaching 
be  some  time  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  and  at  WlIlLagtoi 
Conn.,  Anally  settled  at  HamUton,  N.Y.,  where  I 
died  toddenly.  May  7th,  1841.  Dr.  Cbaptin  published 
7J<  tmmge/Li^e;  or,  LigUimd  Comfort  imid  '  " 
Biaim  o/dteUitag  Tean, — Spranue,  Atmali,  vi, 
Pattuon.  Ealoffs  on  Dr.  Chaplm,  Boston,  1848. 
Chaplin,  Jonathan  E..  a  Uetbodist  Episcopal 


lit  in: 


(d  m  1830,  and  entered  the  travelling  ministry  i 
fftua  Conference  in  1B34.  He  was  three  years  principal 
ef  S'DTwalli  Seminary,  Ohio,  and  then  remained  hi  the 
WocraDt  work  in  Ohio  tUl  IMO,  when  he  removed  to 
(he  WichiRan  Ci>nferencc,  and  was  made  principal 
of  While  Pigeon  Branch  of  the  Michigan  nniversily. 
Hsir  be  ramained  until  his  death,  ScpU  IG,  IS46.  While 
yoang  be  stndied  law  in  the  State  of  New  Tork,  and 
daring  the  war  of  1812  waa  Bid.de-canip  to  Genaral 
Porter.  Soon  attar  tbe  peace  he  settled  at  Urbana, 
OUo,  where  be  practiced  law  till  his  convereian.  In 
tb(  cause  ofedacstion  he  was  of  lasting  service  and 
bcnelH  to  the  Church  in  Ohio  and  Michigan, 
care  at  the  institatioas  committed  to  hini  was  vary  sat- 
iabctory.  Hia  last  words  were,  "Live  holiness,  and 
pa*A  i(  from  the  heart."— JfiiuKea  o/Coaf.  W,  178. 

Cbapman  C^mn  tsliX,  auuk'  luu-tur',  man  of 
lit  jmrmiyHiff,  trartUtr,  L  e.  for  purpoaes  of  traffic),  a 
trader  who  tranapoTts  articles  of  commerce  ftom  the 
plus  of  production  toamart  (2  Chnin.ix,14);  a  mar- 
cbut-man,  aa  the  same  phrase  is  rendered  in  the  par- 
allel pawv"  (1  Kings  X,  15).     See  Hkrchawt. 

Chapnaii.  Johs,  D.D.,  au  amiaent  Engllth  theo- 
bglan.  was  bora  at  Strath fieldsaye  in  1704;  stodied 
at  Sing's  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1739  became  rec- 
tal of  Meraham,  in  Real,  IVom  whence,  in  1744,  he  re- 
aored  to  tbe  rectorship  of  Alderton.  He  afterwards 
became  archdeacon  of  Sndboiy,  and  treasurer  of  Chl- 
chntar.  and  died  Oct.  14, 1784.  Tbe  moat  important 
sf  hit  vorka  are:  £kssMw,-  or,  lie  true  Oa-'iMiat'i  De- 
fma  ofoiiLtl  a  lale  BoaktutimledAt  Mond  PluiotoplieT 
IW  Dr.  Morgan]  (1789-41,  2  vols.  8vo)i  Miudtant- 
*n  TnxU  rtlaliiig  to  Amtiquitf,  mittd  and  comettd, 
■ia.ldJM>w(Lond.l74S,8YO);  ExpaSemy  OfiJ  Crtd- 
iXlj  o/mracabia  Pmotrt  among  Me  primitiae  Chru- 
tiaua/lrr  Ih  Dtaxm  ofAe  ApotUf  (Lond.  1763, 4to). 

"    "    {,  Cftfopmlia  BibUograpUca,  i,  682 ;   Hook, 


Cliappol,  William.  D.D.,  bishop  of  Cork,  was 
bom  at  Lexington.  Nottlnghams.,  Dee.  10,  168S,  and 
*■•  tdaeated  at  Manstield,  tram  whence  be  removed 
te  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  ha  obtained  a 
MUnnhip.  By  the  bvor  of  archbiahop  Land  ha  was 
■ide  dean  of  Casbel,  Ireland,  in  1683,  and  ooon  after 
invest  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1638  he  was 
Bade  tasbop  of  Cork.  Ha  snff^red  many  hardsbips  in 
the  fiehellioD,  and  on  landing  In  England  was  sent  to 
priK>ii,bat  Boon  obtained  hi*  liberty.  He  died  at  Der- 
by la  1649.    He  wrote  UtOoiui  Cmeionanii  (London, 


CHAPTER 

1648),  and  A  Trtt^t  on  like  Uk  ofHoIg  Scripture  (Lon- 
don,  1663,  8  vo).  The  IPAob />tKyo/J/an  has  also  been 
ascribed  to  him,  hot  wlthoat  prolubllity.  Archbishop 
Usher  and  bishop  Martin  opposed  blm  on  account  of 
hia  apparent  leaning  to  Romanist  views  of  dtscifdine. 
—Hook.ChurtADi<!lionary,ai,^i;  Klppit, Bi^aplna 
Bnlamica,  iii,  439. 

Chappalow,  LitosaiiD,  B.D.,  an  eminent  Orient- 
al scholar,  was  bam  in  England  in  1668.  He  was  ed- 
Dcated  at  St.  John'a  College,  Cambridge,  chosen  fellow 
in  1717,  and  became  Arabic  profei>sor  in  that  unirersi^ 
in  1730.  He  also  obuined  the  livings  of  Great  and 
Little  Hormead.  He  died  in  1768.  His  principal  works 
are,  A  Commentary  on  tie  Boot  of  Jab,  in  which  it  in- 
lerled  lie  Htbrae  Text  and  En^ith  Tramlatioa  (Camb. 
176!,2  vola,4to);  F^ementa  lingua  Arabinr  (Yiia.Svo) ; 
Six  AnmNiet,  or  ingenioiu  Conemalioni  if  Itaniid 
Mm  among  lAe  Arabiant  (1767,  8vo). — Darling.  Qfc£t- 
padia  BtbHograpkica,  I,  683 ;  Rose,  Nea  Gm.  Biog. 
Did.  vi,  311. 

dutpter,  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  word  ot<ip»- 
ter  (q.  v.).  heading,  e.  g.  of  a  colnmn. 

CHAPTER  or  rna  biole.  Tbe  present  numeral 
division  of  tbe  Scriptures  into  Aapleritni  ttnei  is.  in 
some  respect*,  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The 
Pentateuch  was  divided  by  the  Jews,  at  an  early  peri- 
od, into  fifty-four  jwriiiot*  {ni'CJ^B)  =  Becliona,  one 
of  which  was  read  in  the  synagogue  everv  Sabbath 
day  (Acta  xiil,  15).  These  sections  were  subdivided, 
probably  by  the  Masoretes,  into  669  tidrim  (C^llp), 
or  orders.  After  the  reading  of  the  law,  it  was  also 
dutomary,  from  an  early  period,  to  read  a  passage 
IhMU  tbe  propheta,  and  with  that  to  diasolve  tlie  assem- 
bly. Such  passages  wore  called  ki^Atomlh  (ril^prt) 
— dismissiuuK,  and  appear  to  have  been  selected  ao- 
cording  to  the  choice  of  any  reader  (Acts  xiii,  16j 
iKvii,  43;  Luke  Iv,  16).  The  divisions  or  sectiona 
fonnd  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  manascripta  are  dlftkrant 
from  those  of  tbe  Hebrew  books;  they  are  of  unequal 
and  arbitrary  length,  and  very  different  from  the  chap, 
ters  in  oar  printed  Bibles.  So,  also,  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  were  divided,  at  an  early  period.  Into 
certain  portions,  which  appear  under  various  uames. 
The  division  into  church  lessons,  read  in  the  aaaam- 
blies  like  tbe  sections  of  the  law  and  the  prophets,  was 
tbe  most  ancient.  Subsequently  the  New  Testament 
was  divided  into  two  kinds  of  sections,  called  Ullet  (rl- 
rXoi)andeAiip(*rs(r(paXaia=*eoA).  The  (!(/«>  ware 
portions  of  the  Gospels,  with  summaries  placed  at  the 
top  or  bottom  of  tbe  page.  The  chapttn  were  divis- 
ions, with  nnmeral  noUtions,  chiefly  adapted  to  the 
Gospel  harmony  of  Ammonius.  Other  sectional  divis- 
ions are  occasionally  seen  in  manuscripts,  which  ap- 
pear to  have  varied  at  different  times  and  In  different 
churches,  accordingly  as  festival  days  were  multiplied. 
See  Bib  LB. 

The  numerical  division  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments into  modera  durpttn  is  by  some  ascribed  to 
Lanbanc,  who  was  arcliblshop  of  Canterbury  in  the 
reigne  of  WillUm  the  Conqneror  and  William  II,  while 
others  attribute  it  to  Stephen  Langton,  who  was  arch- 
bishop of  the  same  nee  in  the  reigns  of  John  and  Heniy 
III.  Its  authorship,  howevfr,  is  usually  assigned  to 
the  schoolmen,  who,  with  cardinal  Hugh  of  St.  Cher, 
were  the  authors  of  the  Concordance  for  the  Latin  Tnl- 
gatp,  about  A.D.  1240.  This  cardinal  wrote  remarks, 
or  PoiliU,  as  they  were  called,  on  all  the  books  of 
Scripture;  and  this  Latin  Bible,  published  by  him,  is 
generally  sntqwsed  to  be  tbe  first  Bible  divided  Into 
the  present  chapters.  Yet  cardinal  Humbert,  aboat 
A.D.  1059,  cites  tbe  lah  and  18th  chapters  of  Exod^^ 
and  the  g3d  of  Leviticns.  according  to  our  present  di- 
vision of  chapters.  Whoever  was  the  author,  from 
about  this  period  the  divi-ion  of  the  several  books  into 
chapters  was  gradually  adopted  in  the  Latin  and  other 
veraiooi  i  and,  fiuaUy,  In  the  Hebrew,  with  a  few  va- 


CHAPTER  212  CHARACTER 

rlMlotu,  and  >1m  In  Uia  Greek  taxt.  Tbe  Mvoal  j  7T0)thM(lu  "contrDTenvoftlie 'Tbrae  Cfaspten' Ium 
P«ilnu  ««re  not  included  In  thli  divbiion.    See  TsRis.  I  filled  mom  Tolamei  tliin  it  li  worth  line*." — UadKim, 

CHArrEB,  as  an  ecclaalaMical  term,  the  name  of  I  Ck.  BtMt.  oenL  vl.  pt.  ii,  >h.  iil,  %  10,  note ;  Sctwff,  Ck. 
■  corporation  of  acL-lesustica,  bound  by  canonical  rulea,  fiuteiy,  iii,  §  IM  ;  Giueler,  Clkmrdi  Biilarj,  1,  §  100. 
and  ganerally  itlached  to  a  cathedral.     Tba  name    See  Cokbtaktinoplb. 

chapter  arow  from  tbe  fact  that  the  fiiat  commnniiiBs  !  caiaptw-hoMO  («eB  CbaptwiX  »n  ap«tm«nt  or 
of  canons  (q.  v.)  ware  called  togetbar  daUy  in  a  com-  hji  i„  »hich  the  monka  and  canona  rf  a  monaadc  tm- 
mon  hall,  tu  baar  a  chapter  of  the  Bible,  or  of  their  i  ubiishment,  or  tha  deana  and  prebendarr  of  cMtaa- 
common  nilea,  read  alond.  Tha  hall  wa«  hence  called  j  i,^  ^^A  oollagiata  chnrchea,  maet  for  t niuactine  the 
tbe  Chapter,  or  Chapter-houae  (q.  v.),  and  tha  name  bouneas  of  the  body  of  tba  aociety.  dhapter-hooMB 
finally  paasaU  to  tba  body  of  ecclesiaatica  aaumblinB  ^^re  ofUn  built  In  the  moat  magnlfloant  and  cortiv 
1°  ''■  !  atvla  of  architecture.     They  are  of  Tajionn  fomit.  more 

Originally  .tbe  pnipert]' of  the  chapter  belonged  to   uiiujly  located  contignona  to 


placea  of  banal,  having  occaalonally  crypta  nnder  them. 
Id  medJBval  Latin  tba  cbaptet-houu  b  danominal«it 
capitatiim,  and  alao  Domiu  CapiaUarit.  The  rormer 
term  waa  aim  applied  to  the  aaal  nd  of  tba  chnrcb 
{eapat  teditia),  and  hence  there  have  been  arrora  of 


;  and  tbe  monka  or 
life,  and  kept  strict  otiedienca.     Corporatioiu  of  tbia 
kind  rapidly  multiplied,  however,  and  toon  began  to 
have  wealth  of  their  own ;  by  tbe  12tb  centuty  tbaae 

capilvia  cmMWCDrNm  were  attached  to  almost  eveiy  Bee. 
The  nomlnaUon  of  tbe  bitbop  fell  to  the  chapter,  and 
this  wsi  allowed  by  the  popes,  thni  enlarging  greatly 
the  power  of  the  chapter,  and  diminiahlog  the  authori- 
ty of  the  bishop  over  it.  The  nobility  of  F.uivpe  found 
dte  canonriee  rich,  and  the  chapters  were  made  soarces 

•d.™,«.ii.   ™.~««J'■«^™y'?""';•!•ttb.e.b.Sx.^E.,.B,liil^.^.vi^«l). 

nTenues  of  the  chapten,  and  appointed  vicais  to  do  <  ^  '       '  ■>    '/■ 

tbe  work.  The  CouncU  of  Trent  introduced  many  re-  I ,  Char'aoa  (Xapai.Vaig.darmi),  a  place  ohacure. 
forms  (sesB.  23, 25).  In  1803  tbe  chapters,  as  corpora-  ■ '?  mentioned  only  In  3  Mac-,  xii,  17  (hc  roi-  Xaponi). 
tions,  were  abolished  in  South  Cermany,  and  in  1810  in  ■  "  ""*  •"  ''''=''  ^"^**  MaccabBna  reUred  after  his  at- 
ProMia.     WhBUvor  right*  the  chapter*  now  have  are    tack  of  the  NahaUusan..    It  waa  on  the  east  of  Jordan. 


Cluiralltll'alu  (XopaaftaXap  r.  r.  l[apaa^a\Av, 
Vulg.  Camttlla  et  CanUi)  Is  given  among  tba  pieiido> 
pijests  In  1  Esdr.  v,  36,  where  "  Cbaraathalar,  lci»l- 
■  Aalar,"  is  the  confused  iranalatKni  for 


baaed  upon  the  canon  law,  and  upon  the  special  legis- 
lation of  each  country  in  which  they  eniat.  In  Switit- 
erland,  ProMia,  and  other  Proteetant  conntries  of  Oer- 
mauy,  the  chapten  have  received  the  right  of  eleoting 
the  binhops,  who  in  moat  of  tbe  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries are  appointed  by  the  sovereigns. 


baioR  Inhabited  by  the  Jews  called  "Tnbleni,' 
"Tobie"  (fee  Ton), wbo  were  hi  Ollead  (comp.  1  Mace 
V,  9,  tS) ;  and  it  was  750  stadia  IVom  the  dty  Caspin  : 
bat  where  the  latter  place  was  situated,  or  in  which 
direction  Charax  was  with  regard  to  It,  there  i»  Da 
clew.     Ewald  {Itr.  Gadt.  iv,  S69,  note)  plaoae  it  to  the 


In  England  tbe  chapter  of  a  cathedral  church  con- '  "«™ni8  eaat,  and  identiflas  it  with  Rapbon.  The  only 
^ta  "of  persons  occlesiaatical,  canona  and  prebenda-  "■"«  "'"'  ^'«"™  ''"  ""•  «~*  of  Jordan  which  recalla 
ries,  whenof  the  dean  ij  chief,  all  subordinate  to  the  Charai  la  Ka-ak,  the  ancient  KlR-Moab,  on  the  B.E, 
hiahop,  to  whom  they  are  aa  asaistanla  in  matters  r»^  "{"^  ™«  «^  "''''*' '"  P"t-biblical  time*  was  caU- 
Uting  to  tha  church,  for  the  better  ordering  and  dls-  1  «  Xopoaj^w^o,  and  M.w^«vx"P<'l  («"  Reland.  Pabat. 
posing  the  things  thereof,  and  for  conflrmation  of  such  I  P-  '"*)■  The  Syriac  baa  Kaiia,  which  inggtsta  Kar- 
leaaes  of  tbe  temporalities  and  offlcen  relating  to  the    ''>'  (■'■'°e-  ''"^  '(^J- 

bishopric  aa  the  bishop  ^m  time  to  time  shall  happen  ',  Character  (xapmrqp,  in^rtu,  imagt),  Cmia- 
to  make"  (Hook,  s.  v.).  The  dean  and  chapter  had  r  I  aw.  Is  tbe  force  of  a  man's  moral  panonaiity.  aa  mod- 
formerly  the  right  to  choose  tbe  bitbop  in  England,  ifled  and  developed  by  tba  work  of  the  Holy  Sr^rit. 
but  that  right  waa  assumed  by  Henry  VIII  as  a  pro-  Chrlalianity  doe*  not  sedt  to  destroy  tba  natural 
rogative  of  the  crown.  In  Germany,  Luther  made  an  and  mora)  qualities  of  man,  but  to  elevate,  strengtben, 
attempt  lo  preserve  the  chapters  aa  ecclesiastical  cor-  and  sanctify  them.  Bat  the  indlvldaal  man,  under 
poratioDS,  bat  soon  moat  of  tbem  lost  sltogalber  their  the  Christian  system.  Is  taught  "of  the  Holy  Spirit" 
eccleBiaslical  character,  and  nearly  all  of  them  per-  |  the  way  of  1i6i;  and,  under  his  own  responniulity,  the 
ishfdat  tba  beginning  of  the  present  century.  A  few  '  iufloeDce  of  the  Holy  Spirit  must  be  voluntuily  m- 
chapters,  like  thoee  of  HalbeiBtadt,Mlnden,  and  Oinft"  ceptedaatba  inspiring  and  conlnlling  pdnd]^  of  tb* 
bruck,  had  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  can-  :  qualities  which  behmg  to  him  by  nature.  If  this  be 
ons,  and  in  Osnabrack  even  the  election  of  the  bishop  .  not  the  case,  the  man  remains  a  "  natural  man."  and 
bad  to  alternate  between  the  two  deuiHnlnations.' —  '  his  character  b  hie  natural  character.  Bat  the  hegln- 
Heriog,  Btal-EncylckpadU,  ii,  551  sq. ;  Ersch  u.  Gm-  |  ning  of  a  new  moral  course  of  life,  through  the  work 
her,  EiwyUop.  xivi,  S8S  sq.      See  Canom  ;  Ueah.         |  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  regmaraiioK,  and  In  regsneration 

CHAPTERS,  THE  THREE,  a  title  given  to  three  .  the  true  fbundatinn  of  the  Christian  character  U  laid. 
points  (tifuXaia,  capitula)  condemned  Uy  the  fifth  |  But  this  regeneration,  thongh  it  requires  active  failb 
Council  of  Cunslantinople.  They  Ker«,  1.  The  person  ,  on  the  part  of  man,  is,  nevarthslasa,  the  work  of  God, 
and  writings  of  Theodoro  of  Mopsuestin ;  i.  Tha  wriu  and  therefore  character  Is  necesaarily  a  divine  work, 
ings  of  Theoiloret,  so  far  aa  they  were  directed  against  "  lest  any  man  sbould  boaat"  (Kph.  li.  S).  Of  mum'. 
C>Til;  8.  Tba  letter  of  Ihas  of  Edessa  to  Marie,  con-  all  the  practical  forms  of  goodness,  the  cardinal  vir- 
re rning  the  Council  of  Ephesns.  The  emperor  Jus-  tues,  so  called  (2  I'M.  i,  5~T>,  and  the  ap«^ial  Christian 
tinian.  under  thp  Influence  of  bis  wife  Theodora,  who  virtue  of  charity,  arc  clrmenu  of  this  Christian  chir- 
was  at  hcurt  a  Monopby^IP,  and  ofThvcxlore,  bishop  acter.  It  manifesUitself  in  the  "fVuitsofthe  Spirit," 
of  Ctesarra,  pulili>hc<1  an  edict  A.D.  544,  in  which  the  which  alwayi,  in  turn,  react  upon  the  character,  hring- 
aliove  were  condemned.  This  edict  was  signed  by  ing  it  constantly  into  nearer  identity  with  the ''inner' 
most  of  the  Kastem  bijihnps,  but  was  opposed  by  the  or  "spiritual"  man  (Eph.  iii,  16;  iv,  28).  It  fixes  tba 
African  and  Wpslcm  bighojis,  especially  bv  A'igilius,  moral  worth  ofthe  individual,  aa  well  as  bis  fitness  for 
the  Roman  pontiff,  who  was  ordered  to  CDn-<tanlinn|dc  the  kingdom  of  God,  in  which  the  enlira  character, 
(A.D.  547).  anil  obliged  to  (jive  a  wrillpn  dci-Unitiim  the  icAofc  nan,  in  peremptorily  required  (Matt,  vi,  J4 ; 
(/udica(sni)Bpprovinglhecondcmnatlnnarthe"Three  xii.  2:^).  ChriMinnl^  demands  the  vMt  heart:  for 
Cbaptcrs,"  They  were  aflerwanls  condemned  anew  "nut  ofthe  heart  are  the  i°aara  of  lifo,"  and  tbe  mling 
by  Justinian.  A.D.  551.  and  by  tbe  liflh  Council  of  dLipositlnn  of  a  man's  heart  forms  tbe  easenoe  of  his 
Conatantioople,  A.D.  603.     Dr.  [^chaff  remarks  (lit,    diatacter.     With  Paul,  character  ia  the  man  t  tha  holy 


ClIARACrrER  DOMINICUS        213 


CHARIOT 


■AuMtv i>d>e  "nair  mm;"  tbe  coirapt  duumctar the  I 
"ddmui."  I 

Bal,thDagti  tha  Spirit  woiki  tU*  CblMlaB  chumeter  I 
k  mm,  it  )ea«M  tna  pby  ftr  tbe  apaoUl  gifta  anl  en- 1 
4*wB«t3  at  tha  indlvidtMl.  AlOangh  "in  CbrM 
ttar  n  oeithar  Jaw  nor  Orsak,"  than  li  room  in 
Cbut'a  kinsdon  for  divanities  iiKingiiiE  from  lam-  | 
puwnant,  ran,  or  luUoiiall^.  Tb«  apoatlM  Pater, ; 
tni,  Jobn,  ukd  Jade  bars  baan  takm,  by  Mma  writ- 1 
en,  u  type*  of  Um  Rmr  tampamnanu,  HngniBe,  narr- 
«.l;Biplwllo,udhUloM.  Tbe  Word  of  Ood  la  re- ! 
guded.  In  Ota  Chriatiui  gjataa,  at  tha  rule  or  llh 

d  itandatil  ef  appnal  tar  tba  Cbriitiaii  cbuuctar. 
'  '  ~  *  ar,  *aa  HoLuiBssi  SiUtcTiTi- 
-  Bem^,  aaat-SmcslcLf.  vU, 
x,iii,M. 

Cburactar  DomllilonB  ((ia  marjb  n^  ri<  Lord), 
■  Dame  br  which,  *■  wall  as  dtaraeler  rtgiiu  (fnyoJ 
•art),  AagnatiDe  daaigiutea  tba  ucramant  of  baptUm ; 
"bT  which  he  doe*  not  mean  my  internal  quality  or 
tjNritaal  pmret  diitinct  IVom  baptism  imprioted  on  tbe 
■nui.  bM  only  the  axtanul  fbrm  commoD  to  all  ivceiT- 
ctS  hoth  Bood  and  bad,  who  are  duly  bapHieil  in  tbe 
auDgortheHolrlMnlty;  tbit  tbey  are  u  fiirsitined 
br  the  mark  or  chatactBT  of  tbe  Lord  as  tbereliy  to  bo 
dlatingulabed  ftnm  qnbaptfnd  Jews  and  GenlitiH,  who 
never  mads  any  formal  profkaalon  of  Christianity,  nor 
**er  rKeind  so  much  a*  tba  external  indication  of  it. 
He  allowed  this  ch^ncter  Is  be  M  fiir  Indelible  that  a 
Chmtlin,  (hough  be  torn  Jew  or  pagan,  can  nevet 
Deed  a  Hcond  baptiam,  bat  only  rrpantance  and  abeo- 
Intieo  to  reinrtate  him  in  the  Chnrch,"  It  i»  clear  that 
Angutina  did  not  dream  of  the  later  lEomanirC  theory  . 
of  McnaianUl  "  chaTBClei."— Bingbam,  Orig.  Eedei. 
bLii,  ch.  1,5  7.    SeeCH.iBAiTTER  1ndei.ebii.is.         I 

Character  IndeJabllla.   In  the  Church  of  Bome  . 

^•»«d  in  the  soul  bv  cerliin  ucruinents.  Aquinai  | 
taO|{ht  that,  "in  consequence  of  tha  death  of  Jesus, 
tbe  sacramenU  innituled  in  tbe  New  Testament  have  , 
edtiined  what  it  called  virlm  imtmninilaiu,  or  ijjic- 
Iha,  which  those  of  the  Old  Testament  did  not  poa- 
w«.  Therefore,  by  partaking  of  the  lacramenta,  man 
aii|iiire>  a  certain  character,  Hhicb,lnthe  caaa  of  some 
Hrrjmenta,  such  a*  baptiam,  conllrmation,  and  tha  or- 
diution  of  priests,  la  ckaracltr  iadrl^Hu,  and.  conse- 
<|iieiilly,  renden  impoasible  the  raprtitioa  of  such  sac- 
nmenU"  (Aqninaa,  SuBota,  pt.  iil,  Qu.  60-65). 

Tbe  CouncQ  of  Florence  (1489)  laid  dovm  the  fol- 
U.viiig  canon  (Uan^,  t.  xzxi,  col.  1054  sq.);  Inter 
bvc  laciantellta  tria  sunt,  baptlsmna,  conflrmatlo  at 
enio,  qn»  charactereo),  I.  e.  apirituals  quuddam  signnm 
1  octerii  disdoctivuni  imprimnnt  in  anima  indelebile. 
Vmii  in  taitat  ptrnma  wn  rtiterantar.  Ueliqua  vera 
quatoor  duracterein  nan  imprimunt  et  relterationeai 
admlltDnt. — "Among  the  saciamanti  them  are  three. 
baptism,  cooflnnation,  and  orders,  which  impose  in 
tbe  soul  a  character,  that  la,  a  certain  a[dritiial  and  in- 
dtlitila  riitn,  distini^isbinK  it  fhim  others.  Heacs,  in 
the  same  persons,  these  sacnunenla  are  not  repeated. 
Tbe  other  fonr  do  not  imprets  a  character,  and  admit 
of  rtprtition."  The  Council  of  Trent  gima  the  follow- 
ing^ "9,  Whoever  sball  affirm  that  a  chancier,  that 
it,  a  cartabi  spiritual  and  indelible  mark,  is  not  Im- 
pnued  on  the  soul  hi-  the  three  aacramfints  of  lup- 
"im.  conflrmatiuD,  and  ordera,  (or  which  ~       ~  '* 


cmmt  be  repeated,  lot  him  Ih 
9).    There  is  a  ereat  v    ' 


.vii.ca 


ina  (naturally 
enoggnj  among  Komanist  theologians  concerning  tbe 
ntton  of  Ibis  "character."  See  Ferraris,  Promtii  Rib. 
KolkKO,  riil,  2i\  (s.  v.  Sacranientum) ;  Elliott,  DrKat- 
atim  »f  Sommutm,  bk.  ii.  ch.  i. 

uHit  axpUined  in  the  tail  i  Sept.  'A/iacunip  t.  r. 
IVpanifi),  tbe  nanM  of  a  valley  (K'>,  ravme')  inhab- 
ited i<y  the  deecea'lJBts  of  J<ial>  (q.  v.).  of  the  tribe  of 


Jodah,  BO  called  fToai  their  emploTment  aa  aitificaca 
(1  Chron.  iv,  14).  The  same  place  It  mentioaed  in  Neh. 
u.a&  (A.  V.  "vallay  of  craftamen;"  Sept.  yq  djtt- 
ati/i)  aa  extant  after  the  Captivity,  and  inhabilad  by 
the  Benjamites,  and  aa  lying  not  far  from  Jernaalam. 
The  Talmud  (aa  qnoted  by  Schwan.  Paieil,  p.  Ufi)  t»- 
poita  tha  vallay  of  Chaimsbim  to  consist  of  Lad  and 
Una,  wliicfa  lay  thareln.  These  nolioea  appeal  to  Bx 
Ita  position  as  in  the  undulating  ground  at  Uie  back  of 
the  [dainofSbaron.eaatof  Jaffa,  being,  in  fact,  the  de- 
piassiontiawniaikadhyH'a^ii'aMirai.   SeeCuAFTa- 

Cbar'olUnnlB  (Xaom/it^  v.  r.  \aXxii/iuE,  1  E^- 
i,  2S),  CbftT'ohamiah  (i  CbniD.  xxxv,  20),  other 
methods  of  An^icising  the  name  Cxsobk>IUI  (q.  v.). 

CtkU'Ona  {Bapxmi ;  Tnlg.Aorcais),  given  (1  Esdr. 
T,  3S)  as  one  of  tba  beads  of  the  Temple  servants  that 
ratiuned  ttmn  Babylon ;  a  conoptiun  for  Barhm  (q.  v.) 
in  die  lists  of  Ease  (ii,  M)  and  Mubemiah  (vij,  66), 
posnbly  by  a  Changs  of  3  into  a.  Bat  It  daee  not  ap- 
pear whence  the  ttanalatore  of  the  A.T.  gottiisir  lead- 
ing of  tbe  name.     In  tba  edition  of  1611  it  is  "  Char* 

Cba'roa  (Xapio),  given  (1  Eadr.  v,  88)  ss  the 
name  of  another  bead  of  the  Temple  servants  who  |»- 
tumed  with  Zembbabel,  instead  of  tbe  Barsua  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  ii,  6!;  Neh.  vii,  M). 

ChaTAatDn,  a  town  of  Franca,  Hva  miles  from 
Pari*. 
'  which  the  C 
of  errors  on  all  fundamental  doctrinal  points,  and  It 
adherents  to  be  entitled  to  tbe  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Sapper  in  the  Kaformed  churches,  to  be  accepted  as 
sponsors  fur  children,  and  to  Intermarry  with  the  Ka- 
formed.      See  FH,t'ii;B,  RefohHEU  CuuiiCU  OF. 

CllBraa  (Xopw,),  one  of  the  most  inHoentlal  of  the 
Jewish  oommandara,  who  died  of  illness  during  ths 
linal  struggle  with  tha  Bomana  (Joa»|Aus,  ITor,  ix,  i, 
4,3). 

Charey-TiMiliiL    See  Dovu'  Doiio. 

ChargOT.  The  silver  vaasel*  offsrad  by  the  head* 
of  the  tribes  (br  the  aerrics  of  the  Tabernacle  (Num. 
viii)  are  thus  termed  in  oar  translation,  being  in  the 
original  n^"p  (teuioA',  literally  a dt^  duA),  a  boiol, 
elsewbeie  lendeted  "diah"  (Exod.  xxv,  £9;  xxxri, 
16 ;  Knm.  If.  7).  These  are  said  to  have  been  of  sil- 
ver, and  to  hare  weighed  each  ISO  abekel^  or  66  oi. 
(Hnasey,  Anc.  WtiflitM,  chap.  ix.  p.  190).  Tha  "char. 
Kor"  upon  which  the  Baptist's  head  was  praaented  to 
Herodlas  (comp.  Uomai,  IL  i,  141)  must  have  been  a 
large  platter  (ri'vaf,  strictly  a  broad  fidila  [comp.  m- 
vtaiiiav.  a  writing-tablet,  Luke  i,  63].  hence  a  wooden 
trencher,  Matt,  xiv,  S.  II ;  Hark  vi,  'iG,  28;  rendered 
"platter"  in  Luke  xl,  SS).  Tbe  "chargers"  of  gold 
and  silver,  in  Eira  i,  9  (i^^SX.  <yartal'\  ware  pnib- 
ably,  as  interpreted  by  the  Sept.,  VuU.,  and  Syriac, 
batiiu  for  containing  the  blood  of  sacriHces ;  although 
others  make  them  to  have  been  ba^itU  for  flrtt-fmit 
oSerings.     See  Bahin;  Disk. 

Chatgol.     See  Bekti.e. 

duulot  (properiy  n=3'''3,  mfrbiftiA',  a  vehicle 
fbr  rilling  f  uf/io),  a  car  need  either  fur  wariike  or 
peaceful  pnrposps.  but  most  commonly  tbe  former. 
Of  tbe  latter  nw  there  is  but  one  pnliable  innUnci^  as 
reicards  the  Jews  (1  Kings  xviii,  H\  and  a*  reifanle 
other  nations.  Imt  tew  (Gen.  xli.  43;  xlvi,  !U:  S  Kings 
v,!i;  .A<.'la  viii.2MV  The  Scriptures  employ  different 
words  to  denote  carriages  of  diff^'rent  sorts,  bnt  it  la 
not  in  every  case  Ba>v  to  distini£ui<h  the  kind  of  vehi- 
cle which  these  wonb  aeverally  denote.  Wa  are  now, 
however,  through  tba  discovery  of  ancient  sculptures 
and  paintings.  In  possession  of  much  new  infbnnation 
raspecting  the  chariots  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylon, 
and  rersii,  which  are.  In  fact,  mentioned  in  tbe  Scrip 


CHARIOT  2U  CHARIOT 

tnrai.  There  biabecn  aonig  ipecoUtion  uto  anj- dif-  muiDS  Ulenlly  "ridera,"  not  Kpea  tha  bone*,  bat  tit 
fenDce  of  meuin);  belwMU  the  above  word  and  the  the  chariou.  Hence,  though  Moaea'*  Mmg  of  triumph 
briefer  (maac.)  form  31"";,  mtriab',  which  occure  in  manliona  the  •'  bone  and  hia  rider"  (Eiod.  it,  1),  yet 
three  paanni  otilv.  I'n  1  Kinga  t,  6,  the  Utter  obrt-  ■""-  *  «l»"ly  indicates  that  by  rider  cbaiiot-rider  ia 
ouily  meaiu  chari^la,  Uken  collectively.  But  In  Lev.  ""denitood :  '■  Pharaoh's  chanoW  and  hi.  how  hith  ha 
av  9  (Aotb.  Vers.  "  saddle"),  and  Cant  iii,  10  ("  the  *"*  '""o  the  sea ;  hia  chosen  capuins  also  (chariot- 
covering"),  it  has  been  nnderMood  by  some  to  denote  warrior.)  are  drowned  in  the  Bed  Sea."  See  HouE. 
the  seat  of  a  chariot.  To  this  view  there  ii  the  hul  The  eariiett  mention  of  chariots  in  Scripture  is  in 
objection  that  ancient  chariots  had  no  seats.  It  ap-  Egypt,  "t""  Joseph,  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  wa. 
pear,  to  denote  the  seal  of  a  litter  (the  only  vehicle  .  pl««d  in  Phorsoh's  Mcond  chariot  (Gen.  ili,  48).  and 
that  hsd  a  aeat),  and  It.  name  merkab  mav  have  been  '  !■'"  "ten  be  went  in  hi.  own  chariot  to  meet  hi.  fa- 
derived  fr,™  the  general  resemblance  of  t'be  body  of  a  ^"  on  hi.  entrance  into  Egypt  from  Canaan  (xlvi.  29). 
Utter  (diatinguiahed  from  the  canopy,  etc.),  both  in  i  "  the  funeral  procession  of  Jacob  chariots  also  formed 
form  and  use,  to  that  ot  a  chariot  Another  still  urn-  ■  P"rt  possibly  by  way  of  escort  or  a>  a  guard  of  hon- 
pier  form,  the  wonl  3=n,  ™'iet  (with  the  analogona  I  "  (■•  B)-  The  next  n»ntioo  of  Egyptian  chariolaU 
?o™.  rt=,,.  r^',  E„k.  xava.  .0.  and  ..=.,  r.  ■  ^^  rJ^S^^^^  L'^rna'uI^Pof  '^^^X  t 
foi',  Psa.  civ,  8),  fh>ni  the  same  root  appear,  to  signi-  ep[,,nu  amonf;  otberT,  may  be  regarded  as  filling  the 
fy  a  carriage  of  any  kind,  and  U  etpecially  uwd  with  ^^^^  ^f  j,jg,,,,  ,„jii„j,  \„  modem  time.,  fo  Ih.t  the 
reftrtnce  to  largo  IkmUbs  of  carTiage.,  and  hence  most  uiiliury  power  of  a  naiion  might  be  estimated  by  the 
generally  of  war-chariots  ;  for  chariot,  were  anciently  n„n]ber  of  it.  chsriots.  Tho.  Pharaoh,  in  pur.uiog  I^ 
seldom  seen  together  In  large  numbera  eicept  in  war.  I  ,„[_  ^^jj  ^^^  i,im  goo  jhariols.  The  Canaanites  of 
It  ia  applied  to  the  war-chariots  of  the  Egyptians  ([,,  ,^iey,  of  p.u.tine  were  enabled  to  r«iM  the  I.- 
(Eiod.  iiv,  9),  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  ivu,  18 ;  Jodg.  r^jj^  successfully  in  con.eqnence  of  the  number  of 
i,19;ir.a).lheH.br6w>(2King»ii,Sl,S4i  i,  16),  I  their  chariot,  of  iron,  I.  e.Terh.pa  armed  with  inin 
the  Syrian.  (2  Kings  v,  9),  the  Peraiana  (Isa.  xxl.T,  ■  „ythea(Josb.  ivii,  18;  Judg.  i,  19;  Me  Schickendani, 
9).  To  this  correspond,  the  ptii)  of  Bev.  xvhi.lS;,  ife  «rf«iii/aioKM,  Zerbst  KM).  Jabin,kingof  Ca- 
the  Latin  i-Aerfii,  a  carriage  with  tour  wheela,  an  im-  I  ^^^^  ^^  juq  chariots  (Judg.  iv,  8).  The  Philistinea 
provement  of  Uler  times.  By  a  compariHin  of  tbeae  .  ;„  g,uVi  time  had  80,000,  a  nnmber  which  seema  ex- 
references  with  those  passages  in  which  mtrhAaX  oe-  [  ff„i,g  (i  Sam.  »iii.  6 ;  but  conip.  the  Sept.  and  Jt>- 
curs,  WB  flud  the  two  words  applied  to  all  aorta  of  car-  ^p^  ^^  ^j  g  Ij  i,„-^  tookfrom  H.dadexeT,  king 
riage.  indifferently  and  interchangeably,  ]nst  as  wo  ^f  Zobab,  1000  chariola  (.a  Sam.  vUi,  4),  and  from  Ibe 
ahould  aay  either  "carriage"  or  "coach "—neither  of  gyrians  a  little  later  TOO  (x,  18),  who,  in  order  to  n- 
which  i«  (pecific,  snd  both  of  which  differ  more  from  |  .-over  their  ground,  collecUtd  88,000  ohariota  (1  Chran. 
each  other  than  the  Hebrew  words  in  qneBtion_(o  do-  j^  yj  Up  to  this  time  the  Inaelites  posKssed  few  or 
note  tho  same  vehicle.  Indeed,  there  are  passage,  in  ]  „g  chariots,  partly,  no  doubt  in  consequence  of  the  the- 
which  both  words  are  manifestly  applied  to  the  same  ocratic  prohibition  agaiDSt  mnUiplying  hot»e^  for  feu 
identical  vehicle,  aa  In  !  Kings  v,  9,  21,  and  1  Kings  „r  int.™™.  with^ypl,  and  the  re^l  despotism  im- 
ixii,  35, 88,  where  some  have  endeavored  to  make  out  pijgj  In  tha  posaeaaion'of  them  (Dent  xvii,  16 ;  1  Ssm. 
a  difference  between  the  Heb.  tarma.  There  a  anotb-  i  ^m^  ^^  i2^_  b^  to  aome  eatent  David  <S  Sam.  riii, 
er  word  once  rendered  chariot,  via.  PMS  (ojufai',  l),  ud  in  a  much  greater  degree  Solomon,  broke 
Ph.  xlvi,9),  but  it  denotes  aplovatran,  cart,  or  wa£-  ^  through  the  proldbitlon  ftom  seeing  the  neceuity  of 
ondiawnby  oxen.  See  Cart.  The  only  other  word.  '  placing  hi.  kingdom,  under  it.  altered  circumstances, 
nndeied  "  chariot"  in  the  Bible  are  Ti"lBR  (.appir-  ,  on  a  fooling  of  military  equality  or  anperiority  toward 
SO-',  Cant  Iii,  9),  which  the  etymol.,  aa  Well  as  the  "fw  '■■'«""■  He  raised,  therefore,  and  maintained  a. 
™dering  In  the  Sept.  and  Tulg.,.ho..  to  have  b«n  ,  tore,  of  HOO  chanots  (1  King.  .,  S6)  by  taxation  on 

iha-uen.  only  in  Etek  xxi.i,  It),  which,  according  to  .  Tfa,  ^hariotJ  themselves  and  also  the  horae,.  were  im- 
etymology  and  the  Rabbina,  m«n.  «e^««  "'/''T^'  ■  ported  chiefly  l>om  Egjpt.  and  the  coat  of  each  chariot 
sive  armor  It  «  demonatrated  that  die  "ofd  ^*^.  '  C«eOOsh.kel.  of  ailvi.^ndof  each  horse]60(l  King. 
rendered"horsemen,  duesnotm«n''c™lrj-  but  jgj  See  Shekel.  From  this  time  chariot,  w.™ 
merely  nder.  »  the  chanota-in  other  worda,  chariot-  ,  ^^^^  „  ^  ^^  ^^  important  arm.  of  war, 

warrior. ;  for  Exod.  xiv,  7,  which  give,  the  fir.t  ac-  ,  ^f ^^  ^^^  ^       j;^,  „f  ^^^^  .„jl"„,  ^„^,  ^ 

count  of  the  Egyptun  "Jiy  «ya, "he  took  ..x  hun-  ,  h.ve  been  still  drawn  fh™  Egypt  (1  Kings  a^M ; 
dred  chosen  chanota,  and  all  the  chariots  of  F.ppl,    j  uj„,,,  [^  jg  ji .  j,jjj  -  147x^11121-  iiiii,SO-  laa. 
and  capuins  over  eveiy  one  of  them"  (or  in  each),    ^^j  i).     Th^  priphetsilw'alludefreqnentlvto  char- 
Tbe  "horwmen    m  verae  9  and  tha  subsequent  verses    ^^^^  „  ^^^^^  ^f  ^^^^  (p„  ^^..  ,i^  3 .  j^,  ,j  3,  . 
Zeth.  vi,  t>.     CbariniK  of  olber  nations  are  likewiM 
mentioned,  aa  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  lii,  88;  Eiek.x:tiii, 
31).  Syria  (2  Sam.  viii.  ond  !  Kings  vi,  14.  I&l.  Per- 
sia (Im.  xzii,  6) ;  and,  laallr,  Antiochus  Eupator  i»  raid 
to  have  had  81 9  chariot,  armed  with  acylhe.  (J  SIscc. 
xiii,  2).     In  the  N.  T.  the  only  mention  made  of  a 
f    chariot,  except  in  Rev.  ix,  9,  i.  In  lb.  cise  .  f  the  Ethi- 
opian or  Aliyaslnian  runuch  of  Queen  Candace,  vbo  is 
described  as  ailling  in  his  chariot  reading  (.Act.  viii, 
M,  es,  3«).     See  KiuKR, 

Jewish  rbarinl*  were  no  doubt  imitated  frum  Eg;(-|>- 
'  linn  miHteU,  if  not  actually  imported  from  Ejfypt. 
These  «\.\ieAt  tn  have  come  "into  use  not  earlier  than 
the  IBlh  dviia.iy  (ll.C.  1630).  The  war-chsriol.  from 
I  which  the  chariot  used  in  peace  dill  ntit  essentially-  din. 
fer,  was  extremely  simple  in  its  coii.lmction.  It  con- 
j  listed,  a.  appears  iiolh  from  Egyptian  paintings  and  rv. 
ind»t  Egn«'.o  W.r.:.r  .«rt  11-kw..  ,l..Un,MO,u.  .com-  ^^f*-  "  «"■''  »  ^^  "  ft""'  'P"*'"-'  P^erred^ 
pariwn  of  difl^RDi  Mmu.w.i:!..  |  Horrncc,  of  a  nearly  aemicircular  wi^iden  frame  with 


CHARIOT  21 

mightened  siiIh,  letting  pcKtariorlj  on  the  axlMree 
if  a  pair  of  vheela.  and  eapportint;  »  nril  ol  wood  or 
iTofT  attached  to  the  rrame  by  leathern  thongs  and 
gna  wooden  npHght  in  fhiat.  The  floor  of  the  car  waa 
made  of  n>pe  net-work,  intended  to  give  a  mort  spriDgy 
looting  to  the  occnpaats.  The  car  wa«  maunCed  from 
tlu  back,  which  wa>  open,  and  the  aides  were  strength- 
vud  and  omaiaenttd  with  leather  and  metal  binding. 


Attached  to  the  off  or  rightJiand  aide,  and  croaaing 
Mch  other  diagooallv,  were  tlie  bow-case,  and  incliainK 
backward*,  the  qolver  and  spear-case,      ir  two 


d  bow.<:aM  waa  added.  The 
■e  !,  bad  6  ipokes:  those  of 
peace  coarwu  naasoinetline>4,  bstfoiedtfl  the  axle  faf 
a  Kncbvpin  secured  by  a  thong.  There  wore  no  traces ; 
t«Ulbohonfs,whicb  were  often  of  dilhrent  colors,  wore 
edj  a  breail'band  and  girthr,  which  were  sttactaed  to 
the  iiddlB,  together  with  head  fumitnre,  conslning  of 
thMk-pieces,  throat'laeh,  head-stall,  and  nrapa  across 
the  fbnhtad  and  note.  A  bearing-rein  was  fiutened 
toB  ring  or  hook  in  fhint  of  the  uddle.  and  the  driviog- 
niiu  passed  through  other  rings  on  each  side  of  both 
kmet.  From  the  central  point  of  Cbe  uddle  rose  a 
ibM  Item  of  metal,  ending  In  a  knob,  whether  for  use 
or  Dtn  ornament  is  not  certain.  The  driver  stood  on 
the  elf  side,  and  in  diicbargiog  his  arrow  hung  his  whip 
turn  the  wrist.  In  some  liutances  the  king  is  repre- 
•tntrd  alone  in  his  chariot,  with  the  reini  fastened 
raand  hit  body,  thns  nsing  his  weapons  with  bis  hands 
St  libertj-.  Host  commonly  two  persons,  and  some- 
tinet  three,  rode  in  the  chariot,  of  whom  the  third  was 
employed  to  carry  the  state  nmbrella  (2  Kings  ii,  20, 
t4:lKbgBixii,34:  Act«  viii,  88).  A  second  chariot 
•ntUy  iccompanied  the  king  to  battle,  to  be  osed  in 
ctMef  necessity  (2  Chroru  xxkt,  34), 

On  peaceable  occasions  the  Egyptian  gentleman 
"BHtlioee  droTe  alone  in  hie  chariot,  attended  by  ser- 
nols  on  foot.  The  boreea  wore  houtingt  to  protect 
tbembom  heat  and  Insects.  Kor  royal  parsonages  and 
wooHD  of  rank,  an  nmbrella  was  carried  by  a  bearer 
orludnpright  in  the  chariot.  Sometimes  mnlea  were 
drim  butead  of  hnrset,  and  In  travelling  aametimet 
«<in;  butfortraTellin^pDrpoeestbe  sides  of  tbe  char- 
let  appear  to  have  lieen  cloeed.     One  Instance  occara 


3  CHARIOT 

of  a  4-wheeled  car,  which  (tike  the  TiTpatuAoQ  SfiaXa 
of  Herod.  11,  68)  waa  used  for  religious  purposes.  8« 
Cart.  The  processes  of  manufacture  of  chariots  anil 
harness  are  fully  illustraCed  by  existing  acnlptnres,  im 
which  also  are  represented  the  chariots  nsed  by  neiglh 
boring  nations  (Wilkinson,  .^ncBntf*-  1,868,386;  ii, 
76, 76,  2d  ed.). 


AnclsDI  Egyptian  Cbsrlot-msken. 
flE.  I.i'awing  out  the  Axle;  3,  rrepsrloE  thebeol  plesn  of 
Wasd,D,li;  9,i,ahsplnB  the  I^ile,  iJ ;  e,',  Wheels. 
The  eartieet  Egyptian  chariot  noticed  in  ScriptuM 
(GsD.  xll,  IS)  was  donhtleaa  a  state  -  cbariot ;  but, 
among  the  EKyptinns,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
diflerent  from  tbe  war.cbariot,  the  splendid  military 
appointmenla  of  which  rendered  it  fit  for  purposes  oJF 
royal  pomp.  Hencc,althougbthe  tame  word  (^nZS^^, 
merita&ij)  it  again  used  for  chariots  of  state  In  Geik 
xlTJ,  29;  1  Sam.  Tiii,  11;  2  Sam.  xv,  1,  It  undoubtedly 
denotes  a  war-chnriot  in  Exod.  xv,  4 ;  Joel  ii,  6.  lu 
Isa.  ii,  T,  tbe  same  word  appears  to  comprehend  char> 
lots  of  every  kind  which  were  found  in  cities.  In  fkct, 
chariots  anciently  in  the  East  were  used  alroot  entire- 
ly for  pnrpoees  of  state  or  of  war,  being  very  rarely 
employed  by  private  persons.  We  also  observe  that 
where  private  carriages  were  known,  as  in  Egj'pt,  they 
were  of  the  same  shape  aa  those  used  in  war,  only  hav< 
Ing  leas  complete  military  accontiements,  although  re- 
taining the  case  for  arrows.  One  of  the  moat  interest- 
ing of  the  Egyptian  palntinga  represents  a  person  of 
quality  arriving  lata  at  an  entertainment  in  his  cur- 
ricle, drawn  (like  all  the  Egyptian  chariots)  by  two 
hones  (one  hidden  by  the  other  in  profile).     He'  It  at- 


tended by  a  number  of  running  fixitmen,one  of  whom 
hasCena  forward  to  knock  at  the  door  of  the  houae, 
another  advancea  to  lake  the  rains,  a  third  beara  aalool 
loaialsthit  master  in  alightiog,  and  most  of  them  cai^ 
ry  their  sandals  In  their  hands,  that  they  may  mn  with 
(he  more  ease.  This  convej's  a  lively  iUualratlon  of 
such  passages  aa  1  Sam.  viii,  II ;  2  .Sam.  iv.  1.  The 
principal  distinction  between  these  private  chariots  and 
those  actually  need  In  war  was,  as  appears  from  tho 
monuments,  that  In  the  former  the  party  drove  him- 
self, whereas  in  war  the  chariot,  a*  among  the  Greeks, 
often  contained  a  second  person  to  drive  it,  that  the 
warrior  might  be  at  liberty  to  employ  his  weapons  with 
the  more  eflect.  But  this  was  not  always  the  case; 
for  in  the  Egyptian  monuments  we  offen  see  even  royal 
personages  alone  in  their  chariots,  warring  furiously, 
with  the  rejna  lashed  ronnd  their  waist.  So  il  appears 
that  Jehu  (who  certainly  rode  in  a  nar-chariot)  drove 


lapeci 


illaral 


:nised 


;onsiderBblediBtance(8  Kings  ix,20').  Tbe  Ei.'yp- 
tlans  used  horses  In  the  equipment  of  an  armed  force 
belbre  Jacob  and  his  (one  had  settled  in  Goahen ;  they 
had  chariots  of  war,  and  monnted  ease*  and  mules,  and 


tberafoTt  could  not  be  Ignonnt  at  tlw  art  or  riding; 
but  for  *gt»  aftar  tlut  p«iod  Ai>b  nKkms  rode  on  tha 
ban  bu^  and  Biiided  th«  uiimala  with  a  wand.  Oth- 
•n,  and  probably  the  abephenl  inTsdon,  noated  A  tin- 
gle rop«  in  a  •lip-knot  nmnd  dia  lower  jaw,  formiDf;  an 
imperfect  bridla  witii  onl^  one  r^n ;  a  pnctica  still  in 
vogne  among  tb«  Badouioi.  Tbtu  caraliy  were  bnt 
little  formidable,  compand  with  chariota.  until  a  com- 
plete command  over  the  hone  was  obtained  by  tba  dis- 
covery- of  a  Ina  bridle.  This  Menu  to  have  been  fint 
introdoced  by  chariot-driven,  and  there  are  figune  of 
well-conatracted  >'«'™'««|  roiiu,  and  month-piecu  in 
very  early  H^^O'Ptl"!  monumentj),  repraaentinK  botb  na- 
tive and  foreign  charioU  of  war.  In  fighting  from 
chariots  great  dexterity  wa*  ahown  by  the  warrior,  not 
only  in  hanHling  bis  weapouAf  bat  aim  in  stepping  out 
upon  the  pole  to  the  horses'  shoulders,  in  order  the  bet- 
ter to  attain  hii  enemiea;  and  the  charioteer  was  an 
important  person,  sometimes  equal  in  rank  to  the  war- 
rior himself.  Both  tlie  lungdoms  of  Judab  and  Israel 
had  war-chariota,  and,  from  the  case  of  kinK  Joeiah  at 
:be  battle  of  Megidda,  it  is  clear  they  bad  also  travel- 
ling  vehidea,  for,  being  wounded,  he  quitted  his  fi^t- 
ing-clunot,  and  in  a  second,  evidently  more  commo- 
dioUB,  he  was  brought  to  Jerusalem  (2  Chmn.  xxxv, 
24),  Chariots  of  war  continued  to  be  used  in  Syria  in 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees  (2  Uacc.  ziii,  5),  and  in  Brit- 
ain when  Cnsar  invaded  the  island  (Bril.  Gall,  iv,  29). 
In  the  propiiecy  af  Nahtim,  whowas  of  the  lirtt  cap- 
tivity, and  n9ident(ir  not  bom)  at  Elkoeh  in  Assyria, 
tlifre  is  much  allusion  to  chariots,  angKested  doubtless 
by  tbeii  frequency  before  his  eyes  in  the  sttvets  of 
Nineveh  and  throughout  the  Assyrian  empire.  In 
ftct,  whan  prophesying  the  downfall  o(  Nineveh,  he 
gives  a  psrticolai  and  animated  description  (ii,  M)  of 
their  action  in  the  Btrertn  uf  the  great  city : 


Aocieat  Aaarrtae  Wurtors  Id  a  Cliailcit. 
farmer  side  potltaau,  was  made  square  Inttnad  of  round. 
The  can  were  mon  highly  ornamented,  janded,  and 
inlaid  with  valuable  woods  and  metals,  and  painted. 
The  embroideied  honsfnga,  in  which  in  eailier  time* 
the  hones  were  dotfaad,  were  laid  aside,  and  plnmea 


■J  [In, 


lot  In  (he  Any  o(  hi 


At  the  llgbtDlu^  vlli  ibty  ruilL 
Abundant  illuatntions  of  this  passage  occnr  on  the 
recently  discovered  sculptures  of  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon. They  are  minutely  described  by  Layard  (Aine- 
kA,  ii,  268sq.).  The  eariier  Assyrian  w»r-chariot  and 
hsriiees  did  not  differ  essentially  from  the  Egyptian, 
Tko  or  three  persons  stood  in  the  ear,  but  the  driver  is 
sometimes  inptetented  as  standing  on  the  near  side, 
while  a  third  warrior  in  the  chariot  held  a  shield  to  pro- 
tect the  archer  in  dischar^ng  his  arrow.  The  car  ap- 
pears to  have  bad  dosed  sides.  The  war-chariot  wheels 
had  G  spokea ;  the  state  or  peaoe  chariot  8  or  more ;  and 
a  third  person  in  state  procr^nions  carried  the  royal 
umbrella.  A  third  horse,  like  the  Greek  mojiopoc^ 
was  (tenerall.v  attaebed  (Uyard,  A"tiire(A,  ii.  360).  In 
later  times  the  third  hone  was  laid  aside,  the  wheels 
were  made  higher,  and  had  H  spokes,  and  the  froot  of 
the  caf,  to  which  the  qolver  was  removed  from   its 


and  tassels  tued  to  decorate  their  necks  and  Ibreheada 
(Layard,  Nmevtii,  ii,  S53,  3&G ;  Ninnti  md  Babflon, 
p,  341,  587,  608,  618;  Ut*.  of  Sin.  2d  scries,  pi.  U; 
comp.  Ecek.  xxvii,  20).  Chariots  used  for  other  pnr- 
poeea  than  that  of  war,  espedaUy  In  hunliiig,  w«ra 


d  sculptured  on  the  Assyrian  mouumants,  aa 
uisionally  carta  t«u  the  traniportatim  of  per- 

igKage. 

raion  art,  as  appean  from  the  senlptuna  at 

8,  and  also  at  Koj-ounjik,  a"- ■  -■— ' 


CHARIOT 


■  kind  of  (art,drmWn  by 
^nale  arniora,  anuiitingof  ft  itKgc  on  high  vbwbi, 
aptble  of  holding  At*  or  Biz  pcruni,  of  whom  tha  dri- 
Tif  ul  an  ■  loir  (tool,  with  hi*  Ugi  huglng  on  ««ch 
iUic<lligp(>lg(b».xxil,6;  Eiek.  xxiii,  24  j  M«Xtn- 
vtH-Cpiji.  W,  3,1;  ii,2S;  Mlsbahr,  Vcgage,  il,  lOG; 
Oudk.  Vofof,  Tii,  U7,  pi.  li> ;  LM.jt.Td,  ifm.  4  Bab. 
r.ti;,U9;  Oleuiu>,7Vail(^p.S02}.  CbarioM umed 
■ilh  tCTtbc*  ^upfAara  ipawavit^Dpa,  Xeu.  Anab.  i,  7, 
Wfmtj  pCTbapa  be  ialsuded  by  the  "cluriota  of  inm" 
al  tlM  CanunilM  i  thtj  an  mentloDed  u  part  uf  the 
equpmcBt  nf  Aatiochiu  (!  Mace,  xiii,  !),  uid  of  "  ' 
9>iod.Sk.XTii,58;  Appiui,^.ei).  Xenophoi 
&■>  ■  Peialan  chariot  with  4  pole*  i^d  S  horw*  (_Cy 
r^.  Ti,  4).  The  PsniaD  cnilom  of  sacrificing  honaa 
to  tba  Son  (Xu.  tycy.  tiU,  a,  IS),  hwdi  to  have  led 
to  shrinicB  of  ebariola  and  bonei  for  the  ume  objaet 
•BOOS  the  Jawiiih  mooarcha  who  fhll  inlo  Idolatry 
(Enk.  Tiii,  IT ;  3  Singi  xxli,  11 ;  m*  P.  dslla  TaUa,  p. 
lU).     Sw  WaooM. 

the  Penlsn  chariot  ta 


5et  Tery  diffi 


fband  at  Bahyloa,  hut 
aomawhat  ruder ;  but 
tbeipokeaoflbewhMlB 
an  eight,  as  ia  the  Aa- 
1  ■yrlan  chariot.  Thia 
ndiihaa  given  oceadon 
to  much  anaound  ipec- 
nlatkiD  In  tha  attempt 
to  connect  it  with  the 

hiatory  of  Daniel.   See 

U  Bet7lsniao  (AarM.       BaBILoa. 


Andut  Omk  ChailM. 
lucBC  the  Oreeka  and  Romana,  chariot!  were  oaad 
M  (O  tiiBaa  lor  porpneea  of  war,  and  the  charlot-racea 
ifi]»''Iithnilan  Gamei"  were  eipocially  fkmooa  (aaa 
takk'i  Diet,  of  dam.  AttHpitg,  a.  t.  Cnma).  Sea 
CukioT-nacB. 


WMt  tba  put!  ef  wbaat-aurtage*  nanlloned  In 
^l9ipiai«a  tra:  1,  the  aAnl,  'jpiK  (opium',  Eiod. 
^.  IS,  ftc.);  alao  Vfi»  OifeoT,  laa.  xx*ili,  J8)  oi 


7  CHAIUOT 

}>Al  (salgi^,  laa.  T,  28;  Eiak.  x,  8,  S;  zxiii,  34) 
zzri,  10 :  id.  Chald.  Dan.  rii,  9) ;  2,  tha  Hm,  3!>  Out, 
1  EInga  Til,  S3;  Eiak.  i,  18);  S,  tha  ipoku,  Cprn 
(ekithtlMiim,',  1  Kiup  vi,  SB) ;  4,  the  Imh,  ^-ni^T^ 
(doAAurim',  1  Kings  vii,  S8) ;  G,  the  nzio,  T;  (yiJ,  } 
Kinga  Til,  S3,  88).  To  kamat  (yoke)  the  horses  of 
other  anhnals  la  deeignated  by  ^CN  (naar'.  Gen.  xli, 
39;  ISam.vi,  7;  1  Kingixvlii,14'),'or  DP^  (raUum', 
MIci,lS);  alao  3=7  Coioi'.Hoa.  1, 11)^  which  prop 
erly  ligniflea  to  ride  or  drift.     See  Wheeu 

The  word  charioti  li  aometimaa  naed  QBuiatiTely  for 
hoata  or  armiea  (Paa.  lxviii,17;  3  Kings  vi,  17);  and 
Elijah,  by  bis  prayen  and  coDoaela,  and  power  with 
God,  waa  "tha  chariot  of  laraet,  and  the  horsemen 
thenar'  (2  King*  ii,  13 ;  see  Ro^h  De  emrra  leatlit, 
Baiiti.  IT80),  inaamnch  aa  he  did  more  for  them  than 
all  the  chariota  (ti«f  could  master  (Paa.  xi,  7 1  laa.  liL 
]).     See  War. 

Tha  term  "  chariot"  it  likewlaa  need  poetically  in 
Scriptnre  to  designate  the  rapid  agendea  of  God  in 
natore  (Psa.  dr,  B ;  UTiii.l?;  Isa.  lxTi,U;  Hab.iii, 
8). 

CArrani  o>  Chabioti  (Ezod.  x-v,  4)  might  b« 
Buppaaed  to  denote  the  offlcer  or  olHcers  who  had 
charge  of  tha  cliariot  furcee,  but  the  literal  meaning  ia 
mounted  Mrdrntu  (Q^p'^SID).  This  paasage  aeemaol^ 
acnre,  bnt  a  idctora 
from  an  Egyptian 
tomb  (the  Bame. 
aelum  of  Thebes),  , 
neatly  or  quite  a*  il; 
ancient  aa  the  pe.  ^.■ 
riod  to  which  tha 
aboTe-citad  paasage 
relataa,  famishes  a 
kej  to  this  other- 
wise difficult  ex- 
presston.  It  rep- 
reaenta  three  men 
atanding  upon  a 
chariot,  two  of 
whom  are  prepared 
for  action,  and  the 
third  managea  tha  horses  (compare  the  largo  cut  above 
of  the  AaayrisD  chariot).  Tlisy  wars  proliclily  eelcct- 
ed  for  their  valor,  and  perhaps  fonned  by  lh?msclvea 
a  distinct  division  of  (he  army,  and  each  had  its  dis- 
tinct officer  (Exod.  xiv,  7).     See  Captains. 

Cbabiot  or  THE  CHEBCHtK  probably  means  the 
frame-work  on  which  the  cherubim  rested,  and  one 
pattern  of  which  miiiht  resemble  the  body  of  a  char- 
iot (1  Chron.  zxviii,  IB).     S<^o  Chrbcb. 

Chabiot-cities,  cities  apeciilly  deaignaleil  for  star- 
ing the  charfota  of  war  during  ibe  time  of  pence,  aa 
magaiinea  and  anenals  of  modem  timoa  an  used  (i 
Chron.  1, 14).     See  CiTI. 

CBABI0TJIOB8BS,  loch  u  were  peculiarly  lltted,by 
siie,  spirit,  docility,  or  special  training,  for  service  in 
chariots,  aa  carriage,  draught,  and  saddle  horses  of  later 
days  (3  Kings  vii,  U).     See  Hohbe. 

Chabiot-kas,  the  driver  or  charioteer,  or  perhaps 
an  officer  who  had  charge  of  tha  cliariot  (3  Chron. 
xviii,  33).     See  Dhiveb. 

Chariots  of  Wab  (Exod.  xiv,  7 ;  3  Sam.  viii,  4). 
One  claaa  of  carriages  thus  denominated  were  used  as 
the  common  vehicles  of  princes  and  generals ;  but  an- 
otbeT  formed  the  most  tairible  of  military  engines,  and 
were  employed  in  great  numben  to  break  the  enemy'a 
batlalioDa  by  rushing  In  among  tbem  (1  Sam.  xUi,  b ; 
1  Cbron.  xviii,  4).  Like  other  ancient  carriages,  they 
had  usually  only  two  wheels ;  and  iron  hooks  or  sci' thes, 
strong  and  sharp,  were  affixed  to  the  exLremitiea  of 
the  miles  on  each  side,  which  mada  drandful  bavoe 
among  the  troojia  (Jcah.  xl,  4    Jndg.  iv,  8;  13).     War- 


CHARISMA 


fat  lUndlng  OD  Uwm,  ta  latjAtig 
from  Ihem  apoo  tb«  Mieiiiy.  Tha  chviota  In  Um  trmj 
of  CTToa  wore  capaeioiu  enangfa  to  permit  twent}*  men 
to  fight  from  tbam.  If  we  examioe  the  lealptorei  of  ' 
Eg}rpt,«e  find  tluttbe  rtnogth  oftbc  anniea  of  the  ' 
Plunobi  «4g  in  tbeir  chuiota,  an  Eg^ptiui  ■rni]'  be- 
ing coiDpoMd  asdiuiTely  of  Infintfy  and  hlgw,  or 
.  two-boTsed  chcriotn,  which  cany  the  drirar  mi  the 
wurior.  In  no  Inituica  U  aa  EgyptUn  ever  r«pre- 
jenlad  on  horaeback.  Socb  palpable  avldence  that 
tha  Efcyptlui*  did  not  employ  cavalry  la  difficult  to 
lecondla  with  the  Scrjptnre  accoant  of  the  ponuit  of 
the  Isnalitaa,  which  expreaaly  apeaka  of  "  tba  bortea 
and  chariots  of  Phanoh,  sod  hii  honemett"(Eiad.iiv, 
S).  Heogatenberg,  after  a  critical  examination  of  the 
text,  aaya,  in  bia  ^ypl  and  Ot  Booki  ofMoia  (p.  lie), 
that  ' '  Moaea  does  not  mentloa  caTaliy  at  all ;  that, 
according  to  him,  the  Egyptian  army  la  compoaed  oaly 
of  chariolA  of  war,  and  that  ha  therefore  agraea  in  a 
wonderfol  manner  with  the  native  Egyptian  monO' 
menta."     SeeAsiir;  Cbabiot. 

Chabiots  of  the  Son.  The  ancient  Pandans  wbo 
worablpped  the  ann  dedicated  to  that  lamlnary  certain 
hories  and  chariots,  which,  in  allusioa  to  hia  rapid 
conrao,  they  conaacnied  to  him,  Tha  kinga  ofJadib 
fbll  into  this  peculiar  idolatry.  In  thcMi  chariots,  the 
Babbina  informs  ua,  the  king  aod  nobles  rode  when 
tlwy  went  forth  to  meet  the  mombig  aun.  Tha  idola- 
lioua  chariota  of  the  ran  were  bmnt  hy  king  Joeiah 
(1  Kings  nill,  11).    See  Sox. 

In  the  narrative  of  the  tranalation  of  Elijah  (2  Kinga 
li,  11),  it  is  sidd  "  then  appeared  a  chariot  of  fire,  and 
hotaea  of  Are,"  and  a  corrupt  tradition  of  tbla  miracu- 
lous ascension  aeema  to  hare  been  pteaerred  In  tha 
East.  Mr.  Roberts  saya,  "  The  Hindi»a  believe  their 
■opreme  god  Siva  sends  big  angeta  with  a  green  char- 
iot, to  fetch  the  Bools  ofthoae  who  are  devoted  to  Mm; 
nnd  there  ara  occaaionally  horaea,  but  at  other  times 
none.  The  holy  king  TVrrw^a^  (divine  chank)  was 
taken  to  heaven,  hoify  and  aoul,  without  the  pain  of 
dying." 

CHARIOT-RACE,  the  moat  renowned  of  all  the 
exorcises  uaed  in  the  Olympic  gamea  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romana,  and  tboee  from  which  the  victors 
were  held  to  derive  the  greatest  honor.  There  appear 
to  ba  but  one  or  two  allualona  to  them  in  the  New  Tea- 
tament,  and  these  are  involved  in  aome  uncertain^. 
In  Cor.  ivi,  9,  the  apoetle  rerara  to  bis  great  success  in 
collecting  a  chnrch  at  Ephaaua :  "  But  I  will  tany  at 
Ephcana  untQ  FentecosC,  for  a  great  door  and  effectual 
ia  opened  unto  me,  and  there  are  many  adversaries ;" 
alluding,  it  is  thought,  to  tha  door  of  the  circua,  which 
waa  opened  to  admit  tha  chariots  when  the  races  were 
16  be)dn;  and  by  the  word  ■Sirmi/ui'Oi,  "adversa- 
lies,"  which  Doddridge  renders  "oppoeers,"  ba  ia  aup- 
poacd  to  mean  antagonists  or  compctltora.  In  Coloe. 
lU,  16,  be  saya,  "  Let  the  pence  of  God  rufa  (flpaffiiu,, 
preaide,  aa  the  arbiters  or  Judges  of  the  gomes)  in  your 
boarta  ;"  3  Theaa.  ill,  1,  "  that  the  word  of  the  Lord 
may  have  fi«H  conrse  (rpfju,  not),  and  bo  glorified," 
referring,  as  It  aeema,  to  Iha  applause  of  the  apecta- 
toraj  1  Tim.  iv,  8,  "Bodily  eiercwe  (yv/ivnala,  gym- 
nastic diaciplme)  proflteth  little,"  alluding  lo  the  train- 
ing  of  the  racers;  Hob.  x\l.  13,  "tha  general  mtaa- 
tiy"  (ravfiyvpif,  crowd  of  attendants).     See  Games. 

Cbariama  (x«iMpa\  (1.)  cue  of  the  names  by 
which  baptism  was  designated  in  tha  early  Church  [ 
(2.)  a  siuritnal  gift.     See  Girrs,  Spibttdau 

Charity,  one  of  the  three  chief  Christian  gricea. 
The  Greek  woid  d^dini,  frequently  rendered  in  the 
■nthoriied  version  love.  Is  occasionally  translated  obir- 
Uf,  and  Is  so  rendered  throughout  1  Cor.  xili.  The 
old  English  word  t/tarity  means  Zooe_love  to  Ood  and 
man.  which  Is  the  fiilfllling  of  the  law.  Perhaps  it 
would  hare  been  better  had  the  word  been  rendered 
"love."     The  meaning  of  tlia  term  can,  however, 


8  CHARITY 

Bcarolybe  misapprehended  aAar  a  eanfhl  paranl  of 
that  important  chapter.  In  popular  naage,  chari^  la 
iften  restricted  to  dm^iiiag,  which  la  Only  one  of  ita 
nanlfestations.  Sea  LovE.  Cbrlltlan  athlci  tewfa 
that  charity,  in  this  sense  of  love,  ia  to  be  tha  babitoal 
affection  of  tha  heart,  in  all  our  relations  to  onr  fellow- 
cmtnrea.  Charity  conaidared,  1.  As  to  ita  jmrm,  fm- 
plies  a  regenerated  state  of  mind.  S.  Aa  to  ita  txdm- 
livattu,  ahnts  out  all,  1,  anger;  i,  implacability;  S, 
revenge ;  4,  prejudice ;  6,  evil  speaking ;  6,  petty  ag- 
greaaione,  though  legal ;  T,  artificial  diatinctiona,  a*  Ita 
limitations.  S.  As  to  ita  adm  ttpnuim;  (t)  It  de- 
lighta  In  aympathy,  liberality,  and,  in  general,  in  be- 
nevolence ;  (!)  it  dietatea  and  ragnlatea  tcotit  nftter. 
eg;  (8)  it  teachM  ua  that  we  are  only  afmardt  of  tlu 
divine  goodnees. 

'■All  spiritual  gifta are  aurpaiaed  by  cbaitty,  which 
alone  puts  on  them  tha  crown  of  perfection  (1  Cor.  xit, 
tQ-ilil,  1^.  By  this  we  are  to  mideiatand  not  a  mere 
inclination  and  emotion,  however  pure,  or  natural  b^ 
nevolence  and  philanthropy,  however  diaintanated ; 
but  a  diapoaition  wrought  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  spring- 
ing fimn  the  conadonaness  of  reeoncillatton ;  a  vital  an- 
pematnral  energy,  uniting  all  the  powers  of  the  aont 
with  God,  the  easence  of  all  love,  and  consecrating 
them  to  die  aervics  of  his  kingdom.  Without  thb, 
even  speaking  with  the  tongues  of  angela  were  but 
'sounding  braaa  or  a  tinkling  cymbal.'  Witfaont 
this,  the  boldest  prophecy,  the  most  comprebenrive 
knowledge,  and  a  power  of  faith  which  could  call  the 
impossible  into  behig,  have  no  aUding  worth  or  prac- 
tical Importance.  Without  this,  tba  other  gifts  would 
eeparate,  pass  into  the  service  of  ambition,  and  thna 
ruin  themaclTea  and  the  whole  church.  Without  this, 
the  gift  of  tongnei  foslsrs  voni^  and  eathnsiasm, 
knowledge  puffs  up  (1  Cor.  vUI,  1~S),  and  the  gift  of 
government  degeneratea  lo  deapotiam.  Aa  Ikith  lie* 
at  tba  bottom  of  all  the  charisma,  and  forms  their  oon- 
moD  root,  so  also  love  la  properly  not  a  gift  by  itfelC 
bnt  tha  soul  of  all  gifta,  binding  them  together  like 
the  members  of  a  body,  making  them  work  in  for  ea<di 
other,  and  directing  them  to  the  commoo  good.  It 
malntaina  the  imity  of  the  moDifold  divine  powen, 
aubordioates  ovary  thing  Individual  and  personal  to  tha 
general,  and  makes  It  subservient  to  the  intcFBiU  of 
the  body  of  Christ. 

"  For  another  reason,  love  transcends  all  the  othar 
gifts.  It  never  ceases.  In  the  future  world  the  oth- 
er gifts  will  disappear,  at  least  in  their  preaent  natore. 
The  myitarioua  tongnea  will  cease  in  tha  land,  wbere 
all  understand  them.  Prophed»  will  be  lost  in  their 
tnltllment,  like  the  aurora  in  the  moon.  Knowledge, 
which  on  eanb  ia  but  partial,  will  merge  in  Immediide, 
perfect  intuition.  Nay,  lUtb  itaelf  wilt  be  exchanged 
Ibr  sight,  and  hope  for  fruition.  Bnt  love,  by  which 
even  here  we  have  fellowahlp  of  life  with  God  through 
Christ,  remains  love.  It  changes  not.  It  rises  not 
out  of  ita  element.  It  passes  not  into  another  sphere. 
It  only  deepens  and  expands.  It  can  never  gain  high- 
er gTounds,  never  reach  another  and  better  form  of 
nnlon  with  God ;  but  only  continuea  to  grow  stronger, 
fbUer,  more  lively,  and  more  bliasfnl  (1  Cor.  xiii,  S- 
18).  'Charily,' says  KshopWarbnrton  aomewbere, 
'  regulates  and  perfects  all  Uie  other  virtoea,  and  la  in 
itaelf  in  no  wantof  areformer.' 

"  Hence  Paul  exhorts  the  Corinthians,  who  were  in- 
clined to  place  an  nndoa  estimate  on  the  more  striking 
and  showy  cbarisma,  to  strive  after  charity,  above  all, 
aa  the  greateet  and  moat  precious  gift,  the  cardinal  and 
unlvenal  Chrintian  virtue,  of  which  heathenism  had 
scarce  the  faintest  notion.  'Heathenism,'  obaervee 
Olsbansen  {Crmmnt.  ill,  p.  698),  '  did  not  get  beyond 
fpiuc.  It  knew  nothing  of  the  Christtan  diartj.  In 
the  Old  Testament  nothing  but  the  stem  iirn  reigna, 
Eros,  even  in  Its  purest,  noblest  form.  Is  but  the  result 
of  want,  the  longing  tbr  love,  springing  ftvm  the  con- 
scionanaaa  that  we  have  not  what  ia  worth  loving 


CHARITY,  BBOTHEES  OF        21B  CHARITY,  SISTERS  OF 


Bat  QM  CbiiMlui  dyawri  la  the  itTMrning  Ibith  of  p 
itiTa  lore,  Ood  hinualf  dwelling  In  the  belieTSr, 
tbat  itrauna  of  Uvuig  nMr  flow  oot  of  Mm  (Jaho  It, 
uy  And  he  commBDd*  it,  in  tbt  moet  glowing  anil 
■UnctiTB  deacription  ever  uttered  by  tODgae  of  man 
Of  uigv],  in  lanj^Agfl  wtiich  cornea  to  the  heert  with 
IxqKtDBl  freshneM,  like  mnric  tam  the  bowa 
Mvnit}-,  aDil  ij  of  itaelf  enoogh  to  pnt  beyond  all 
daabt  the  dirinitj  of  Chriitiinity  and  iti  inflslte  eape- 
lioiitj  to  all  other  nllgiona.  '  And  now  (in  the  praa- 
«at  avthly  lift  of  Chiletiute)  alldeth  tlitb,  hope,  cbor- 
I^.  th«M  three ;  bat  the  grealcM  of  theaa  i>  charily' " 
(Sdiaff,  ApoHolical  Ourck,  S  ISO).  See  alao  Watwa, 
Ti/pL  ImitUiaa,  pt.  lil,  ch.  ir ;  Fellowe^  Bo^  of  TAo- 
ikiy,  11,  St,  etc ;  Banow,  Worit,  ToL  1,  Mr.  >7,  28 : 
nateher,  Work*  (N.Y.  ed.},  ili,  IM  >q. 

ChBiity,  Brothon  of  (called,  ia  Italy,  Fait  bvi 
JraUUi;  in  France,  Frira  de  la  Ckariti;  in  Spain, 
BnAm  ijf  Batpilalili/),  a  Romanist  order,  fonnded  in 
IHO  at  Seville,  by  the  Portagneia  Johannea  a  Deo,  for 
Bunng  the  sick  and  nfbnnhg  immoiml  famale*.  In 
1673  Pope  Pina  V  confirmed  it,  under  the  rule  of  3t. 
ABgiitine,  and  it  then  limiMd  itself  to  aerving  hoBpi- 
lali  for  the  lick  of  all  oatioiu  and  religioni.  In  1580 
It  had  a  nombor  of  iniUtutioni  In  France,  Italy,  Gct- 
nany,  Poland,  both  Indiei,  and  other  coantriea.  In 
1S17  It  waa  received  into  the  number  of  re^lar  ordera 
by  idopting  the  tolemn  vowi.  In  1618  the  brethren 
were  cxemplad  from  the  jurladictlon  of  the  dloceaan 
UahofM,  and  in  ISM  they  received  all  the  priviletcoa 
af  the  mendicant  orden.  Among  the  hoa^dtaU  of  the 
order,  thou  of  Milan,  Paris,  Same,  Naplea,  Vienna, 
Prague,  are  eapeciaily  ceUbnted.  The  number  of 
booset  amonnts  at  present  to  over  a  hundred,  in  Italy, 
Fiance,  Spain,  Anstiia,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  North 
and  South  America.  See  Helyot,  Ordra  RiSigitax, 
voL  ii  1  Fehr,  GadiielUt  da-  HSneiMordra,  ii,  80  sq. 

Cliailty,  Sistan  ot,  called  also  DAuoarKBa  of 
Chkotiah  CsAaiTT  (Saiin  or  Fittei  de  la  CAarili), 
or,  bma  their  dress,  Gbat  SursKa  (Sown  gritei}, 
acmnmnily  of  womeD  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Chnrch 
far  DBrnng  the  poor  and  the  sick,  fbunded  in  IfiM  at 
ChstillDn.  in  francs,  by  Vincent  de  Paol,  aided  by 
Hadame  Loalaa  de  Matillac  le  Graa.  The  rale  which 
VioceDt  gave  to  his  community  was  confirmed  by 
the  popo  in  1688,  wharenpon  the  commnnity  siwead 
■>  rqddly  that  by  16S!>  two  haudred  and  twenty-four 
hoDset  were  eatablisb- 
ed.  Until  the  end  of 
the  righteenth  centory 
they  remained  aln 
entirely  confined 
FrsDce,  where  their  la- 


edby  the 
After  a  fcw  years  they 
were  permitted  to  take 
them  op  again,  and  In 
1S07  they  were  placed 


the  mother  of 
leoa.  Since  that 
they  have  enjoyed  the 
:  patfonage  of  dl  French 
L  govennnenla.  InlBST 
I  they  nonad  in  France 
I  146,000  sick  peraons 
I  and  130,000  children, 
'  which  number  has 
B  considerably  in- 
led.  ^ce  ISlfi 
Ihay  hsTe  rapidly  established  themaelree  in  all  itstea 
fai  wticb  nonaMic  orden  are  not  teUdden.  Several 
atstes,  u  Pnuaia  and  Baden,  which  exclude  moat  of 
tha  ownsitio  orden,  have  made  an  exception  In  fiivor 
<f  Ihs  Sinen  of  Cbadty.    Since  181S  they  have  hem 


Drcharllr. 


admitted  into  all  the  German  Mates  except  Saxony, 
In  all  Germany  they  bad,  in  1868,  eetabliafaments  in 
IM  places,  with  about  iOOO  mamliers.  Spain  promised 
U)  admit  them  in  the  Concordat  of  1861.  They  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Portugal  in  1867,  but  were  thera, 
as  alao  in  Braiil,  severely  attacked  by  the  Libera]  pu« 
ty,  and  mobbed  by  the  populace.  Large  nnmben  of 
diem  were  called  to  Buraia  by  the  government  of  Al- 
exander II,  and  they  have  penetrated  even  into  Den- 
mark and  Sweden.  In  Turkey  they  conduct  several 
largely- attended  schoola.  They  are  also  found  In 
many  of  the  mlsalons  of  Aiia,  Africa,  and  Australia, 
and  in  BeTarslof  the  states  of  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica. In  the  United  States  they  wen  esUUiibed  in 
1809  by  Elimbtlh  Selon  (a  pervert  (htm  Protraitent- 
aa),  with  a  distinct  rule,  which  ia  still  followed  in  the 
diooeaeaof  New  York,  Bniaklyn,  Newark,  and  Halifax. 
The  houses  in  the  other  dioceses  have  abandoned  Hrs. 
Baton's  rule,  and  have  united  with  the  French  ordtr. 
In  1863  there  were  SS  bouses  under  tbe  charge  of  the 
riaters  in  different  parte  of  tbe  United  States,  and  the 
number  of  sislen  was  420.  This  number  has  sincs 
considerably  Increased.  In  the  diocese  of  New  York 
alone  there  are  now  about  260  sisters,  having  under 
their  care,  besidea  the  parish  schools  in  the  city  of  Now 
York,  a  hospital,  a  male  and  female  aay lorn,  and  on  In- 
dnatrial  school.  Their  mother-booae  la  at  Fonthill,  on 
tha  Hudson  Bivar,  near  Yonkers. 

Numeroua  other  communities  of  women  have  bean 
established  on  the  same  plan,  and  on  nearly  the  same 
rule.  Tha  most  important  among  them  is  the  coogre- 
gation  of  St.CarolusBorromms,  so  called  because  Ihay 
choae  BorTomeo  as  their  patron.  Their  mother-house  is 
at  Nancy,  France ;  and  in  1M6  they  counted  70  boosea, 
with  about  700  members.  Another  was  founded  in  1806 
in  Westphalia,  by  baron  Drosle  lu  Vischering,  wbo  be- 
came aflerwvds  archbishop  of  Cologne.  It  contited, 
In  1868,  41  esUblisbments,  with  about  200  siatett. 
The  United  States  have  also  a  nambei  of  sbnilar  In- 
stitutions, as  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Montreal,  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Naiarsth,  Kstera  of  oar  Lady  of  Mercy, 
Sisters  of  Herey,  Sistota  of  Chsrity  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, Sistars  of  Charity  ofSt.  Augustine,  most  of  which 
have  been  founded  during  tbe  present  century. 

No  monastlo  institution  has  spread  since  the  Ixglft- 
nfng  of  the  present  century  with  equal  raiddity,  and 
the  Increase  ia  still  going  on  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  world.  Id  186S,  the  nnmber  of  eatabliahments,  aa 
fiv  as  known,  was  1064 ;  namely,  947  in  Europe,  SO  Id 
America,  17  in  Aaia,  17  in  AfticSL,  and  B  In  Australia 
and  Oc«snIc«  (P.  Karl  voro  hell.  Aloyt,  Slatit.  JcAr. 
htcAiler A:in!Ae,Rad>boD,186S).  Thenumberofmem- 
bera  of  tbe  French  order  was  estimated  at  18,000,  and 
that  of  all  the  Sisters  of  Charity  at  aH,000. 

"Conscious  that  celibacy  alone  eiciUs  litUo  admi- 
ration In  modem  times,  Rome  has  sought,  by  h«r 
'  Sisten  of  Charity'  and  by  her  educational  ordera, 
to  give  her  Amala  aristocnicy  better  claims  on  the 
gratitude  of  mankind.  In  England  and  America  tbe 
female  orders  have  attracted  many  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  softened  many  antipatbiea.  The  associa- 
tion of  unmarried  females  for  such  purpoaea  will  ever 
have  an  attraction  fbr  romantic  minds ;  yet  the  well- 
woAed  Protestant  congregatioDi  in  our  cities  send 
out  more  auch  sisters  of  chari^  and  educatora  of  the 
young  than  any  of  the  sisterhoods  of  Rome.  Without 
any  bond  but  the  law  of  love,  and  'without  observa- 
tion,' because  without  the  dresa  and  aeparation  of 
Bome'a  'Sisters  of  Charity,'  thousands  now  do  tha 
part  of  Priacilla  or  Dorcaa,  yet  take  part  in  all  home 
dntia  and  enjoyments,  onconsclons  that  they  are  bet- 
ter than  othen,  or  that  they  have  attained  a  higher 
perfection  than  thdr  fiithers  and  mothers"  (Lewis,  Bi- 
ble, Mittal,  md  BnBinry,  1, 1!4).  .See  also  Fehr.  Gf 
sdbicibs(ferJfA>elsardait,ii,8^sq.;  Eremites, ihr  Or- 
den dar  larmhaiagm  SduMtUnt  (SchafThaasen,  1844) ; 
HtUudit  QttrUrtf  Btfitiu,  Jan.  1849,  art.  v. 


CHARLES  IX 


Cinare  cowmumtarii  (Etaakt.  178G,  8  rob.  8to)  ;  Bimka, 

BiMlory  o/tht  Re/armaUon;  PreKOtt,  HUtory  o/PkOp 
II;  Sao^e,  I/iitiny  of  lie  Papaeg(i  rolM.6va,l»6I)i 
Motley,  T/ui  Bite  of  lie  Datdi  SipubSc  (8  toU,  8vo,  N, 
T.  18£7) :  Sbmondi,  BiHiart  det  Fronfau,  IS  vols.  8vo 
(Bruxellu,  1B19;  bm  index  In  18th  vol.);  BobartsOD, 
Bittorg  of  lie  Ji^  of  Charia  V;  L«ni,  Otmipatdeia 
da  Kaiten  Katt  V  (Latpz.  18U-46;  B  Tota.} ;  Ktiyjn 
do  Lettenhova.  AuftdAmmgai  da  Kaittri  Kari  V 
(Oernuui  tranal,  Uipz.  1862) ;  ObcIiuI,  Conr^atd.  de 
Charla  QmnI  (Btoueli,  1859).  Special  worka  on  the 
Ufa  of  ChuleB  V  attar  hli  stidication  aad  ratltamant 
tuve  baen  written  bj  Stirling  (Cloitler  Life  of  lit  Em- 
ptnr  Charla  Die  Fi/li,  N,  Y.  l^nio),  Gaebard  {Bttrail 
el  Mori  deCLV  (Bruaaela,  1S54-&6},  FichoC  iCiromgue 
de  Charlet  V,  Paria,  IS&4),  and  Hlgne  (CiorJu  QuM, 
Puia,  18M). 

CbarlasIX,  socondaon  of  Honry  II  and  of  Cath- 
arine de  Hedicl,  wai  bom  at  St.  GoriDaln^n-LiTa 
Jane  27, 1560,  and  on  Deceaiber  6,  IHO,  euccooded  Ma 
brotber,  Fronds  11.  "  Hia  cbsraclar  waa  a  compound 
of  pasiion,  acuteneas,  haartleaineaa,  and  cunnln/.  Al- 
though only  twenty-four  year*  of  age  when  be  died,  ao 
well  had  bia  detestabit  mother  trained  him  to  a  love  of 
perfidy  and  cruelly,  that  he  found  tdme,  with  bar  aaaiet- 
ance  andthatof  the  Guises,  to  perpetrate  an  actaohld- 
KHUl}'  diabolical  that  all  ciciliied  Eoiope  atill  ahud- 
dera  at  tbe  recollection.  The  maaaacre  of  St.  Bartbol- 
omew's  (q.  v.),  Aug.  34, 1672,  wai  the  culmination  of 
a  geriea  of  treacberiea  toward  the  Haguenota  which 
diagraced  his  reign.  The  reanlt  was  that  dvil  war 
brake  oat  anew,  ajid  aaaumed  a  very  threatening  char- 
■oler,  as  political  malcontents  aaaodatad  themselvea 
with  the  Proteatants.  Charlei  died  Hay  80, 1674."— 
Chambera,  ElmgdopirSa,  a.  t.  ;  and  a  good  article, 
with  an  Bcconut  of  the  maaaacre  of  St.  B.,  bi  the  jGSv'tM 
CyefqpieiiiatB.v.CbarlealX.  See FamcE, Ritobmed 
Chdrch  or. 

Charleton,  Waltkr,  M.D.,  an  English  phyal- 
dan,  waa  bom  Feb.  2, 1619,  waa  educated  at  Magdalen 
HaU,  Oxford,  becaoM  an  eminent  practitioner  in  Lon- 
don, praaldoDt  of  tbe  College  of  Pbyaldana  in  1689, 
and  died  la  1707.  Ha  ia  mentioned  here  on  account 
of  hia  Dwimm  oJAIiatm  diepeOed  if  lie  Light  o/JVo- 
twr*  (Lond,  166!,  4to);  and  karmims  qf  Xatml  and 
PmMve  Diimte  Lata  (Load.  ISSH^  8 vo).— Darling,  Cf- 
ciopadia  BibOogmpiica,  i,  637 ;  Eippia,  Biesr^Ua 
Brilarmiea,  iii,  448  sq. 

Chaim  (tlinV,  ladatk',  to  KJUipep,  aa  enchantera). 
InPaa.lviiI,  6;  Jer.Tiii,!?)  Ecdaa.  z,  11  ("  enchant- 
ment"), this  word  U  used  to  aspreaa  terpeiU-ciarm^. 
Ia  the  first  of  tbna  pasugs*  it  oocnii  in  connectioD 
with  llan  (dte'btr,  atlictly  a  eanfederacg,  I  e.  with 
•pbila  of  tbe  other  world),  which  ia  rendered  in  the 
aame  manner,  and  haa  a  aimilar  meaning.  In  other 
paaaagea,  although  atill  nndered  "charm,"  both 
woids,  aa  b  tbe  caae  alto  with  other  terms,  aigni^  or- 
SiDMrj  ntenmaug  or  con^arstion.  Hiat  the  moat 
▼auomana  reptiles  mlgbt  be  rendersd  tame  and  hann- 
laSB  by  certain  charma,  or  soft  and  sweet  soonda,  and 
ti^ed  to  delist  In  music,  waa  an  opinion  which  pre- 
vailed very  early  and  nnlversally  (see  Bocbart,  Bieret, 
I,  iii,  cap.  6).  Vitgil  speaka  of  it  particularly  (_ifM. 
vii,  760)  j  ao  alao  Locsn  (Phamliay.  See  Sbbpxiti. 
Tbe  moat  fiunoaa  serpent-chaimara  of  antiquity  were 
the  PiyUi,  a  people  of  Cyrenaica;  and  that  thabs  was 
bellered  to  t»  a  natonl  power  appears  from  the  story 
told  by  Pliny,  that  ibay  were  aecoatamed  to  tiy  tbe 
legitimacy  of  their  new-born  children  hy  exposing 
them  to  the  most  crael  and  vwiomoaa  serpents,  which 
dared  not  mi^eat  or  even  approach  them  aniea*  they 
were  illegitimate.  He  tbinks  theh'  power  reeidad  in 
some  peculiar  odor  in  their  parsons  which  tlie  aerpents 
abhorred  (^ffat.  Bitt.  lib.  vil,  c.  3).  Shaw,  Brace,  and 
Indeed  all  travellera  wlio  hare  l>een  to  the  Levant, 
qwak  of  tbe  charming  of  aerpanta  as  a  Uing  &«qa«iit> 


r2  CHARNOCK 

ly  seen  (see  especially  Thonuon,  Limd  and  Book,  fl, 
216,  288).  The  mach-drsaded  Cobra  di  CaptUa,  oi 
food  5«^peii<  of  the  Hindoos,  is  capable  of  being  tamed ; 
and  the  Malabar  Jnggleie  have  the  art  of  teaching 
tbem  to  dance  to  the  inhaimoniaoa  and  alow  notes  of 
their  flageolet.  Tbe  aerpent  drat  aeemi  astoniahed, 
tlien  beglna  to  reai  bimaelf,  and  sometimea,  by  a  gen- 
tle andulatory  motion  of  the  bead,  and  with  distended 
bood,  seems  to  listen  with  pleaaora  to  the  notaa. 
Those  dancing  anakea  are  carried  aboat  in  baaketa  by 
1>B  Jogglen  all  over  India,  and  Mr.  Forbea  iCata  it  aa 
a  well-attasted  fact  that  when  a  house  is  inletled  with 
ttwae  snakes,  and  aome  others  of  the  Cohtbrr  genns, 
which  daatroy  poultry,  or  with  some  even  of  the  largsr 
serpents  of  Iba  boa  tribe,  the  muaidans  are  sent  for, 
who  charm  the  reptiles  fmn  their  biding-plaoe*  to 
thalr  own  dcstroction  iOriailai  Mtmainy.  It  is  often 
said  that  the  charmer  introduce*  his  tame  serpenla, 
and  that  tbey  obey  tbe  accnatomed  call,  and  are  ex. 
blbited  In  i^oof  of  the  triomph  of  the  charmer'a  art. 
This  may  aometlmas  be  the  case,  but  instincea  an 
known  in  which  there  could  not  have  been  any  colla- 
■ion  or  contrivance ;  and,  after  tbe  aavereit  test  and 
scrutiny,  many  have  been  obliged  to  real  in  the  «m- 
dnalon  that  tbe  cbarmert  do  really  poaacaa  the  pbyai- 
cal  means  of  diacovaring  the  pieaanee  of  aerpanta  with- 
out aeeing  them,  and  of  attracting  them  from  their 
iniking-places.  This  Is  Mr.  Lane's  conclnsion,  who 
also  suspects  tliat  they  dlscovar  the  presence  taf  ser- 
pents by  tbe  ameli,  and  compares  their  attractiva  pow- 
ers to  those  of  the  fowler,  who,  by  tbe  faacination  of 
his  voice,  slluT«a  tbe  bird  Into  bia  net  (Jfodtni  Egjp. 
tiau).  The  deaf-adder  or  aap  may  eitlier  be  a  Ber> 
pent  of  a  species  natorally  deaf  (for  ancb  kinds  an 
msntioaed  by  Avicenna  as  quoted  hy  Bochart),  or  cm 
account  of  its  appearing  to  be  ao.  In  diher  esse,  In 
the  longDage  of  poetry,  it  may  be  said  to  ttop  iU  tor, 
from  its  being  froof  Bgslnat  all  the  effbtts  of  the 
charmer  (Un.  PrtA.  Q^rt.  Banev,  July,  I860).  S«s 
DiviHATioH;  Maoiciah. 

In  modem  asaga  the  word  ciom  (I^t.  «irm«i,  a 
anijF)  denote*  a  apell,  in  a  form  of  words,  generally  in 
veise,  supposed  to  poaseaa,  when  recited,  some  occolt 
power,  either  bortful  or  benefldaL  When  written  oo 
paper  or  p*Tchment,  and  worn  on  lite  penon,  charm* 
an  to  he  classed  with  smnlet*  (q.  T.).  Sea  also  Iv. 
CAmXTIOM;  Maoio. 

Cliar'itlln  (Xop/iic  t.  r.  XoX/uft ;  Tolg.  CkarauV 
son  of  Uelchlel,  one  of  the  three  "  ancient*"  (jrpiefio- 
Tipoi)  ta  "mien"  (_apxavTit)  of  Bethnlia  (Jndith  vl, 
16;  vlii,  lOj  I,  6).     See  BmtinJA. 

ChanMl-hooa*  (med.  Lat.  eanmrium),  a  place  In 
the  aaighborhood  of  a  chorch-yard  or  other  cemetery, 
usnally  vaulted,  where  the  dry  bones  of  the  dead,  whidi 
the  gr*T»JiK*r  had  thrown  ap,  were  carefully  laid  In 
order.  Afterwaida  a  chapel  waa  built  over  It,  where- 
in interment  eoold  be  mad*,  monanwnta  erected,  aod 
laaaa*  (aea  Chaktbi)  be  anng.  In  thia  caae  tb* 
'chamel-lKniss"  was  a  vault  uoder  the  chapeL    Tb* 


booaea  onder  them. 
Chamook,  Stkfhxii,  D.D.,  an  eminent  EngUah 
onconformist,  was  bMn  in  London  in  1628.  He  te. 
ceii-ed  bis  earllaat  edncatton  fnm  Ills  bther,  and  when 
very  young  be  entered  Eniannel  College,  Camhridg^ 
nnder  Dr.  William  Sancran.  He  connnenced  his  labor* 
as  a  minister  in  SoothwaA,  bat  soon  obtained  a  fallow- 
ship  in  New  College,  OxAud,  and  in  1662  became  aaib 
lor  proctor  of  the  nniversity.  In  1668  he  went  to 
Dublin,  and  bis  ministry  there  was  eminently  saecess- 
tul.  About  1660,  ejected  by  the  Act  of  TTnifbrmity,  be 
retnmed  to  England,  and  spent  fifteen  yeaia  in  and 
about  London  in  atady  and  preaching,  but  without  ■ 
■eltled  congregation  nntll  about  1675.  He  died  Jnly 
27, 1680.  "His  sermon*  conaHtute  tbe  chief  of  hi* 
w^t;  and  while  on  tbe  docfrvK*  thay  contain,  being 


CHARRAN  2! 

ydieOj  OUTiaiMie,  a  •niietr  of  oidnlaai  an  iDtw^ 
h'r',  j«  It  b  DDiTONOlj  wliDltted  that  they  an 
Mikg^Aad  by  graat  originality  and  ginliu,  and 
nt  w«U  lUnanriiig  of  ttas  wldajy-ajwd  attantioD 
Aay  kav«  ao  loBg  raoalTad.  UU  naaonluga  aia 
aaiwii  and  hii  appaali  affocting.  Hla  Jadgmenl 
«■•  aosDd,  hia  taMa  eurect,  hla  Imaginatioo  lively, 
hii  |i(ly  andiMemblad.  He  waa  grave  witbont  being 
dBll.  and  patapienooa  without  being  wearisome.  Hb 
rVwrtia  «*  Oa  AUrihuttt  o/GodiM  ackiunrladgiid  to 
h*  lb  beat  in  the  EoBUih  langnaga"  (Jonaa).  Uii 
Firia  wen  tapabllabad  in  1SI&  (Lond.  9  voU.  8vo), 
wilb  a  Ufa  pnflzad,  by  Edward  PaiMnu.  Than  ia  id 
Amtaea  cdhlos  of  Uie  AttrOvta,  with  a  life  of  Char- 
mA,  by  Symington  (K.  Y.  2  Tola.  Bvo),  and  a  new 
aditjna  at  1^  Workt  ia  now  going  on  at  Edinbargh 
(Ki^ob),  UM,  ToU.  i-T,  Bto.  Sae  Jones,  Chnitiim 
Birfr^kf,  p.  IM;  Symington,  CIteict  Wortt  ofCiar- 
Kt,rit4ibL>;/<(N.Y.lSma);  Hiddleton,  fcc^t.  Si- 
if^qAf,  iii,  MS ;  Calaay,  Kotnon/aimiti  Mtmorial 
(Lend.  1778),  i,  ItS  Iq. 
Char'rui  (Xa^ 
^),  anatber  mode 
(Acu  TU,  1,  4)  of  An- 


Chainl.    SeeKiTTLB. 

Cttaa*  Ct*3,  ^^,  liiittt,  etc).  Tbe  [nctica  of 
hanUng  wild  animab  aaiiy  pravaiied  among  the  no- 
made  Hebrews  (Geo.  xxt,  S8  ;  xivii,  S  sq.),  and  con- 
tinned  to  later  timea  to  Im  a  conuoon  employment  (Lev. 
xvil,19;  PioT.  xli,S7j  Joeepbui,  Ifar,  i,Sl,18),  both 
for  Ibe  sake  of  the  Aeah  of  the  game  (Slnch  ixxtI, 
21 ;  bat  in  the  Sabbatical  year  it  was  allowed  to  mul- 
tiply, Exod.  xxili,  11 ;  Lav.  xzt,  7;  comp.  Mlcbaelii, 
Mot.  Rtckl,  ill,  178  *q.),  and  al»  for  the  extermination 
of  noiioDa  bouts  (-i  Sam.  ixiii,  20),  of  both  which 
there  waa  no  lack  in  Palestine  (see  Hamiar,  1,  B2e  tq.). 
Tbe  meani  employed  in  tlila  ponnit  ware  usually  the 
bow  (Gen.  xztU,  3),  the  spear  or  Javelin  (comp.  Slim- 
bo,  IV,  784),  the  net  (Tn^^,  1e=n,  "111^  i  which  was 
likewise  nied  for  the  larger  kinds  of  animals,  as  ga- 
aelles,  Isa.  11,  21,  and  even  for  lions,  Ezek.  lix,  6),  tbe 
sling  (B^BX,  riD,  Opia,  Ecclei.  Iz,  1! ;  Psa.  zd,  S), 
and  tbe  pitfall  (nng,  riHIj,  Plin.  x,  64 ;  cemp.  Eaak. 
xix,  4  {  i  Sam.  xzlil,  30),  the  last  especially  for  the 


iaally  parcbaaad  fron 
Lad  Saflblk  by  Sir 
nomaa  Sntlon  br 
OyfM,  who  andowad 
I  with  tba  revenoea 

■1,  lordahipa,  and  otb- 
(t  NiMea  In  railona 
IBtt  oT  Fji  gland. 
His  ■ 


English 
(keiily,''  as  tdd  Foliar 
catb  it,  aervea  thraa 


TDthalaflcf  A 

.       II,  ISL  Oasdli 

(.UTwaa  arM 


H  Id  the  Daerl  uf  Tbgtald  (WDUiw 
D  hla  chariot  ibootJac  with  Ibe  txnr,  i 
i.  Femila  hjwu  wllh  lu  nuEc.  i, 
a  bill  lad  In^klac  lavarib  Ibe  ehait 


CHASE  23 

Man  (Sluv,  TVor.  15S  aq.)'  CoDipcn  the  dcieriptian 
in  Job  xtUi,  S  ■■).  They  do  not  appear  to  biva  bad 
banting  dogi  (Tct  comp.  Joieph.  Aitl.  iv,  g,  9),  and  it 
I*  doubtful  if  in  lianUng  liirdi  ttiay  osmI  trained  fal- 
coiu  or  other  ipedei  of  birds  (£liaa,  ^iHm.  vlii,  SI), 
although  hawkt  (Harmar,  ili,  79),  like  houndi  (CWjrM. 
lix,*3S;  Slrabo,T,216;  FbiloaU.  Imit.  i,  3» ;  Polyb. 
liii,  22 ;  Cnrt  ii,  1,  81 ;  Plin.  viii,  61 ;  Becker,  Ciar- 
ida,  i,  389)  wen  ancientl}-,  and  still  an  QDiverully 
common  in  the  East  (Shaw,  Traalt,  p.  300 ;  Kampftr, 
Amur*,  p.  131).  On  the  Egyptian  mouDmenta  hnnling 
■eanea  nrs  fraquenUy  RpnBonlwl  (Wilkinaoa,  1,  Hi 
•q.).  HontinK  became  an  ariatocratio  sport  (Henn. 
ad  Lj/agillr.  499)  at  leait  in  later  periodi  of  Jewish 
bistorv  (Jonephus,  ^n(.  xv,  7,  7;  ivi,  10,8;  see  also 
Philo,'  ii,  856 ;  comp.  Helndorf  on  Horace,  Sat,  ii,  2,  9). 
InstancoB  ocenr  in  which  men  of  sirengtii  OTercsme 
wild  animals  even  without  weapons  (Judg.  xIt,  6 ;  I 
Sam.  zvii,  35}.    (Set  Jtbo't  BOil.  A  rchiKil.  §  bi.-)    Sea 

The  instrumanta  and  modes  of  the  chase  are  lome- 
timea  used  figuratively,  to  indicate  tho  wiles  of  an  ad- 
TOTsoiyi  grout  danger,  or  impending  destroction  (Psa. 
iz,  10 ;  Ivii,  G ;  xd,  Sj  xciv,  13;  cxix,  BG;  Ptot.  xktI, 
27i  Isa.  33iY,  17;  ilii,  22;  Jer.  v,  20;  vi,  21;  xvi, 
16;  it-iii.  2^;  zlviii,  44;  Amos  lii,  5;  Boa.  xiii,  14; 
Lnkexxi,85;  Ram.xl,9;  lCor.xT,Gfi).    Se« Hdkt- 

Cbase,  AbSH,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
co[>a1  Church,  waa  bom  in  Stonington,  Conn.,  Dec. 
II,  1784,  and  died  In  Penn  Yon,  N,  Y.,  April  27, 1851. 
At  the  age  of  19  he  was  converted,  and  joined  tho 
Hethodiet  Episcopal  Church.  When  22  years  of  age 
he  wss  ticenaed  to  exhort,  and  soon  after  received  li- 
cense to  preach.  He  coDtinned  as  an  e^borter  and 
local  preacher  about  six  yeira,  laboring  very  sncceas- 
flilly  in  winning  aonis  to  Christ.  In  1810  he  waa  ad- 
mitted on  trial  in  the  S.  Y.  Conference,  and  appointed 
to  the  Delaware  Circuit.  The  next  year,  at  bia  own 
request,  he  was  tnusferred  to  the  Genesee  Conftrence, 
In  wlioae  ranks  be  remained,  part  of  the  time  as  anper- 
aODuated,  untjl  bia' death.  Very  few  men  have  served 
the  Church  more  fkithTuliy,  acceptably,  and  asefully. 
—itinala  qfConf.  T,  419 ;  Sprague,  AmaU,  vii,  497. 

Chaae,  Heiuy,  a  minister  of  the  Hethodiat  Epli. 
copal  Church,  was  bom  in  Hoosick,  K.Y.,  Sept.  10, 
1790,  His  father  being  unable  to  send  him  to  a  clas- 
sIcbI  achool,  be  began,  unaided,  In  youth  ■  courae  of 
etodv  which  ended  only  with  bis  hte,  and  which  In- 
elnded  Utln,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French,  and  German, 
besides  general  literature  and  theology.  In  1809  ha 
entered  the  Methodist  ministry,  and  served  in  several 
laborious  circuits  until  1820,  when  he  removed  to  New 
York,  and  became  a  teacher  in  the  Wesleyan  Seminary, 
in  1023  he  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  the  sea- 
men of  New  York,  and  continaed,  Mth  abort  interrup- 
tions, to  be  pastor  of  "The  Mariners'  Charch"  until 
his  death,  July  B,  1858.  He  was  greatly  beloved  and 
esteemed  both  by  his  own  flock  and  by  the  general 
public. — Sprague,  Aninili,  vil,  47S. 

Chaae,  Pbilauder,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Comiah,  N.  H., 
Dec.  14tb,  1775,  and  graduated  at  DartmouEh  College 
In  1796.  After  ordinalion,  he  waa  occupied  for  about 
a  year  and  a  half  aa  a  missionary  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  extending  his  services  to  IJlica,  Auburn,  Canan- 
dalgui,  and  other  places.  In  1799  he  accepted  the 
charge  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  at  Poagh- 
heepsie  and  Fishkill.  He  waa  next  appointed  to 
Chriat  Church,  New  Orleans,  but  returned  to  New 
England  in  1811  to  become  rector  of  Cbrltt  Chnrch, 
Hartford,  "  where  be  labored  with  great  assiduity,  ac- 
ceptance, and  tnccesB."  Hi*  thon>!hts,  however,  were 
directed  (o  the  "  Grftat  Wfft."  and  in  1817  he  journey- 
ed thiihcr,  preaching  at  he  sdvanced.  In  May,  1817, 
he  jTc  Idcd  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  parisbkniera  of 


CHASroiM 

Christ  Church,  Cincinnati,  and  became  reeloTBt  Work- 
ington, Culumbos,  and  Delawon,  and  accepted  also 
the  charge  of  on  academy.  In  1819  be  was  eleetsd 
blahop  of  Ohio ;  in  1821  ha  became  President  of  Cin- 
cinnati D^ege.  Desiring  to  tupply  the  Weat  with 
an  efficient  miolatry,  he  visited  England,  and  nweived 
targe  conliibationa  for  edncation.  About  1826  he  en- 
gaged In  the  foundation  of  Kenyon  College  and  the 
Theological  Seminar}-  of  Ohio.  This  assiduity  and 
energy  were,  however,  ill  rewarded,  (or  "a  stand  waa 
taken  by  the  professors  of  Kenyon  College  aa  to  the 
extent  of  hla  powers  over  tbe  institntion  of  which  he 
was  the  orlglnstor;  and  on  the  same  day,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1831,  with  his  usual  magnanbnity,  he  rcsignod  bia 
offices  of  preaideDt  and  bishop  of  Ohio."  Being  now  in 
search  of  temporary  repose,  be  aelected  aa  bia  resi- 
dence a  place  in  Illinda,  which  he  named  "The  Val- 
ley of  PeacBj"  engaged  here,  and  on  the  St.  Joaeph, 
Michigan,  in  miaaionary  labors,  and  planning  for  blm- 
aelf  a  wide  drcle  of  visitation,  which  "invaded  no 
man'a  diocese,  parish,  or  labors."  In  1835  he  waa 
elected  bishop  of  Illinois,  and  osed  similar  expeditnta 
for  the  interests  of  hla  diocese  is  those  which  he  had 
before  adopted  lor  Ohio.  He  igain  visited  England, 
and  collected  nearly  910,0C0  for  thk  purpose.  In  1F3B 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  Jubilee  College,  and  shortly 
after  visited  UlssissippI,  Louisiana,  Georgia,  and  Sonth 
Carolina,  where  be  received  liberal  contributjoits.  His 
colleges  were  aubsequenUy  better  endowed,  and  his 
own  circumstances  rendered  eary,  if  not  comfortable; 
and  thup,  towards  his  latter  end,  "the  amiles  nf 
Providence  beamed  on  bia  broad  philontbropv  and  in- 
drmitable  perseverance."  He  died  Sept.  £(>th.  1852. 
Hie  published  works  are :  A  Pita  far  ike  Will  (1826)  ; 
The  Star  in  Ike  Weil,  or  KttfOn  CoOegt  (1828)  ;  JOe- 
fatee  pf  Kmgon  College,  (Mtb  (1831);  Jinmaitetnctt  .- 
An  A ulobiiigTopks,  eampruiig  a  Hiilorj  a/lkt  primdpal 
EctnU  in  Ikt  Autkor't  Lffe  lo  1847  (1848,  !  vols.  Svo). 
— Spni(;ne,.4maJi,  T,  45.1;  Bp.  Chase's  AcMimicaKMi, 
an  AattAiogrf^  U  A.D.  1847  (!  vols.  Svo,  Boston, 
1848). 

Chase,  Squire,  a  Methodlat  Episcopal  minister 
and  misMonarj",  He  wss  bom  in  Scijno,  Cayuga  Co., 
New  York,  February  15, 1802;  was  converted  at  about 
fourteen  ;  entered  the  tmvelliDg  mlniaUy  in  the  Gen- 
esee Conference  in  IBIS;  was  set  off  with  tbe  Black 
River  Confi-rence  at  Its  orgsniaatlan  in  1836 ;  sailed  aa 
missionary- to  Liberia, Oct.  15,1880;  returned  to  Amer- 
ica in  August,  I8S7;  wus  delegste  to  General  Confer- 
ence in  1840;  aallcdagain  toAfticain  Januarv.  1842; 
retumsd  to  America  Id  May,  1849;  and  died  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  Jnly  !6,  1848.  Ur.  Chare  was  of  pre- 
possessing appearance,  natural  amiabilily,  and  naat 
fected  piety.  In  the  pulpit  hla  "commanding  figure 
and  earnest  manner  gave  him  [[Teat  advantage  orer 
his  aodieoce,  and  bis  sermons  liespoke  a  cultiTatMl 
mind  and  diligent  preparation."  He  wis  a  good  xd- 
entiflc  and  classical  scholar,  and  a  vigorona  writer. 
Aa  preaiding  elder  he  waa  emmtntly  efficient.  In 
1840  be  pah\\tbfAAnFjaaiMiiti>mnftktDixtrTme,Bu- 
targ,  tmd  Moral  Tendtvy  rf  Roma*  Ca&<Ac  lv4ut- 
pence:  —  Blade  Rmer  Conference  Iftwurrial,  p.  EO ; 
Sprague,  >4iH«i&,  vii,  664. 

Chaa'obn  (Xooi^ii.Tnlg.  Cuirfn),  a  name  among 
the  list  of  the  "servants  of  tbe  Temple"  (1  Esdr.  v, 
31),  which  hag  nothing  coTreFponding  to  it  in  Eira  (ii, 
48)  or  Nebemlah  (vil,  60),  and  is  probably  a  mere  cor- 
ruption of  that  encceeding  it — Gazkb^  (q- v.). 

Chaalmial.    See  Akbcb. 

CIuBlble.     See  Chaschlx. 

Chaaldah.     See  Stobk. 

Cbaaldim  (D^I'^Cn,  i.  e.  saiiUf ;  comp.  'Amnfaioi, 
1  Msec,  vii,  13),  a  name  which  among  tbe  ancient  Jews 
was  given  to  all  who  manifssled  their  attachment  to 
tbe  Jewish  creed  In  some  oitraordlnarj  manner.     la 


CHASmiM  2S 

V  ifMcUl  woiB  It  wu  gtmi  to  >  Bad  which  wu 
d  tor  tin  poipow  of  oppoting  Uelliailtic  1d- 
i.aud  nnhiiig  the  trua  biilleTan  by  roJanUij 
Impoution  of  work*  of  ■DtnrBrogttioiL  In  the  time 
oT  jDd.1*  Uaccsbaiu  the  hcC  raidil]'  joinsd  thi  grsit 
leiidar  of  ths  true  Jewish  (kltb.  Tlie  WMntlil  prind- 
ple*  of  the  Cbuidim  nera  u  follom :  n»Mt  lixkily  to 
irfiarrTD  >11  the  litiul  Ikirs  of  purilicatioD ;  lo  meet  to- 
gether frequently  (or  devotioo,  carefully  preparing 
themMlrea  for  it  by  «hlation»,  and  wearing  tlidp  pby. 
lactariM  loD^r  than  olfaen ;  to  Mok  diligently  for  op- 
portnaltiM  of  alTering  lacrtflcea  (A^dorim,  10,  a);  to 
impOM  npon  tlienuelvai  Tolnntarily  great  acta  of  aelf- 
danlal  and  mortillcation ;  to  Bbntain  trom  wioe  and  all 
intflxicatiiig  liqnurs  sametlniei  for  MTsral  weeks,  and 
amnetimaa  for  their  whole  lives ;  and  to  oheorre,  lilte 
the  priati,  the  Levilical  puriflcatiooii  during  the  time 
of  their  being  Naiaiitea,  and  aometimee  longer.  ItalKi 
appaan  from  the  Misiina  that  tbey  Anqueatly  had  all 
thinfp  to  commoQ  (AMA,  v,  10) ;  that  they  (ometimes 
wltbdmr  altogether  from  general  society,  and  devoted 
Ihamaelvaa  entirely  to  contemplation,  and  to  the  atndy 
gf  tba  written  and  oral  law,  while  othsn  of  the  aect, 
by  poraning  secnlar  arocatloiiR,  procored  the  common 
means  of  lUpport;  that  tliey  would  not  talk  much  to 
their  own  wives,  and  wonld  not  at  all  look  at  strange 
wonmi.  The  Hiabna  atatea  {Sota,  ili,  7}  that  tlieaa 
friaciplea  were  carried  by  soma  to  eitnvagant  ax- 
ceaiei.  In  the  coune  of  time  the  aaaoclation  was  aplit 
np  into  parties,  tbon  iDsiating  apon  the  rl^  obsarr- 
ancn  ioniiing  thenuelTsi  Into  aepatata  daaominatians, 
•Dch  aa  tba  Esaanes,  etc,  wbUs  die  modenUe  party  re- 
tainad  the  name  Chaiidim.  Id  the  Talmudic  period 
(A.D.  MO-NW)  the  meaning  of  Cha^im  was  on  the 
wlMle  again  that  of  the  word  In  the  Old  Teatamant, 
daoodng  thoae  who  are  piooa,  temperate,  mild,  forbear- 
ing, beneTolent,  etc.  There  were,  however,  occasion- 
ally laalots  aoMng  them  who  woold  not,  Ibr  instance, 
extlngaish  a  flt«  which  broke  oat  on  tba  Sabbath ;  bnt 
they  were  an  exception.  In  the  post-Tatmadic  peri- 
od, and  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  philoaopblcal  school 
appears  to  have  nndentood  by  the  term  those  who 
possessed  simple  piety  in  con  trad  intioction  to  scientific 
knowledge.  Ths  Karaltea  claimed  (be  name  t<ji  thow 
who  eamestiy  strove  lo  know  God  as  he  Is,  and  only 
gave  it  to  their  spiritual  heads.  The  Qerman  and  French 
scbools  alto  flxed  so  high  a  standard  for  the  qnalifica- 
tiont  of  a  Chaaid  that  Aw  except  the  Rabbina  could 
att^  it.  In  these  schools  It  aomewhat  approaches 
tba  aaeetlcism  of  tba  old  sect,  and  still  more  was  this 
tba  eaae  in  the  Cabalistic  school  representing  the  8o- 
har,  in  which  a  rigomos  oheerrance  of  extemala  and 
mDrtifleatioiu  Is  insisted  upon. 

The  Chasidim  ware  reorganlied  aa  a  special  sect  in 
the  eighteenth  centoiy  by  Rabhl  Israel  beu-Elleier 
BMl-Sbem  (DD  ^S^,  "  lord  of  the  name"=3tavf>yat, 
a  man  who  by  words  of  conjuration  and  other  formalaa 
knows  bow  lo  exercise  a  power  over  the  Tislble  and 
InvUble  ^orld),  also  called  Bedil,  QO'^S,  from  the  in- 
Itlali  of  3^  BO  ^?a.  Baal-Sbem  made  bis  pablic 
appearance  about  1740  In  Tlnali,  In  the  district  of 
Ciartkow,  from  whence  ha  nbaequently  removed  to 
Hediiboae,  in  Podcdia.  His  miraculoas  cares  and 
praphecies  attracted  attention  In  large  circles  j  his 
mode  of  lifc.  consisting  of  contemplation,  study  ofthe 
book  Sohar,  giving  advioe  to  all  applying  for  It,  and 
hequent  WBshfngs  In  riTan,  soon  spread  a  halo  round 
Urn,  while  his  liberal  views  on  the  gratiflcatlon  of 
senanal  wants,  which  be  declared  to  tw  more  condnciva 
than  [Kejudicial  to  tme  godllnaaa,  dispeaa  j  a  Urge  nnm- 
bar  to  beoomo  his  diadplea.  To  prwDote  tba  separate 
arganiaation  of  a  sect,  hi*  dlsd^ea  ebvolated  many 
miracBloas  reports;  for  instance,  that  Ilia  btlwr  liad 
been  viritad  by  tba  propJiat  Hijah,  to  predict  Ui  tdrth, 
and  that  his  mother  waa  a  hondred  years  old  when  the 
w_s  deilvoed  of  him ;  that,  when  a  youth,  he  had  vlc- 
11^8 


ifi  CHASKUNI 

lorionslj  struggled  with  evil  spirits,  ete. — all  of  which 
may  be  found  in  tbe  book  OlSSZln  '<n3is,  pobUahed 
in  ISlii  by  tbe  grandson  of  BaatShem,' R  Blr  LIni. 
Baal-3hem  and  his  successors  received  the  name  Za- 
dik  (p^X,  1.  a.  rigUfout),  and  his  (kme  attracted  mnl- 
titudaa  of  Jews  from  all  parts  of  Poland,  who  were  da- 
slroua  to  submit  themselvea  to  his  guidance,  and  bs' 
conie  members  of  the  sect.  The  (bllowing  are  tbe 
chief  princlplea  and  tenets  of  tba  sect:  ].  The  greU 
aim  of  every  Chasld  Is  to  be  In  intimate  eommnnion 
wfth  (n^pa^),  or  wedded  to  tho  Deity  (nj'St^  Siai>, 
who  Is  regarded  as  a  bride.  This  communion  la  ef- 
fected through  iTayer,  and  more  especially  throngh 
frequent  contact  with  the  Zadlk,  or  spiritual  bead, 
who  Is  espoused  to  God,  and  wbo,  as  his  delegate 
npon  earth,  can  do  all  manner  of  wonderfnl  things. 
The  Zadik  is  tberefom  the  king  and  snprema  Judge 
of  the  community;  has  absolute  power  over  fliair 
thoughts,  words,  and  deeds ;  Is  richly  supported  by 
tbe  voluntsrj-  contribntlons  uf  his  followers ;  they  per- 
form pilgrimages  to  him  to  spend  the  Sabbaths  and 
festivals  with  him.  when  the  rich  alt  with  him  at  the 
table,  and  the  poor  estCFm  it  the  greatest  privilege  to 
touch  tba  hem  of  bla  garment,  or  even  to  catch  a 
glimpse  of  him,  !.  ReveUtlon  and  tbe  reward  of  all 
good  works  depend  upon  abtebiU/ailh,  which  is  grnst- 
ly  interfered  with  by  tesesrch  and  philosophy.  3. 
Hincias  must  be  implicitly  believail  in ;  the  greatest 
devotion  is  to  be  msnifestad  during  payer,  and  hence 
shoating,  claptring  of  hands,  ^nging,  dancing  before 
the  Lord,  etc.,  must  be  resorted  to,  so  as  lo  preclude  the 
intrusion  of  profane  thoughts.  4.  Bepentance  and 
conversion  are  essential  to  salvation ;  a  man  must  al- 
ways prepare  hlmaalf  for  tbam,  and  never  despair.  5. 
The  Chasid  must  keep  aloof  from  profane  knowledge, 
and  from  the  love  of  mammon,  which  leads  to  unbo- 
lief,  but  worship  Ood,  even  In  the  perfbrmance  of  busl- 
ness.  S.  He  must  be  exceedingly  cheerfbl,  contented, 
unselfish,  benevolent,  peaceable,  charilabla  In  Judging 
others,  courageoui,  temperate  in  his  dress  and  mode  of 
living,  etc.  In  every  town  or  village  wheie  tan  Chas- 
idim are  to  be  found,  they  tnntt  meet  separately  for 
prayer  and  meditation,  and  ose  the  Spanish  (brm  of 
prayer,  introducing  into  it  the  Cabalistic  elements. 

The  Chasidim  derive  thsir  doctrines  TtDta  tbe  Bibla, 
the  Talmnd,  and  more  especially  ^m  the  Sohar.  At 
the  death  of  Baal-Shem,  his  three  grandsons,  Btr  of 
Heserits,  Mendel  of  PnemlsUn,  and  Michael  of  Kolh. 
continued  to  govern  tbe  sect,  which  at  that  time  nnm- 
bered  about  40,000  members,  and  became  firmly  eatab. 
lisbed  in  Poland,  Wallacbli,  Moldavia,  Gallicia,  and 
PaleetlDe,  In  all  of  which  counlriea  it  still  exists, 
though  divided  bito  saversl  pariles.  Into  Hungary  It 
was  Introduced  in  1809,  by  R.  Hoses  Dattalbanm,  one 
of  the  ableat  men  that  have  thus  far  belonged  lo  tbe 

Tie  Chasidim  hare  publishsd  a  number  of  works  In 
defence  of  their  doctrines.  The  following  are  soma  of 
them:  1.  A  small  work  called  K")ri  (TVodMoa),  by 
Senior  Salman  lidier,  1T80,  reprinted  in  ESnigsberg, 

i82Bi  s.  mnnijni  ^?n^^  ^^so  (Cow»  ^Zow  and 
TriA),  by'B.*Aaron  the  liviU,  Sklow,  1820;  B. 
niimn  ni'l^O'',  a  book  of  ethics,  arranged  in  alpha- 
heticd 'order  by'B.  Nachnuui,  ISSl.  See  Kitto,  C^ 
ptiHrt,  i,  475  sq.;  Heraog,  RtaLEltqiilcp.  U,  687  sq.| 
Joat,  GtuMAlt  da  JwUmkumt  and  teUtrStctem,  Ui,  185 
sq.  i  Btn  CluMKa^  U,  1, 49, 141, 198 :  FUrst,  B&.  Jud. 
1,  71.  Compsre  AtaiaMtH. 
ChmsU.    See  CATBBnuuu. 


Chaakniil  e 


x-llasoAOB,  a  leMned  Jew,  who 


flonrisbed  In  France  abont  Aa>.  1360.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  usually  styled  n^y 
"^Itpin,  in  which  he  made  large  osa  of  the  UidrasUc 
litarBtnrai  Indeed,  it  is  almost  entirsly  a  oompilatioo 


CHASSmiM 


bamtematmatyoidnaaattUm.  It  vu  printed  b^ 
Bombarg  at  Venice  In  1531,  tal,  and  again  at  Batle  in 
1606,  and  in  1569  a  canliiUr  rariaed  edition,  bj'Vitto- 
rino  Eliano,  appeared  at  Cnmoiui,  4to.  It  nu;  be 
fbiind  also  in  tlie  Bitlia  Magma  of  Uotaa  FnukbrteF 
(q.  v.),  Amat.  17S4-S7.  —  Kitto,  CyeU^aiia,  i,  178 ; 
Font,  Bib.  J^  i,  171. 

Cbaaaidim.    Sea  Cbasidim. 

CbaitaaiclUiilut,  comet,  (l.)  To  itrike  or  afflict 
one  for  hia  advantage  and  coirw^jon ;  and  to  refUaB  or 

■Dd  be  not  refociiMdt^  it  (Jer.  iL,  80,  and  vU,  S8 ;  Heb. 
ill,  b).  Tbe  onithraw  of  tlie  J«»iali  piUon  by  the 
Chaidnans  waa  tki  cibutuennl  r/  a  tmtl  me;  it  waa 
Taty  Mvera,  and  inflicted  by  crnel  initrnoienEi  (Jar. 
xzx,  14).  (!.)  Ta  ponlali  In  Jnat  wrath  (L«v.  iivi, 
SS).  Tbna  ths  ckattiumtiU  <tf  imr  peaet  waa  laid  on 
Chriit;  that  punlibment,  by  tbe  beuing  of  which  oui 
ncondjiatlan  with  Qod  la  eBbcted,  waa  laid  on  blm  as 
our  iiuiity  (Im.  Uii,  &).  To  otoitat  dih>  aej^  Ii  to  be 
exerclaed  befbre  God  Id  aelf-aliaaement,  tketiniii  and 
player  (Dan.  z,  1!).  The  Scriptorei  are  fbr  corrtetion ; 
by  their  powerful  Infioence  they  pierce  a  man  to  the 
beart,  and  make  him  amend  b^  evil  couraaa  (S  Tim. 
111,18). 

CllBstlty  (Lat.  COriitat),  in  the  Chrirtiao  aanae,  de- 
llotei  (I.)  Anedom  from  Irnpnre  thonghta,  deairea,  or 
Imaginations;  and  (S.)  abatinence  fhini  Illicit  aexul 
intercourse.  It  re^uirea  a  control  of  the  passions  and 
of  the  imsgioatiDn  to  a  degree  which  no  system  of 
morals,  except  tlie  Christian,  baa  ever  succeeded  In  ae- 
caring,  Tbo  love  of  God  In  Ihe  heart  la  the  only  aare 
aafeguard  againat  evil  Inits.  The  body,  In  Christian 
ethi^  is  "  tbe  temple  of  tlw  Holy  Obost."  But,  apart 
from  pore  religiona  life,  a  atrlct  mDrallqr  may  do  a 
gnat  deal  toward  secuTing  purity,  if  not  of  lieart,  at 
least  of  lift.  The  evil  conseqaences  of  sexual  disor- 
der should  b«  laaght  in  morals  as  hlodiancea  to  Inst. 
Among  them  is  the  certainty  that  domestic  happiness, 
aa  well  as  tl>e  physical  and  menial  beakh  of  the  crim- 
inal, are  endangered  by  it.  Chastity  ia  the  noblest  re- 
•olt  of  pure  morality,  ur  of  tbe  t^ee  mastery  of  ai^t- 
nal  elevation  and  purity  over  the  natural  InsUncts :  it 
pnitactB  llbor^  fhim  ainking  into  subjection  to  (ho 
fleah,  BO  far  only,  however,  as  It  Is  the  resnlt  of  vlrtne, 
■rat  of  a  natural  indifference  aridtigframtemperament- 

The  best  sources  of  cbasd^  are,  Arst,  the  true  fear 
of  God,  whicb  leada  to  avcdd  oOhndlng  God  by  a  sinful 
miause  of  the  noblest  force  of  nature,  and  disturbing 
dn  divine  law  of  haman  reprodnction  by  beastly  In- 
dulgences ;  secondly,  education,  inculcating  honesty, 
Bodeaty,  awl  morality ;  thirdly,  active  occupation  both 
Of  mind  and  bodyi  fbnrth,  modotatian  in  die  uae  of 
drink  and  epicea.  Chastity  Is  highly  blessed  in  Its  re- 
Bulta,  for  ^m  it  reault  tbe  pnrl^  of  the  soul,  the  lib- 
erty of  Ibe  will,  the  preBerralion  of  health  and  strength, 
and  freedom  from  tbe  difficulties  and  mtsfortunes 
which  unchaitity  entaiU  on  Its  unfortunate  victims. 
It  ia  also  tbe  seal  of  a  blgh  mind,  a  true  virtue,  and 
a  sincere  fear  of  God  (Mark  vii,  21,  23 ;  Bom.  xiii,  la, 
Let  us  walk  honestly,  aa  In  the  day:  not  in  rioting 
and  drunkenncsa,  not  in  chamhcring  and  wantonnau, 
not  In  etrife  and  envying;  lCor.vi,4.e;  Gal.  v,  19- 
S2t  ICor,  vii,  6,  Defraud  ye  not  one  the  other,  escept 
it  be  with  consent  for  a  time,  that  ye  may  give  your- 
ee'Tea  to  fasting  and  prayer;  and  come  together  again, 
that  Satan  tempt  yon  not  Ibr  yonr  incontintncv ;  Phil. 
l»,  8;  ITim.  iv,  12;  v,  2;  Titus  I,  8;  ii,  6;  1  Pot,  i, 
3S;  ill,  2,  While  they  behold  your  chaste  conversation 
coupled  with  fear ;  Iv,  S,  For  tbe  time  past  of  our  life 
may  sufBce  us  to  have  wrought  the  will  of  the  Gentiles, 
when  we  walked  in  Isscirioogness,  luMs,  excess  of 
vine,  revellings,  banqneUngs,  and  abominable  Idola- 
tries; lames  lii.  17).  He  who  ia  under  the  guidance 
of  divine  wisdom  Is  essentially  chaste  (James  iv,  8). 
Ibsae  who  are  i'v^vxot,  doubto-mlndad,  cling  on  the 


CHAUMCT 

one  aide  to  the  earth,  and  on  the  other  aapln  aftar 
heaven.  Wlun  tbe  lieort  is  purified  by  tlie  sfririt  of 
God,  this  duality  ceases,  and  chasUtv  ia  eaay.— Knhl, 
N.  T.  Bimdipineri^tM,  s.  v. 

Chaaable  {eatala,  a  hat,  the  name  of  the  fMck 
worn  by  the  Boman  peasants  In  the  rain),  the  outer 
dreaa  worn  by  the  priest  at  tbe  altar-aerviM ;  called 
alsofmwfa.  It  succeeded  the  old  Boman  toga.  Tbe 
paufa  waa  a  circular  cloth,  with  an  apeKure  to  ad- 
mit the  head  in  tbe  centre,  while  it  hll  down  over  the 
body,  ao  as  completely  to  cover  it.  It  was  otberwiae 
called  ^iivXiuv,  ampXAaUm,  tad  pltmrla.  Tbia  jw* 
nula,  worn  rather  longer  than  common,  waa  adopted  at 
an  early  age  for  the  outer  dresa  of  the  clergy,  Tbo 
Romish  Church  baa  altered  It  by  cnttinc  it  away  at 
the  sides,  ao  as  to  expose  the  anna,  and  leave  only  a 
straight  piece  before  and  behind.  The  color  of  the 
vestment  varies  occonling  to  the  diRbrent  festivals  of 
the  Cbnrch  at  which  It  ia  used.  The  Greek  Churcb 
retina  it  In  Its  primitive  shape.  It  often  appears  on 
the  older  sculptures  and  mosaics,  and  also  in  old  brass- 
es in  England.— Palmer,  Orig.  Liturg.  Ii,  809  ;  Hook, 
CiuriA  Didioaary,  a.  v. ;  Slegel,  AllrrtHSmtr,  iii,  63 
aq,  1  Uartigny,  Didioimain  du  AtilijiiUii,  146. 

Chatal,  Do.    See  Dn  Cuatci.. 

ChatUm  (Q'<b&n)  or  Clwtnlim  (O'^ian),  a 
place  in  Paleatina  mentioned  by  the  TalmndiiU  (Jfa- 
WKhoA,  86  b),  and  made  by  Schwon  iPtUat.  p.  ITS)  to 
be  "  the  modem  village  ALChaOi,  east  of  Ht.  Tabor, 
not  fsr  from  Joidan,"  where  It  ia  mariied  as  El-BalB 
on  Tan  de  Yelde'a  Map. 

Chatair.    See  Lbek, 

Chatmcy,  CharleB,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Yardleybory,  Hertfordshire,  Eng.,  liSi. 
He  entered  as  student  in  Trinity  College,  Cam  bridgo, 
and  paaaed  H.A.  In  1617.  He  was  chosen  fiillow,  and 
was  made  bachelor  of  divinity  in  1624,  and,  still  later, 
waa  elected  professor  of  Greek.  He  left  the  Univer- 
sity, entered  tbe  mlnistiy,  and  in  1627  became  vicar 
of  Ware.  He  was  brought  before  Laud  for  bia  oppo- 
alUon  totbe  "  Book  of  Sporta"  In  16^9,  and  in  I  SSfi  be 
was  found  guilty  of  disobedience  and  contempt  of 
Cbnrch  authority,  bnt  he  made  a  recantation.  He 
was  afterwards  silenced,  and  came  to  Kew  England  In 
1688.  About  three  years  he  lived  at  Plymouth,  and 
then  became  pastor  in  Scituate,  In  November,  16M, 
he  was  choaen  president  of  Harvard  College,  in  whidi 
station  he  remained  with  honor  until  his  death,  Feb. 
19, 1672.  He  was  the  author  of  several  Latin  and 
Greek  poems,  and  alsoof  £eAtv^alKiia/*CAaf.  Cilaa»- 
<9,/[irwri>  Mimiier  of  Wart,  in  Berifordalun,  writ, 
itn  mli  kit  mm  Bimdt  br/iire  Ua  giniig  ta  Xbb  Eaglami 
M  1S87  (Lond.  1641);  Ttamlf^ix  Sermomt  on  Jtitijica- 
tioB  (4to,  16£9);  AMiiynodiHia  Amtriama,  and  a  fbw 
occasional  sermona.— Spragna,  Amtidi,  1, 110. 

ChBtmcy,  Cbarla*.  D.D..  a  descendant  of  preai- 
dent  Chauney,  of  Harvard  University  (see  preceding 
srticle),  was  bom  In  Boston  Jan.  1, 1706,  graidnated  at 
Harvard  In  1721,  studied  divinity,  and  wu  ordained 
pastor  of  the  First  Church  In  Boston  in  1727.  He  waa 
distJngaisbed  Ibr  learning  and  independence,  and  was 
one  of  the  (bonders  of  UniverFallam.  He  died  Feb. 
10, 1787,  In  the  eighty-thiid  year  of  bia  age.  He  pub- 
lished A  eompUU  Viae  <if  Ifiiofacy :  ~  SaaimaiU 
TlavghU  (opposed  to  Whitfield),  1776:— rAa  Fall  amd 
ilt  Coiuefan«j,1785;  — I%s  BeneeolenBe  o/tMe  Datg, 
1784,  Svo:—rAe  Aa/noliM  o/oJJJfii,  17^4,  Bvo;  an- 
swered by  r-rtwards.  Jun.  (ITarJa,  N.  Y.  ed.,  voL  i, 
6-2T9). 

CIuiTUiOy,  ImmC,  an  English  Naneonfbraiiat  di' 
vine  (eon  of  Charles  Chauney  1st  [q.  v.]),  wo*  Om  of 
the  ministers  ejected  In  1662,  and  oftenrards  beoama 
pastor  of  a  CouKregatlanal  ohnrch  at  Andover.  In 
1687  be  becanw  pastor  of  tha  Independent  Church  in 
London,  whkb  had  previously  been  Dr,  John  Owok'a* 


CHAZIR  2! 

In  I7M  b*  Mtirad  from  lbs  fiaittty,  and  wm  praftu- 
01  gf  dlviaitv  fin  Mveral  yean  Id  the  DliMiitan' Acwl- 
oiT  in  LoBdon.  H«  di«d  Fab.  tt,  ITli.  Among  hii 
wtiting*  art,  7%e  OMiu  Itutttatiim  af  Co»gf^a&aind 
Omnia!— Ti»  Dodnrnt  acotrding  In  GodSmm  (in 
otKhetial  fonn ;  Loud.  1787,  lima)  ■.—HtmomiatitMi 
—irnliKftLimd.  len).— Calun}',  Nomca^tiTnMt'  Me- 
mariat,  ii,  617. 

dumir.    8«  Swikk. 

Che'bor  (Heb.  Ktbar',  *133,  perhapa  from  iti 
fa^;  Sept.  XofJapX  >■  "*bt  in  the  "  land  at  the  Clul- 
dasu"  (Eiek.  i,  B),  I.  e.  ftppuently  or  MesopotunU 
(comp. !  Kings  iilv,  la),  on  the  buiki  of  wbicbaome 
of  the  Jem  vara  locxted  at  tbe  tima  of  tbe  upUri^, 
ud  when  Euklal  uw  bla  earlier  riaioai  (Eiek.  1, 1 ; 
a,l&,18;  x,lG,S0,13i  slili,6).  It  ii  commonly  n- 
prdad  u  identi«l  with  the  Habor  O^^O^'  "^  ^'**^ 
tf  Gonn,  to  wbkh  aoms  portion  of  tbe  laraalitee  wen 
nBondbytheAaa7Tiuu(iKin|!*iTii,6).  Bat  tbli 
to  a  mere  conjaetorc,  resting  wboUy  upon  the  ■imllar- 
ilj  of  ume.  wbicb.  ifUr  all,  ii  not  verj'  doae.  It  U 
pirbipft  better  id  Aoppoae  tbe  two  Btreama  distlact, 
nan  aapedoJIy  ifwe  regard  the  Habor  aa  the  nneieat 
Oibotaa  (nKideni  Kbabonr),  wbicb  fell  Into  tbe  Ea- 
phnts  at  Circeslnm,  for  in  the  Old  Tertament  tbe 
UBM  of  Cbaldna  is  never  axt«nded  to  far  northward. 
Tbe  Cbebar  of  Ewkiel  mast  bo  looiied  Ibr  in  Baby- 
knla.  It  b  a  name  which  might  properly  bare  been 
^Tcn  to  any  gnat  atream  (comp.  ^3f ,  gnaf).  Pet- 
hipa  tba  T)aw,  wbicb  flads  aomo  support  in  Pliny  {11. 
K.  Ti. »),  and  U  adopted  by  Bocbart  iPkaleg,  1, 8)  and 
Cailariaa  (Gngrapk.  c.  33),  that  the  Cbebar  of  Ezekiel 
It  tiM  Wotr  «u£rtn,  or  Ba)-al  Canal  of  Nabacbadneziar 
—At  ptatat  of  all  the  cutlingi  In  Heaopotamia— may 
be  regarded  as  beat  deserving  acceptuce.  In  that 
case  we  may  snppoee  tbe  Jewisb  captirea  to  have  been 
(Dplored  In  tbs  excavation  of  tbe  channel.  That 
ChiUca,  not  Upper  Mesopotamia,  waa  tbe  scene  of 
EuUel't  preaching,  it  indicated  by  tbe  tradition  which 
plaota  hti  umib  at  Seffll  (Lortua'i  CialJaa,  p.  Sb),   See 

Chebal  (^a>?,  ola'M,-  oaaally  lendeted  in  the 
elte  varaions  irxDiKiifHi,  ir(f>i/urf»>',  npixupov;  ra- 
ftiflBiiadai),  one  of  the  aingnlar  topograpbical  terms 
(q.  T.)  in  which  the  ancient  Uebrsw  Isngnage  abound- 
ed, and  wbicb  add  ao  much  force  and  preciaion  to  it* 
ncerdi.  Tbe  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word  la  a 
"npt"  or  "cord;"  and  In  tbls  senaa  it  ftvqaently  oc- 
ean both  Ulaimlly  (as  Josb.  Ii,  IS,  "cord;"  I  Klnga 
iii,n,"topea;"  lBa.sKxiIi,S3,  "tacklings;"  Amos 
Til,  17,  -'Una")  and  mataphoTically  (ai  Eccles.  xli,  6; 
In.T,18i  Hoa.  ii,4).  Ptom  tUi  It  baa  passed— with 
a  CBTioQs  oorrcapondenee  to  our  own  modea  of  apeccb 
— ttdaote  ■  body  of  man,  a  "  band"  (at  hi  Pea.  citii, 
SI).  UlSun.  X,  G,  10,  our  word  "string"  would  not 
ha  iaappnjwlila  to  the  circnmrtancea — "a  string  of 
irspheta  coming  down  bom  tbe  high  place."  Flirtbor 
It I> found  In  other  metajAoricalaenaee,  arising  onto" 
it*  oiginal  meaning  (as  Job  xrlli,  10;  Psa.  zvlil.  4 
Ja.  liii,  ny  From  tbe  ideaofa  measuring-lhie  (HI< 
B,  &),  it  hae  come  to  mean  a  "portion"  or  "allotment 
(lalCliron.  xv1,lSi  Psa.cv,  11;  Biek.  ilvli,  IS).  1 
btbawDtd  used  in  the  bmlliar  paaeage  "tbe  1bk>  an 
bum  onto  me  in  pleaaant  place*"  (Psa.  xtI,  6).  But 
ii  ila  lapi^Tapblc«l  sense,  as  meaning  a  "tract"  or 
"diftrict,"  we  find  it  always  attached  to  tbe  region  of 
Aigob,  which  is  invariably  dedgnaled  by  this,  and  by 
D»otbeiteTm(Dent.m.l,ia,14|  1  Klngiiv,13).  Its 
rnpriety  la  illnstrated  by  a  lata  traveller  in  thcaa  ra- 
^ona,  *ho  shows  tbe  ahmptdeADiteneas  of  tba  boond- 
aiy  of  the  district  (Graham,  in  Gimlmjgt  Euof,  1856). 
A  coiBpariaoa  of  tba  &ct  that  Argob  was  taken  poaaes- 
iioBcf  by  Hanaaaab— a  partof  tbe  gnat  tribe  of  Josefdi 
-~with  a*  naa  of  tbla  word  by  tliat  tribe,  and  by  JoaboB 
in  his  ratmt,  in  tlie  vet^  early  and  chanctaiittio  ft«g- 


CHEDORLAOMER 

UMnt,  Joab.  xvll,  6, 14  (A.  V.  "  portion"),  proropla  tba 
suggestion  that  it  may  have  betn  a  provincialism  In 
n»e  among  that  large  and  Independent  part  of  la- 
"    ■  '    1  to  the  "  rooky  shore "  of  Ar- 

uid  Justified  by  its  use  (Zeph. 

')  for  the  "  coast  line "  of  tbe 
HediCarranean  along  Pbilislia.  In  connection  with 
tbe  aea-ahore  it  ia  also  amploymi  in  Joab.  xix,  31.    See 

ChMkar  (nsnb,  lAahA',  1  Kinga  vii,  17).  Tbe 
original  term,  thus  rendered,  la  the  same  as  that  trans- 
lated utl-wiTk  in  tbe  context,  and  aignines  a  taliice 
forming  Ibo  bahittrait  surmounting  tbe  ca{dta1s  of 

Cbedek.    See  TaoHK. 

ChedorU'«in«r  (Heb.  Ktdorba'mr,  105  V"?!?  = 
Sept.  XoJoXAofaui'fp,  Josepbus  XofoVUfiopof,  AiU^  I, 
9, 1),  a  king  of  Elam,  who,  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
with  three  other  cbiafs,  made  war  npon  the  kings  of 
Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zebidm,  and  Zoar,  and  re- 
duced them  to  servitude  (Gen.  xiv,  1  aq.).  B.C.  dr. 
3080.  For  twelve  years  be  retained  bis  hold  overthem ; 
In  the  thirteenth  tbey  rebelled ;  in  tbe  next  year,  how- 
ever, be  and  his  altlas  marched  upon  thdr  country, 
and,  after  defeating  many  neighlxiring  tribea,  enconn- 
tarwl  the  five  king*  of  the  plain  in  the  vale  of  Siddlm. 
He  completely  routed  them,  slew  tbe  king*  of  Sodom 
and  Gomottmb,  and  carried  awny  mncb  spoil,  together 
with  tbe  family  of  Lot  (mmp.Pu.  ex).  Cbedorlaomer 
seems  to  ba\-e  perished  in  the  rescue,  wblch  was  effect- 
ed bv  Abnbam  npon  bearing  of  the  captivity  of  his 
nephew  (Gen.  xlv,  IT).  According  to  Gesenlna  (Tk/t. 
/Tfi.  p.  660  b),  the  moaning  of  the  word  may  be  "Aond- 
/al  of  duara,  ttom  the  Arabic  tadara,  towj/iit,  and 
the  Hob.  laS,  aJl«o/"anetymology  with  wbicb  FOrsl 
(ira.  BaHdtB.  s.  V.)  coincides ;  but  this  Is  little  satis- 
factory. The  name  of  a  king  is  found  npon  the  bricks 
recently  diacovend  In  Cbaldaa,  which  Is  read  Kudur- 
nujpKln.  See  Babvioh.  This  man  bas  been  sup- 
posed to  be  Identical  witb  Chedorlsomar,  and  the  opin- 
ion ia  confirmed  by  tbe  fact  that  he  Is  hither  dlstln- 
gnlabad  by  a  title  which  may  be  tTansIaled  ' '  Ravager 
of  the  West."  "  As,  however,  one  type  aloue  of  his 
legends  has  been  discovered,"  says  Colonel  Rawlinson, 
"it  is  Imposeibla  to  pronounce  at  present  on  the  iden- 
tiflcalJon.     Tba  aecond  element  in  the  name  '  Chedor- 

pola.'  Its  subatltution  mey  be  thus  accounted  for. 
In  the  namea  of  Bkbylonlan  king*  the  latter  portion  la 
often  dropped.  Thiis  Sbalmaneaer  becomea  Shalman 
In  Hoabaa ;  Meiodacb-bal-adan  becomea  Hardocempal, 
etc  KtidKi^mapmla  might  therefore  become  known 
as  Kad^  simply.  The  Arable  epithet  'el-Abm*r,' 
which  means  lie  Agd.  may  afterwards  have  been  add- 
ed to  tbe  name,  and  may  have  been  corrupted  Into 
Laomtr,  which,  as  the  orthography  now  atands,  has  no 
appannt  meaning.  Krdar  tl-A  Amur,  or  '  Kedar  tbe 
Red, '  Is  in  fact  a  famous  hero  in  Aralrian  tradition,  and 
bis  biatory  bears  no  inconsiderable  meemblance  to  the 
Scripture  narrative  of  Chedor-laomer.  It  ia  also  very 
poaaible  that  the  second  element  In  tbe  name  of  Cbedop- 
laomer,  whatever  be  its  true  form,  may  be  a  Shemltic 
translation  of  tbe  original  Hamite  term  majmia." 
"Cbedorlaomer  may  have  bean  the  leader  of  certain 
hnmizrant  Chaldaan  Elamites  who  founded  tbe  great 
Chaldean  emfdre  of  Beroeaa  in  tile  early  part  of  the 
ZOth  [2Ist]  century  B.C.,  while  Amraphel  and  Ariocb, 
the  Uamlte  kings  of  Shlnar  and  Ellatar,  who  fought 
under  bia  banner  in  the  Syrian  war  aa  subordinate 
chiefs,  and  Tidal,  who  led  a  contingent  of  Median 
Scfths  belonging  to  tbe  old  populatinn,  may  have  been 
the  local  governors  who  iiad  submiWed  to  bis  power 
wban  be  Invaded  Cbaldaa"  (Rawlinson's  BtroJ.  \,  848, 
Bfie. 

Mr.  Stoart  Poole  soppoaes  that  tba  But  inTaiion  «f 


CHEEK  2: 

Pklcatine  by  Cbadorltomsr  uid  bia  coufsdentai  uomiI 
the  (bepberd^Ungi  to  leava  (b«  Eut  and  Mitle  in 
Egypt  (tfora  .^IgngA  p.  IfrO).  The  namtlTs  Uttrange- 
Ij-  iiuppo«sil  by  Ultilg  {P:  ii,  176)  10  ba  a  lata  flclion 
refening  to  the  eKpaditUm  of  SeDUcherili  aK«inM 
Jcraulam  (c<nn)i.  Geo.  x!t.  6,  uul  S  Klnga  xviil,  13). 
See,  an  the  other  lide,  Tuch  QGait:  p.  808)-,  Benhatn 
^lirnl.  GaMckl*,  p.  217).    See  EuM. 

Chesk  (yi^,  beW,  the  jmc,  as  often  rendered; 
majtiv).  Smiling  upon  the  cheek  li  ft«qnently  apo- 
Icen  of  In  the  Scriptural  a*  a  moit  grievouii  Inault  and 
iDjui7(Ji>bxvl,10;  Um.lil,80;  Hic.v,l;  Loks  vl, 
SO) ;  and  the  incidental  noticea  of  modem  travellen  on 
this,  aa  on  other  eubjects,  Bxhlblt  the  literal  accnracj' 
ttVie  language  cl  tba  inspired  wrilera.  Lord  Valen- 
tia,  in'Dii  IVrnwif,  alluding  to  one  of  hi*  Hiranta,  lays, 
"DavagA  -wax  detplj'  incensed;  nor  could  I  do  more 
than  induce  him  to  come  to  tba  factory  on  bnaineas 
while  I  was  there,  Mr.  Pringle  having,  In  one  of  bia 
Ota  atnick  Um  on  the  cheek  with  the  lole  of  hla  alip- 
per."  Sir  W.  Ouaeley,  apaaking  of  the  Feraian  court, 
lemarka,  "When  the  vialr  declared  hinuelf  unable  to 
pTDcora  tba  money,  Fattah  All  Sbah  reproached  him 
for  bia  Crimea,  atruck  him  on  the  face,  and,  with  the 
high  wooden  heel  of  a  atipper,  alwaya  Iron-lionnd,  beat 
out  SBvend  of  bia  teeth."  Roberta  remarka  that  the 
Hindoo  can  bear  almoat  any  thing  vrltbout  emotion 
except  slippering — that  ia,  a  itntke  with  the  eola  of  a 
alipper  or  aandal,  after  *  person  haa  taken  it  off  bia 
foot  and  (|dt  upon  ICi  this  ia  dreaded  abova  all  af- 
ftonta.  and  conaidered  aa  no  leaa  Ignomtniooa  than 
aidtting  in  the  face  or  beapattering  with  dirt  among 
Enropeana.  An  angry  man  often  aayi,  "I  will  beat 
th}'  cheek,  thou  low-caate  fallow." 

The  term  "oieeUaw,"  in  Psa.  lii,  7,  la  need  flgn 
tlroly,  and  preaenta  iba  Pialmlat  inrTonnded  by  liia< 
emiea  aa  by  a  herd  of  wild  beaata,  and  denotea  their 
complete  deprivation  of  tba  power  of  aeiilng  upon  01 
deTDuring  their  prey.  In  Joel  i,  S,  the  "citeh4teA' 
(ritS^n-a,  m^imilMy),  grindert,  of  locnata  are  com 
pared  to  thoaa  of  a  beaat  of  prey. 

Cheeu  0"  1 9"m.  xvii,  18,  abrin  ■'r'Tn,  ciorii- 

ten'  he-(Aalab',  altcei  (^  At  [curdled]  mlt;  Sept.  rpi>- 
^XiliS  TDu  yoXaiTOt,  Valg.Jbrm^ia  eata;  in  3  Sam. 
xvii,  39,  n^ei:^  i4epiloti',  according  to  tba  Rabbini,  so 
calladfrombaingjeiureijfrom  the  whey;  SepL  £afiu3, 
Tulg.  jiuyiiu;  in  Job  X,  10,  n3'<3t,  gdAvA',  axigula- 
Md  milk;  Sept.  rvpdf).  Jt  ia'dlScaU  to  decide  how 
br  theae  terms  correspond  with  odr  motion  of  cieeaa, 
I<n- they  (imply  express  vaiioua  degreei  of  coagulatlDn 
(see  Geseoiui,  Thtt.  fftb.  p.  26,  626).  It  may  be  ob- 
aeifed  that  cbeeae  ia  not  at  the  pteseat  day  common 
among  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  butter  being  decidedly  pre- 
tinred  ;  bnt  there  la  a  anbetance,  closely  oorreapondiog 
lo  tboae  mantionad  In  1  Sam.  xvii ;  3  Sam.  xvii,  con- 
elating  of  coagulated  buttermilk,  which  is  dried  until 
It  becomea  quite  hard,  and  is  then  ground:  the  Arabs 
eat  it  mixed  with  hotter  (Bnrckhardt,  JVbtu  <m  lie  Brd- 
ow'm,  i,  60).  It  la  noticeable  that  the  ancienCa  aeem 
generaUy  10  hava  need  either  butter  or  chaeae,  bnt  not 
both :  thoa  the  Oreeka  had  in  reality  bnt  one  exprec- 
sioii  for  the  two,  tar ^{mpor—0ovt,TVp6t,  "cbeeae 
of  kine."  The  Bomani  used  cbeeae  exclusirely  (see 
Bsroald,  ad  Apule;.  Ifetam.  p.  36),  while  all  nomad 
tribes  preferred  butter.  The  diatinctlon  between  cheese 
proper  and  coagulated  milk  aeetua  to  be  referred  to  in 
Pliny,  xi,  96.     See  BoTTRR. 

The  most  important  passage  in  which  thia  prepara- 
tion from  milk  ia  mentioned  In  Scripture  ia  that  whwe 
Job  (_x,  10),  flguialively  deeciibing  the  ftirmallon  of 
the  f<Btna  in  the  womb,  cays ; 

It  It  Dot  Uka  milk  tluiu  wonUit  pour  nw  out. 


18  CHELOIAS 

when  new,  thon^  it  hardens  wlwn  it  iMcomea  old. 
Undoubtedly  the  Orientals  do  eat  cnida,  or  curdled 
miik,  but  that,  therefore,  their  cheese  cotuiala  of  car- 
died  milk  ia  not  the  correct  inference.  We  aleo  eat 
curda,  but  do  not  regard  curds  aa  cheese ;  neither  do 
they.  The  other  paasagei  describe  "cheese"  In  (be 
plural,  ag  parti  of  military  provision,  for  which  the 
meet  solid  and  compact  aul>stancei  are  alwaya  prefer- 
red. Peraons  en  a  march  would  not  like  lo  encnmber 
themeelvea  with  curdled  milk  (2  Sam.  xvii,  29).  See 
C1IKDI.B. 

There  il  much  reaion  to  conclude  that  the  <liee*e 
used  by  the  Jew*  differed  tn  no  respect  from  that  atlll 
common  in  the  East,  which  ii  usually  exhibited  in 
small  cakes  abont  the  size  of  a  tea-eancer,  white  in 
coior,  and  exceBsively  aalL  It  ha*  no  rind,  and  foon 
becomes  exceedingly  hard  and  dry,  being,  indeed,  not 
made  for  long  keepinit.  It  is  beat  when  new  and  com- 
parativelj  soft,  and  in  tills  state  large  quantitiei  are 
conaumed  in  lumpe  or  crumbs  not  made  up  into  cakea. 
Ail  cbeeae  in  the  East  is  of  very  indifforent  quality, 
end  the  nativea  infinitely  prefer  English  or  Dutch 
cbeeie  when  they  can  obtain  it.  In  making  cheaae 
lUe  common  rennet  is  either  liuttermilk  or  a  decoction 
of  the  great-headed  thistle  or  wild  artichoke.  The 
curda  are  afterwards  put  into  cpuU  basket*  made  of 
rushes  or  palm  leaves,  which  are  then  tied  up  cloee 
tud  the  neceaaary  pressure  applied.  (See  KJtto,  Piet. 
LMe,  note  on  1  Sam.  xvii,  19.)     See  HiLK. 

There  are  several  dodaions  In  the  Uiabna  rcUtiv« 
lo  tbe  preasnre  by  which  cbeeae  was  made  (CioltM,  viii, 
-).  1  his  proves  that,  aa  obaer^'ed  before,  no  prepare 
lion  of  milk  was  regarded  as  cheese  wbile  in  a  fluid 
itate,  or  before  being  subjected  to  pressure.  In  anoth- 
er place  {^Afmda  Sara,  ii.  G)  it  ia  decided  tliat  cheese 
made  by  foreigners  could  not  bo  eaten,  from  (he  fear 
that  It  might  potaibly  be  derived  from  the  miik  of  some 
animal  which  had  been  offered  in  aacrlSce  to  idola.  It 
U  therelbre  certain  tliBt  cbeeae  wa*  known  to  the  Jews 
(comp.  PhUo,  0pp.  ii,  ES7;  Otbo,  La.  Habb.  p.  ItO}, 
end  there  was  even  a  valley  at  Jerusalem  called  the 
7)/n>pa<m  (q.  v.),  I.  e.  c*e«e-Matfr«'  valley  dtopayC 
ruv  TvpDiTDiiIv),  donbtleea  from  ita  being  accopi«i  by 
persona  of  thia  craft  (JoHphus,  War,  v,  S,  1).  See 
IlAZAAJi.  An  iDstmment  for  cutting  Arm  cheese  is 
CTennamedinlheMlebna(£taM.xvli,3).  (See  gen- 
erally Ugoiini,  De  n  nuUca  rtt.  lliir.  [hi  lii*  Tit- 
una-,  xxlx],  ii,  IG.)     See  FoOD. 

Clieke,  Sib  John,  waa  born  at  Cambridge  June  IS, 
1 614,  and  waa  educated  at  the  Univeraity  there,  devoting 
himaelf  eapeeially  to  tbe  study  of  Greek,  then  msdi 
neglected  in  England.  When  the  Arat  pnifesKrrahip 
of  Greek  was  fbunded  in  Camliridge  by  king  Henry 
VIII,  about  1540,  Cheke  waa  appointed  profeasor.  He 
was  made  tutor  of  the  prince,  afterwards  Edward  TI, 
but  when  queen  Mary  came  to  the  throne  bis  proper- 
ty was  conflacated.  He  fled  to  tbe  Continent,  bat  waa 
arrested  at  Bniuels  by  order  of  Philip  II,  and  eent 
back  lo  London.  He  abjured  Protestantlnn,  bnt  this 
act  preyed  on  hia  mhid,  and  ha  died  in  the  faUowjiig 
year,  September  18, 15G7.  His  writing*  were  very  do- 
merooa  and  learned ;  among  them  are  Dt  OU(H  MarHii 
Bmxri  (Lond.  1661,  4to);  Dt  Prmmdalumt  jUyva 
Grwm  (Basil,  1566) ;  Trtmilaiiim  ijfMiMiem  (from  tbe 
Greek,  edited  by  Goodwin,  Cambridge).  —  Gm.  BUs- 
iMd.  iil,  801 ;  Strype,  ii/e  «/ C*«b  (Lond.  nOfi,  Std): 
Elplris,  Bivff.  Brilamiea,  ill,  484. 

Cbe'lal  (Heb.  Ktlal',  ''Al,  eampleSim!  SepL  Xa- 
\i)\),  one  of  tbe  "  sona"  of  Pabath-Hoab  wbo  divorced 
hi*  Gentile  wife  after  tin  return  ftom  Bahylon  (Ens 
x,80).    B.C.  468. 

ChaltMnah.     See  GALxAami. 

>.  ZKOrat),  tba  nam*  of 


CHELLIAN 

1.  na  Uhu  of  Audkh  and  uutitor  of  B< 
(4.  r.\  (Bu.  i,  1).    B.C.  omuiditabBj  uM  606. 

2.  A  l^Mt,  toD  of  Solom  (Sballam),  and  tRlbtt  at 
iftUm  (Bm.  i,  7)  i  svidanU]'  tbs  Hiucun  (q.  t.}  of 
tbt  OU  Tatt.  <1  CbroD.  Ti,  18). 

3.  Tha  btbcr  of  aaunna  (Soa.  2,  19,  tS). 
(ort  Wa.  Ha  mi  pailupi  Idantksl  with  th*  HI 
rf  Neb.  xli,  7,  01  of  Keh.  viU,  4.  Tradition,  bowavsr 
(HipiioL  M  Suiam.  i,  689,  ed.  Uigiu),  lepiaKnta  him 
u  identical  with  Uia  btber  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  1, 1),  and 
•Iso  vltb  Ilia  prieat  who  foand  tha  copy  of  tha  Ian  Id 
Ibi  linH  of  Joaiah  (3  Rings  xxii,  S). 

4.  One  of  the  tiro  AUxaodriaa  Jawiih  ganeraU  of 
QnfBtra  id  bar  coDtasl  with  her  aon  Ptolemy  Lath)'' 
m,  in  which  campaign  ha  died  in  Ccele-Syria  (Joae 
pkw,Ha(.  xiii,10,  4;  13,1). 

Cbel'Uwi  <or,  rather,  CSdtaim,  XiXXnioc),  an  in. 
bbitaBt  of  a  ngion  meDtianed  (Jodith  U,  2B)  ai  ad- 
jdiaing  Anbia  Deaerta  on  the  north  1  pTobabl]'  ttut 
•faBwbera  (Jodith  1,  9)  called  Chelldb  (q.  v.). 

CaiBllnh  (Heb.  K«/u*u',  ^mhi  [teit  'rwis], 
r,  ■•nfss  or  ""n^Vs,  complelad!  Sept.  XAia  v.  t.'x. 
aa  ud  SiAhki,  Tnlg.  CheSam),  one  of  tha  "  loaa" 
Bui  who  divorced  their  Gentile  virea  after  Ibe  Bab- 
yioDian  exile  (Eara  x,  36).    B.C.  4I>8. 

Chelloa  (SAXofc  t.  r.  XtXo^,  Volg.  omlta), 
■anted  among  tba  places  beyond  ^  e.  on  the  weat  of) 
Jotdan  10  which  HabucbodoiKiaor  aeot  hla  aam 
(Jadith  1,  9).  Exoapt  it*  nunUon  with  "Ki 
tbH*  i*  no  clew  to  ita  aitnatlon ;  thla,  however,  woald 
wna  to  locate  it  oear  Eadeaii-barnea.  Hence  Reland 
(Palad.  p.  717)  ctmjectorei  that  it  may  be  CAoAcui 
(nilin),  a  place  which,  nndet  the  altered  fonn  of 
Eltia  (q.  v.),  waa  well  known  to  the  Roman  and 
Gnik  geograpben.  With  tbl>  agreea  tba  anbaeqnent 
atotiaa  of  the  "land  of  the  Cballiana"  (if  XiXXaiuv, 
Talg.  MTTB  Cilloiiy,  "by  the  witderneaa,"  to  the  aoath 
if  whom  wore  the  children  of  Iibmao]  (Judith  ii, 
Horen  (^Ztifekr./.  Phiki.  ISaS,  p.  86)  suppoaea 
be  tha  wne  aa  Halhdl  (Joih.  xv,  (8),  and  that  Be- 
aaa,  mentioned  with  it,  la  tha  same  aa  Beth-anoth 
(Jeah.  XT,  SB). 

Chalod  (XtXioM  V.  r.  XiXioOX,  Volg.  omits,  old 
Lat.  nr.  GktttKd,  Syr.  "  Chald«ns'-).  "  Many  na- 
tisM  at  tha  aooa  of  Chelod"  were  among  tboae  who 
iimjti  the  nmmona  of  Nabncbodonoaor  to  bis  war 
vith  Aipbaxad  (Judith  i,  6).  The  word  Is  apparently 
compt  (aia  Fritzache,  Eng.  BamB).  in  lac.).  Simanis 
•aggeati  XaXiJv,  i.e.  Cal:(ek,  peib.  CUiipiKm.  Ewald 
(GorJ.  far.  Ill,  ii,  MS)  con)ectares  it  to  be  a  nickname 
■or  tba  tfjrrsoii^  "lona  oftbe  mole"  (t^H,  cloiEif ). 

Clu'Inb  (Heb.  JCcM',  S'bs,  a  o^,  aa  in  Jar.  t, 
r),  tba  natne  of  two  men. 

L  (Sept.  XnXi)}.)  The  brothar  of  Shaah  and  fk- 
Ihar  of  KeUr,  of  the  trfba  of  Jodab  (1  Chron.  It,  11). 
B.C.ap|Br.  ante  1612. 

2.  (Sept.  XiXavfl)     The  father  of  Eiri,  which  lat- 
s  Davld'a  chief  gardener  (1  Chron.  utU,  26). 


B.a« 


B  1014. 


COtalnlMtl  (Heb.  Ktlatntg',  '•aqVs;  Sept.  XaXi/1), 
oi  of  tha  KHU  of  lleirsn  (1  Chron.  'ii,  9) ;  elsewhere 
(••r.  18,  41)  called  Caleb  (q.  t.).  It  ia  worth  noting 
that,  while  in  thb  paasaKa  Jerabmeet  la  aUted  to  be  a 
tnlbtr  of  Chelabai,  It  appean  trcaa  1  Sam.  iiWI,  ID, 

that  tht  JarabmMUle*  were  placed        

Jadah."  where  alao  were  the 
afCaM>(J«lg.l,lS;  J  Sam. 

Cham'krllll  (Heb.  Ktmarim,',  C^'^'OS,  idol-pr^M), 
Tbia  weidoccnn  only  once  In  oar  rpralon  of  the  Bible 
("cbenariBa,"Zaph.l,4;  Sept.  confonndi  witb  i(p<i£ 
MlowlBg');  bnt  it  is  met  with  In  the  Hebrew  hi  2 
tUngi  xiiii,  6  (Sept.  Xd/«.o.»  ;  Hos.  x,  6  (Sept. 
•vluX  whan  It  1*  rendered  "  idolatrons  prleita, "  and 
'priMta;"  and  lo  boUl  of  thase  paasagei  the  margin 


CHEMNITZ 


AccOTding  to  Oeaenloi  (T^hu.  EA, 

p.  693),  the  corresponding  Syriac  word  aignifies  "a 
prlaat  in  general ;  but  this,  aa  well  as  other  Syriac 
words  relating  to  divine  worship,  is  reattictad  by  the 
Hebrews  to  idol-worship.  As  to  the  etymology,  the 
■ingalar  form  I^X,  ko'tarr,  is  properly  UocJlnea,  aoit 
lUM,  and  eooeretely,  iiib<  who  gou  ntoaf  i»  hiaek,  fs 
mrmnuKg,  bence  an  atctlie,  a  prittl."  Forst  (JId>. 
Lex.  B.v.)  suggests  adarivation  from  *^pS  =  ^^Ct,  in 
Ibe  sense  of  wn-iitp,  and  remarks  that  the  title  cArtna- 
rim,  aithon)(b  proper  to  the  peculiar  priests  of  Baal, 
waa  also  applied  to  other  idolstroas  priens,  Zeph.  i, 
4,  the  rAeman'in  are  coupled  with  the  priests,  and  the 
pitssage  may  signift',  ' '  I  will  destroy  the  chemarim, 
together  with  the  priests  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  who  have 
Joined  in  the  wcrship  of  idola.^'  The  priests  who  offi- 
ciated in  the  service  of  the  golden  cslves  at  Dan  and 
Betbel  were  called  cAnrumm  («ee  the  other  pasiagea 
referred  to).  Even  to  this  day  the  Jews  reUin  the 
word,  and  apply  it  in  derision  to  Christian  minlstem, 
on  aceoant  of  theli  black  roties.     See  Baal. 

Chemnitk  (properly  ton  Kehxitz),  Havtih,  an 
eminent  German  tbeologinn,  was  bom  at  TYeuenbril- 
zen,  in  Brindenbarg,  Nov.  0, 1522.  His  parents  de- 
signed Mm  for  an  artisin,  but  he  took  kindly  to  no 
trade,  and  a  distant  reUtive  (Kiemann)  called  him  to 
Magdeburg  (1539),  where  he  spent  three  years  prepar- 
ing for  the  IJniveraity.  He  was  compelled  by  want 
of  money  to  become  a  teacher  at  Kallie  in  1B42,  and 
at  Wrietzen  in  1&44 ;  studied  mathematics  and  aatrol- 
ogj-  at  Wittenberg  in  1&4G-4T;  was  made  rector  at 
Kfinlgsbertr,  Prnssia,  in  IMH,  and  two  years  afterwards 
became  librarian  of  duke  Allirecht.  Ue  now  tnnked 
his  attention  to  theolog}-,  and  became  a  thotmigh  stu- 
dent of  the  Bible  and  titx  fatheis.  In  tha  coatroversy 
on  the  doclrhie  of  jastiflcation  he  XoA  part  against 
Osiander;  but  the  controveiiy  so  annoyed  him  that, 
in  1652.  much  agalnskthe  wilt  of  the  dnke,  he  left 
KOnigaberg.  He  immediately  after  began  the  scien- 
tific study  of  dogmatics  at  Wittan1)erg,  attaching  him- 
self closely  to  Uelancthon.  and  lecturing  in  the  Uni- 
versity. He  became  preacher  at  Brnnswick  in  1554, 
and  also  delivered  lectures  there  on  theology,  which 
gained  great  celebritv,  and  wen  paibliahed  after  his 
death  by  Polykarp  Lyser  (Frankfurt,  16S1, 8  vols.  8vo, 
and  onen).  His  work,  entitled  Tttologia  Jmilanm 
pnecipiia  o^a  (Gnibw.  II>62),  involved  him  In  a  con- 
trorenv  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  led  to  hla 
writing'  the  Examtn  amcHS  Tridenlini  (Greifitw.  156&- 
157S,  4  vob. ;  Frankf.  1707,  Ibl.),  which  is  still  a  cliissi- 
cal  work  on  the  subject.  After  the  death  of  HelanclhoD 
ha  showed  himself  a  lealoua  Lotbtran,  and  In  ISGI  he. 
came  associated  with  MOrlln  in  the  preparation  of  the 
Corpai  doctrina  Pruttaic^im,  designed  as  the  symbolical 
text-l>ook  of  Prussia.  In  1S67,  having  become  snper- 
bitendent  of  Brunswick,  be  prepared  the  Confesuon  of 
tha  Ctanrch  of  Lower  Saxony.  From  1574  he  exerted 
himself,  with  Jacob  Andrei,  to  Induce  the  churches  of 
Saxony  and  Snabia  to  adopt  the  Formula  Conecadia 
(q.  v.),  in  the  preparatioo  of  which  be  had  taken  a  lead- 
ing part.  He  devoted  blmieif  elmoat  exclusively  to 
tbia  work,  took  with  AndreA  a  leading  part  in  all  the 
meetings  that  were  held  on  the  subject,  and  obtained 
the  admiration  of  hla  contemporaries  aa  well  by  the 
prudence  and  flrmness  of  his  conduct  as  hy  the  deptli 
and  extant  of  his  knowledge.  He  resigned  bis  charge 
in  1686,  and  died  April  8,  1586.  Besides  the  above- 
named  works,  be  wrote  also  RipttUia  trma  doctrimt  da 
pnrmlia  corparu  tl  (iuvtibru  Oomim  in  fima 
:  (Leipiig,  1561);— Z>K/<ii(ni&iBuKnJTa>(pta(l)cie 
dtr  ehriitiifin  LArt  (Wolfenh.  1689)  :-B«  daaixa  in 
Cltriito  natvit  (Jena,  1570)  ;— //anBonia  ftangtUoram, 

impleted  by  Leyser  and  Gerturd  (Hamburg,  1701, 
vols.  fol.).     Chemnita  baa  been   pronounceil  tho 

first  great  theologian  produced  hy  Ibe  Reftormation." 
Schenkal  Qa  Benog,  cited  below)  saya  that  It  waa 


CHEMOSH  %s 

more  from  Um  forca  of  dieanuUncM  Hun  from  hU 
own  tbeoioglcU  UndenciM  that  he  appured  to  ba  a 
Isadar  of  the  Lutheran  paity."  On  bu  Cbriitology, 
■M  Dorner,  Pertcm  of  Ckrvi,  dlv.  li,  vol.  11,  198  u). 
Sm  alto  L«nU,  Dr.  Martin  Kaamlt  (Gotba,  1866) ; 
Hachhld,  M.  CitpmiU  (L«ipi.  ISST). 

Cll«'inO«ll  (Heb.  SoHoal',  'dicS,  ptrfa.  Mtiter, 
or  [u  Pant  prafm]  Jbt-godi  SapL  Xa^wf),  the  na- 
tional deitj  of  tfas  U(«bha(Kani.  iil,  29;  Jer.ilviii, 
T,  13, 46).  In  Judg.  il,  S4  (laa  &.nlt,Cliamot  a  JcpjU 
<ia  deritta,  ErUng.  176GJ,  hs  also  appaan  a>  tha  ^cod 
of  the  AmmonilaB,  bat  not  of  the  Amoritei  (ai  De 
Wett«  (tatei,  Ardiael.  p.  3S8).  Solomon  iDtroduced, 
and  Joaiab  aboluhad,  the  wonhip  of  Chemoeh  at  Jeru- 
aalem  (1  Kingi  ii,7;  i  Kings  xuii,  IS).  Sea  Idol- 
ATBI.  With  legird  to  the  meanliig  of  the  name,  and 
the  poaltion  which  Chemoah  lield  in  mythology,  wa 
have  nolliing  to  record  bejond  donMfol  and  discord- 
ant conjectorea.  Jerome  (Coani.  in  laa.  xt,  2)  idanti- 
flaa  him  with  Baai-Ptar  (comp.  Seldan,  A  diii  Sgr.  p. 
166,  Ml);  othen  with  Bad-Z^iA,  on  elymo'  '  ' 
grounds  (Hjde,  D*  rtL  vtt.  Ptri.  c  5) ;  olhen, 
seuius  (T^Uiokr.  p.  693),  with  Mart,  or  the  god  oi  war, 
on  similar  grounds;  and  others  (Beyer  ai  SMtn,  p. 
S23)  with  Saturn,  ai  the  lUr  of  ill  omen,  Chemoah 
having  been  wonhipped,  according  to  a  Jewish  Iradi- 
tion  (comp.  Pococka,  SpKXtn.  p.  3U7),  under  the  Ibrm 
of  a  black  stone  ;  and  ftlalmonides  statoe  that  his  wor- 
shippers went  bareheaded,  and  abstained  from  the  use 
of  garments  sawn  together  by  the  needle  (»ee  Cnlmet, 
iHwir«.ii,277sq.).  This  lost  iduitificatioo  i>  favonid 
by  the  connection  of  the  name  Chemosb  wllh  thil  of 
Uoloch  or  Hilcom  (1  Kings  xi,  7 ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  13), 
and  by  the  sacrifice  apparently  of  children  to  him  (nee 
!  Kings  iii,  ST).     Hackmann,  however  (piu.  de  Chi- 


mmeho,  Brem.  1730;  also  in  Oelricb's  Optu 
pAUol.  litoL  I,  i,  IB  sq.),  makes  the  name  b 
0  rvjfo!  deitg.     Jerome  (W.  j 


a  Dibon 
as  the  chief  seat  of  bii  wonhip.  Enscbins  attain  (Ono- 
•mut.i.  V.  'Apav,  i.  a.  'ApiqX)  names  Ariel  (?  fire-god) 
as  the  chtefdei7ofAr-Hoab(lbenca  called  Areopolis), 
End  in  this  character  be  is  represented  on  colci  (Ecli- 
hel,  Dottr.  A'an.  I,  iil,  MM).    See  Satdbh. 

Cheoa'liiuh  (Heb.  Kemiinak',  D^^S,  fcm.  form 
of  Cmaon),  the  niuna  of  two  men.  Font  {Htbr. 
IFSrterb.  r.  v.)  anggeeta  that  the  praTalenoo  of  such 
names  as  this,  and  Taniti  and  Cluh  among  the  Benja- 
mitee,  indicate*  epeciai  connectioD  by  Intermaniage 
with  the  eeriier  race;  the  stiaita  to  which  this  tribe 
was  reduced  by  its  civil  war  (Judg.  sxi)  may  tiare 
driven  ila  members  to  apecial  alUances  with  their  Fhte- 
nieian  nelghbon.      * 

1.  (Sept.  XavavAi'  T.  r.  Xavovd).  The  fourth 
named  of  ttie  aeven  "  sous"  of  Bilhan,  aon  of  Jediael, 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  leading  warrior  apparently 
in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron.  vii,  10).    B.C.  cir.  1020. 

2.  (Sept.  Xmaav  v.  r.  Xai/avi  and  XaraavA). 
The  iaiher  of  the  Mse  prophet  Zedekiah,  which  latter 
encouraged  Ahab  against  Micaiah  (1  King!  xxii,  11, 
34 ;  £  Chron.  xviil,  10,  33).     B.C.  ante  8S6. 

CbMt'anl  (Heb.  Kaumi',  ^33S,  probally  abridged 
flrom  mils,  ChaumiaJk;  Sept.  Xamvt  v.  T.  Xwin'). 
one  of  the  Levitea  who  offered  the  pnblic  pnyer  on 
the  occasion  of  the  fast  at  the  return  fhim  the  captiv- 
ity (Neh.  ix,  4).  B.C.  459.  By  the  Sept.  the  word 
"Banl"  (^33)  preceding  is  read  tnoi  (like  otben  ad- 
joining), a*  if  meaning  "Mns  of  Chenani."  This  read- 
ing is  very  probable,  for  there  ia  not  only  aoother  Bani 
in  the  verse,  but  one  of  Kennicott'e  USS.  (180),  and 
six  of  De  Rossi's,  read  ";»  ^33,  >'  sons  of  Chenani," 
instead  of  "i  ^33, "  Bani,  Chenani"  (for  there  la  no  con- 
junction in  the  original).  The  Peshlto  version  anim- 
ilaUt  the  names  of  verse  4  to  those  of  verse  6,  omitt 
Oimmi.  and  in  place  of  it  reada  FtAahia.     In  the 


CBEREM 

omiasioD  of  Cbemmi,  it  i«  sopportsd  b7  the  Cod.  Frid^ 
Aagiat  of  the  Sept.,  which  omits  uiii!  Xuvtvi  Qii  jaiij 
BKOu).  The  Vulgate  and  A.  V.,  adhering  to  the  Ma- 
aoretlc  pointing,  insert  "  and." 

Chanani'ah  (Heb.  Katamfok',  >^»3,  aUOIMei 
by  Jeiotak ;  I  Chron.  xv,  37 ;  Sept.  Xtvivinf  v.  r. 
Xmntviag;  elsewhere  in  the  longer  form  irimmjii'ta, 
Vr^}}^ :  1  Cbron.  xv,  il,  Xtmyia ;  v.  r.  in  I  Chron. 
iiVi,  t9,  XfeiHvini'),  a  Levlte  of  tha  bmily  of  Uharilea 
(1  Chron.  iivi,}9),  and  chief  of  tbe  temple  singer*  (I 
Chron.  XV,  13),  wbo  condnrted  the  Rrand  muaical  ser- 
vices when  the  ark  waa  removed  from  the  house  of 
Obed^dom  to  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xv,  27).  B.C.  IMS. ' 
See  also  CoNoniAB. 

Cha'pbar-halim'moaai  (Heb.  Krpiar'  Ita-Am- 
monojr',  ^3111711  "^QS,  villagt  qf  lie  AmTiumilei;  i>r, 
aa  the  margin  corrects,  Xtpiar'  ia-AmmoinJi',  ".£3 
nsiBSn,  viUage  of  Qke}  AttmimJt,  L  a.  Jmmm.il'u'i 
Sept.  K  a^po/ifiova,  but  v.  r.  Kopo^  ui  Kifipii  aoi 
Uovi,  blending  wilh  Opbni  following  i  Tulg.  isOa  £u- 
na),a  pUce  in  the  M.E.  aectlon  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(q.  v.),  mentioned  between  Ophrah  and  Ophni  (Joeh. 
xviii,24.  SchwBrx(riiio(.p.l2e)  think*  itii  the  ><.i4B- 
etnuii"  (so  he  reads  for  "Emmaus")  repaired  bv  Bai- 
chidea  (1  Msec.  iK,50).     In  the  Omomculiam  (s.  v.)  it  b 

Amomn),  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin."  In  tha  name  of 
this  hamlet  [see  Cafhab-}  is  doubtlaas  preserved  the 
memory  of  an  Incnrslon  of  the  Ammonites  up  tbe  long 
ravines  which  lead  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  tha  higb- 
landa  of  Benjamin.  See  Ammositi.  Snch  a  poeitiui 
is  the  modem  .^Hirriin*/,  a  little  eut  of  Jultaa  (Rob- 
inson, ArssorcVs,  iii,  79  note). 

Chaphl'rata  (Heb.  ia  Jcah.  always  with  tbe  art. 
iaJt-Kepldrai,',n';p^r\,aeriltoffi,B«fL1Lipipa;  but 
in  Kara  Ka^pd,'Nah.  Ko^pd  v.  r.  Ksfipd),  one  vt 
tha  four  cities  of  the  Glbeonitlsh  Hivitea  with  whom 
Joshua  made  the  league  (Josh,  ix,  17 ;  comp.  ver.  7); 
assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (xriil,  S6X  and  oc- 
cupied bv  tha  remnant  of  tha  asme  tribe  after  the  Cap> 
tlvity  (Eaia  il,  15;  Nab.  vU,  S9).  Schwan  (Pa/en. 
p.  127)  thinks  it  la  one  of  "the  village*  (JS^Mrim, 
a-<nBS)  in  the  plain  of  Ono"  (Neh.  vi,  S).  The  Sa- 
maritan Terrion,  at  Gen.  xiii,  B,  randeri  Hai  (Ai)  by 
KfjArahfTi'MlS);  but  this  cannot  be  ChephErvh,  since 
both  Ai  and  it  are  mentioned  together  in  Joah.  ix 
(comp.  8  with  IT),  and  in  the  lists  of  Exra  and  Kehe. 
miah  already  quoted.  Dr.  Robinson  seems  to  have 
discovered  it  under  the  scircelv  alleied  name  of  Krfir 
(BibtioOt.  Sacra,  1863,  p.  Vii),  in  the  mountain  country 
on  tha  weatarn  couHnes  of  Benjamin,  about  two  mile* 
tMt  ol  Aj^hn  {Later  Bib.  Sa.  p.  146).  Tbe  "exten- 
sive site  called  Krfiml,"  auggasted  by  Thomson  (ZoaJ 
and  Boei,  ii,  304),  is  too  far  N.W.  The  same  objec- 
tion appli«e  to  another  mined  village,  eUKrJir,  laid 
down  in  this  dinction  on  Tan  da  Telde's  Jfiq). 

Che'rui  (Heb.  Ktrtm',  ^"IS,  according  to  Geaeoia* 
a  Aorp.bntaccording  toFdrst  iMtocialMm,'  Sept.  Xnp- 
pav\  tha  last  named  of  the  four  "sons"  of  Diahon 
(but  the  Heb.  in  Gen.  has  Dishan),  the  Horite  "  dnke" 
descended  from  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi,  16;  1  Chron.  i,  41). 
B.C.  apparently  cir.  1920. 

Ch«'reaa.    See  Chxreab. 

Chorem.  Tbe  vow  thus  called  in  Hebrew  (B^n), 
"the  accursed  thing,"  is  nowhere  enjoined  by  Uosea, 
DOT  does  he  specify  by  what  solemnitfe*  or  exproifaas 
it  was  distingnisfaed  fVom  other  vowa,  bat  takes  it  fbr 
granted  all  this  was  then  well  known.  Tbe  apecka 
of  rJUrsiw  with  which  we  are  most  bmiliar  wa*  tlu 
previous  devoting  to  Gort  of  hostile  cities  against  which 
they  intended  to  prwcMd  with  extreme  severity,  and 
tbstwilUaview  loinRaming&emlndaof  the  people  lo 
war.  In  such  coses,  not  only  were  all  the  inhabitants 
put  to  death,  but  alao,  according  as  the  terms  of  the 


CHERETHIM  ! 

taw  dadated,  no  boatj  wta  mada  by  anj  ImalUa . 
tbu  bouts  wan  iUd  ;  wlut  would  not  burn,  u  gold, 
dtni,  and  otbcr  matili,  «u  mdded  to  tha  traaiDij  of 
Iba  aanrtnaiy;  tai  evtrptuag  elw,  irith  tb«  iriiola 
dtj,  bnmt,  irtUi  an  fanpncalion  upon  any  attempt  that 
ibMlleTei'lwmadeionballdit  Of  ttata,  Iba  hiMory 
gf  Jsrieho  fOrnlahiia  u  aiampls  (Joab.  Ti,  17, 19,  !I- 
H.  In  tha  tlma  of  Hoaaa  tbtra  waa  a  aimQar  tow 
agiinat  tbs  king  of  And  (Namb.  xxl,  1-^.  Saa  Ac- 
cvaaKD;  AsATauu. 

Cber'etUn  (Hab.  XtnOim',  B'<r^S,  tba  regn- 
lu  plural  of  CierttAiU),  oceun  in  thia  Ibnn  odIj  In 
Kick.  XXV,  16;  Zaph.  ii,  ft,  in  tha  tonaei  of 
panago  it  i>  rendered  "Cbarethima,"  and  in  ll 
tn'"CbeTethItaa."  Tba  only  otbar  paauga  where  the 
CboatUMa  are  mantknted  alngly  (altbouKh  in  a  alltfbt- 
Ij  diffto«Dt  form  Id  tba  orieinal)  U  1  Sue 
Ib  all  theaa  paaaagca  tba;  are  expreaalj  named  aa  in- 
haUtanti  of  the  •oBlhem  PhilUim,  that  Is,  PiSiamet. 
TW  Sept.  and  SjrUc  midai  the  word  in  tlma  place* 
bfCnlaiU!  from  which,  and  the  paaaag«<  in  Amos  is, 
T;  JcT.  zlTii,4;  Dant.  Ii,  S8,  the  conjectate  would  be 
HKrnK  that  the  PblliitlDM  sprang  from  Crete,  ware  it 
certain  that  Capbtor  niMna  Crate.  See  PHiLiarm ; 
Caputob.  For  the  other  pasHgea  In  which  the  word 
eeeiirs,  sac  Cuebethitb. 

Cher'etUt*  (Heb.  f  sretii',  ip^S)  oc 
obIt  in  1  Sam.  xxx,  U  (A.  V.  "Charethites"),  where 
dM  people  M>  deaignaled  an  meant.  See  Chbbbthim. 
Tha  word  is  elaawhcre,  and  alwsri  Id  the  Same  form, 
Inukd  only  io  tbe  formula,  "  the  CHEME'ruiTBa  ae>d 
IBB  Pblethitw"  Ortani  ■'r^Sf?.  witboot  the 
tnalDofthe  plural;  Sept'u  iCifuai  lai  u  *iX(3i,bnt 
T.t.  in  1  Cbron.  o  Xifn^Si  lai  d  «aMt3St;  Talg. 
OntU  tt  PlitlnhiX  a  collective  term  for  the  life- 
Eaarda(Joeaphnsiiiii|iariifvX<iir(c,.4ii/.Tii,  5,  l)afklng 
Darld  (S  Sam.  Till,  la ;  xv,iej  xz,T,SS;  1  Klngn  i, 
n,W;  1  Chion.  ZTill,  IT).  Prer^ing  opinion  (rol- 
wari  Bat.  tit.  ZtrutK  p.  18,  ad.  Babe  ;  see  Carpiov  in 
UgnliBl  Tketmr.  xzvii,  432}  translates  tfaeb  namei 
"beaduDtmandfbot-nuiDen."  The  former  word  (frmn 
rni,  karatk',  to  cbQ  ia  need  for  wmxIeaUer*  (2  Cbron. 
%\i)\  and  it  might  seem  probable  that  the  Chertthllea, 
Uka  the  Uctors  of  the  Soman  dictator,  carried  axeii, 
bsth  as  a  badge  of  oSce  and  for  prompt  use.  In  the 
talv  fears  of  David,  their  captain,  Benaiah,  rose  to  a 
Bsre  eommandinic  Importance  than  tbe  generals  of 
tbc  regaUr  tnwpa,  Jait  aa  in  imperial  Roma  the  prn- ! 
Ctctof  tha  pratoiian  gnarda  became  the  second  person  ' 
in  tha  empire.  It  is  evident  that,  to  perpetrate  any 
■ammarr  deed,  Benaiah  and  tbe  gnarda  were  chiefly ' 
Mied  on.  That  Ibey  were  strictly  a  body-guard  is 
^•thietly  sUted  in  3  Sam.  UJU,  !S.  Tbe  grammat- 
kal  tana  of  tin  Uelirew  words  is  nevertheleu  not 
qelle  dear;  and  aa  the  Cheretfaltea  are  named  as  a 
aa&o  of  the  eoath  (1  Sam.  ixx,  14),  some  are  dinposed 
to  beltsre  Crethi  and  Plotbi  to  be  foreign  GentUe 
Bamss  used  collectirsly.  No  small  conHrmatlon  of 
tkfa  may  be  drawn  from  a  Sam.  xr,  18;  "AlllbeCher- 
•IhitM,  and  all  tbe  PeMbites,  aod  all  tbe  Gittltea,  six 
handred  men.*'  etc  If  the  Arat  two  wivds  wev  ffrain-  | 
matical  piunla,  Uke  the  third  (Oitthei),  it  la  dilScak  | 
la  sea  why  final  D  ahould  be  added  to  the  third,  and  ' 
lot  also  to  the  other  two  (yet  see  Geaenlns,  LArgA. ' 
P.62G).  Ai  the  word  cJi  is  repeated  three  times,  and 
no  men  is  tbe  number  intended  tbe  thini  time,  the  | 
Cherethitea  and  Pelethitai  moat  have  been  reckoned  i 
by  tba  hqndred ;  and  since  the  Gittites  were  dearly 
twdgners,  all  the  k  priori  improbability  which  some 
tara  seen  in  David's  defending  himself  by  a /or. 
«VB  (oard  Iklla  to  tbe  gronnd.  His  Gittite  satellitea  ' 
era  mu  more  proof  of  the  lotenaity  of  tba  tyrannical  I 
priodpla  already  come  in,  ainoe  equally  among  tbe 
(}raakaaDdRomana(IIerod.ll,lS!;  r,66,ni;  Livy, 
izzvU,  40),  and  in  modern  Europe,  for  a  prince  to  | 


II  CHERITB 

traatthe  cafe  ofhla  peraon  to  fodgn  gnarda  ha*  avw 
bean  looked  on  a*  the  moat  evident  mwrk  that  be  is 
kaepiag  down  hii  own  aabjeets  by  force.  It  would 
seon  that  tba  office  of  tba  Cberethl  wasoftheaaoM 
natara  aa  that  of  Cof^gii  among  tha  Torki  and  otltet 
Orienlala  (see  Lodecka,  Bachr.  Aa  tOik.  Stidu.  p. 
S98),  who  are  bearers  of  tbs  sultan'a  orders  for  puoi^ 
log  any  one,  by  decai^tatlrai  or  otberwise  (Lo  Biyn, 
Vogagt,  1, 184  aq. ;  ii,  2&H) ;  an  office  which  is  very 
honorable  in  the  Bast,  though  considered  as  degrading 
among  ua.  II  appears  that  Herod  made  use  of  an  offi- 
cer of  this  deacripdon  in  beheadbiK  John  the  Baptist. 
Of  a  like  nature,  probably,  were  the  "  footmen"  <rf 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxii,  17).  At  a  later  date  they  were 
called  "tbe  captains  and  tha  guard"  (CX^)!  C*??.  i 
Kings  xi,  4,  IS;  comp.  1  KInga  ilv,  ST).  It  ia  plabi 
that  these  royal  guardii  were  employed  aa  executioners 
(2  King*  xi,  4),  nnd  aa  couriers  (1  Kinga  xiv,  77). 
SimiUrty  Potipli-r  was  captain  of  the  guard  of  Pha- 
raob,  and  also  chief  of  tbs  executioneTB  (Gen.  xxzvil, 
36),  aa  waa  Ariocb;  Kebucbadneciar's  offica  (Dan.  U, 
14).  See  Eisner,  in  tba  KUiod.  firm.  Kot.  I,  lil.  464 
aq.  i  Scbwan,  in  tbe  A^oe.  MitedL  Upt.  II,  I,  95  aq. ; 
(y^,I>eDavidiitt8<JomimUKittaitio,Cnai«PttM 
(Jen.1672);  also  in  Cceoii  0unn.iu(.i>«>U.(Rottefd. 
1692);  alio  In  Ugolino,  xxvilj  l\.m,  Di  Crala  H  Pk- 
(jU,  in  Ml  DiMtrt,  pUlol  Oael.  p.  lOS  eq. ;  Eialiag,  in 
Winckler's  .4iam>idser.  pUlal.  11,  888  sq. ;  Lund,  Dif. 
dt  CnM  tt  PUtki  (Upaai.  1704) ;  Carpio*,  DitpitlatL 
acad.  p.  187  aq.    See  Pbletbite  ;  Exscdtiohkb. 

Che'iitll  (Heb.  JTsrilt',  pi-lS,  a  culfiiig;  Sept 
Xo/pdS),  a  "  brook"  (>ni,  nadt'i^  Sept.  xn/^'^uc)  I 
a.  torrent-lied  (the  Amiijc  wady)  or  winter^tream  of 
Palaitina,  in  (9,  not  "by")  which,  L  e.  upon  whose 
dofdng  bank  the  prophet  Elijah  (q.  v.)  hid  himself 
daring  the  early  part  of  tbe  tliree  y«aTa'  drotight  (1 
Kings  xvil,  S,  B).  The  words  of  the  pasiago  give  no 
precise  clew  to  iti  pueltion :  "  Get  thee  hence  [L  e.  ap- 
parently from  the  apot  where  the  brtarviaw  with  Ahab 
had  taken  place],  and  torn  thy  face  eastward  (Tl^-IE), 
and  hide  thee  in  the  torrent  of  Cherith,  which  la  being 
(^3V  ^S)  the  Jordan."  This  lait  expresaion,  which 
occurs  alao  in  verse  G,  aaems  simfdy  to  indicate  that 
In  question  ran  into  that  river,  and  not  into 
HedllerraneaD  or  Dead  Sea;  for  altbongh 
the  words  sometimes  require  the  translation  "  beyond" 
'  (aa  in  Gen.  xxv,  IS ;  Joih.  xv,  IH>.  tbey  may  also  be 
rendered  "  lowardi,"  or  "  before  the  Jordan"  (comp. 
Oen.  xvi,  22),  that  la,  in  oombig  trom  Samaria.  Jo- 
aaphns(Aii(.  vili,  IS,  !)  doea  not  name  tha  torrent  (^ci- 
lia^Vf  ri(),  and  he  says  that  Elijah  went,  not  "east- 
ward," but  towards  the  south  (ti'c  rd  wput  viirav /i>p>)). 
Euaebius  and  Jerome,  on  the  other  hand  (OaemtuHttMi, 
s.  ».  Xo(ipa,  Chorath),  place  tha  Cherith  beyond  Jor- 
dan, where  also  Schware  {Paltt.  p.  51)  would  idenli^ 
it  in  a  Wadg  Alim,  opposite  Bethsbean.  This  ii  the 
K'oJy  J-rotulJabesb);  the  other  name.  Benj.  Tude. 
la  aaya,  ii  a  corruption  of  Uad  Eliai  (&if<>X  1X-,  /ti'n. 
ii,  40K.  ed.  Aiber).  The  argument  from  prolwliility  la 
but  little  in  favor  of  tha  Cherith  being  on  the  rist  of 
Jordan,  of  which  region  Elijah  waa  Indeed  a  native,  but 
wbere  he  would  scarcely  bo  more  out  of  Ahab's  reach 
than  in  the  recesaea  of  the  mountains  of  the  rival  king- 
dom of  Judah.  The  only  explicit  tradition  on  the  sub- 
ject is  one  mentioned  by  Harinos  Sanutus  In  13!] 
(G«(a  per  FroM.  p.  247),  that  it  ran  by  PhasaElis  (q. 
v.),  Herod's  city  in  the  Jordan  valley  (comp.  Rrland, 
Palat.  p.  9S3).  Thia  would  make  it  the  Ain  FviaU, 
wbkh  falls  from  the  mountains  of  Eptraim  into  the 
Ghor,  south  of  Kura  SArUbeb,  and  about  fifteen  milsa 
above  Jericho.  This  view  ii  supported  by  Bachiene 
(^Brilige  Gvyr.  I,  i,  1S6-I80,  and  Van  de  Veldr,  Ifar. 
rutin,  Ii,  SIO,  311).  Tbe  spring  of  tha  taook  is  con- 
cealed under  high  clIA  and  under  tha  akada  of  a  dense 
jangle  (Van  deTeid^JVe■•0ir,  p.  839).    Dr.  Bohbuon, 


CHERUB 

da  llw  oOmt  bind,  would  flod  tk*  rtrtna  In  Ibe  Wa^ 
rf-ffc/l,  baUndJeilcba  (AHraroK  <>.  188).  Tbtolut 
Dune  la,  bowaver,  not  gnitlj  like  CberHb,  ytt  ttw  Hat- 
tUcaUoo  1*  pcriup*  tba  bett  hliheito  inggMtod.  Thli 
ndv  i*  tbrnral  I7  th«  union  of  nun;  rtmnu  In  tha 
mountains  w«at  of  Jnicbo,  iaaning  from  >  deap  gorge, 
la  frhicli  H  panat  \iy  that  Tillage,  and  tben  amaa  the 
pUio  to  tbe  Jordan.  It  b  drj  in  nmmBT.  No  spot 
la  Palenine  f>  better  fltt«d  to  iflbrd  ■  aecare  airtam 
to  the  penieculed  than  Wady  el-K>1L  On  each  side 
of  it  extend  tbs  Liarr,  deHoUte  blili  of  the  wIldenieM 
of  Jadna,  in  vboee  fastneaaes  David  wu  aLio  to 
defiance  to  Sinl.  The  Kelt  is  one  of  the  wildeat 
vine!  Id  thb  wild  region.  In  wine  places  it  it  not  I 
Ihtn  Are  hundred  feet  deep,  and  Joat  vlda  enongl 
the  bottom  to  give  a  patiage  to  a  atieamlet  (1  Kingi 
xvii,  S),  like  •  ^ver  thread,  and  to  affotd  ipace  for  ita 
nanov  ftiuge  of  oleanden.  The  banlti  are  almoat 
abeer  piecipicea  of  naked  limeMone,  and  are  here  and 
there  pier«d  with  the  dirk  opening!  of  cavei  and 
grottoer,  in  aome  one  of  which  prolklly  Elijah  la;  bid. 
The  vad;  opena  into  the  great  valle)',  and  from  iU 
da|Ahe  iuaei  a  narnnr  line  of  vardtire  Into  tbe  white 
plain ;  It  gradoally  ipreada  aa  It  advances  until  it  min- 
glaa,  at  the  diatanee  of  a  mile  or  more,  with  the  thick- 
Ma  that  encoropua  Rifaa,  the  modem  TepresentaliTe  of 
Jericho.  To  any  one  pAaaing  down  tcota  Jcruaalem  or 
Samaria  towarda  Jericho,  the  approprialaneiB  of  the 
irerdi  En  1  Kings  sril,  3,  would  be  at  once  apparent 
(iea  Triitram,  i.(nid  of  Itratt,  p.  202).  The  Kelt  be. 
ing  near  Mount  Qoarantania,  the  traditional  acene  of 
the  Temptation,  wa*  a  favorite  reiort  for  ancboritea 
whan  the  example  of  St.  S*ba  made  that  order  tuhton- 
able  in  Palestine.    See  Eluah. 

Wady  e!-Kell  la  held  bj  Porter  QnanUotJi  for 
Sfria,  p.  191)  to  be  the  "  Valia;  of  Achor,"  in  which 
tbe  Uraelitet  atoned  Achan  (Joah,  ill,  16),  and  which 
aarvedlo  mark  the  northern  border  of  Judah  (xv,  7). 
Along  the  aoatbani  hank  of  the  wady,  by  a  long  and 
tirilaoma  pau,  aacenda  the  andent  and  onl;  road  tlnm 
Jericho  to  Jemaalem.  Thbhedeema  "  the  ^wijr  up  to 
Adammtm,  which  tioa  Uu  vmlh  tidt  nf  the  rirtr  (1 
T).  But  thii  identtfloation  would  confound  the  na 
Cherlth  with  the  very  diaalmliar  one  Achor,  whkb  lat- 
ter we  know  was  retained  to  a  late  period  in  Jewieb 
history.     See  Acuob. 

Cbe'mb  [the  proper  name  la  pronounced  JTe'rvi] 
(Hab.  Kenb'i  VTV^,  etymolygy  nncertain ;  SepL  Xi- 
pvbfi  V,  r.  \apo6f)  and  Xnpij^ ;  Volg-  Oundi),  a  place 
■pparentlj'  in  the  Babjlonian  dominions,  associated 
with  Tel-huH,  Addan,  etc.,  (ttaa  which  some  Jewish 
exile*  returned  with  Zemhbabel,  wbo  had  loM  their 
pedigree  (Eara  ii,  69 ;  Veh.  Til,  61).  The  true  con- 
stnction  of  these  names,  however,  would  rather  make 
thla  to  be  that  of  a  auM  thus  nnregistared.  B.G.  SS6. 
See  Aduoh. 

Cbet'iib  (Heb.  tent',  3^2,  In  the  sing,  only  In 
Exod.  XXV,  19;  S  Sam.  zxli,]!)  1  Kings  vi,  St,  25, 
K;  2Cfaron.  IU,  U.lSj  Psa.  xvili,  10 ;  Eiak.  x.  2,  T, 
9,  14;  xxTui,  U,  16;  Sept.  X'poijt),  plur.  CHER'U- 
BIH  (Hab.  ttr^him',  D^S^I^X,  sometimes  D'<3'^3 ; 
Sept.  xipov/ii/i  T.  r.  vtpou^fi/i,  and  so  in  Ecct.  zllx,  8, 
and  Heb.  ix,  b;  En^Ven.  invariably  " cherubims"), 
the  appellation  of  certain  symbolical  figures  frequent- 
ly mentioned  in  Scripture.    See  SnSAru. 

I.  Iiapon  nf  lie. Vane.— Tha  oH^  and  signlUcation 
of  tbe  word  it  la  Impossible  to  determine  with  any  cer- 
tainty. Those  who  seek  It  in  a  Shemltic  root  are  still 
divided  in  opinion,  some  deriTing  It  from  the  Cbald. 
3^S,  hirab',  to  ploiigi,  so  that  ctenifr="ploagfaer,"  i. 
e.  ox,  urging  the  parallel  between  Eiek.  x,  U,  and  i, 
10;  others  (u  GusHtios,  L.  de  Dieu,  and  ROdiger) 
take  It  by  a  transposition  of  letters  for  a^3']i,  rdcub', 
q.  d.  divine  "beast"  (Psa.  xxlli,  H),  comp.'tbe  Are. 
Uo  iarib,  a  Mp  of  traniport ;  others  (see  Hyde,  De 


i  CHERUBIM 

rd^.  nL  Ptn.  p.  »8}  mak«  It  t.  q.  3^*1^,  ktmt', 
"near"  to  God,  L  e.  admitted  to  bis  presence;  with 
otban  (see  Manrer,  CoimiKist.  ta  Vtt.  Tat.  at  Isa.  ri, 
2)  It  la  eqnivalent  In  D^S,  lanm'  (Amble  tb*  same), 
"to  be  noble,"  L  e.  c^lef  (corap.  trrofMiu);  finally, 
to  pass  over  other  leas  probable  eonjectuna  (e.  g.  Ro- 
senmoller,  AltaUKmtt.  I,  i,  181 1  and  Psulua  ap.  Zai- 
lig,  p.  81),  the  TalmudiaU  regard  It  aa  tbe  Cbald. 
KjariS,  be-mbfa',  bajilitt  (tee  Buxlorf,  ]nn.,  fstna- 
laU.  p.  100;  Otfao,  £«.  SfM.  s.  v.).  Gesenios  at  flrat 
proposed  a  derivation  from  the  Sjriac  trrab,  itnmf, 
but  aflerwirdt,  coariuced  that  he  was  misled  by  an 
error  of  Casteli  (aee  bis  Aneedot.  Oritml.  i,  66),  he  pro- 
poaed  a  new  e^mology,  as=D^n,  dLmM'  (Arabic 
the  same),  "  to  [mhtUt  from  a  common  ose,"  to  con- 
Mcrate  (T^Motir.  p.  711),  oompan  the  Ethinpic  kin- 
dred word  for  aancmary;  so  that  the  s^niSeatlon 
would  be  is^r,  or  guard,  acof  tbe  Deity  against  all 
prohne  spprosch.  Otheri  (e.  g.  Elchhran,  EaJtit.  imt 
.1 .  r.  Hi,  80 )  Vatke,  BiU.  TirolcsU,  1,  82^  think  (be 
cherubim  were  the  same  with  the  ypinc,  irifit,  of 
the  Oriental  imagination,  guardians  of  the  golden 
mountains;  and  seek  Ibe  root  in  the  Penlc  tani,  to 
graip  (Tyohsen  in  Heeren's  Idtm,  I,  S86).  FoFSttr 
even  seeks  an  Egyptian  deriratlon  of  the  name  (As 
ijuso,  p.  lis).  H&vemick  (Zu  Oei.  p.  6)  inggests  a 
derivation  from  a  Syridc  root,  meaning  tatntor  carve 
(Kell  on  1  Kings  v,  6);  ao  Aben  Em  eaya  that 
"cherub"  Is  the  same  as  n'V<;,  and  means  ay  in^ijtfc 
fiffHTt  (Scbultens,  Prm.  Sol.  p.  47S),  An  early  ety. 
mology  makca  It  fram  3^3,  jb-nii',  ;re(ri-(is-s<.«<re, 
q.  d.  UkeCabeErl=3ioi  ;mliroi(seeFBa.ciil,SO;  lo- 
vdfuic,  1  Pet.  lii,  2! ;  dpxo',  Eph.  1,  21 ;  so  Proco|iina 
on  Gen.  Ill ;  Theodoras  In  Oen.  xlvi).  Tbe  oldest  de- 
rivation is  tniB  3^  and  *^39,  a*  though  it  meant 
"abundance  of  knowledge,"  a  meaning  once  unl*«T- 
sally  adopted  (IhUo,  Vit.  llei.  p.  688;  Clem.  Alex. 
Smm.  r,  240,  ed.  Sylb. ;  Origen,  Ffag.  Btx.  p.  Ilf ; 
Jerome  on  Isa.  vi,  2;  Dlooys.  Dt  Cat.  Hitr.  vil.  96; 
Spencer,  Z)«  Lrgg.  Ill,  ill,  1,  etc.).  Hence  the  remarii 
of  Aquinas,  "The  name  Seraphim  Is  given  (Mm  tbdr 
fervor,  as  belonging  to  lore ;  but  the  name  CbemMm 
Is  given  from  Ihtir  hKKlfigt"  (I,  L  b.  1007,  cb.  tU). 
FUrat  {Concord,  p.  GTl),  followed  liy  DelitzKih  (Gea.  U, 
20B),  regards  the  root  as  property  Shemltic,  allied  to 
the  above  sense  of^nupaijrCSantcr.jrriU,  Eogl.^r^). 

II.  BUtorg  imi  CiatnJieatUm.—l.  Tbe  first  occasion 
on  which  they  are  mentioned  is  on  the  expnlsioo  of 
our  first  parents  from  Eden  (Gen.  lii,  24),  where  the 
office  of  preventing  man's  access  to  the  tne  of  life  is 
assigned  to  "At  cherobim  (0^3*^111,  not  as  in  A.V.' 
'cherubinu')  with  the  flame  of  the  wiving  sword." 
They  are  thus  abruptly  Introduced,  without  any  inti- 
mstiun  of  their  shape  and  nature,  as  though  they  were 
too  well  understood  to  require  commenL  That  some 
>»$«&  Ixaigt  are  intended  is  obvious,  and  the  attempts 
to  refer  the  paaaage  to  volcanic  agency  (Slckler,  /drea 
n  eiiun  Vulkem,  p.  6),  or  to  tbe  Inflammable  bitumi- 
nous region  near  Babylon  (rilu.  ii,  109,  etc.),  Is  a  Fpeo- 
imen  of  that  valuelees  ratioualism  o  hich  unwisely 
turns  the  attention  from  the  Inner  spirit  of  tbe  naira- 
tlve  to  its  mere  external  form.  We  might  perhapa 
conjecture,  from  the  use  of  the  orfKlr,  that  there  were 
supposed  to  be  a  definite  number  of  cberuljim,  and  It 
seems  that /our  Is  the  mystic  number  usually  attached 
lo  the  conception  of  them.  As  the  nnmbn  four  bas 
special  rignlflcsnce  in  Hebrew  symbolirm — being  tbe 
number  to  express  the  world  and  divine  revelation 
(Bur's  Sfmboiii.  i,  119  sq.)— this  consideration  must 
not  be  lost  eight  of. 

The  word  C'll^r,  there  translated  "on  tbe  east," 
may  signify  as  well  "ifjort  or  on  tbe  edge  of."  Be- 
sides, -^\  rendered  by  our  translators  "placed," 
signifies  properly  "to  place  In  a  tabemncia,"  an  ax- 


CHERUBIM 


pRMlon  vhich,  vicxed  In 

deuti  in  tba  after  hiilory  uf  l:be  primevHl  fimily  (Gen. 
It,  1*-16),  aMmi  ■  condasive  MUbluhmeot  of  Uio 
oiHiuon  that  tliii  waa  a  local  tsbeniaclp,  in  which  the 
■TmboU  of  the  Divine  preKnm  were  manlfeated,  iiuit- 
■blj  to  the  alMnd  circunutinau  in  which  man,  aAcr 
Uw  Fall,  came  befora  God,  and  to  the  acceptalili  mode 
of  wonbip  be  wai  tanght  to  obaerve.  That  consecra- 
ted place,  with  lU  atriking  symboU,  called  "tha  pres- 
•ace  o/the  Lord,  "there  1>  reason  to  believe,  contlnned 
tUt  the  time  of  the  Delnge,  olherwiie  there  would  tuTo 
bwa  DOtbiu;;  to  guard  the  traj'  to  the  tree  of  life ;  and 
thoa  the  knowledge  of  their  form,  fnnn  the  longevjt; 
of  the  antedilaviana,  could  have  been  eaiilv  trsnimit- 
ted  to  the  time  of  Abnham  (Faber,  Bora  Maiaiar,  tjk. 
li,  ch_  Ti),  Moreover,  it  !■  an  approved  opinion  tliat, 
when  thoae  emblema  were  removed  at  tho  clo»o  of  the 
IMtriarchal  djjp^naation  tnjm  the  place  of  public  wor- 
■hip,  tha  ancesUin  of  that  patrUrch  formed  email  mod- 
al* of  them  for  liomeatic  uaa,  under  the  name  of  Sera- 
phim or  Tenphim,  accoiding  to  the  Clialdee  dialect 
(Faber,  OngiM  ef  Pag.  IdoL  i,  356). 

In  like  manner  were  lion-ahaped  and  eagle-formed 
griffliu  aupposed  by  Ibe  aboriginea  of  Northern  Europe 
(Bcrod.  iii,  103, 116)  and  India  (Ctetiaa,  Ind.  p.  13)  aa 
gvardiani  of  the  gold-bearing  hills  (comp.  (ien.  ii,l]); 
and  in  Greek  mythology  (aee  Creoier,  B-fmbeWt,  ii, 
617)  tbe7  were  aacred  to  the  deities  (e.  g.  Apollo,  Hi- 
perva,  Bacchiu}.  But  tlie  cherub  wia  anointed  aa  a 
divioa  emblem  (Eiek.  xxTiii,14;  where  aome,  how- 
•vor,  Uke  n'^'Q'9  fur  H^'-''!!.  in  the  eenu  merely  of 
"extended"),  preaiding  over  ucred  mountaina  bUi- 
Ing  with  precioua  orea  (ver.  IS) ;  at  leaat  the  kin;:  of 
Trn  ia  ^era  compared  to  auch  a  being,  unleu,  with 
etfaen,  we  nfer  that  whole  deecripUon  to  the  cherubic  | 
(cnu  of  the  Jewish  aanctuary  (aaa  Handeraon,  Cmn- 
mruL  in  loc.}.  ' 

!.  The  neKtoecaalan  aa  which  the  cherutdm  are  no- ' 
Heed  ia  when  Uosea  waa  comnuuided  to  provide  the  ! 
fnruitore  of  the  tabernacle;  and,nlthangh  be  received  ' 
Initnictioos  to  make  all  thinga  according  to  the  pat- 
tern ihowD  him  in  the  Mount,  and  although  it  ia  nut-  ' 
vil  to  iDppcae  that  he  aaw  a  figure  of  tha  cherubim,  | 
yM  wa  find  no  minute  and  ipecial  deacrlption  t  them, 
aa  B  given  of  everything  elae,  for  tha  diraclion  of  the 
artillcHa(Exad.xxTi.31).  The  fimple  mention  which 
tbi  awred  hintorlan  maket,  in  lioth  these  pjasagei,  of 
the  cherubim  cnnveya  the  impression  th.it  the  aym- 
bdic  Hgnrea  which  had  been  Introduced  into  the  Le- 
Titlcaj  tabernacle  were  enbatantially  the  same  with 
thoae  established  in  the  primeval  place  of  wurship  on 
thaoatakirts  of  Eden,  and  that  by  traditional  infbrma- 
tion,  or  aome  other  meana,  their  form  wai  so  well 
known,  both  to  Bculeel  and  the  whole  congregation 
tf  Israel,  aa  to  render  suparfluous  all  further  daacrip- 
tisDofthem. 

Similar  Sgnrea  were  to  be  enwoveo  on  the  ten  blue, 
tad,  aad  olmaon  curtain*  of  the  tabernacle  (Exod. 
xzvl,  1).  The  promiaa  that  God  would  "meet  and 
ooDunnne  with  Me«e«  from  bOteten  ikt  Uco  iJitnbim" 
(Kxod.  ixT,  23)  origlnalei  tha  constant  occurrence  of 
that  ei|Beasioa  aa  a  description  of  the  divins  abode  and 
pRitnce(NDnib.*il,  89;  1  Sam.iv,!;  lao.  zzxvii,  Ifl; 

&  Cbarnbim  after  thie  appear  llkewlae  In  the  theo- 
phantie  deacrlpliont  of  the  propheta  and  inapired  poets 
(t  Sam.  iiii,  11),  especially  in  the  mnarkable  visiona 
of  Eukiel  by  Ihs  river  Chabar  (Eiek,  n).  Tet  there 
was  BD  myatci?  aa  to  those  remarkable  figures,  for 
Eickid  knew  at  onca  (x,  30)  the  living  crutures 
whldi  sppeared  Id  his  vision  supporting  the  throne  of 
God,  and  bearing  It  in  m^Jeety  fW*n  place  to  placf,  to 
be  chsTUhinv  Hrom  having  frrqaently  aeen  them,  in 
eomnmn  with  all  other  wonhippen,  in  the  carved 
week  of  the  outer  sanctuary.  Moreover,  as  ia  the 
lain  Ian  ol  manj  eminent  dlvlnea,  tb*  vlajonary  acsoe, 
IU-8" 


3  CHBRUBIM 

with  which  Ihli  prophet  waa  favored,  exhibited  a  traoi 
script  of  the  Temple,  which  was  shown  in  pattern  to 
David,  and  afterwards  erected  by  hia  son  and  anccees- 
or ;  and,  as  the  chief  design  of  that  later  vision  waa 
to  Inspire  the  Hebrew  exiles  In  BabyloB  with  the  hope 
of  aeeing,  on  their  return  to  Judsi,  another  temfde, 
mora  glorioua  thin  tha  one  Iben  in  rnlna.  It  ia  reaaon- 
able  to  believe  that,  as  tbo  whole  atjie  and  apparatua 
of  this  mystic  temple  bore  an  exact  reaembUnoe  (1 
Kings  tI,  30)  to  that  of  Solomon's  magnificent  edifice, 
BO  the  chcmbs  olmi  that  appeared  to  his  fancy  portray- 
ed on  the  walla  would  be  fac-aimilas  of  those  that  bb 
longed  to  It*  ancient  protolrpe.    See  Trmpi.e. 

Still  the  question  arises,  Was  the  shape  olreuly  hmil- 
iar,  or  kept  deai^edly  mysterious  ?   Ytom  the  l^ct  that 
cbcruliim  won  blaaoned  on  the  doon,  walls,  curtains, 
etc.,  of  the  honae,  and  fVom  the  detailed  descriptioD  of 
shapes  by  Eaeklel,  the  latter  idea  might  aeem  out  of 
pUce.     But  If  the  text  of  Eseklel,  and  the  carvings, 
etc.,  of  the  Temple  had  made  them  popular,  Josaphua 
conid  not  poaalbly  have  said  (_AiU.  vili,  8,  S),  "  No  one 
can  Bay  or  conjectuis  what  the  eherubliii  (nipov^iit) 
actually  were."    It  is  alao  mnarkable  that  Eiekicl 
(cbap.  0  apeaki  oftbem  aa  "living  creaturea"  (niin, 
£ua)  under  mere  anhnal  Ibrms.    Into  this  description 
chap.  X,  14,  the  remarkable  expression,  "  tha  tjtce 
of  a  cherub^"  la  introduced,  and  Cbe  prophet  conclude* 
'      nco  to  his  former  vision,  and  an  identlHca- 
e  creatures  with  the  cherubim  (v,  30).    On 
the  whole,  it  aeema  likely  that  the  word  "cherub" 
only  tho  composite  creature-form,  of  wbkcb 
DO,  01,  snd  eugle  wen  the  elements,  bnt, 
further,  soma  peculiar  and  mystiesi  form,  which  Eie> 
kiel,  being  a  priest,  would  know  and  recognise  as  "the 
face  of  a  ciiestPB,"  but  which  waa  kept  aecret  irom 
all  others ;  and  auch  probably  wen  those  on  the  ark, 
which,  when  It  was  moved,  waa  always  covered  (see 
:  OF  Covknaht),  tbongb  those  on  the  hangings 
panels  might  bo  of  the  popular  ilevice.     What 
peculur  cherubic  -orm  was  ia  a  mystery  perhaps 
impenetrable.     It  waa   probcbly  believed  popularly 
'  e  something  of  the  bovine  type  (though  In  Paa. 
30,  the  notionappeantobeniark.d  as  degraded); 
so  Spencer  (^  ttg.  l/tbr.  rit.  iii,  diss,  b,  4,  2)  thinks  that 
the  ox  was  the/ormn  pi'ttdi  u",  and  quotes  Gmtins  on 
Exod.  XIV,  18  (Hochart,  llitrarMC.  p.  87,  adit.  1690). 
Hence  the  "^■ol.len  coif."    Th-  ej-mboliam  of  the 
visiona  of  Eiekiel  is  mora  complex  than  that  of  the 
earlier  Scriptures,  and  he  certainly  meana  that  each 
composite  creature-form  had  four  fiuea,  so  aa  to  look 
four  ways  at  once ;  was  four-sided  and  four-winged,  so 
aa  to  move  with  Instant  npidity  in  every  direction 
without  turning,  whereaa  the  Mosaic  Idea  was  proba- 
bly single-faced,  and  with  but  one  pair  of  wings.    Eze- 
kiel  adds  also  the  imaiieo'  of  the  wheels— a  mechan- 
ical to  the  previous  animal  forms.     This  might  typify 
Inanimate  nature  revolving  In  a  fixed  course,  informed 
by  the  spiritual  power  of  God.     The  additional  (tym- 
bol  of  being  "full  of  eyes"  ia  one  of  obvious  meaning. 
Sae  CREATirnE  (l.iviso). 

III.  THen-fonaowlCAnntCer.— Ifwemaytrustthe 
unanimous  testimonyof  Jewish  tradition,  we  must  sup- 
pose thst  they  lind  the  faces  of  human  brings,  accord- 

nel,  Aben  Eira,  etc.  (Otho,  Lai.  floi.  a.  v.  Cherubim  i 
Buxtorf,  Hill.  An.  Fad.  p.  100),  But,  taking  Eieklels 
description  of  them  to  be  the  pniper  appearance  that 
beloogMl  in  common  to  all  hie  cherubic  creatuns  (ch. 
i.  X,  xli),  we  an  led  to  conclude  that  they  were  com. 
pound  figures,  unlike  any  living  animals  or  real  object 
in  nsture,  but  rather  a  eomliination,  in  one  nondescript 
artificial  image,  of  the  diitintpiishiiig  features  and 
properties  of  several.  The  ox,  aa  chief  among  the 
tame  and  useful  animals,  the  lion  amouE  the  wild  ones, 
the  aovle  among  the  feathery  tribes,  and  mnn.  aa  head 
over  all,  wen  the  animals  which,  or  rather  parte  of 


str«Icbed  upward),  *Dc1  thei 

ficea  "  towardu  eacb 

and  towards  the  men^y-wa 

."     It  it  remarkabla 

with  aiich  precise  directioni 

aa  to  their  poBition, 

de,  wid  material,  notblntf. 

lave  that  thcv  wero 

ahapa.     Se«  Tabf.b- 

CHEKUBIM  23»  CHEKUBIM 

of  Natort  whkh  tnntcnid  that  of  man.  Among  the  '  en  interpret  of  the  aame  mau  of  gold  with  it,  vii. 
Gneka  the  dragom  (PhoCiui,  Cod.  190,  p.  !60),  and  wrought  bf  hammeriDg,  not  cut  and  then  Joined  on. 
UBong  the  IndiMU  the  griffii  (Pliny,  vii,  8),  wore  e»-  This  acemt  dgublful  j  tint  from  the  word  employed 
pedalW  ioch  cTHtures  of  mTtbologiol  Imagination,  (rrspi:)  the  wliditv  of  the  metal  may  perhapa  bn  in- 
S«D»Aoo».  lntheTarioii.ieg.nd.ofHerenleethe  ,i,^j-  They  a™  ^1m1  "chenibim  of  riorv"  (Heb 
buD  and  tbe  Iwn  coortanlly  .pp«r  a.  fo™  of  hoMlU  -,  gj^  „  „„  t^em  the  glorv,  when  vi.ib^  rea'wd  ;  bnt, 
and  ,yU  r«w.r;  and  «,»e  of    he  P.ratan  «nlpto™  ■      •    -^  ,i.ibly  .yml^"'"!  -r  nM^  .  per^eluj 

^jp™tly  repreaent  evd  gen.i  nnder  dmUar  quMl-  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ,,  i,t^,.^t^  u,  the  Holy  oflioliea. 
■"^  ^\      u      ^     f%^  «    ,    .    Thev  we™  anointed  with  the  boly  oil,  like  the  ark  it- 

nsmber  of  tbe  cherubim.     A  pair{Exod.  xiv,  IB.etc.)    .„„-     »  ,h»  n.h.- ..^™t  f..™i..._      -ri.*'.     ■  ™       _ 
,       .         _.  ..     i  .1.        L  r      i  ■  'elf  u^d  the  other  aacred  lumiture.      i  neir  wintn  were 

wan  placed  on  the  mercr-aeat  of  the  ark ;  a  pair  of  '' 

cdoiaal  >ias  oronhadowed  it  hi  Solomon's  Temple 
with  tht  canopy  of  their  contlgoooaly  extended  winga.    , 
Eukicl,  i,  4-14,  Bpeaki  of  fonr.  and  ilmihirly  the  apoc- 
alfplie  Utiiip  crtatmti,  t^a  (Kav.  iv,  6),  are  (bur.      So    ^ 
at  th«  front  or  eaat  of  Eden  were  poated  "  At  chem-  "     ' 

tarn,"  ai  thoagh  the  whole  of  some  recognised  nnm-  , 

her.  They  niter  no  voice,  thou^  one  is  "  hoard  from  |  IV.  Thar  ifnmHj.— All,  whether  andents  or  mcd- 
aboTe  them,"  nor  have  dealingi  with  men  aave  to  awe  i-in'.  havo  agreed  that  the  chcrutiim  wore  ayml^lical, 
and  repel.  A  "  man  clothed  in  linen"  ii  intmdaced  ai ;  but  they  have  greatly  differed  aa  to  tbeir  figurative 
a  median  of  communication  between  them  and  tbe  ,  deaign  \  many  regarding  them  aa  having  ■  twofold 
prophet,  whereu  fiir  a  eimiUr  office  one  of  the  aera-  significance,  both  pbvMcal  and  metaphyaical.  They 
pUn  pssonally  offldalei  j  and  these  latter  also  "  cry  I  were  clearly  intended,  in  a  general  aenae,  to  represent 
ou  to  another."  The  cheruUm  are  placed  beneath  '.  divine  exiattncea  in  immediate  contact  with  Jehovah. 
tiM  actaal  lOMence  of  Jeborsh,  wboae  moving  throne  This  was  the  view  of  Chryeoatom,  AmUoee,  Augua- 
Ihej  appear  In  dfmw (Gen. Ill,  !4;  Eiek. I. fi.Sfi, 2G ;  i,  tine,  and  the  fathera  generally  (Slxt.  Senemls,  Aiff. 
1,16,7;  laa.  vl,  !,  S,  6).  The  expreuiioa,  however,  ;  Sonet  p.  848),  .nd  the  Pseudo  Dionyaiui  pUcea  them 
■■tb.  chariot  Cms-.r)  of  the  cherubim"  (1  Chron.  ,  -"""^  (between  een.phim  and  throne.)  In  the  nine 

... ,'.-.'    i        .     ,     V   .  .1        ..  ,  ordera  of  the  celcrtui  hierarchy  (Dionva.  Areon.  de 

xxTin.M)  does  not  impiT  wheel*,  but  the  whole  nn- :  „  ,  _,    ,,._         ,  ,,       „,      ,-.,.?•,.    "      ,i.       ,, 

'     i      ,        ■    ,    "^ '. .  .    »,  ■.  i  T       Crtiert,  Jiur.  n.  6.0).      Ibe   (-Hrali»ts,  on  the  otlier 

j^  of  ark  jma  cherubm,  ,a  pmbably  «  "H"*  i"     hand,  pUced  them  ninth  in  ih.ir  ten  choir,  of  .pirils 

|ekr^  to  it.  b«ing  earned  on  staves,  and  the  words  I  („„^^;       p^^..  ^^,^       jlBj.      i„  ,  ;„  ^' 

1^ l'."U  ''^'"■°    "*/"  "PPO""™-      So  a    ^  4"^  ^, ai^nifyingth. two bemi-ph™ 

»lan  might  be  called  .  "carrbge,"  and  the  muac.  ,  _^^  ^i,e  flaming  .word  the  motion  of  the  pladets,  in 

ftm  a:;-;  ■>  naed  for  the  l»dy  of  a  litter.     See,  how-  ■  ^tj^.^  opinion  ho  la  ioit.ed  by  wimo  niodema,  «ho  con- 

enr.  Dorjcn,  Dr  rlitnib.  SanrU  (ap.  Ugolini,  vol.  viii),    gidrr  them  to  have  been  ncthlng  mote  than  aatronam- 

wbere  the  opposite  opinion  is  ably  supported.     The    i^]  emlilema— Ihe  l.ion  and  tbe  Man  being  equivalent 

(lay  aymbolixing  that  presence  which  eye  cannot  we    to  Loo  and  Aquariuf^-the  aif-ns  of  the  lodiae  (l*Dd. 

iBli  or  rides  on  them,  or  one  of  them,  thence  dia-  '  seer,  Sab.  Sttear.  p.  8IJ).      Ircncna  virwa  Ihfin  aa 

noiinta  to  the  temple  threahold,  ajid  then  departs  and    emblematic  of  eercral  things,  such  aa  the  four  ele. 

Biut.  again  (Ezek .  i,  4, 18 ;  comp.  ix,  S;  Psa.  xviii,     mtoU,  the  fonr  quarter!  of  the  g,Mr,  the  four  (loe- 

la).     There  U  in  them  an  entln  absence  of  human    peln,  the  four  univerul  covenants  {adt.  Barn,  iii,  11). 

.(Dpathy,  and  even  on  the  mercy-seat  they  proliably  ,  'i  ertuUian  puppowd  (bat  tbe  chcrnl.ic  figures,  particu. 

appured  not  merely  as  admiring  and  wonderint;  (1    larly  the  flaming  sword,  denoted  the  torrid  zone  (.4pa/. 

Pit.i,tl),butas  guardian,  of  the  covenant  and  aven-    „p,  47J.     Juatin   Uartyr  imutdned  that  the   living 

gan  of  ita  breach.     A  single  figure  there  would  have    creatures  of  Ei* kiel  were  ayml  olical  of  N'ebuchadnei- 

■agieated  an  idol,  which  two,  e»peciall^  when  repre-    ^r,  the  AKayrian  nionarr.'h.  In  lii<  diattetsi  wlien  he 

sFBtedai  regarding  something  greater  than  thcmwlvc.    gte  grass  like  an  ox,  his  hair  wb"  like  a  lion's,  and  his 

anU  not  do.     They  thua  hH-ame  anbordinste,  like  the    nails  like  a  bird'a  eUwa  (Uno-.f,  jtliv),     Atlianasios 

niiporters  to  a  ahield,  and  are  repealed,  aa  it  were  the    .upposed  that  they   were  aignifliant  of  tba    t'ialble 

diniDctive  tiearinga  of  divine  ber.<ldry^tha  mark,    bsavens  (fjuiM'.  ad  Anliod.  cxxxv).     The  nature  of 

aned  or  wrnuicht,  everj'where  on  the  house  and  fur-    (he  pars«~e>  in  wliich  cherubim  occur — passages  poet- 

BitanofGad(Exod.  XXV,  SO;  1  King.  vi,?9,3Si  vii,    jd  and  hitibly  wrought— the  exi^te^ce  of  exactly 

%  36).     Those  on  the  ark  were  tn  be  placed  wHh    .imilar  images  among  other  ^ution^  and  die  purely 

■tan  itretched  forth,  one  at  each  end  of  the  mercy-    ayuiholic  character  of  their  form.  hu>  W  nut  only  Jew- 

wat,  and  to  be  made  "of  the  merry .eeat,"  which  Aliar-    i,h  allegoriMs  like  Philo,  and  Cliristian  pliilonpliera 

hMiel  (Spencer,  fie  hg.  Ileb.  nimil.  iii,  diss,  v)  and  oth-  ^  like  Clemena  of  Alexandria,  but  even  such  wriu-rt  as 

I  Ileugstenhrrg,  Keil,  Neumann,  etc..  to  deny  them  any 

persfinai  reality;  and  in  this  wa,v  we  may  vxiduin 

ZuUich'a  definition  of  them  aa  "mythical  wrvants  of 

Jehnvah"  (/>.>   fa.reWm-Woj™,  HeidcUwrg,  18-2). 

Thus,  in  the  vision  of  Eickicl.  it  h  obviona  Ih»t  their 

animal  shape  and  position  impltc.  •ul.jcctiiin  to  Ihe 

Almighty ;  that  the  four  heads,  uniting  what  were, 

according  to  the  Jewish   proverb,  the  four  higheat 

things  in  the  world  (.Scbr^t^;en'B  //or.  liabr.  ad  Re*. 

Iv.),  riz.  the  lion  among  iieasta,  the  ox  amon^  cattle, 

the  eagle  among  liinis.  and  man  among  all,  while  God 

is  tbe  highest  of  all — cnnBtilute  tbcra  the  reprrsenta- 

tive  and  quinlcaaence  of  creation,  placed  in  auliordina- 

tlon  to  the  great  Creator  (I.eyrer,  in  Zeller'a  WOntHi. 

s.  v.).     The  heails,  loo,  rcpreaent  not  only  creatures, 

perfect  after  their  kind,  but  also  perfect  yualiriei.  aa 

love,  conataDcy.  magnanimity,  sublimity,  the  free 

conKiouaness  of  man,  the  strong  courage  of  the  lion, 

Uie  endurine  strength  of  the  nx,  the  rafud  flight  of  the 

PnliBbleFoniofUieChambleTTpa.  eagle  (HolfmaD) ;  and  posriOly  tbe  number  four  may 


CHERCBIM  238  CHERUBIM 

Indicate  the  nniveiu  m  compOMd  af  tbur  elsinenta  or  tbe  ehemblm,  ttojn  their  b* in);  Initltnted  lniiitaillkt«1« 
four  quiTtcn.  Tha  four  tnuHtional  (?)  Btandardi  of  after  the  Fall,  u  having  particular  rcfartocc  to  tbe 
ths  quadrilateral  laraslile  encampment  (Nnni.  ii),  the  redemptioD  of  maB,  and  aa  ijintxilicel  of  the  great 
Ikio  of  Judah,  tbe  man  of  Reuben,  the  eagle  of  Dan,  '  and  active  ralera  or  miniiten  of  tbe  Church.  Thoaa 
the  ox  of  Ephraim,  are  far  loo  Dncerlain  \o  be  relied  irho  adopt  this  theory  are  accoMomed  to  refer  lo  tbe 
upon.  Their  eyes  represent  Dnlver>al  knowledge  and  living  creaturep,  or  cheniblm,  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
inaight  (oomp.  Ovid,  Metanutr.  i,  6U,  and  the  similar  aljptic  viaion  (Kev.  1v,  G),  improperly  rendered  in  our 
■ymbol  of  the  Ph(EntciBa  god  Taut,  mentioned  by  English  tianslation  "beuta"  (su^))  atid  which,  it  is 
Sanchoniatho,  ap.  Euseb.  Prop.  Eeaag.  x,  39),  for  clear,  were  not  angels,  bat  redeemed  men  connectod 
they  are  the  (yet  of  Ihe  Lord,  which  run  to  and  fro  with  the  Church,  and  deeply  interested  in  the  blenalDga 
tbrongh  the  whole  earth  (Zech.  Iv,  10).  The  wings  and  glory  procured  by  the  lamb.  The  same  cbarar- 
imply  speed  and  ubiquity  ;  the  wheels  are  necastaiy  termay  beascriliedtatbeliTiae  creatnresin  Exekiel'a 
for  the  throne-chariot,  itself  a  perfect  and  royal  em-  visions,  and  to  the  chemblm,  which  stood  over  and 
tlcm,  and  so  used  by  other  nations  (Cbrj-soBt.  Onii.  loolted  into  tha  mercy-aeat,  sprinkled  with  tbe  blood 
K^xv,  1);  and  the  straight  feet  imply  the  fiery  gliding  of  tbe  atonement,  and  on  the  Shechinah,  or  divine 
and  iightning-Uko  flash  of  tbeir  divine  motion  (wiitd-  glory  arising  from  It,  a>  well  as  the  cherubic  l)gur«s 
lii).  Wo  purposely  avoid  the  error  of  pressing  tha  '  wliicb  were  placed  on  the  edgo  of  Eden  ;  and  thus  the 
minor  particulars,  such  as  those  suggested  by  Clemens  cherubim,  which  aro  prominently  introduced  in  all  th« 
Alexandrinus,  when  he  (apposes  that  the  twelve  wings  three  sncoessivo  diipensations  of  the  coveoaDt  of  grace, 
hint  at  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  (^StromMi,  V,  i  appear  to  be  aymbols  of  Iboaowho,  in  every  age,  shoolil 
cop.  *l,  sac.  S7,  p,  HO,  ed.  Sylb.).  Thus  explained, '  afflcially  study  and  proclaim  the  glory  and  maaifoU 
they  become  a  striking  hieroglyphic  oTtbe  daxiling, '  wisdom  of  God.— Of  this  view,  likewise,  it  may  be  sai<I 
consummate  beauty  of  universal  creation,  emanating  '  that,  while  it  assigns  an  adequate  and  plaotiblc  reason 
tktim  and  subjected  to  the  divine  Creator,  whose  attii-  for  the  institution  of  some  symbol  having  a  moral  Im- 
hutes  are  roflecle<l  in  his  works.  i  port,  it  does  not  show  why  the  ipocisl  form  in  question 

The  leading  opinions  of  modems  may  be  reduced  to  should  have  been  selected. 
three  systems.  (1.)  Hutchinson  and  his  followers  con-  i  It  is  evident  that  the  interpretation  of  the  Bymbal 
stdcr  the  cherabim  ss  emblems  of  the  Trinity,  vlth  I  matt  be  as  Tsriable  as  the  symbol  itself,  and  wo  shall 
mm  incorporated  into  the  divine  essence:  In  proof  of  accordingly  find  that  no  tingle  explanation  of  the  cber- 
which  they  remark  that  the  words  rendered  "  a  flam-  ,  ubim  can  be  accepted  ss  adequate,  but  that  tho  liest 
In^  sword"  (Gen.  Ill,  24)  signify  either  a  flaming  flery  .  of  tlie  variuns  explanations  contain  elements  of  truth 
sword,  as  the  words  are  rendered  by  tbe  Sept.,  or,  which  melt  and  fade  into  each  other,  and  are  each  troo 
rather,  a  flame  of  fire  and  a  sword  or  knifo ;  so  that,  in  ^  under  one  aspecL  Unsutisfectory  and  vague  as  is 
this  flgure,  there  was  exhibited  in  visible  form,  to  tho  '  tha  treatise  of  I'hilo  "  an  tbe  Cheral>im  and  Flaming 
minds  of  our  flrst  parents,  Are— the  emblem  of  divine  Sword,"  it  has  at  least  the  merit  of  seising  this  tmth. 
wrath,  as  well  as  an  bistrument  for  sacri lice— which,  '  Thus,  discarding  his  astronomical  vagaries  which  are 
as  It  enfolded  or  revolved  round  itself,  can  mean  noth-  alien  to  the  spirit  of  MosaiBm(Kallsch  «£^R>(lp.49ff), 
Ing  else  than  a  picture  of  ths  satisfjction  to  be  made  we  may  safely  follow  bim  in  regarding  tbe  cherubim 
by  deity  itself.- But  the  grand  ol>Jectiun  to  thi«  theo-  as  emblems  at  once  of  divine  perfection— personifica- 
rv,  where  It  Is  at  uU  intelllgitile,  is.  tlist  not  only  are  tiims,  in  fact,  of  natural  power  employed  in  God's  ser- 
Aa  cherubim,  in  all  the  places  of  Scripture  where  they  vice,  as  De  Wet^  holds ;  and  emblems  also  of  tbe 
are  introduced,  described  as  distinct  from  God,  and  no  divine  atlrillute^  his  slowness  to  anger,  his  speed  t« 
more  than  his  attendants,  but  that  it  represents  tho  love  (Grotins  on  Exod.  xxv,  IB;  Bochart,  Hierm.  ii, 
divine  Being,  who  Is  a  pore  spirit,  without  parts,  pas-  18 ;  Rosenmuller,  Scholia  in  £*ei.  1 ;  Phllo,  ripi  rwi- 
Bions,  or  anything  material,  making  a  visible  picture  Xtpou^.  lai  rr)f  f^oi-  poft-  §  '""i  ^  ''■'"  ^'■'  P- 
of  himself,  when  in  all  agei^  from  the  beginning  of  G88).  Both  of  these  views  are  admlBSible ;  the  cbem- 
tlme,  he  has  expreSBlv  prohibited  "the  lik-ness  of  blm  represent  at  once  the  subordinatioD  of  the  universa 
anythinglaheavenaboTe"(seeParkhHrst,  #ei,  £ezi-  to  God  (^Firkt,  B.  Elieza,  c.  8;  SHrmolh  SiOba,  §  SS, 
ODB,  s.  v.).  (2.)  Another  system  regards  the  chim- '  sp  Scboettjfen,  Hot.  HAr.  ad  Apoc.  ix,  6,  rjc  /3iivt- 
blm  as  symbolical  of  the  chief  ruling  powers  liy  which  Xiiat;  airoi  av/iliiiXoi' ;  IMrr:  lib,  iv,  ep.  70;  Al- 
God  carries  on  the  operations  of  nature.  As  Ilie  heav-  j  ford  on  Rev.  iv,  8\  and  the  glory  of  him  whose  ser^ 
cnofheavenawastypiAeiUy  theholyofbolieslntha!  vants  they  are  (Xrpoofjjfi  ^o^7f,  Hob.  Ix,  G);  "as 
Levitieal  tabemucle  (Heb.  It,  3  ii,  ii  2><).  this  sys- 1  standing  on  the  highest  Btep  of  created  life,  and  nnit- 
tem  considers  that  the  visible  heavens  mjy  l>e  typlfled  ing  in  themselves  the  most  perfect  created  life,  they 
by  the  holy  place  or  tbe  ooter  Banctnary,  and  accord-  '  are  tho  most  perfect  revelation  of  God  and  the  divina 
Ingly  flndiug,  as  its  supporters  imagine  they  do,  the  life."  This  is  the  conclusion  of  B&br,  whose  whole 
cbenibim  identiiieil  with  the  serial  flrmament  and  its  treatment  of  the  subject,  though  over-tngenioDS,  iatbe 
elementa  in  such  passages  as  the  following ;  "  He  rode  most  valualile  conuibution  to  a  right  understanding 
upon  a  chrrub,  and  did  fly,  yen,  he  did  fly  upon  ths  of  this  important  and  interesting  question  (SfrnMH, 
win^  of  the  idniJ,"  where  the  list  homiitich  is  exe-    i,  9411). 

getical  of  the  former  (Psa.  xviii,!!));  "Who  rideth  As  the  other  suggestions  of  their  meaning  ire,  fol 
npon  the  heavens  in  thy  help,  and  In  his  excellency  tbe  most  part,  mere  adaptations,  tbey  nuy  simply  be 
np<m  thesky"(Deut.  xxxlii,Z6;  Psa.lxvlii,  4);  "He  mentioned  and  passed  ot-er ;  as  that  the  cherubim  rep. 
mjketh  tlic  clouds  his  chariot:"  be  Is  said  to  descend  resent  the  four  archangels;  the  four  major  prophetai 
fn  lire  (Exod.  xlx.  IS),  and  between  them  he  dwelt  In  the  Churcii  (Cocceius)  ;  the  two  uncreated  angels,  L  o. 
light  (1  Tim.  Ti,lG);  and  it  was  In  this  very  manner  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  (Hulse)i  the  two  natoree 
he  manifested  his  divine  glory  In  tiio  tabernacle  and  of  Christ  (Ughtfoot);  tbe  four  ages  of  the  world  (Eal- 
temple — they  interpret  the  cherubbn,  on  which  tha  ter,  Dc  Chertibii  hHaaai  gnttrit  iMatdiqwi  alatiim  ^fmbo- 
Lord  ia  described  us  riding,  to  be  symbolical  oT  the  Ui,  Erl.l#2T)i  or  God's  fourfold  covenant  with  man  in 
wind,  the  elands,  the  fire,  the  tight;  in  short,  the  Christ,  as  man,  as  sacriliced,  as  lisen,  and  ascended 
heavens,  the  atmosiihere,  the  great  physical  powers  by  (Amdt.  WnAra  ChritltiilJmm,  iv,  1,  G),  We  may  com- 
which  the  Creator  and  preserver  of  tbe  universe  car-  pare  also  the  absurd  explanation  of  Clermont,  that  they 
riKson  the  operatlonsof  nature.— This  view,  however,  are  the  northern  ormyofChaldauinBi  BndofVBtke,that 
althon^h  doubtless  truly  representing  the  on^i'n  of  the  they  symlwliie  the  destructive  powers  of  the  heathen 
cherubic  syml«1.  fails,  by  rea.ion  of  its  va;;ne  and  ex-  gods.  The  very  wide-spread  and  early  fancy  whicb 
tensive  character,  to  explain  tbe  peculiar  form  of  rep-  attached  the  cheruble  figures  to  the  four  evanRelista  Is 
Ksentation  adopted.    (S.)  A  tliird  systam  considers  .  equally  untenable,  though  It  flrst  appears  in  the  Paiitoi 


CHEKUBIM  S! 

Homuu,  uid  wu  adopted  1^  the  nbool  of  SL  John 
(Inn.  adt.  Hitr.  iii,  2,  8 ;  Athuui.  0pp.  v,  i,  p.  166 ; 
Aagnit.  de  cauau.  EvaKg.  i,  S ;  Janiina,  ProL  ad  Em. ; 
tp.  60,  ad  Pmlm. ;  Grtg.  ffon.  4  wi  fxit. ;  Adam  de 
Si.  TIct.  Hfwrn.  it  St.  Efmg.  etc).  Tbe  four,  In  ttaair 
Bnkm,  were  Tagarded  a>  a  tTinbol  of  the  RedMOisr  [tee 
TrCBch'B  SofTed  Latin  Poetrg,  p.  61 )  Un.  JaiDJami, 
Sarrrd  and  Leg.  Art.  p.  136).  Tb«  lait  to  maintain 
tfau  view  U  Dr.  Wordawotth  (on  Rev.  ir),  wha  it  I 
ligfatlr  anawered  bj-  Dean  Al&rd  (ad  loc.). 

V,  The  offies  ucTibed  to  tbaae  >7nibolic  being*  !■ 
mainly  tirofold'-l,  a  protective  TengeTul  (unction  la 
gnarding  frain  man'a  too  eloM  intmtion  the  pbyaical 
mBiliiuiraliplendonofa  loatpandiae  and  a  ■acredrer- 
elatioD ;  and,  !,  to  fonn  the  throne  and  chariot  of  the 
divinabeinginhia earthly  manlfettatlons,  andtognard 
tba  oDtakirta  of  hii  unapproachable  glorj  (Eichbom, 
£Mfial.  iii,  §  80).  Tbe  cherDUm  engraved  end  woven 
in  (he  Temple  decoratiDnB,  vhila  they  nymbDllze  thla 
function,  aerre  alio  aa  "a  aeal  of  aimlliUide,"  I.  e.  ai 
baraldic  lasigTiia  of  the  divine  attribute!  to  mark  Je- 
havah'a  preeence  by  their  guardian  niinlslriea  (Isldor. 
Ir,  ep.  TS).  At  the  aame  time,  from  loKifArr  point  of 
riew,  they  were  no  leu  tignificant  of  the  fuluaaa  of 
liAi  Mibordinated  to  him  who  created  It.  A  relisrance 
to  the  ApocalT|>i>e  enalila)  ua  to  combine  these  concep. 
timu  with  a  far  sublimer  truth,  and  to  explain  the  con- 
nection of  the  cheruliim  with  the  mercy-uat  se  a  type 
not  only  of  vengeance,  but  of  eKplatlon  and  forglve- 
n«ee.  For  in  the  viaion  of  John  theae  immortalitiea 
appear  in  tbe  game  choir  with  the  redeemed  innumer- 
able maltitode  of  the  umver«alchDrcb(iv,  7;  v,  1»); 
DO  longer  armed  with  Saining  swords,  with  wrathful 
a^ect  and  repellant  silence,  but  mingling  with  tbe  el- 
dna  and  joining  in  the  new  aong.  And  here,  too,  we 
tnd  the  recovered  Eden,  the  water  of  life  flowing  free- 
ly, and  the  tree  of  Ufa  wilh  no  flame  to  hedtie  it  round. 
ThBa  it  is  in  tbe  Apocalypae  that  the  tallest  and  divin- 
••t  significance  la  attached  to  this  profound  emblem. 
In  the  cheniliim  of  the  last  book  of  tbe  Bible  we  find 
tb«  bigheat  expUnation  of  the  cberulum  in  the  tint,  i 
Tbe  apparent  wfath  which  excluded  man  ^m  tbe  for- ; 
failed  paradise  was  bat  the  mercy  in  diagaise  which  { 
MCorHl  fbr  him  its  flnal  fruition  in  a  nobler  form  of  j 
lift.  Thus,  to  give  llie  laat  tonch  of  meaning  to  this  i 
cliangefal  symbol,  we  catch  in  it  a  gleam,  dim  at  flrst,  j 
bvt  growing  into  steady  brlghtneas,  of  that  redeemed 
CTratvd  perfection,  that  exalted  sinritual  liody,  for 
wbicb  is  reserved  hereafter  the  pamdlte  of  God.  Be- 
yond this  we  canncl  go;  but  we  have  said  enoogfa  to 
abow  tbe  niony-eided  appltcablllt]-  of  tbis  inspired  con- 
ception— a  many-sidedness  which  la  the  etfongesC  proof 
cf  Its  value  and  greatneaa. 

TI.  It  ia  imporunt  to  observe  the  extraordinaiyra- 
sembtanca  of  tbe  eheraUm,  as  described  in  Scriptun, 
to  tba  aymbolical  rellgiona  fancies  of  heathen  nations. 
It  Is  not  trna,  In  <mf  wasr,  to  say,  with  Knn,  that  the 
auuf  ebaraeter  is  far  mora  predomiDant  in  the  em- 
UeoB  of  heathen  panthetsm.  Even  if  we  eoncade 
(which  is  more  than  donbtftol)  that  tbe  ahnplest  con- 
ception of  chfTubim  was  reproaented  by  winRed  men, , 
wa  And  fonr-winged  and  six-winged  humsa  flgnres  in 
tbe  H-nlpInree  of  Mlneveh  <La}-ard.  i,  136).  In  fact, 
Ika*  ii  ao  »i*jfr  limbic  eomAiaanloa,  whether  of  Imll, 
■agio,  and  man  (Layard,  Nmnrk,  I,  117);  man.  lion, 
and  eagle  (Ibid.  pp.  70,  MB) ;  man  and  easle  (/W.  i, 
84)1  man  and  lion  (/Kd.  ii,  468);  or.to  take  the  moat 
pnralent  (both  In  SiErtptnre  and  In  tbe  Assyrian  scnlp- 
toree),  man  and  bull  (/Ud.  i),  wUcfa  may  not  be  pto- 
fosely  paralleled.  In  Ihct,  Oeit  woad-aiU  miglU  land 
for  dinicl  Ulmtlralimu  of  Eiek.  xlt,  IB;  Eev.  iv,  S  sq. ; 
1  King*  vii,  S9,  etc.;  and  when  we  oIm  And  "wheels 
wltldn  wbeela"  represented  in  the  same  sculptures 
</M£  ii.  448),  It  Is  Hr.  Ijivard'a  natoral  Int^nn  that 
Kzekiel,  ■*  seeking  to  typify  certain  divine  attributes, 
chose  forma  famiUar  not  only  to  bfanielf,  bat  to  the  peo- ' 
pie  wbom  he  addressed"  (Id.  OkL  ;  sea,  bw,  Niuatk 


19  CHERUBIM 

and  fioijdns,  ii,  S43) ;  or,  as  we  should  tiivatly  prefer 
to  see  it  expreuad,  the  familiar  deconilionB  of  the  As- 
syrian templea  moulded  the  forma  of  his  ImaglnatioD 
even  at  Its  moat  exalted  momenta.  But,  as  ws  have 
already  seen,  Ezekiel  was  far  more  likely  to  have  l«cn 
supplied  with  this  imagery  by  the  sacerdotal  aympa- 
thiea  which  impressed  bis  memory  with  the  minutest 
details  of  tbe  temple  at  Jerusalem ;  and  the  same  sym- 
bols were  not  exclusively  Asaj-rian,  but  were  no  leas 
familiar  to  the  Egyptians  (Porpfavr.  de  A  betinent.  iv,  9 1 
Ritter,  Erdktmde,  viii,  947;  Wiuiua,  jf:gspt.  ii,  18), 
the  Peniaua  (Hdt.  Iii,  IIG;  Ctea.  Jtid.  xii ;  Plin.  vii, 
22;  Wilkbiaon's  Anc.  Eggpt.,  passim;  Chardln's  and 
Niebnhr's  Traeelt),  the  Greeks  (Psusan.  1,  24,  6),  tbe 
Arabians  (D'Herbelot.  Bitliolhigue  Orimt,  s.  v.  ^ 
morg),  and  many  other  nationi  [Plin.  i,49,  69;  Park- 
hurst's  Laiam,  a,  v.).  On  this  subject,  genemlly,  see 
Creiuer,£yntoJ^  1,496;  Rhode, //of.  5a^,  p.  217;  and 
KCdiger  in  Erscb  and  Gruber's  Em^ctopadii,  a.  v. 
Cherub,  The  similarity  to  the  spbiux  ia  aucb  aa  to 
have  led,  even  in  early  times,  to  a  very  ttrong  belief 
that  tbe  idea  of  the  Uosaic  cbsrublm  wss  in  some  way 
derived  from  them  (fJiem.  Alex.  Slmm.  T,  cap.  vi,  J 
B7,  ed.  Sylb.  p.  240;  Orlg.  e.  Celt,  iii,  p,  121;  Euseb. 
Prop.  Evmg.  iii,  12).  For  a  number  of  weighty  artra- 
menla  to  this  eftct,  see  Bocbsrl,  Bitrot.  II,  zviU, 
xxxlv,  and  xli;  Spencer,  irf  np.  bk.  Ill,  chap,  iv;  and 
especially  Heugslenberg,  Die  BB.  Hot.  v.  ^g^.  p. 
167  sq.  Beddes  three  aitemal  coincidencei^  still 
more  striking,  perhaps,  are  the  cherubic  _/)riK>vni«  as- 
cribed In  Greek  mythology  to  the  flery-brealhhig  bolls 
which  gnaided  the  golden  fleece  (Ovid,  Jlifrt.  vii,  104), 
to  the  ringed  drsgon  of  tbe  Heiperides,  to  the  retua- 
ciuted  Pbienix,  to  the  Grypbms  (l)on.eagle8)  who 
kept  the  Arimaipians  ftam  tbsir  guarded  gold  (iGsdi. 
Prow.  V,  848;  Held.  ii,l;  camp.  Ullton,  Pur.  iMf.il, 
MS),  and  to  tbe  tbundering-honea  that  draw  tbe  char- 
iot of  Jupiter  (Horace,  Od.  1,  84, 7).  luflueneed  by  too 
exclusive  an  attendon  to  tbeee  sini^e  resemUaBcea, 
Harder  identidee  tbe  cherul.lm  with  the  mythic  gold- 
gnardlng  monatere  of  antiquity  (Geiel.  dtr  Jttbr.  Acs. 
I,  168),  and  J.  D.  Hkhaelis  with  the  Eqni  Tonsnte* 
(D»  Cltmibii;  compare  Veltbuysen,  Vm  den  Cttrvb, ; 
SchlcurncT,  Ler.  K.  TtM.  s.  v.  Xipoii/S).  Similarly, 
Justin  Martyr  oinsidem  that  Plato  borrowed  from  the 
ScripWea  bis  imtvtic  up/io,  or  "wingsd  chariot"  ef 
Zeus  {irpit  "BXXqvoc.  p.  60).  from  these  conola- 
iioni  we  dissenL  It  seems  far  more  likely  thst  the 
Hebrews  wete,  in  the  moat  ancient  times,  acquainted 
with  a  symbol  familiar  lo  so  many  nations,  than  to 
suppose  either  that  they  borrowed  it  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, or  that  any  other  natiooa  adopted  it  from  them. 
In  fact,  (As  aneepliim  Uomgi  lo  die  ooMnum  e|ds 
if  OritMlal  Iradiltami,  Cragmeats  of  which  were  tnt^ 
ly  sdopted  by  the  Hebcew  writern,  who  always  in- 
fused iato  them  a  nobles  meaning  and  an  unwonted 


Til.  For  flirther  infannation  on  tba  subject,  see  On 
addition  to  works  and  monographs  cited  above)  Huflia- 
gel,  2JerCjteruMiBtiB/>nraiMne(Fnncfnrts.  H.  1S£I 

[fanciful]):  Gabler  in  Eichhom's  UrgrtcUehle,  II,  I, 
246  sq. ;  Heyer,  BiLeldeut.  p.  171  sq. ;  Carpior,  Arpar. 
p.268  sq. ;  Bemer.  GoUetd.  ii,  86  sq.;  GrQneiaen,  in 
the  Stmt.  Kmtlbiatt,  1834.  No.l-S;  Jour.  Saend  IM. 
Oct,  1866,  p.  154  sq. ;  Criliri  Sacri,  1, 120 ;  Leone,  Ca 
Cier^imi  (Amrt.  1647 ;  also  HelmsL  1666,  and  in 
Spanish.  Amslcnl.  1664) ;  Wepler,  Dr  CKmbii  (Marb. 
1777);  Geissler,  i)f  (7*ini6fn  (Vitemb.  I66I);  Hende. 
wer*,  Jh  Chmb.  et  arrofli.  (Regiom.  1887);  Jac.  Ode, 
Commnl.  de  Amgelit,  I,  v,  78  eq. ;  Deyling,  Obi.  Saer. 
ii,  442;  Miehselis,  in  tbe  Commemi.  Soc.  Rtg.  Gait.  I, 
167  sq.;  Veltbnvsan,  Fos^  C»«r«6Mai  (Braunschw. 
1T64);  Hntehlnaon,  A7a(.o/C»eni6iM(lnbis)rDris, 
Loitd.  1749) ;  Amel,  ErSrimaig,  pt  Ii,  p.  497-600 ;  Bo- 
cifMit,  Birm.  pt.  i,  bk.  Ill,  ch.  6;  Lalmin,  EnlrrHnu, 
pt.  U,  p.  6S  sq.  (Amst  1788);  Fsirbalni,  T^polnK,  1, 
»Saq.;  G. Smith,  A>el.^(i«CjUniiM(  (Lend.  1850)1 


CbeH'alon  (Heb.  Kaakm',  li^OX,  pUcs  of  «njC- 
dtnct;  Sept.  XaaaXuv  T.  r.  XaaXaiv),  m  place  UHined 
M  ODS  of  the  landmirki  on  tbe  went  part  of  tba  aorth 
boundirj-  of  Jud»h,  beyond  Mt.  S«ir,  ind  »pperently 
ritufltsd  on  tbn  shoulder  (A.  V.  "  aide"}  of  Mt.  Jearim 
.  (Josh,  nv,  10).  Thta  laet,  tha  "Mount  of  Forortg," 
hfts  not  naceHiril7  tny  connection  with  Kirjith-Jeft- 
rim,  tbongh  the  two  were  eTidentl;-,  from  their  prox- 
imity in  this  sl«t«ment  of  the  boundary,  not  far  >p»rt. 
See  Jearim.  Chenlon  wu  the  nest  landmirk  to 
Bethsbemetb,  and  it  t>  quite  in  accordance  with  thia 
that  I>r.  Roliiiuon  hu  oboefTed  a  modem  village 
named  Ketia,  about  aix  miles  to  the  N.E.  of  Ala- 
ihems,  on  the  western  mountains  of  Jndah  (Raearrha, 
li,  SG4,  note;  Later  Ra.  p.  IM).  Enieblua  and  Je- 
rome, iD  the  Omomattieeit  (i.  v.  XnXairiii',  Ciwfon), 
mention  a  place  of  a  similar  name,  bnttheydiffbr  as  to 
Its  litualinn,  tbe  former  placing  It  in  Benjamin,  the  lat- 
tar  in  Judah  :  both  agree  that  it  was  a  very  large  vil- 
lage in  th9  nBigbborhood  of  JeriLiaiem.  Tile  poaitlon 
of  the  border-lino  at  this  point  determinei  that  it  lay 
within  Judah.    See  Tbibe. 

Cbe'ud  (Heb.  Ke'td,  nb^,  of  uncertain  aigoif. ; 
Sapt.  Xaiif,  Vaig.  Cated,  Jwphua  XofaJoc,  AtU.  i. 
6,  b),  the  fourth  of  the  eight  aona  of  Nafaor  bj  Uijcah 
(Gen.  xiii,  £2).  B.C.  clr.  S088.  Tbe  itame  la  the 
same  as  would  be  the  sing,  form  of  the  Heb.  for  Chal- 
Jarau ;  but  it  li  doubtful  whether  than  la  any  connec- 
tion.   See  CiiAU>.SA. 

Clie'aU  (Heb.  Kail',  ^''03,  a/cw^  I.  a.  profane, 
M  Id  Psa.  zlix,  II,  and  elsewhere;  Sept.  XifffX  t.  r. 
Xaaiip  and  lkiidq\ ;  Tnl„'.  Cr-iU),  a  town  in  the  ex- 
treme soutli  of  Faleadne,  named  Lietween  Eltolad  and 
Hormah  (Joth.  xv,  80).  In  the  list  of  towns  given 
ont  of  Jndah  to  Simeon,  the  name  Bbthdi.  (q.  v.}  oc- 
cur* in  place  of  it  (nix,  4),  as  if  the  one  were  tdantical 
with,  or  a  corruption  of,  the  other.  This  la  conllrmed 
liy  tbe  reading  of  I  Chron.  Ir,  80,  Bethoei,;  by  that 
of  the  Sept.  as  given  above,  and  by  the  mention  in  1 
Sam.  jtsx,  27,  of  a  Bethel  among  the  cities  of  tbe 
extreme  aontb.  It  is  merely  mentioned  by  Eigseblus 
and  Jerome  in  the  Onotuutiam  (>.  v.  XotAq,  CHiil). 
Baa  alao  Ubioii. 

ChosDUt.    Sen  CBBamDr. 

ClUMt  ia  the  rendering  In  certain  paasages  in  the 
Anth.  Vers,  of  two  distinct  Hebrew  terms:  1.  ',ilit  or 
y\X,  aron'  (from  n^S,  to  galhtri  Sept.  er/Jmriiv, 
Vulg.  gaxojAgiadtim'),  invarlaliiy  used  for  tbe  Arli  (q. 
V.)  of  the  Covenant,  and,  with  two  eiceptians,  for  that 
only.  (It  i>  inatractive  to  lie  reminded  that  them  is 
no  connection  wliatsTer  between  this  word  and  that 
for  tbe  "»r|["  of  Noah,  and  for  the  "ark"  in  which 
Hoses  was  hid  among  the  Saga  [both  rnE^,  t^mK]). 
The  two  exceptions  allndcd  to  are  (o)  ' 


CHESTNUT 

doretajled  together.  This  last  Uod  of  lid  was  dindad 
.wo  parti,  one  of  which  alone  opened,  turning  on 
amall  pins  at  the  baae,  on  the  piinclpLe  of  tha 
doors  of  their  honsea  and  temples ;  and,  when  necaa- 
aary,  the  two  knobs  at  the  lop  couid  be  tied  togetbar 
'  lealod.  Theae  boiea  wan  frsi]uently  of  coMlj 
material*,  veneered  with  rare  woods,  or  made  of  ab». 
laid  with  ivort',  painlsd  with  various  devices,  or 
stained  to  imitate  materiala  of  a  valuable  natore;  and 
the  mode  of  faaUining  tbe  Ud,  and  tbe  curlona  anbstl- 
For  a  hinge  given  to  soma  of  tiiem,  show  that  tb« 
V  wai  entirely  removed,  and  that  ibt  box  nmain- 
edopen  while  used.  Whennot  veneered,  or  inlaid  with 
rare  wood,  the  sides  and  lid  were  painted,  and  llHMe 
intended  for  tlie  tombs,  to  be  deposited  there  in  honor 
of  tbe  deceased,  bad  osnaJly  fanereal  inscriptioos  or 
nligioas  subjecta  painted  upon  them,  ajnong  wliicfa 
were  offering*  presented  by  membera  of  tlieir  ttjaOj. 
(See  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  1,  lES ;  ii,  116,  a     " 


whicb  tl 


t  cf  Jos 


ricd  from  Egypt  (Gen.  i,  26 ;  rendered  in  the  Targnm 
of  Ps.-Jon.  by  ykummnoiior — compare  John  xii,  G— in 
Helirew  ielteis:  tbe  reading  of  tbe  whole  passage  is 
very  singular) ;  and  (i)  the  "  cheat"  in  which  Jehoia- 
da  the  priest  collected  the  alms  fbr  the  repairs  of  the 
Temple  (3  Kings  xii,  S,  Id  ;  i  Chron.  xxiv,  8-U). 
See  CorviK.  S.  B^T»,  getiaan'  (only  in  the  piur. ; 
from  131,  to  heard,  "  cheats,"  Eiek.  xxvil,  24j  "(reos- 
iirtt,"Eelh.  iii,9;  iv,  T). 

Uany  boxn  oT  various  forms  have  been  discovered 
among  the  Egyptian  monuments.  Some  of  these  had 
lids  resembling  tbe  curved  sammit  of  a  royal  canopy, 
and  were  ornamented  with  the  usual  cornice;  other* 
had  a  simple  flat  cover,  and  some  few  a  pointed  sum- 
mit, resembling  the  shelving  roof  of  a  house.  Tbe 
sides  were  aecured  with  wooden  nails  and  glue,  and 


CbeBtor,  an  ancient  city  of  England,  on  the  rinr 
Dee,  founded  by  the  Romans.  In  the  18th  centory  It 
had  several  nlanaBteriB^  a  college,  and  the  hospitals  of 
St  Anne  and  of  St.  John  Baptist,  the  latter  of  which  re- 
mains to  this  day.  Under  Henry  VIII  the  Church  of 
tho  monaateiy  of  St.  Weabnrgh  became  tbe  Cathedral 
for  the  new  see  of  Cheeter,  whicb  took  in  Cbeshini 
(from  the  diocese  of  Litchfield)  and  Lancashire  (from 
tho  diocese  of  York).  The  revenues  of  the  dissolved 
monasteries  were  made  a  provision  for  the  i>ishop,  dean, 
and  chapter.  The  present  (18S7)  biehop  is  William 
Jacobson,  DD.,  consecrated  in  IB6B. 

Ctieatnat-TREE  CV'"'';'?.  armim' ;  Chald.  -iV^, 
Sept.  irXiiravor  [but  In  Eick.  JXang],  VaXtt.fiaiaitiu), 
mentioned  among  the  "speckled  rods"  which  Jaooh 
placed  in  the  watering-troughs  Ixfore  the  sheep  (Gen. 
XXX,  87):  its  grandeur  la  indicated  b  Eiek.  xxxt,  8 
(as  well  IS  in  Ecclus.  zxiv,  19),  as  one  of  the  tnwa  to 
which  the  Assyrian  empire  in  ita  atrength  and  beauty 
ia  likened,  it  being  there  noted  for  its  magnificenc<^ 
shooting  its  high  tiongha  aloft  Thia  description  agreM 
well  with  the  plant-lnt  {Plalaiau  Orimlalu),  which  Is 
adopted  by  the  above  ancient  tranaiators,  to  whicb  mod- 
em critical  opinion  incUnea,  and  whkh  actually  grows 
in  Palestine  (see  Hitler,  Erdi.  xl,  611  sq).  The  birck, 
the  mapU,  and  the  cAanwf  have  been  adopted,  in  differ- 
ent modem  versions,  as  representing  tbe  Hebrew  or- 
moa,  butscarcely  anyone  now  doubts  that  it  means  the 
pioTK-trrt.  It  may  be  remarked  that  this  tree  Is  in 
Genesis  a  sBociated  with  others — the  willow  and  the  pa|>> 
liT— whose  habits  agree  with  it;  they  are  all  trees  of 
tbe  low  grounds,  and  love  to  prow  where  the  soil  ia  rich 
and  humid.  This  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  fact 
that  Ruesel  (A^.  ff.  a/Akppo.  i,  47)  expressly  namei  the 
plane,  the  willow,  and  the  po[Jar  (along  with  tbe  sah) 
as  trees  whicb  ip^w  in  tbe  same  situations  near  Alep- 
po. But  this  congntity  would  be  lost  if  the  chesurat 
wete  nnderalood,  as  that  tree  prefers  dry  and  hilly  sit- 
uations. There  ia  a  latent  beauty  also  in  the  nuuce 
inEaeklel,wheie,  indeacribingthe  greatness  and  glory 
of  Assyria,  tbe  prophet  says,  "The  a 


CHESTNUT  24 

D9t  1ik«  fail  bnngtu,  dot  *D7  tm  in  tb*  g>rdm  of  God 
like  imlo  him  for  liCButy."  Thii  not  onlj  exiiresHa 
the  piodaar  of  tbn  tree,  bnt  i>  singuUrl;  appropriatB, 
froB  llw  &ct  th»t  th«  plana-treea  (c^nun,  u  they  are 
eaOvd)  in  the  plains  of  Auyria  are  of  extraordinuy 
■ne  and  beAatT,  in  both  reflpacta  exceeding  even  tfaOM 
of  PaleMiiw  («mp.  Plin.  lU,  S ;  zvil,  I8j  Virg,  Gmy. 
ir,  14< ;  Cicero,  Oral,  i,  7 ;  Statiiu,  Sflv.  11,  S,  89  M). ; 
Hartial,  Ii,  61,  (>).  MoreoTer,  the  etymology  of  (he 
Tonl  fOQnectfl  it  with  Q^J^,  nrain',  "to  A«iujt«^/'  Ukd 
with  Arab,  'araat,  "  lo  tlrip  off  bork,"  the  ihadi[Dg  at 
iU  bark  vesriy  tie'mg  choncterigtic  of  the  pUne-ttee 
(m  Hiller  in  Himpigt.  i,  4ft!),  The  foUowins  ao- 
oonnl  diacrimuiites  ibe  *er«nl  apedei. 


Oileaxl  TUat-tnt  iPtatanOM  OrlttilalUt. 

The  Orieotal  plane-ttve  tanka  in  Ibe  LlnnieBn  clan 
and  onlcr  itimacia  Folyandria,  and  in  the  natural 
order  among  the  Piat'ima  to,     Weslemniast  Asia 
I*  itj  natlie  coantry,  althoogh,  according  to  Prof. 
Boyle,  it  extend)  as  far  eastward  aa  Caahmere. 
The  atem  is  tall,  erect,  and  covend  with  a  amoath 
bark  vbich  annually  falls  oB".     The  flonara  are 
small  and  acarcely  diatinguishalile:  they  come  out 
a  liule  before  the  Ua<reii.     The  wood  of  tlie  pline- 
trm  ti  flne-gralned,  hard,  and  rather  brittle  Iban 
toagfa  :  when  old,  it  it  Raid  U>  acquire  dark  veina, 
aad  to  tike  the  appearance  of  wal nut-wood.     In 
IliMe  utoations  which  are  favorable  to  iU  growth, 
hB)n  branches  spread  out  in  all  directions  from  the 
naiaivctmDk. invested  with  broad,  deeply-divided, 
aad  Ktossy  green  leaver     Thla  body  of  rich  foii- 
aga.  Joined  to  the  amootbnen  of  the  stem  and  the 
■ymmeljy  of  the  general  growth,  renders  the  plano- 
tr»  ona  of  the  noblest  ob)ecta  in  the  voRetable 
kingdom.     It  haa  now,  and  had  ako  of  old  (Plin. 
JVar.  HiM.  xii,  1),  the  reputation  of  Iteing  the  tree 
■hicfa  most  eOectually  excludes  the  sun's  bean*  in 
uminer  and  most  readily  admita  them  in  winter,     y 
tkas  kdbrding  the  beat  shelter  from  the  extremes 
of  both  seaaona.   ForthlareasonitwaaplaDtedDSar 
palilic  bnildingi  and  palaces,  a  practice  which  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  adopted ;  and  the  former  de- 
lighted to  adoTii  with  it  their  academic  wallu  and  places  I 
of  pablie  exerciae.      In  the  East  the  plane  aooms  to 
iav«  been  oonaldered  sacred,  as  the  oak  was  formerly 
jnBrilaia,    ThiadiatiactionlBin  moMconntriea  uwani- 
ed  to  Uw  most  magnifloent  species  of  tree  which  it  pro- 
dBCM  (see  Kitla,  tfat.  HImI.  n/Palal.  p.  ccxlix).      In 
Paleetiiie,  tbr  InitaDca,  when  the  plane  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  very  common,  the  terebinth  Mama  [o  have 
inaaeaaed  pn-emtnence.     SeeOAK.     In  the  celebrated 
tfdtjof  Xencaarreattng  the  march  <rf  his  grand  annr  [ 


1  CHESTNDT 

befbre  a  noble  plane-tree  in  Lydia,  that  be  might  n» 
der  honor  to  it,  and  adorn  iti  boughs  with  golden  chaina, 
bracelets,  and  other  rich  omamenta,  the  action  was  mia- 
nndentood  and  egregiously  mitrepreacnted  by  j£1iai] 
(Far.  Ilitl.  ii,  14).  The  Oriental  plane  endurea  more 
northern  climalea  well,  and  grows  to  a  fine  tree,  bot 
not  to  the  enormoua  size  which  it  aomcllmes  attains  in 
th«  EssL  PaoiLaniasO.  vili,  c.  S3)  notices  a  noble  plane 
in  Arcadia,  the  planting  of  which  was  ascribed,  Ly  tra- 
dition, to  Menelaua.  I'liny  (JNal.  Hut.  xii,  1)  mentions 
one  in  Lycia,  in  tho  trunk  of  which  had  gradually  been 
formed  lO  immense  cavern,  eighty  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence. L.  Uutianua,  thrice  consul  and  governor  of  the 
province,  with  eighteen  other  persons,  ofUn  dined  and 
supped  commodioualy  within  it.  Caligula  also  had  a 
tree  of  this  sort  at  his  villa,  near  Velitrs,  the  hollow  of 
which  accommodated  fifteen  persona  at  dinner,  with  a 
proper  suite  of  attendants.  The  emperor  called  it  "  kii 
itfili"  and  it  la  highly  probable  that  hla  ftiend,  Herod 
Agrippa,  may  occaaionslly  have  been  one  of  the  iifleen 
birds  who  ncatled  there  along  with  him.  A  One  speci- 
men of  Ibe  plane-tree  was  growing  a  few  yeara  ago 
(1844)  at  Voilitia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Lrpanto :  it  meaaured 
forty-six  feet  in  circumference,  accurdinftlotheRcv.  8. 
Clark,  of  Battenea,  who  haa  given  an  inlcrcfting  dc- 
counC  of  it  in  John's  fbnr«  Trea  of  hriimH  (il,  -JOB). 
The  plane-Creea  of  Palestine  In  ancient  daya  were  prob- 
ably more  nnmeroua  than  they  arc  now,  though  mod- 
em travellers  occasionally  refer  to  them.  Bclon  (Oil. 
.Sn^.  ii,  IftG),  La  Boque  (Fay.  dt  Sytir,  p.  I9T-I99),  and 
othen,  mention  the  groves  of  noble  planes  which  adorn 
tho  pUin  of  Antioch ;  and  the  last-named  traveller  re- 
cords a  night's  reat  which  be  enjoyed  under  planes  of 
great  beaDty  in  a  valley  of  Lebanon  (p.  76).  Bucking- 
ham namea  them  among  the  treea  which  line  the  .lab- 
\xlk(TTaiMU  bi  Pabttmt,x\.lllSi.  Evelyn(in  hnSfl- 
va)  seems  to  ascribe  the  inticduction  of  the  plane-tm 
into  England  to  the  great  Lord  Bacon,  who  plantrd 
tome  whkh  were  atill  flourishing  at  Verulam  in  I7DC 
This  was,  perhaps,  the  Brat  plantation  of  any  note;  but 
it  appears  from  Tomer't  Btrbai  (pahlished  in  I6G1) 


id  GUltiva 


in  that  cc 


ntrj 


before  the  chancellor  was  bam.  The  Plalamui  Orina- 
(o/m,  or  plane  of  Palestine  and  of  claasical  antlqui^, 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  plane-treo  common- 
ly so  called  in  Scotland  and  England.  This  last  is  a 
maple,  Acer  piaido.plaUaBiu,  and,  like  the  rest  of  its 
saccharine  tkmily,  it  contains  a  sweet  sap  in  the  libur- 
num  or  under  barli,for  the  sake  of  which  It  is  often  tap- 
ped by  school-boys  in  spring.  Even  hy  those  least  b- 
miliar  with  plants,  the  false  plane  or  sycamore  mn^ 


CHESULLOTH  24 

mdilr  b«  dlitlngulahsd  fnnn  the  plane,  Orlinl^  >nd  | 

OecldenUl,  bj'IUncds.  iDlhafonnBrthey  treleifi,or 
twin  carpels.  Battened  iat«  wing-like  dl>c> ;  in  the  Ut- 
ter thej  are  globular  caaketa  or  catkioa — balls  mora  or 
less  migh,  Hbich  hang  on  the  brancliH  thniughaut  the 
*  '       '  r  tawels,  (U(^atlng  tba 


which  tl 


ninally  known  in  the  United  SUtoa  (leaCeUii,  llient. 
i,  612  sq.;  Hasaelqutet,  Trav.  p.  BM;  Ptmug  Cfclopa- 
Ha,  t.  V.  Plane).     S««  Botabi. 

CheBulloth  (Heb,  with  the  artldeliat-KtiaUolA', 
nliOBn,  lie  kopti  [or,  aiicordlng  to  lonie,  tit  toim. 

talD  i  comp.  Cietil.  ChaaU>n,  etc,] ;  Sept.  \aoi*^  v. 
t.  XnaoXud),  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Iisachir,  mention- 
ed between  Jeireel  and  Shunem,  apparently  near  the 
border  (Joah.  xix,  18).  It  is  probably  tha  same  with 
Cbisloth-Tabor  (q.  V.)  of  versa  12,  and  the  simple 
Tabor  of  1  Chron.  ti.  77 ;  the  modem  Ihtal  (Kobin- 
son's  Rrtrwdut,  iii,  182 ;  comp.  Scbwati,  Paleit.  p. 
166).  Euseblus  and  Jerome  (Oiumal.  s.  v.  'AxiXi- 
SaiS,  Acokeifiali ;  XaaiXois,  CSohIui)  describe  It  as 
■till  extant  under  tbe  sune  name  (XiaXouc,  Ctfuolw). 

CbOt'tiim  (Xtrr<t<>  T.  r.  XtrrEU>>,TDig.  CtAm). 
a  OrBciud  form  (1  Mace,  i,  1)  of  the  Hebrew  Chit- 
HMCq.v.). 

ChaTems,  Jbah  Locts,  a  cardinal  of  the  Roman 
Chnrch,  was  bom  at  M*yenno,  France,  Jan.  28, 1768, 
of  a  noble  family,  ar.d  was  set  Sfurt  fur  the  Church, 
Iwng  made  prior  orTorhachet  at  ihlrteen  yean  of  age. 
He  received  hi«  clauieal  education  at  the  college  of 
Louls-le-Grand,  and  his  theologicil  at  tbe  seminary 
of  St.  Hagloire.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1790,  and 
toon  after  became  vicar  of  Mayenne.  During  tbe 
later  troubles  of  the  Revolution  be  toolt  refuge  in  Eng- 
land, exercised  his  ministry  for  a  while  in  London,  and 
then  sailed  for  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  pasaed  nuny 
Tears  of  ■nccessrul  labor  in  organiiing  and  spreading 
the  Roman  Church.  In  180S  he  was  made  bishop,  and 
continued  hia  labors  until  1S28,  when,  on  aceoant  of 
fdlling  health,  he  returned  to  France  as  bishop  of  Mon- 
tanban.  In  1826  be  was  made  archl^hopof  Bordeau^i 
and  peer  of  France.  His  talwra  amon|j  all  classes, 
rich  and  poor,  in  hoepibiU  and  prisons,  were  incesaant, 
during  all  bla  service  in  the  highest  ecclesiastical  pints. 
In  IS36  he  not  nude  cardinal,  and  he  died  of  apoplexy 
July  19  of  that  year.  Few  clergymen  of  the  Roman 
QiurGh  have  been  more  highly  and  deservedly  esteem- 
ed by  Protestants  than  cardinal  Chevema.— Hoefer, 
Neat. Bioff.G(7ifrale,x,ViO;  CAi-ufim Eointner, xxvi, 
88;  Huen-Dubourg,  7k  de  CAeKrvt (EngL  tr.  Pbilad. 
8to). 

Cbeynell,  Framcis,  an  Engliah  Koaconlonniat, 
was  bom  at  Oxford  in  1608,  and  was  educated  at  the 
ITniversity  there.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  Mcrton 
College  in  1639,  and  took  orden ;  but  to  1640  he  em- 
braced the  side  of  Purliament,  and  in  1643  was  one  of 
the  assembly  of  divines  and  rector  of  Petwortb.  In 
1047  ho  was  made  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Ox- 
ford, on  leaving  which  he  returned  to  hU  rectory  at 
Petworth.  At  the  Restoration  (lG62)he  was  deprived 
of  his  rectoiy,  and  retired  to  Preston,  Sussex,  where  he 
itled  in  16G3.  He  was  a  strong,  if  not  liitter  contrr-  j 
vertist,  and  publisher),  in  1648,  Tie  R'lt.  Gromtii,  lad ' 
Datig-'r  nf  SaeiniaiutK,  In  which  archbishop  Land,  j 
Hales  of  Fjon,  Chillingworth,  and  other  eminent  di- 
vines are  strongly  charged  with  Sodnianiem.  In  1644, 
after  Chilli  ng  worth 'a  dentb,  Cbeynell  published  CM- 
Ungtaniki  NonMiima,  or  lit  Sidura,  llerrrg,  DeaA,  and 
Bttrial  nf  WiWan  ChilUngaorik,  with  a  severe,  If  not 
sbnsive  dedicmtion  to  Drs.  Bayly,  Prideani,  Fell,  etc., 
who  had  given  their  imprimatur  to  Chillingworth's  Re- 
hgim  of  ProlntaitU.  After  the  dedication  follows  the 
Dsmtion  Itself,  in  which  Cbeynell  relates  how  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  "  this  man  of  reason,"  aa  he  calls 
ChllllDgwoith ;  what  care  be  took  of  him,  and  how,  ai 


2  CHIDON 

his  iUness  Increased, "  they  remem'jcred  him  in  tbell 
prayers,  and  prayed  heartily  that  God  would  give  him 
new  light  and  new  eyes,  that  he  might  see,  and  ac- 
knowledge, and  recant  his  error;  that  he  migbt  deny 
bis  carnal  reason  and  submit  to  faith." — Ane  Gm. 
£i'a$.^>t»,iii,806;  Sketch  by  Dr.Johnson,(;e)iJias<Bi't 
Jfo^.March  and  April,  1756;  Calamy, HoiteanfiirmittA 
MtmorUll,  ii,  4GT. 

Che'xlb  (Heb.  KnOi',  3->TS,/a'*e,'  SepL  XaoflO, 
tbe  birth-place  of  Sbetah,  Judah's  yonngesl  son  by  (he 
danghter  of  Sbuah  (tien.  xxivlii,  5);  probalilv  tbe 
same  with  CuozEBA  (i  Chr.m.  ii',  £2),  end  also  the 
ACHZIU  (q.  v.)of  later  times  (Josh.  Iv,  ^4).  Schwarr 
(PaUtt.  p.  201)  seems  to  confonnd  it  with  tbe  more 
northern  city  Acheib  (Josh,  xix,  20),  in  referring  to  a 
Talmudical  notice  of  "the  river  ofCbeiibi"  it  error 
into  whicb  also  Grotius  was  lod  from  tbe  reading 
iKtZ'ff)  of  the  Sept.  at  Joab.  xv,  44.  JeroiiM,  how- 
ever (lOiatt.  llfbr.  in  loc,),  regards  tbe  name  aa  an  ap- 
pellation merely  (so  Aqoila,  in  Montfkucon'e  ed.  of 
Origen-B  Haapia,  De  la  Rue's  Orig.  0pp.  v,  287),  indi. 
eating  tliat  this  was  tbe  last  of  Bathshuah's  sous. 

dHobastar,  an  ancient  city  of  Sussex,  England, 
tbe  see  of  a  bishop.  It  was  a  Roman  itstion.  Tbe 
present  cathedral  was  built  In  the  IBtb  century;  it  is 
407  feet  long,  160  wide,  with  a  tower  and  e^trt  800  feet 
higta.  The  diocese  comprises  neatly  tbe  whole  of  Sus- 
sex, with  a  total  populati.m,  in  1861,  of  363,735.  It 
has  12  deaneries  and  lSS,al2  church  aitcinga.  Tbe 
present  (1867)  bishop  is  Acbmet  Tamer  Gilbert,  DD., 
consecrated  in  1842.  Two  provincial  councils  were 
held  here,  in  1289  and  1292,  convened  by  Gilbert,  biahop 
of  Chichesur.— Landon,  Manual  ef  Comtcili,  p.  190. 

Chlohele,  CMohley,  or  Cblclieley,  Hkhbt, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  waa  bom  at  Uigham  Farren 
in  1362,  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1407  be  waa 
coniecraled  bishop  of  Sl.lDavid'sby  Pope  Greg<a7  XIl, 
and  in  1409  he  was  sent  to  represent  the  province  of  Cai>- 
terbury  at  tbe  Council  of  Ilsa  (q.  v.).  In  14ia  he  b*. 
came  archbishop  of  Canterbuiy.  He  atimnlaCed  Hen- 
ry V  to  the  war  against  France  (see  Shakspnsre,  Brm- 
ry  V).  whicb  he  afterwarda  bilt«rly  regretted,  erectlog 
All  Saints'  College,  whicb  still  atanda,  aa  a  memorial 
of  hia  penitence.  Chicbley  was  a  man  of  vigor  and 
courage;  he  reidated  the  king  and  the  pope,  when  oc- 
casion demanded,  as  energetically  as  be  resisted  what 
he  thought  to  lie  the  heresy  of  the  followera  of  Wick. 
liffe.  He  died  at  Canterbury,  April  13, 1443.— Duck, 
Zi/CD/CAiali>b(Lond.  1699,8ro);  Kippia,  fitt^nipiHi 
Britanniea,  iii,  409 ;  Hook,  EaJa.  Biog.  Hi,  G76  sq. 

Clllok«n  (roaaiov.puBiu),  a  word  that  occnn  bnt 
twice  in  the  English  Bible  (2  Esdr.  i,  30 ;  Matt,  xxiii, 
ST),  and  only  in  allusion  to  "  a  ben  (q.  v.)  gatinriug 
her  chickens  under  her  wings."    See  Fowl. 

Chl'don  (Heb,  Kidoa',i-r<t,  a  darti  SepLXn- 
^diiv.but  wme  omit),  the  name  which  in  1  Chmn.  xlii, 
9  is  given  to  tbe  threshing-floor  at  which  the  accident 
to  the  ark,  on  its  transport  (Vom  Kiijatfa-^rim  Id  Je- 
rusalem, took  place,  and  the  death  of  Uiaih;  «>ltfa 
account  it  was  afterwards  known  aa  pKBB-ttnaK 
In  the  parallel  account  in  2  Sam.  vi,  the  HM—lB^W 
as  ?Iac[Io:(  (q.  v.),  which  i>  nearly  eqnJTtfwWtftw* 
Whether  then  were  really  t»      ~    ■     "  -  "^ 

:  same  spot,  or  whether  the  one  la  al 
or  alteration  of  tbe  other,  I*  qnitaM 
nius,  T^esmr.  p.  638 ;  Simooll,  01  ~ 
SBpbns(.4iK.vii,4,  2)ha»"CM*._  , 
have  even  ventured  to  identtl!rlhaN|| 
ing-floor  of  Oman  the  JebnriW 
Jewish  tradition  (Jerome. '" 


(Josh,  viii.  Iff).     Bo' 

ideas  of  the  topegrs  GoOqIc 


CHIEF  CAPTAIN 


2ia 


CHIID 


4nitly  not  tkr  N.W.  of  Jenualam,  pouibly  at  Uw  pns- 
Bil  mhu  Kiuritt  ABitttm  (Van  de  Vtlde'a  Jfop). 

Chief  Captain.    Su  Chiliabch. 

Chief  Uneioian.    Sat  Hoic. 

Chief  of  Asia.    See  AaiABCH. 

Chief  of  Three  ('■O^t^n  iskn.nuAAaiA-jjIafiMt', 
at  ndiar  Q^V9>  •I'l'li*'*^' •  the  (Ainj-tiien},  a  title  of 
Adim  (q.  T.)  tbe  EiDila,  one  of  Davld'i  gT«ateat  bravaa 
(I  Sam.  ixiii,8;  Sept  irpiroc  riSv  rpiiv;  Valg.prim- 
t*p*  imler  trot;  A.V.  "chief  among  the  eiptalni"), 
aUieniise  culled  Jaahobaam  (1  Cbron.  li,  II,  where 
the  text  again  conoptly  hai  D'<d'^3Q,  MabtAin'; 
8«pL  jrpurCroroc  rwv  rpiaicovrn  ;  Vulg.prmcqw  inter 
Ir^mta;  A.  V.  "chief  of  the  caplaini'"),  and  alM  of 
Abiahai  (_2  Sim.  x^u\,  IS,  ■'Ssa,  rpiui',  cia  Iribut, 
"among  throe"),  and  Amaaa  (1  Cbran.  xii,  IS, 
D'BITO,  rpuimvro,  inter  IrigMa,  ^' of  the  captalna"). 
In  (11  tbeae  pauago)  it  designatea  the  aapeiior  officer 
or  aHDmaoder  of  the  trittala,  tttarit,  or  warrinra  who 
fought  threa  in  a  chariot,  and  formed  the  phalanx 
iwuHt  the  king'i  pereoo  (Lydiu^  Sgniagm.  de  re  mii- 
ilari  (lib.  ii,  c.  ili,  p.  B9}.  He  li  alao  briefly  called 
U*b^n,  ifui-iSiiitCti' (lit  tila  Knuvy)  =  atfidii-eanip, 
OTgcBeral  exeeotivo  officer  (2  Kiags  vii,  S,  IT,  19;  ix, 
tb;  XV,  !G),  Ulte  Um  Ronua  "  master  of  bona."    See 

Chief  Fiieat    Sm  PRitrc. 

Chief  Rnler.     See  Straoooiie. 

Child  (ppi/pei\y'^)i^,ft'ltd,TiKvev\  bnt  tepreaent- 
•d  bf  aeTerat  other  Hebraw  and  Greek  wordaj  comp. 
Children).  Hotben,  in  the  earlieit  timei,  snckled 
tboT  oApring  themaelvei  no  til  they  were  ftom  thirty 
BBontba  Is  three  jears  of  age.  The  day  on  vblch  a 
dild  waa  weaned  waa  a  fettiial  (Geo.  xxl.  Si  Exod. 
ii,7,D;  lSam.i,22-M;  2  Chron.  xiii,  16;  MaU.  xxi, 
It).  Nnraea  vera  amplojed,  in  case  the  mother  died 
befara  the  cbild  waa  old  eooogh  to  ba  weaned,  and 
when,  ftnm  any  drcanutaocea,  abe  wai  tuulile  (o  af- 
ford a  aaffident  anpply  of  milk  Ibr  IM  nouriihnient.  In 
later  *g«,  wben  matrona  had  become  mora  delicate, 
and  tboo^t  tbemaelvci  too  inflrm  to  fulfil  the  ilotiea 
which  natarallj-  devolved  upon  them,  nanea  were  em- 
^j^  to  take  their  place,  and  were  reckoned  amonc 
the  ivincipal  membars  of  the  timUy.  They  are,  ac 
cardingly,  in  conaeqDence  of  the  reapectabls  itatloi 
which  they  sustained,  ftsqnently  mentioned  in  sicrei 
htotoiy  (Gen.  xxxv,  S ;  2  King*  xi,  2 ;  S  Cbron.  xxil 
11).  The  sons  remained  till  the  fifth  year  In  the  car 
of  the  vamen ;  tbej  then  came  Into  tbe  father's  hands 
and  were  tangbt  not  only  the  arta  and  duties  of  life 
liot  were  instructed  in  the  Hosaic  law,  and  in  alt  parts 
of  the  religion  of  their  country  (Dent,  vi,  W-2fi ;  xi, 
19).  Thoae  who  wished  to  hove  them  farther  instruct. 
ed  either  employed  private  teachen,  or  sent  them 
■ome  priest  orLevita,  who  sometimes  had  a  numlier  of 
other  childnn  under  hla  care.  It  appears  from  1  Sam. 
i, !«-!»,  that  there  was  a  school  near  the  holy  labems. 
cle  dedicated  to  the  Initmctlon  of  youth.  There  had 
been  fonnerlj  many  cAher  schools  of  this  kind,  which 
had  frllen  into  discredit,  but  ware  reatored  by  Ibe 
popbet  Samuel,  after  whose  time  the  members  of  tbe 
•eminariea  in  qnntlon,  who  were  denominated  by  vrsy 
of  distinction  lie  tau ijf  lie prapkeU,  acquired  mm' 
lebiity.  Tbedaughters  rarely  departed  from  theo 
menu  appmprialad  to  tbe  retoalas,  except  when 
went  out  with  an  nm  tc  draw  water,  or  occasionally 
Joined  in  tbe  labors  of  the  Held— as  keepin^f  she* 
which  waa  the  t^actice  with  thoae  who  belonged 
tboM  humbler  sbtiona  in  life  In  which  the  more  B 
dent  limpUclty  of  manners  was  still  retained  (G( 
xxlv,  16;  xxlx,9;  Exod.  ii,  16;  1  Sam.  ix,  11;  Ruth 
it,  3 ;  John  Iv,  T),  They  spent  their  time  In  learning 
thoae  domeaUc  and  other  arts,  which  are  belittinK 
wooian'a  dtoatlon  and  cbaractar,  QotU  they  urlved 


that  period  in  life  when  they  were  to  be  sold,  or,  by  a 
belter  fortune,  given  away  in  marriage  (Prov.  xxxi, 
18 ;  2  Sam.  xlU,  7).    The  daughters  of  such  as  posaets- 
ed  rank  and  wealth  spent  the  greater  part  of  their  time 
witblo  tbe  walls  of  their  palaces,  and,  in  imitation  of 
their  mothers,  amused  themselves  with  dressing,  sing- 
ing, and  dandng.     Sometimes  tbeir  apartments  were 
the  scenes  of  vice  (Eiek.  xiiil,  IS).    Tbey  went  abroad 
very  rarely,  but  tbey  Twuved  with  cordiality  female 
'  liunts.    Tbe  sports  of  children  were  doubtless  snch 
have  always  prevailed  among  voDth,  especially  in 
tbe  East.    Hackett  (/audrottofu  n/£cn>r,  p.  130)  men- 
having  seen  Oiiental  boys  even  amusing  (bem- 
selves  with  flying  a  kite,  and  playing  at  leap-frog  and 
ball. 
Tbe  more  children — especially  of  male  children — 
person  had  among  the  Hebrews,  the  more  waa  he 
htmored,  it  being  considered  a  mark  of  divine  favOT, 
"    sterile  people  were,  on  the  contraty,  held  in  con- 
tempt (comp.  Gen.  xi,8D;  xxx,I;  ISam.  ii,  S;  2  Sam. 
i,  28;  PsB.  cxxvil,  8  tq. ;  cxxviii,  8;  Luke  i,  T;  II, 
).     That  children  wore  often  taken  as  bondsmen  by 
creditor  for  debts  contracted  by  the  father,  is  evident 
-om  2  Kingg  !v,  1 ;  Isa.  1, 1 ;  Keh.  v,  6.     Among  the 
Hebrews  a  father  had  almost  unlimited  power  over  his 
children,  nor  do  we  find  any  Uw  In  the  PenUtanch  w- 
-icting  that  power  to  a  certain  age ;  it  vas,  indeed, 
the  parenia  wlio  even  selected  wives  for  their  aona 
(Gen.  xxi,  21 ;  Exod.  xxt,  9, 10,  II ;  Jurtg.  xiv,  2,  6). 
*      light  of  course  be  expected,  uhile  tltey  lived  hi 
'  bther'e  boose,  and  were  in  a  manner  pensioner* 
on  his  bounty,  that  be  would  exercise  his  authority 
Ibe  children  of  bis  sons,  as  well  as  over  the  sons 
elves.      In  this  case  the  power  of  tlio  father  bad 


iveritv,  be  wus  at  liberty  to 
lisbment  (Gen.  sxxvill,  24). 
This  power  was  so  restricted  by  tloses  that  the  father, 
1f  ha  Judged  the  son  worth}'  of  death,  was  Itound  to 
bring  tbe  cause  before  a  Judge.  But  he  enacted,  attba 
same  time,  tliat  the  Judge  should  pronounce  sentence 
of  death  upon  the  son  if,  on  Inquiry,  it  could  be  proved 
that  be  bad  maltreated  his  falber  or  mother,  or  that 
he  waa  a  spendthrift,  or  contumaciour,  and  could  not 
reformed  (Exod.  xxi,  15,  IT;  Lev.  xx,  9;  Deut 
I,  IS,  21).  It  would  appear,  however,  that  a  Ib- 
ir's  power  over  his  daughters  was  still  greater  than 
It  over  bis  son",  since  he  might  even  annul  a  sacred 
w  made  by  a  daughter,  but  not  one  made  ly  a  ton 
(Num.  XXX,  4,  16).  Children  cursing  or  assanlting 
their  parents  were  punished  by  the  Mosaical  law  wiA 
death  (Exod.  xxi,  la,  )7  ;  Lev.  xx,  9),  a  remarkable 
iDstance  of  which  is  quoted  by  Christ  (Matt.  xv,4,  8; 
Mark  vii,  9, 18).  The  anthorily  of  the  parents,  and 
Che  service  and  love  due  to  them,  are  recognised  in  tbe 
most  prominent  of  the  moral  laws  of  IbeJeKieh  polity, 
the  Ten  CommandmenU(Exod.  xx,  12);  but  the  Thar- 
isees  devised  a  mode  of  evasion  which  our  Lord  strong- 
ly reprobates  (Matt,  xv,  6,  6;  Mark  vii,  11-13).  The 
prophetic  curse  or  blessing  of  the  father  also  possessed 
no  little  eflicacy  (Gen.  xlix,  2,  2X).  (On  punishing 
children  for  their  parents'  faulti-,  Esek.  xviil,  see  Mn. 
SKUS,  De  jure  pumndi  libenu  prnptir  prcc.  parent. 
Lipa.  i;i4.)  Children  wbo  were  slaves  by  birtb  are 
mentioned  in  the  (Scriptures  as  those  bom  in  the  bouse, 
tbe  children  of  maid-servsnts,  tbe  sons  or  children  of 
thebouse(Gen.xlv,14;  xv,a;  xvii,  23;  Psa.lxxxvL 
16  ;  civi,  16).  Few  things  appear  more  shocking  to 
humanity  than  the  custom,  of  which  frequent  mention 
Is  made  in  Scripture,  of  making  children  pass  ttircu^ih 
fire  In  honor  of  Moloch,  a  custom  the  antiquity  of 
which  is  proved  by  Its  having  been  repeatedly  forUd- 
den  by  Hoses  (Lev.  xviil,  21;  xx,  1,&;  2  Kings  xrl, 
8).     See  Moloch. 

There  are  some  allusions  In  Scriptore  to  the  mode* 
In  which  children  were  carried.  These  appesr  to  Iw 
adequately  reprasenled  by  the  existing   usages,  as 


ibovn  in  the  fbUtnriiig  cot,  in  which  tg.  1  repreMDt* 
■  Nesurian  wonum  bearing  her  child  bundled  it  her 
bick,  ud  flg.  S,  an  Egyptiui  IbnuJe  beuiog  her  child 


Ortfnul  Motlien  tarrjing  iheir  Cblldrsn. 
Oh  her  ahoaider.      The  Ibrmer  mode  appeare  to  \a 
laded  to  in  several  phires,  and  the  latter  in  lu.  i 
M.     (See  Hacketfl  UluMlra&mt  a/ Script,  p.  67.) 

In  Scripture  the  word  "child,"  or  "children,"  hai 
conaiderable  latitude;  disciplea  are  often  called  chil- 
dren or  Bonn.  Solomon,  in  his  Proverb?,  «ayi  to  hiadi*- 
ciple,  '■  Hear,  my  »n ;"  so  alao  our  Saviour(John  s  ' 
6).  The  deacendaiita  of  ■  man,  bow  remote  aoev 
■redenominated  bis  aons  or  children,  as  "the  childi 
of  Edom,"  "the  children  of  Moab,"  "the  children  of 
laniel."  Such  eipreasiona  aa  "  the  children  of  light," 
"the  children  of  d»rkne«»," ''the  children  of  the  king- 
dom," aignify  tboae  who  folio*  truth,  those  who  re- 
main in  error,  and  tboae  who  belong  to  the  Church. 
Poreona  arrived  almost  at  the  age  of  maturity  on 
aomctimes  called  children.  Tbui  Joseph  ia  termed 
"the  child,"  though  be  was  at  least  aixtoen  yean  old 
(Gen.  xxxvii,  30),  and  Benjamin,  even  when  alnve 
thirty,  wus  so  denominated  (Oen.  xliv,  30).  Solomon 
called  himself  a  little  child  when  he  came  to  the  king 
dom  of  his  father  (1  Kings  ill,  T).  See  Adoption 
Birth;  Sc>:<;  Inhbritakcbj  Eddcatioh,  etcj  and 
comp.  OiTSPBiMa, 

CHILD  OF  GOD.  The  terma  "child,"  "chil- 
dren." "babe,"  etc.,  are  used  In  the  N.T.  in  the  fol- 

I.  Pischologicalb)  these  terms  are  used  to  denote  a 
•tata  of  ii.-n[>ranca  and  of  intellectual  narrowness  or 
darkness  (Matt.xi,tei  Luko  vii,SJ;  1  Cor.  xlii,  11 : 
"  When  I  waa  a  child,  1  tpake  as  a  child.  I  Bndsn'l«id 
aauchild.l  thought  aa  a  child )"  xlv,!0;  "Brethi 

be  not  children  in  understanding;"  Eph.iv,  14;  "That 
ire  hf^rtforth  bo  no  more  children,  lueed  to  and  fro," 
etc. ;  Hell.  V,  13 :  "  For  everj-  one  that  naeth  milk,  ia 
nDshilful  in  tbe  word  of  righteousneai :  for  he  la  a 
babe^-). 

II.  In  the  rMicaisensctheyare  used,  in  the  abstract, 
to  designate  a  stule  of  innoceuce,  and,  in  the  concrete, 
to  signify  the  totality  of  ehiMreD,  towafdi  whom  holy 
■JutitfB  are  to  be  fulfilled  Iry  the  community,  and  par- 
ticnlurly  by  parents.  We  see  even  that  tile  appella- 
tion "  children"  is  used  by  the  Lord  aa  an  expression 
of  his  greatest  love  (Mark  x,  S4).  Children  ais  then 
dis^ngaiibed  by  moral  preference;  yet  from  this  it 
does  not  follow  that  they  ant  holy,  but  merely  tiiat 
they  are  yet  uncontamlnaled  by  actual  contact  with 
the  world.  They  are,  therefore,  partly  to  be  imitated, 
partly  to  )>e  restrained,  and  in  all  cases  to  be  the  ob- 
jects of  the  greateat  moral  iolicitads.  Aa  dntiea  of 
pdrentB  towards  children,  the  N.  T.  names  the  provid- 
ing for  their  wants,  giving  them  ttood  eumplea,  and 
bringing  tbeni  up  ia  the  fear  and  knowledge  of  Lbe 
Lord.  Children,  on  the  other  hand,  are  to  be  oliedi- 
«nt  to  their  pnrenU.  That  the  N.  T.  doea  not  Rive  a 
more  systematic  view  of  the  relative  moral  duties  of 
parents  and  children  ta  to  be  accounted  for  on  the 
ground  that  where  fisith  and  love  are  found,  all  the 
real  follows  naturally  (MatL  vii,  9-11;  Lnke  xi,ll; 
"What  man  \*  there  of  you,  whom  if  bit  eon  atk  bread, 
will  he  give  him  a  atone  ?  Or  If  he  ask  a  Itsh,  will  he 
girehim  a  serpent?  If  ye.  then,  being  evil,  know  how 
to  give  good  gifta  luto  your  children,  bow  much  more 


CHILDS 

■hall  yonr  Father  which  la  In  heaven  give  good  tbbigi 
to  tbem  that  ask  him  7"  xviil.  1-6;  Hark  ix,  U;  Luke 

Jesus,  saying.  Who  ia  tbe  greatest  in  the  kin/dom  at 
heaven  P  And  JesQS  called  a  little  child  unio  him, 
and  set  him  In  the  midst  of  them,  and  said,  Verily  I 
aay  unto  yon.  Except  ye  be  converted,  and  beoime  aa 
little  chiUren,  ye  shall  not  enter  into  tbe  kingd-.m  of 
heat'en.  Wboauever,  therefore,  shall  hunibk  b■lUM^lf 
as  thia  little  child,  tbe  same  ia  greateat  in  the  kingdom 
of  heaven ;  and  whoso  shall  receive  one  such  littla 
child  Id  my  name,  receivelh  ma").  See  abo  Hark  i, 
ia-16;  Matt,  xix,  18-15;  Ijike  iviU,  IS-IT;  !  Cor. 
xii,14;  Epb.vi,l^i  CoL  iii,  id,  31. 

ill.  In  the  ipirituat  aenae,  the  expression  "cUI< 
rtren"  designates  those  who  have  become  children  of 
God  through  Christ.  To  be  a  child  of  God  through 
Cliriat  is  to  have  atUinrd  the  highest  (moral)  perfoc. 
tion,  and  the  greatest  degree  of  holiness  of  which  hu- 
man nature  la  susceptible.  Thia  consciousness  of  its 
holy  parity  is  one  of  the  chancteriatica  of  Chriatlanllv 
(idBtt.xi,ID;  Luke  vii,  »3-35 ;  "  The  Son  of  man  came 
eating  and  drinking,  and  they  say,  Behold,  a  man  glut- 
tenouB,  and  a  wine-blbber,  a  friend  of  publicans  i;ljd 
sinners.  But  Wisdom  is  jnstified  of  her  children  ; ' 
i.  e.  those  whom  ChrlM  recogniaca  as  his  prove  ly 
words  and  deeds  that  they  are  the  children  of  wiwlom. 
See  also  HaU.  v,  9;  xv,  3G;  John  I,  IS;  Bom.  viii, 
14-17 :  "  For  ns  many  at  are  led  by  tbe  Spirit  of  God. 
tbey  are  the  sima  of  God.  For  ye  have  not  received 
tbe  spirit  nf  bondage  a^in  to  fear;  but  yc  have  re- 
ceived the  Spirit  of  adoption,  whefelir  we  cry,  Abba, 
Father.  Tbe  Spirit  itself  Imareth  witneas  with  oar 
spirit  that  we  are  the  children  of  God.  And  if  clUI' 
dren,  tbi-n  bi^iri;  heira  qf  God,  and  Joint  hein  with 
Christ,  if  Ml  be  timt  we  sutfer  with  him,  that  we  may 
bo  alao  glorilied  together;"  Rom.  ii,  8:  Gal.  iii,  M; 
iv,I>,6;  Epb.i.B;  Pbll.  11,16;  1  John  111,1,3,9,10; 
v,l,3i  Eph.  111,15;  Lukexi.SS;  Rom. viii, 28, etc.). 
— Krohl,  UiBtdie6rlai.  d.  N.T.t.  v.     See  AbOiTiox. 

Childbirth  (jicmyovia.  "child-bearing").  Tbe 
throes  of  accouchement  appear  In  Gen.  iii,  IG.  to  be 
part  of  the  doom  incurred  by  woman  for  her  a'^ney  in 
the  bll  in  Ed^n.  Her  passive  lot  in  thus  continufaiK 
the  race  is  aptly  expressed  in  that  primeval  sentenco : 
"  Unto  the  woman  he  said,  I  will  preallr  multTplj  tbr 
sorrow  and  thy  conception  ;  in  forrowthou  shall  bring 
forth  children;  and  thydesiro  shall  bo  to  thy  bnnlHind, 
and  he  shall  rule  over  Ibce."  See  Coiiabit*tiox. 
The  language  of  the  apostle  fn  I  Tim.  Ii.  15,  impUea 
that  a  patient  endurance  of  this  penallv  abet!  eontrib- 
nte  to  woman's  etdritnal  benelit.  The  Prayer-book  of 
the  Chnrch  of  England  prcacribes  a  form  of  public 
thanksgirlng  to  be  oirersd  Ibr  women  after  safe  delJT- 
ery  in  childbed.      See  Bmrn ;  Churchino. 

Ctiildetmaa.     See  IxNocEiiTa'  Dav. 

Chtldreu,    Citdrcii     McxitEBSHir    of.       Sea 

ChUdren.  CoxacHiox  or.     See  Ibpant  Com- 

Chllda,  JoHK  WEat-rr,  a  minister  of  the  Metho- 
dist Eplici^l  Church  Sooth,  waa  bom  in  Calvert  Co., 
Md.,  in  1800.     In  1814  ha  went  to  fiichmond.  Va., 
where  he  was  employed  aa  a  clerk.      In  183G  he  re- 
ceived license  as  a  local  pnacber;  In  1SS7  he  entered 
the  Baltimore  Conference  on  ptobatkin;  and  in  18S9 
he  was  admitted  into  Aill  coanectioa.      In  lt44,  when 
the  Methoditt  Episcopal  Church  was  divided  on  tbe 
slavery  quextion,  be  adhered  to  the  Southern  Cborcb, 
d  continued  to  serve  in  Important  appointments  np 
the  year  of  his  death.     He  died  May  9. 1850,  at  Nor- 
folk, Va.,  In  great  peace.    "Hia  highest  distinction  lay 
his  extraordinarj-  spirituality,  hia  dcadneas  to  tbe 
>rld,  hia  de>-otion  to  Chriat;  and  bi  thia  respect  it 
>y  reaaonably  be  doubled  whether  he  haa  had  his 
iDperior  in  modem  tiRwa.''—S|ffagnatJ«aa^  vii,  7Sa. 


CHILEAB  24 

Chll'eBb  (B«h.  KOA'  a^^S,  proltcted  by  tlw  /a-  ] 
An-.  L  t.  Hod;  Sept.  KiXiu/j  v.  r.  ^aXovta),  lbs  kc- 
«nd  Km  ot  king  David  by  Abigail,  Kabal'i  widow  (2  ■ 
&m,  iii,  3),  called  in  Uw  pusllel  pauage  (1  Cbroa.  iii, : 
I)  by  the  eqaiTalent  nami  Dakiel  (q.  v.).  Tbe  res-  I 
Mm  dT  thi*  twofold  nam*  it  uncertain  i  but  for  the  rab- 
binical notiona  concerning  it.  and  Hune  ■pacnlaLimu  of  i 
bia  own,  Kfl  Bochart,  l/iemt.  i,  60S.  I 

Chill,  a  npablic  of  Sooth  Amarlca,  witb  an  area  of 
•iKnt  ITl^OOO  aqnare  milei,  and,  according  to  tbe  cen- 
(Ma  uT  A[>ril,  18a5.  a  population  of  ■Ifi2i,i7a  toala,  al- 
mal  excliulTCly  Roman  Catholic  Tbcre  is  one  Ro- 
man arcbbisbaprie  at  Santiago,  and  three  blibuprlc*  at 
Snvna,  la  Conception,  and  San  Carlo*  de  Chlloe  (An- 
cnd).  The  number  of  pariah  prieiU  in  le&S  wai  163, 
of  convent!  of  monki-ll,  of  conTentiDfnnns7i  and  > 
bw  proTided  that  in  future  none  of  the  13  proTinces 
Aoald  bave  more  than  one  conTent  of  every  order. 
In  J»U  ttw  landed  pnipern'  of  th«  Cbarch  waa  conlis- 
ealad,  and  tince  that  time  tbe  clergy  have  been  paid  by 
the  Male.  In  the  budget  of  1H7, 190,030 pool  [Span- 
tab  dollars]  were  appropriated  fnr  this  parpoie.  The 
tducMJonal  InMltntionB  an  far  ahead  of  those  of  nnv 
other  SoDth  American  Mate.  At  the  Univeraity  of 
Santiago,  which  was  reorganltrd  in  1812,  and  whii^h 
nipcrintendt,  a>  the  Supreme  Edacational  Board  of  the 
Hate,  ail  other  educational  intUtullone,  leveral  G«^ 
man  Proteitaot  profeaaota  have  been  teaching  elnce 
U&T.  Tbe  Riviita  Catlolica,  publiabed  at  Santiaco,  i> 
(muaidercd  by  RoroanlMa  a»  one  of  the  beat  papera  of 
tbe  BoniMO  Church  in  Sooth  America. 

lo  Jaly,  196b,  the  Chilian  Congraw  had  a  long  and 
nimaied  diacuaaion  on  amending  Article  5  of  the  Chil- 
ian ConilitutiuD,  which  ii  as  follows:  "Tbe  religion 
of  tbe  republic  of  Chill  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  to  the 
eicioaion  of  tho  public  •xerci^e  of  any  other."  The 
AscnuiDQ  terminated  in  a  way  quite  aatisfactory  to 
the  Liberal  party,  notwithitanding  the  full  atrent;th  of 
the  UltrmmonUne  party  was  brought  to  bear  In  favor 
of  the  old  article.  The  amendment  to  the  Constitn- 
tion,  aa  adopted  by  Congreu  and  Mnctioned  by  Iho 
azHotive,  declared :  1.  That  ironbip  witliin  bnildings 
beloDging  to  private  persona  is  allowMl  tn  tboae  who 
do  not  profeas  the  Roman  Catholic  reli.ion;  and,  2. 
That  diiKnters  are  atloved  lo  catabllsh  and  anstain  pri- 
vate achoola  fat  tb»  ioatruction  of  their  own  children. 
The  Br«t  Protealant  misaion  of  Chili  waa  eaUfalwfaed  for 
Americana  and  Engliibmen  In  VelparaiMi  in  ISIS,  and 
ha)  now  become  aelf^uataining.  The  con^pigatinn  had 
in  1ȣ7  50  commnnicanti,  and  tbe  number  of  Sunday- 
Bcbool  scholan  roaa  in  1859  lo  100.  A  second  Froteet- 
mt  misaion  has  been  eatabliahed  in  Valpiraiao  for  tho 
German  refidtnts.  In  Santiago,  the  cafHtal  of  the 
repoblic,  the  Pnteatant  (chiefly  American)  residents  in 
Janury,  l866,fltlBd  opa  chapel  at  an  expcnae  of  tSOO, 
capable  of  ioating  1S5  persona.  Tbe  pnt<B  of  the  city 
gCDetaliy  made  a  kindl}'  notice  of  the  opening  exer- 
cbaa,  in  which  the  Ametican  and  the  Kngliah  minittera 
toek  part,  and  not  tbe  Itast  aign  of  disaatiiractlc 
manifested.  The  Proleslanta  witb  great  unanimity 
came  fonrard  hi  support  of  the  movement,  and  within 
me  week  after  the  opening  of  the  chapel  all  tlia  pews 
ware  rented.  In  1860  a  miasionEry  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican Uisaionaiy  Society  (of  En^landl,  the  Rev.  Allen 
Gardiner,  eatabliahed  himself  at  Lots,  in  Arauco  Bay 
(SDDtbem  Chili),  a  town  which  derived  its  chief  Im- 
potance  from  tbe  coal  mines  in  its  neigh liorhond.  In 
ISoU  not  leas  than  84  of  these  were  worked,  and  rome 
MOO  workmen  were  connected  with  them.  At  the  rc- 
<)BMt  af  the  EngUah  and  Scotch  families  engaged  in 
U*  Lota  mine*,  Mr.  Oardiner  establislnd  Sonday  aerv. 
leaa  at  tlta  miaalon-hOBas,  and  a  Sanday^chool  for  the 
cbPdnn.  The  oppoBitiaa  at  flnt  shown  liy  a  portion 
of  the  Roman  Cathidic  popalatlon  waa  gradually  over- 
cane,  and  the  Protestant  mission  pmcnred  and  secured 
Mligiooi  tolcntion  for  Ifao  PnlattaDt  Gommnnlty  ofthe 


5  CHILLINGWORTH 

Lota  mines,  by  a  contract  signed  to  that  effM  at  tha 
company's  office  In  a  public  manner,  and  alter  a  pub- 
lic meeting,  and  without  a  dissenting  voice.  The  mia- 
slonaries  also  took  care  of  tbe  spiritusl  interests  of  tho 

settlers  In  the  neighlxirbaad  with  opportnnitica  of 
Cbriatian  worship.  Having  in  the  meanwhile  ac- 
qnired  and  parfccled  themselves  in  the  Spanish  Ian* 
guage,  they,  in  IS6fi  and  1866,  made  several  itinerant 
visit*  into  tbe  territory  of  tlie  Indians,  and  took  the 
preliminary  steps  for  establishing  the  Indian  missblna 
npon  a  flrro  baaia.  In  1866  the  society  had  stationa  at 
Lota  and  Coqulmbo,  at  El  Carmea  in  Northern  Pata- 
gonU,  Keppel  IsUnd  (Falkland),  beaidcs  one  or  two 
station*  among  the  Arsueanian  Indians.  In  lire.  1866, 
the  aoctely's  ship,  the  "Allen  Gardiner,"  left  England 
with  four  natives  of  tbe  Terra  del  Fuego,  who  had  r^ 
ceived  a  Christian  education  in  £nKl>ind.  Tbe  flnt 
German  missionary  was  sent  to  Soutbem  Chili  in  1866 
by  the  Gnstavna  Adolpbna  Society  of  Germany.  Us 
began  preaching  half  of  the  time  at  Orsono,  und  the 
other  haifat  Puerto  Honte,  a  (moatly  German)  town  of 
16,0110  inhabiUnts,  in  a  region  which,  aa  late  as  1B50, 
waa  peopled  only  by  small  bodiea  of  aavages.  Tho 
German  ProteataDt*  of  this  town  have  bought  a  honie 
in  the  principal  aquara,  and  propose  to  build  a  chapel. 

Chillarch  (xiA'apXoc,  mfMoi'n  of  a  rkmnand;  A. 
T."h<gh  captain,"  Hark  vi,  21 ;  "captain,"  Joha 
xviii,  IS;  Rev.  xix,  18;  elsewhere  "chief  captain"), 
a  mUltary  title  occurring  freqnently  In  tbe  (Greek) 
Kaw  Test.  In  the  following  senaes.  See  Anuv.  1.  A* 
a  general  atste  i^ar  (Mark  vi,  31;  AcU  xxv,  S3; 
Her.vi,16i  xix,  IR;  camp.  Joeepbna,  ^xj.  vii.  2,  !). 
2.  Speclflcally,  a  tribKUt  of  tbe  soldiers  among  the  Ro- 
mans, aix  of  whom  formed  the  field  officers  of  f  very 
"  le^on"  (q.  v.),  corresponding  in  rank  nearly  to  our 
atloHtl  (tee  Smith's  Did.  nfClau.  Atttiq.  s.  v.  Exercl- 
tua)  1  in  the  N.  T.  spoken  individually  of  Claudius  Ly- 
slsi,  who,  SB  military  tribune,  in  tbe  capacity  of  a  mod- 
cm  major,  commanded  the  garrison  of  Fort  Antonia  at 
Jerusalem  (Acta  xxi,  SI  sq.;  comp.  Herodisn,  ii,  13, 
13;  Dion.  Hal.  .inf.  vi,  4).  3.  Particntarly  applied  t« 
tbe  praftet  or  (Lavitical)  euperintendent  of  order  in 
the  Temple  (John  iviil,  it).    See  Captais. 

Cfaillaam.     See  UiLLENXitm. 

CMIlasta.    See  Adventutk;  HiLLxsARiAHa. 

CUntin  (Heb.  irWjoa',  '{'''h^,  pimng  ;  Sept.  Xi- 
Xiuv  V.  T.  XtAaiuv),  the  younger  son  of  Elimelech 
and  Naomi  of  Bethlehem,  and  huaband  of  Orpab, 
Ruth's  siater ;  lie  died  childless  in  the  country  of 
Uoab(Rnthl,Sj  tv,  9).     B.C.  1360. 

ChlUlngwortb,  Willmh,  an  eminent  English 
divine  and  controvertltt,  was  bom  at  Oxford,  Ucto- 
ber,  1602.  (The  following  account  of  him  la  modi- 
fled  ftvm  an  article  In  the  EeglUk  Ct/rl'paJia,  vbicb 
is  baaed  on  the  Bi<igraphia  Brilamira.)  In  1613  he 
was  a  Bcholar,  and  in  10-28  a  fellow,  of  Trinity  College 

I  preserved  by  Anlh.  Wood  ("Athcn.  Oxon."  c.  20),  wba 
'  Baya  "be  would  often  walk  In  the  college  grove,  and 
dispute  with  onr  acholar  be  met,  pur|>osely  to  facili- 
tate and  make  the  way  of  vnn^iii^  common  with  him, 
which  waa  a  rashtnn  used  in  thoae  dayp,  especially 
among  tho  disputing  tbeologists,  or  those  who  set 
themselves  apart  purposely  for  divinity."  The  com* 
parative  merits  of  the  English  and  Romish  churches 
were  at  thst  time  a  subject  of  lealona  and  Inceaaant 
diaputation  among  the  Univenity  etudcnti<,  and  sev- 
eral learned  Jesuits  succeeded  tn  making  dittingui»h- 
!  cd  pnwelvtes  among  the  Protestant  clcrty  end  noliil- 
I  ity.  ChlUingworth,  being  an  able  disputant,  was  ain- 
I  cled  out  by  the  hmons  Jeanit  Usher,  alias  Johanne* 
Perseus  {hibUatk.  Boe.  Jm),  by  whom  be  wa*  con- 
vinced of  the  necesalty  for  an  Infillibie  living  "Rule 
of  Faith."  On  thia  be  at  once  adopted  the  Roman 
CathJlc  lyalam,  wrote  out  bia  reasons  for  alijuring 


CHILLINGWOETH 


246 


CHIMNEY 


ProUaUDtism,  andjoinadtha  JwnlUlnthalr  college  *t 
Douaj.  After  Ibe  lapM  of  a  few  moncbs,  the  argu- 
mvtita  addreued  to  him  by  hla  godfather  Laud,  then 
bishop  of  London,  induced  him  to  abandon  bit  naw 
fiUth,  Biu'  he  returned  ta  Oxford  In  lESl,  where  he 

tenets.  The  reaijine  of  DaJUe  on  the  IHghl  Um  of  Ax 
FtUhert  i*  aaid  to  have  DdhU;  determined  him. 

In  1635  he  published  hia  gnsat  work,  The  RtSgion 
of  Frolalantt,  a  tafe  W03  (o  Stiealiim.  It  paiKd 
through  two  edilioQi  in  lean  than  Ave  moutha.  The 
principte  ofChillingoartb  ia  that  the  volunw  of  Divine 
Scriptures,  aaeertalned  to  l»  Bucb  liy  ths  ordinary 
rulea  of  htatorical  and  critical  inveMigatlon,  la  to  be 
coniidered  the  sole  authority  ofChriatlana,  to  tbe  nt. 
ter  axcluaion  of  eccleaiastical  tradition.  The  Jesuit 
Knott,  aliaa  Mattbiaa  Wilaon  {BOIislk.  Patnm  Soc. 
Jan,  p.  ISA),  contended  that  he  "deatroyed  the  natare 
of  faith  by  rewlviuK  U  Into  rBason."  Cheynell  (q. 
T.)  alao  opposed  Cbillingworth  from  the  Puritan  side. 
ChillinKworth  in  tbe  mean  time,  unable  to  approve 
every  statement  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  refused 
to  accept  any  preferment  in  tbe  Churcb.  "  Howev- 
er, In  a  veiy  short  time  he  waa  persuaded  by  tbe  ar- 
guments of  Sheldon  and  Laud  that  peace  and  union 
are  the  real  object  of  subscriptioo,  not  belief  or  assent 
— a  doctrine  held  by  Archbishop  Sancmft  and  many 
other  eminent  divines.  Accordingly  ha  accepted  the 
chancellorship  of  Salisbury-,  with  tbe  prebend  of  Brix- 
wortb.  Kurthamplonshiro,  annexed.  Chillintprorth, 
in  ]<rlO,  was  deputed  by  the  chapter  of  Salisbury  as 
their  proctor  to  the  Convocation  in  London.  He  was 
attached  very  zealoasly  to  the  royal  party,  and  wrote 
a  treatbe  (unpublished)  on  Tht  ITnlar/ulnta  afrrtiit- 
ing  the  laurftil  Priitct,  alllifvsh  nod  impi'inu,  ryran- 
nical,  and  id-Jatrouj."  Being  present  in  tbe  army  of 
Cbarles  I  at  the  siege  of  Gloucester,  August,  1G4;!,  he 
acted  as  engineer,  and  devised  the  construction  of  en- 
gines, in  imitation  oftbe  Roman  "  teetudines  cum  plu- 
teia,"  lo  assault  tbe  rebels  and  take  tbe  city  liy  storm. 
Having  accompanied  tbe  king's  forces  under  Lord 
Hopton  to  Arundel  Castle,  he  waa  (here,  with  his  com- 
rades, taken  prisoner  by  the  Parliament  army  under 
SirWilliam  Waller,  and  falling  ill,  he  was  (hence  con- 
veyed (o  the  bishop's  palace  at  Chichester,  where  he 
died,  and  was  buried  in  January,  1644.  (The  precise  I 
(Jot  ia  nnt  ascertained,  but  it  was  probably  Jnnuarj- ; 
so!)  Dr.  Cheynell.  then  rector  of  Petworth,  who  had  1 
shown  Cbillingworth  great  kindness  during  hla  illne», 
appeareil  at  the  grave,  with  tbe  work  of  ChiUingworth  ! 
(Btlffi/a  nf  Prolatanti)  in  his  hand,  and,  after  an  ad-' 
monitory  oration  on  the  dangerous  tendency  of  its  ra<- 1 
tianaliem,  lie  flung  it  into  the  grave,  exclaiming,  "  Get| 
thee  gone,  thou  cursed  book,  wlilch  has  seduceil  to  I 
many  predons  souls ;  get  thee  gone,  thou  corrupt,  rot- 1 
ten  lKK>k.  earth  to  earth,  dnst  to  dual — go  rot  with  thy 
author!"  See  CHETKELr- 
Tbe  result  of  his  remarkable  proficiency  in  "  wran- 
gling" is  atated  by  bis  friend  Lord  Clarendon  (//is- 1 
toryvftke  Rtbrliim)  to  have  lieen  that  "ChiUingworth  . 
had  contracted  such  an  irresolutioD  and  lialdt  of  doubt- , 
log,  that  at  Ust  be  was  conlldent  of  nothing."  Til- ', 
lotson  styled  hun  "the  imcompatable  Cbillingworth;". 
and  Locke  says  (on  "Education"),  "II  you  would' 
have  your  son  to  reason  well,  let  him  read  Chilling-  I 
worth;"  and  ngnia  (on  "Stndy"),  "For  attaining  I 
right  reaiwnlng  I  propose  the  conatant  reading  of  I 
Cbillingworth ;  for  thie  purpose  he  deaervas  to  be  read  ; 
over  and  over  awalnj"  bnt  Anth.  Wood'a  opinion  is 
not  outdone  by  any.for  he  declarea  that  "Chilling- 
worth  ha<1  auch  extraordinary  clear  reaaon  that,  if  the  ! 
great  Turk  or  the  devil  could  be  converted,  As  was  able 
to  do  it."  In  theolog)'  he  is  clasaed  with  tbe  "  Lstl- 
tudinarians"  (q.  v.).  The  best  edition  of  Tkt  Rtlipon ' 
HfProtatanU  is  that  in  fol.  17*2,  with  sarmone,  etc.,  \ 
and  a  life  ofthe  author  by  Dr.  Birch.  It  has  been  of-' 
ten  reprinted.— Dea  Maiieaux,  Zi/e  of  Cl^Unswortit  \ 


(1726,eva);  Klppis, Siofropita AribBHuyi, ill, t08 sq.| 
iiook,  Eccla.  Biography,  Iv,  1.  The  beat  modem  edi- 
tion of  bis  works  is  that  of  Uiford,  1B38  (3  <rols.  8vo). 
There  ia  also  a  cheap  American  edition  (Svo),  with  Lift 
by  Birch  (Philadelphia,  1848). 

Chil'mad  (Ileb.  KUmad',  ^9^3,  etymology  un- 
known; SepL  \apf>av  v.  r.  XoX/uiv  and  XoA/uifS; 
Vulg,  OWnffiOi  ■■>  Asiatic  place  or  ci  ' 
ed,  in  conjunction  with  Sheba  and  Aashur,  as  a  in 
emporium  with  the  Tyrians  (Eiek.  xicvii,  SB), 
onl}~  name  bearing  any  similarity  to  it  is  CharK 
(Xap^taviii),  a  "  large  and  flourishing"  town  near  the 
Buphmtes,  between  the  Hascas  and  tbe  Kabylanian 
frontier  (Xen.  Anab.  i,  6,  10;  comp.  Steph.  Bye  p. 
754),  an  identilication  generally  adopted  since  Bocban 
(Canaan,  i,  18,  p. 480).  Hitiig  (CummaU.  «.  Eak.  1.  c.) 
proposesto  alter  tbe  punctuation  to  *m?I,  JCWinntBd', 
giving  the  sense  "Asshur  was  ai  thy  J*^  in  com- 
merce," aa  first  auggesled  by  KlmcU  (In  loc.).  The 
Chaldee  Tai^m  baa  '■^'S,  Media.  For  other  oooject- 
nres,  see  RosenmUller  In  loc.     See  CaALD.SA,  p.  198, 

CUma.     See  Bell;  CT11B4L. 

Cfaiiii«r«  (Fr.  cAtaure,rrom  (be  Italian  dnnrra). 
The  upper  robe  worn  by  a  bishop,  t«  which  the  lawn 
sleeves  are  generally  attached.  Before  Eliubetb'i 
time  the  bishopa  wore  a  scarlet  chimera  over  tha 
rocbet,  as  they  still  do  when  aaMmbled  in  convoca- 
tion 1  bnt  bishop  Hooper  having  acropled  at  the  acat> 
lot,  it  waa  changed  for  black  satin — Palmer,  Orig, 
Ularsiat,  11,  319. 

Chim'luuil  (Heb.  Kimiam',  VTS'S,  pimiig  ;  SepL 
Xi/ia<i/i  V.  r.  Xa/iBiiji),  a  follower,  and  probably  a  son 
(.loseph. 'A;(r/ioiD(;,  Ant.  vii,ll,4;  and  comp.  1  Kinga 
ii,  7)  of  Barzillai  the  Gilcadito,  who  returned  in  bis  stead 
from  l>eyond  Jordan  with  David  on  his  reatoration  after 
Absalom's  rebellion  (i  Sam.  xix,  37, 3S,  40,  which  last 
vorsB  gives  the  name  aa',n^3,Ximbn').  B.C.10S3. 
David  appeara  to  have  bestowed  on  blm,  as  ■  reward 
fur  bis  loyalty,  ■  possession  at  Bethlehem,  on  which. 
In  later  time?,  an  inn  or  than  (n^^l),  called  alter  him 
(Sept.  ["ijjJjHHii&nn/iriaji ;  Vulg.  prryrinaiitei  n  Cha- 
maam;  A.  V.  "  habitation  of  Cbimham  ;"  the  text  hoi 
10  eniaS,  i.  e.  orratt^,  KiMvham'i  Sept.  v.  r. 
raliaiipwxapa,  yp  Bopiia  Xn;tdnfi,  etc.),  was  standi 
ing,  well  known  as  the  starting-JK^nt  for  travcllere 
ttcm  Jerusalem  to  Ei.-ypt  (Jer.  xli,  IT).  Blunt  notirea 
in  this  mention  of  tho  dwelling  of  Cbimham  at  Beth- 
lehem an  indication  of  tbe  actual  muniticenc«  of  David 
to  the  family  of  BanilUi,for  which  we  sre  prepared 
liy  the  nnnative  in  Samuel  and  Kings  (iUndtngned  Ot- 
intidemxi,  6th  ed.  p.  150).    See  Isn. 

Ctaimiiey  (na^X,  ambboA',  a  laltier,  in  tbe  sing., 
Hos.  liil,  B;  Sept.' »..irn)W;CT  i  Vnlg./amanum ;  else- 
where in  the  plur.  a  mndow,  a»  closed  by  lattice-work 
instead  of  glass,  F-ccl.  xii,  B;  a  dovecote,  as  aealed 
with  lattice-work,  Isa.  Ix,  ^  especially  in  the  phrase 
"windows  of  heaven"  [q.  v.]>,  an  opening  coveted 
with  lattice-work  through  which  the  smoke  passes 
(Hos.  xiii,  S).  The  aame  word  Is  elsewhere  rendered 
"window."  Houses  in  the  East  are  not  fumtshed 
with  stoves  and  fireplacee  as  among  ua.  The  fHiel  is 
heaped  Into  a  pot,  which  is  placed  in  fl  fiart  bellowed 
out  for  that  purpose  in  the  centre  of  the  paved  flnrrr. 
Tbe  smoke,  therefore,  escapes  thinngh  the  windows 
(Isa.  xliv,  16;  xlvii,  14).  See  Hodbk.  Sometimes 
tho  tire  is  placed  directly  in  the  holhiw  place,  or  hearth, 
in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  as  mentioned  hr  Jeremiah 
(xxxvi,  22).     Chimney"  appear  to  have  been  1 


in  the  TO 


t,  but  nc 


vell- 


ing-houaes.  They  were  termed  Cvr-A>htm,  a 
ing  furnace,  which  is  the  name  of  a  city  mentioned  in 
1  Sam.  XIX,  80,  probably  where  many  workora  In  met- 
al resided.    Sncb  appears  to  be  referred  lo  by  tba 


■ckfanMTi  in  Sion"  of  tbe  Apocr^lu  (S  E)di.  tI,  4, 

IIHIMl)         Sm  FUKKICE. 

China  (mc  Sinih),*  vut  country  of  AiU,  eiLcnd- 
itg  (iacludinir  ib  dependeDcien)  fnini  20°  to  &6°  N., 
uA  rradi  144°  &0'  E.  to  9U°  E.  IM  ana  Is  OTer  four 
ud  *  lulr  million  HiDuii  inllci^  includioK  one  third  of 
Aui.  ud  nurly  one  tenCb  of  the  habit«Lilt  globe.  The 
tafim  ii  divided  Into  three  prlncigiil  parts :  firii,  tbe 
HgblAen  provinceH  ;  arcond,  Manchooria;  Uard^  colo- 
aial  ptKHuiooa.  The  last  mcludei  Mongolia,  Sunm- 
ria,  Eiilern  Turkittan,  Roko-nur,  and  Thibet.     The 

lag  ttxvSiy  in  China,  and  includea  tbe  territorv  Ij'in^ 
tan  of  the  Inner  Duarian  tlountains,  and  notth  of  the 
Galrof  Lian  Yung,  Tbejinl  division  i>  China  Proper 
(between  18°  and  40°  N.  laL,  includini;  Hiinan  on  the 
Haifa;  and  between  9H°  and  124°  E.  lani;.).  It  to 
llu  snlf  part  aetllcd  \j  Chinese.  "  It  liea  dd  the  eait- 
eni  tlope  of  tbe  hlgb  talile-lsnd  of  Central  Asia,  and 
ID  [he  sonth-eaat  angle  of  the  continent,  and  for  beau- 
IT  of  (cenery,  fertilitj'  of  soil,  salubrity  of  climate, 
1  beautiful  riven,  and   variety  and 


Hill  cr 


ilnodanca  of  ita  produc 
^ntion  of  the  globe"  (IVilliains,  Middk  /finjdum,  i, 
lu  eatimated  area  ia  nearly  'i,0O0,OU0  iquare  miles 
tn  fifths  of  tbe  empire. 


7  CHINA 

■nd  Impartial  Jodgment;  and  thma  vbo  have  rtsldad 

long  in  the  caantiy,  and  know  tbem  well,  have  ar- 
rived at  very  different  conciuAtons.  M.  Hue  asserts 
that  they  are  'destitato  of  religious  feelings  and  bs- 
liefg,'  '  skeptical  and  indifferent  to  everything  that 
coDcems  tbe  moral  side  of  man,'  '  their  whole  lives  buP 
malerialism  put  in  action;'  but  'ail  this,'  says  Mr. 
Meadows  (7^  Ckitt  and  lirir  lltbrl&ant,  Lond.  18d6), 
*  is  baseleps  calumny  of  tbe  higher  life  of  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  human  race.'  He  admits,  indeed,  that  these 
ctiargBS  are  true  of  the  mats  of  the  Chinese,  JLat  as 
they  are  true  of  the  English,  French,  and  Americans ; 
but  as  among  these  there  is  a  large  amount  of  gencroa- 
ity  and  right  feeling,  and  aiao  'a  minority  higher  in 
nature,  actuated  by  higher  motives,  aiming  at  higher 
aimi,'  so  also,  he  maintainr,  is  there  among  the  CU- 
nesa  a  similar  right  feeling,  and  a  like  minority  wbo 
live  a  higher  life  than  the  people  generally.  'I'he  Chi- 
nese are,  as  a  race,  anwarlikp,  fond  of  peace  and  do- 
mestic order,  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  organization 
and  local  aelf-government,  sober,  indujlrious,  prac- 
tical, unimaginative,  literary,  and  deeply  imbued  with 
the  mercantile  spirit.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  hh 
habitants  of  China  Proper  are  easenUally  one  people, 
the  differences,  excrpt  in  dialect,  lieing  hsrdly  more 
marked  than  between  the  Northnmbrian  peasant  and 


Map  of  China  Pnper. 


a,  Uvglt,  rte.  —  The  total  population  of 
ChiBa  Proper  was  STl  millions  in  \»\b,  S96  millions  in 
Ig^andiaatpresentesUmatedat  410  or  ISO  millions. 
Thia  vast  population  haa  an  ancient  and  peculiar  civ- 
iliution.  The  Chinese  are  generally  classed  in  the 
ttongolian  varlHy  of  the  human  race.  "A  tawny  or 
]iarchiiirnt<«lorcd  skin,  black  hair,  lank  and  coarse,  a 
thin  beard,  obliqne  eyes,  and  high  cbeek-bonea,  are  the 
principal  characteristics  of  tbe  race.  Of  the  general 
character  of  the  Chinese,  it  is  not  easy  to  fona  a  fiiir 


the  Cornish  miner.  The  soutb-eastem  Chinese— the 
people  of  Kwang-tnng,  Fuh-knen,  and  the  south  of 
Cht^keang— are  the  most  restless  and  enlerprislng  In 
all  the  eighteen  provinces,  and  may  l>c  regarded  aa  the 
Anglo-gaxoni  of  Asia.  In  tbe  monntninoUB  districta 
of  the  four  soDth-eutem  provinces  of  China,  but  prin- 
cipally in  Kwing-se,  are  certain  tribes  who  maintain 
a  rude  independence,  wear  a  ppcullar  drrss,  and  an 
descended  from  the  aboriginal  inhatiitants  of  China, 
or  these  tlie  Meaou.tu  are  tbe  best  known.         i 


CUIKA  248  CHINA 

"  Women  hold  ■  vny  Inferior  poaltion,  and  *re  little  I  opened  to  mlMioniriea,  ■  greit  put  of  tboM  ntanA 
better  than  >Uvee.  Polytfunj'  ia  not  recognited  by  to  In  the  foregoin);  calculstion  labored  >t  other  [ilio(« 
Uv,  but  Hecondity  wIvBg  are  common,  eEpeciallj'  when  on  the  coa<t,  touth  oF  China — »e  Htlacca,  Singapore, 
the  lirat  proves  barren.  Infanticide,  though  regarded  and  Betftvia — where  tbe  climate  Is  mimeT  and  more 
U  a  crime,  l>  nndoubledl;  practiced  to  some  extent,  as  UDwholeaome  than  in  China.  From  tbese  slatements, 
ii  proved  bf  edicts  iuuad  againtt  It.  Hllne  (/.(/e  n  '  we  think  onnelvea  justified  in  uyingtliat  the  (^olon 
CrtijKi)  denies  its  prevalence  [hut  Doolittla  (vol.ii,ch.  I  in  regard  to  the  nnwholasonnnew  of  this  climate  i*  not 
Till)  abuDdantlf  confirms  tt].  Parent!  poseeaa  almuM  I  aiutalned  (ij  beta"  (Uacla^,  in  MttlvdU  QuarUHif, 
unlimited  authority  over  their  children.     The  Inter-  j  Oct.  IS&O.  p.  696). 

oonree  of  the  Chinese  with  each  otber,  especially  in  the  |  H.  RtEgioKi  ofChxaa  (modified  ftnm  Pierer,  Umrer- 
npper  classes,  li  regulated  by  a  tedious  and  eluborale  '  Kil-LtxikoK,  Iv,  6).~-l.  PnmitiiK  RtSgiim.  The  oldest 
etiquette;  indeed,  they  are  the  slaves  of  custom,  end  religion  oftheChineso  was  very  Blmple.  Thelrsoprame 
everything  is  done  by  precedenL  'A  Chinaman,' says  object  of  worship  was  SoSaiMt  (supreme  ruler;  also 
Mr.  Oliphant, '  has  wonderful  command  of  feature ;  he  called  during  his  life  Ti-rn,  Tfon,  or  Tim  [Heaven]), 
gencrully  looks  roost  pleased  when  he  has  least  reantn  Objects  of  inferior  wonhlp  were  the  ^Irit  of  the  earth, 
to  be  so,  and  maintains  an  expression  of  imperturhable  the  spirits  of  the  cities,  the  monnUins,  tbe  streams,  tbe 
polilene.w  and  amiability  when  he  is  secrelly  regret-  tutelar  deities  of  agriculture,  of  the  hearth,  of  ll»e  bol- 
ting devoutly  that  he  cannot  bastlnade  you  to  death.'  den,  of  tlie  gutes,  the  originators  of  agricnlnre  and  of 
The  l^Ki«3,  or  Book  of  Riles,  regulalea  Chinewi  maiv-  the  raising  of  Bilk-worms,  the  wise  men  of  olden  tinwa, 
ners,  and  ia  one  cause  of  their  on  changeable  nesa,  for  the  souls  of  ancestom,  partlcularlv  of  the  deceased  em- 
bere  they  are  stereotyped  and  handed  down  IVom  age  :  perors.  The  gods  were  to  be  {unpitiBted  by  prayer, 
to  ago.  The  ceremonial  usages  of  China  have  been  ,  and  their  favor  purchased  by  sacriflces.  Kowhere  Id 
_•: — —J  ..  ..wu.  ._..  —  ^f  ,1,6  tribunals  at  Pekin—    this  system  do  we  find  any  tnwe  of  immortality  or  of 


the  Board  of  Riles — is  charged  with  their  interpreta- 
tion. 

"  In  evelything  that  relates  to  death  and  sepnllnre, 
the  CBStoms  of  the  Chinese  siv  singular.  They  meet 
their  last  enemy  with  apparent  oncuncem ;  but,  while 
their  future  stale  troubles  them  Uttle,  they  regi 


moral  law. 

2.  Confw:iaiHtm.~Ji!t<!t  the  fall  of  the  7WA«i  dy- 
nasty this  old  rellglan  fell  into  disuse.  About  B.C. 
hb\  appeared  the  reformer  Kong-fu-tse  (see  Cosfd- 

cius),  who  attempted  to  introduce  better  morals,  aod 
to  improve  the  political  and  social 


quality  of  their  colBn,  es  of  vital  importance,  and  frc-   „i^(,n,  of  the  people.     Confucius  taught  that  tnm 

quently  provide  them  during  their  lifetime ;  indeed,  a    ^^  original  Being  Tai-ki  proceeded  Yang  and   Km. 

™-.  .™,ptable  present,  and  is    y         jha  Perfict,  is  the  essence  of  heaven,  of  the  gnn. 


fteqnently  given  by  children  to  their  . 
cation,  as  lh;hiKh  roid  to  official  employment,  to  rank, 
wealth,  and  induence,  is  eagerly  sought  by  all  dasses. 
Utcrury  priilii:ieucy  (conRned,  however,  to  the  ancient 
'clastia'  of  the  country)  commanda  everywhere  re- 
■pBCt  and  con^eratton,  and  primary  instruction  pene- 
trates to  the  remotest  villages.  Self-auppoTting  day- 
•chooli  are  universal  throughout  the  country-,  and  the 
offlce  of  teacher  is  followed  by  ■  great  nnmber  of  the 
Blerati.  Government  provides  state  examiners,  but 
does  not  otherwise  assist  in  the  education  of  the  peo- 
ple" (Chamben,  Encyckfpadia,  s.  v.).  The  best  mod- 
em account  of  the  customs  and  religions  usages  of  the 
Chinese  is  given  in  Doolittie's  Surial  Life  o/rhr  Chi- 
-  k(N.Y.,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1KG5,  ^  vols.  12mo). 


day,  heat,  and  manhood,  and  la  represented  by  — 
Ten,  the  Impafict,  Is  the  essence  of  the  moon,  nuui, 
night,  cold,  and  womanhood,  and  is  represented  by 

.     These  two,  by  simple  combination,  give 

four  signs  (Ssfrsi-anfr),  vli.  ,  — .  — , =, 

^  ^ ;   and  by  double  combination  the  eight  tri- 
grammo!  of  the  Ktm,  vii.  ^^^  Heaven,  tbe 

original  dampness,  =^  ^  the  fire,—  -  wind.  ~= 
water,  =:^  =  moonlaina,  ^r  ^^  thunder,  =  =  ths 
earth.  Tbese  ligaros,  disposed  In  a  circle,  were  used 
liy  Confnclaa  to  illustrate  the  creation  of  the  world. 
They  had  also  an  ethical  meaning,  twing  used  to  rep- 
resent the  cardinal  virtues,  piety,  morality,  justice,  and 
chas^ty.  But  of  any  spoken  or  written  revcIatioD 
in  his  doctrines.     Confucius  eayi 


□  1        j^i.   .       .     .'  .■  >^i      I-     I     ^  r.j   .  T      uie™    IB   no  ti»cn  in    uis   uociriues.      t.xwii 

8.1  .ta  Ohp^.n^  ,\™u».  •/!!<  fiirt  •/'*•■   m™i,  ax  ih.  Hm™.  .n  .nm,  tlxy  »,  »,  » 
.■IJ,.  .  "'■'"J"-  ("•  1^-.  "-V'  "nJ  "■•U-  !  i„„„  |„  ,b,,,  ,!,„,  ,„  ,.  ,.«,„.   'tK™  .b- 

en,  issa,  Bro;.  .u  .  ..    j,.     ,      ,1  ol-y  tbe  lew  of  Heeven  u  preHnted  in  Neture  will 

Tb.™  .  .pe.nl  ,e,p».»,  tot  tb.  ei««.  el    j,  ^  ,b...  .be  d.  eoi.  be»,me  .el-pp,.     I. 

Cbin.  I.  .peoJl,  .""l.toeee.     11»>  IM.  1.  •.>  »  I  ^1.  ,"L,  ..  bed  ,.  eeUee  .Ube,  ef  lme,eV3i,T  ,. 

=s.-sLrc^^s^;tr,°ir3^ ,  - -a^"»;rb;.'Lr.='pr.£^';;:,ti 

?i,   'i?";  '  'HT    ,","°^'  "■"'■"i?""   1.  permllled  te  m.ri««  te  tbi  bisbo.t  Il«,..e.     Tbe 
J    ,  E;"^!         T'X^':         L""f.i"*t";  '  "»«»«•  »'  C..l.el..  ...  -eJ  ..d  .„..»ded  -lU, 
T,\,ni  Hem  tbe  werk.    Of  .J«e  ,be  d,rf,  ee.  b.1 !  ii,„.„    „„  ,b,  ,„  ..j  ,sib  .f  .,Sy  m.etb  b, 

lived  i™i,^.v.»  ,e«.  lb  lb.  f,.ld  ejMbe,  .1x1...  f^j.^.  ,.'„b.,  ef  „„„,„,,  „d  Ceeferfe.  Met 
r«n,  1-0  for  .„bt  ye.™,  eed  tbe  ».t  fi,  ,ben.r  ij-  ^„ ,,  b,,„^  „  .  „,„  „,,  5;„j.„  „  „,,„^ 
ned.  Tbe.,  ee  ee  .T.reje,  dmej  fl-ty  y....,  th.  ,  ^,  „  b„  „,  „.,.  eeltiv.W  ,!.».  ef  Cbie.  el- 
.ember  el  d«.lb.  ...eg  lb.  PmCTlul  m»»nm,.  „'.„  „,^„,„.  „,  ,j,„  „,,  „,  ,b,  s.^..,, 
we.  .lib.  n«.,ir™  .  ""•'"'•■_,  °"^  Z  ""  I  »"■'  >^'"  d«lB..t..  ^  lb.  f.eed.tl..  el  .11  K<i.i 
,   Tl  "'";■■""•  ■""■I'"'  '" J»S"  '1^    vine.,  I,  Lend  .meeglb,  »vles.  ef  reeled..  In  Ih. 

menls  of  labor  In  China;  some  returned, for  various  , .■'     , i.wi!l. ..  _  j-  _..  ^i.i.  j . 

....        .-      ,      ,        ,    .,  '         , ,.      ,      negative  form:  **  n  hat  vou  do  not  wish  doneto  your- 

leasons,  lo  their  native  land,  and  others  were  ob  ged,    ..,,    .         ,  j    ,    _,i.      '..     r    .1.    of.^..^  .-        ■• 

,_ ' f 'ii  u     1,1.  1   1  .V    a  ij      c  _        "*if,  do  not  do  to  othere.        In  the  "  Lonvprsations, 

Inconsffluencoof  ill  health,  to  leave  the  field.     Forty.    ,^  '    „    ^^    ,    ..,    ,,  „„._  ,™j„.^  i!t.  .  »Ju. 
i-.i.   *'  I  .  .'■■  T    .-,1 T         ^«.i  ■  bk.  XV,  ch.  x.Tiii,  it  appears  condensed,  like  a  teie- 

z  fri'ibZj.r'.'.i'^i'X  .°i'd;'."'S  «~-.r  ■*  ■'"■■•■^-  ^  •'•■'""  '"^ 

«Ojoy»  excellent  health.     Others  have  been  here  for  , """  *  '' 

twentv,  ten,  and  Ave  vears,  according  to  the  time  they  "    '"   P"'  "*    «*  »fc  fi  inf. 

entered  the  work.     We  have  not  the  means  for  mak-  ""  "'"*  "'  "''^  "*  ''  "  ™"- 

ing  an  extensive  comparison,  hot  we  think  these  sta- 1      8.  La/t-TW  or  IJi-rIm, — Nesriy  on  a  level  with  Con- 

dslics  will  compare  favorably  with  Ihoea  of  any  body  '  fucios  we  find  the  reformer  and  philosopher  Lao-taa 

of  ministers  in  America  or  England.      It  should  also    (Ijio-kinnl  or  I.iM-hik.  who  considen  the  7>io  (or  Orif- 

ba  reniemlien;d,tbat  as  China  has  only  recently  tweo   ihI  Aouim)  as  the  origin  of  all  tbing^fn)m  whom  pn- 


CHINA  24 

ended  tt  (Int  one,  thai  two,  then  three  dHne  nUnm 
(Ki.  Bi,  Qmri).  His  moral  tuching  li  Dut  m>n  Is  to 
tDJay  life,  the  higheit  aim  being  to  become  free  from 
eitenul  evili  and  from  iowud  carea.  In  thii  relig' 
kn  (the  fbllowera  ot  which  an  called  TrunMt,  Taniiti) 
n  Had  a  belief  in  iplrita  bavin);  an  influtDce  over  the 
dotiniea  of  nun.  After  death  the  nutcrial  part  only 
of  min  beloBB)  to  the  earth ;  the  higher  and  lower 
Fpiiitnil  parti  (^IJiig  and  Ilu-ni)  pan,  after  thii  lifti, 
btu  diff^nnt  tpirita.  Each  place  haa  Ita  tutelar  i^z- 
iU;  Ud  apirita  (Iwaya  lead  mao  into  evil,  but  thej 
ue  confined  to  the  euth.  Tbie  religioii  haa  a  pariic- 
■lir  foiestliood  (In  the  higher  degreea  of  which  cell- 
t*r^  ii  enforced),  and  a  great  nanibcr  of  templea.  It 
■ai  oripnalt  J  embraced  li;  the  higher  and  riclier  clua- 
n,  but  hu  much  degenented  of  late,  and  ita  priests 
hare  becomfl  little  better  than  Jugjiler*. 
•'8t»a  CiUg,  (he  'Thtve  Pore  Onca,'  ia  tbe  till* 


The  Tbna  I'or*  Oiua. 
«t  certain  three  kloli  (band  in  temptea  belonging  to 
the  Tanist  retlgloQ  and  woTBhipped  by  Tanlat  prieata. 
Tba  images  an  leated  (Ma  bj  aide.     One  of  them,  as 
nme  explain,  reprtsenta  LA-chU,  or  the  'O'd  Bog,'  the 
finnder  of  that  religion.    Othen  explain  that  the  three 
iraajei  refer  to  three  different  incimationa  of  LO-chQ. 
There  ia  very  little  known  among  the 
nniiMn]  people  about  these  divinitiea,  and 
Iber  are  very  eeldom  worshipped  by  them. 
TiDiat  prieata  of  twCh  claasea  univerpally 
woTfhip  the  Three  Pnre  Onea"  (Donllttle, 
Swirl'  Ufe  ^iflhe  Ckiaetc,  I,  219). 

4.  ffiiiUa.— The  third  religion  ofCfaina 
b  that  of  Fo,  or  Buddka,  introduced  from 
bdiaaboDt  the  year  A. D.  66,  which,  bow- 
•TrT,  became  CDrnmingled  with  the  re- 
main! of  tbe  old  Chinese  religion  and  with 
■heiuaximnofCanrnclBS.  With  the  great 
■Bjarilj  of  the  people  it  haa  annk  into  a 
enine  idoUtr}'.  The  Dalai  Lama  ie  in 
China  replaced  bj  the  fioK-dnM-M-fr-da- 
si  u  the  rpiritaa'l  bead.  The  prit^i  are 
aWrAbomm^Cbiaett  Sengar  H<n)iaiig\ 
•nd  number  more  than  one  million.  The 
fewer  orders  of 


higher  ordon 
and  obliged  to  itady  their  ralipona  hooka. 
Thrr*  arc  also  female  bonsea,  living  in 
coovrnla  like  the  Romaniit  nniu.  The 
tfrnfUi  arc  either  mere  chapele,  or  else 
Urin  tdirices  inrronnded  hy  columns,  at 
the  end  of  which  ie  a  baJt  (Pi'iij)  contain- 
ing Uk  image  of  the  gnd.  The  larger  tem- 
plei  are  merely  a  nnnion  of  several  small. 
«r  ones,  hiTing  in  the  ooruera  pavilions 
two  Min-ies  high,  in  which  the  imatn  of 
the  |!Dd  is  kept,  and  which  are  sormannt- 
*d  br  pynmldal  octagonal  towers  (roa)  7 


g  CHINA 

to  10  itories  in  height,  each  story  being  separated  fhim 
tbe  next  by  a  cornice  projecting  in  imitation  of  a  Chi- 
nese roof,  and  fTom  each  angle  of  which  depend  dragon- 
heads and  belli.     By  the  aide  of  the  hsll  are  the  ceUa 
ottbe  boniee,  and  accommodatloDi  for  >  nunber  of 
animals.    On  occasions  of  grest  ceremony,  auch  as  the 
teart  of  the  temple  of  Ti-m  (Heaven)  and  Tt  (Earth), 
at  Pekin,  tbe  New  Year'a  day  offering,  the  equinox, 
the  procesiiona  of  July  and  August  in  honor  of  rain, 
the  feast  of  the  dead,  and  the  em  perori  plowing  (which 
is  also  considered  as  a  religloua  ceremony),  the  emper- 
or officiates  as  high-priest.     Buddhirm,  although  tbe 
religion  of  the  emperor,  is  not  the  religion  of  tbe  stale, 
and  Is  actually  only  tolerated,  like  tbe  Taintt.     Both 
systems  have  been  so  much  altered  by  tbe  inflaence 
of  the  doctrine  of  CantUdna  that  the  three  religions 
can  morally  be  considered  as  hut  one. 
Beliglon  (so  fkr  aa  professing  it  is  concerned)  la  in 
China  confined  principally  to 
the  educated  classes,  some- 
wbst  like  science   In   other 
countries.     The  great  mass 
of  the  people  tire  on  without 
making  any  distinction  be- 
tween the  different  religions, 
and  pray  in  any  temple  with' 
out  Inquiring  as  to  its  form 
of  worship.     But  the   only 
i    worahip  which  really  seems 
tocarry  the  minds  and  heart*     ' 
of  the  people  with  it  is  the  fil- 
ial wonhip  of  ancestors. 
\        "  Tbe  ball  of  ancestors  Is 
h  fbnnd  in  the  bouse  of  almost 
J  every  member  of  the  family, 
I    but  always  in  that  of  (he  eld- 
est aon.     In  rich  families  It 
is  a  separate   LuUding,   In 
others  a  romn  set  apart  for  the  purpoee,  and  in  many 
a  mere  shelf  or  shrine.    The  tablet  conslsta  of  a  board 
called  rAia  chu,  i.  e.  hones  of  the  spirit,  about  twelve 
Inches  long  and  three  wide,  placed  upright  la  a  block, 
and  having  the  name,  quality,  and  date  of  birth  and 
death  cari'cd  in  the  wood.     A  receptacle  is  often  eat 


TabUI  In  its  Mehe.— I 


ton.  Terbceat  becims  ■  bvarfte  of  ths  emperor  Kmh-  \  etj's  tfand.  In  ISIS  ha  na  Jirfiied  by  the  laalnia  and 
ghi  (iter  he  had  diamiwed  tha  regents  and  aaaumed  leimied  Mr.  Milne.  The  tnmaUtioii  of  the  New  Tes- 
■apnina  control.  Satiafled  of  the  |p:«it  ■billCie*  of  i  Ument  wu  completed  In  1814;  of  the  whole  Bible  In 
Terbaeal,  Kughi  commanded  him  to  correct  the  cal-    IBIS,     la  1B14  the  fint  Chineaa  cc         


,  which  he  did  with  entire  utUfactlon  to  the  em. 
peror.  He  waa  appointed  preaident  of  the  AUronom- 
ical  Tribonal.  He  cast  mm}-  cannon,  and  In  other 
wvft  rendered  himself  9er.'icea1>1e  to  government. 

(3.)  For  soma  time  aflcr  thia  the  mlMiont  proipered. 
In  1708  they  numbered  100  chnrchea  and  100,000  con- 
Tcrta  in  the  province  of  Nankin  alone.  Bot  in  1734, 
not  only  the  Jesuita,  Lot  all  Roman  miailonuiea,  were 
■xpelliMl.  Tet  many  congregationa  aurvived  nnder 
protracted  peraecations.  Native  prieata  were  trained 
both  in  Mmlnarica  in  China  and  in  Europe  (in  the 
Propaganda  at  Rome  and  In  a  Ciilneae  eemlnaiy  at  Na- 
ples), and  many  European  miMionarieB  were  able  to  MUalons,  which  ftom  that  time  baa  bad 
penetratA  Into  the  Interior.     Not  ■  few  were  put  to    Canton.     The  Rhenish  Hluionary  Society 


A  valoable  aaalatant  the  miaaionariea  ftinnd  aftsrwarda 
In  Leang-Ab  (baptized  by  Uilne  in  1S16),  who  dbtia. 
guiahed  himeelf  aa  ths  author  of  uveral  valoable  tncta, 
and  by  bia  leal  In  preaching  the  Goapel,  and  Id  dia- 
tribnting  hooka  at  tbe  litenTy  examinatioo*.  One  of 
the  hooka  diitrihnted  on  thia  occaaioa  fell  into  tbe 
hands  of  tbe  leader  of  the  Inrargeata,  and  waa  the 
fbandation  of  hia  earheit  Cbriatlan  impreoilons.  Tb« 
American  mlaalona  commenced  In  1SS9,  when  the 
American  Seamen'a  Frieod  Society  aent  out  two  nda. 
sionarie*,  one  of  wbom,  in  1830,  tnaafen-ed  his  aervicva 
Board  of  Commiaaiooera  of  Fordgn 


death,  bat  the  mlaalona  anrrived.  Since  tbe 
of  18S9,  which  promlM  liberty  of  wonhlp  for  both  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  rrotaatants,  great  preparations  have 
been  made  for  extending  the  Bomaniat  mluiona.  A 
ftw  years  sgo,  when  China  waa  divided  into  30  Tl- 
cariatea  Apostolic,  the  Roman  Catholic  populatian  of 
China  amounted,  according  to  the  Umatrt,  to  abont 
800,000.  Other  Roman  Catholic  writera  claim  a  macb 
higher  number,  e.g.H. 


iboot  1880,  Mr.  GOtalaff,  who  aoon  became  pnfeetl; 
maaler  of  the  langoage,  and  made  freqnent  jonnwya 
throngh  the  coast  countriea  of  China,  He  was  eape- 
clally  active  in  circulating  the  Scriptures,  which  were 
received  with  great  eagemeu.  In  I8S£  the  Ametican 
Proteatant  Epiacopal  Cbnrch  eatabliahed  a  mission  tn 
Baldvia,  which  hi  1S42  was  removed  to  Macao.  Dur- 
ing this  firat  period  tbe  continual  boatility  of  the  CM- 
compelled  tbe  Engliah,  Anu  *  '  " 


Since  the  treaty  with  France  in  1868,  tbe  Roman  '  missionaries  to  realilct  their  labora  moetly  to  tbe  print' 
Catholic  miaaionartea  claim  to  bave  received  lartie  '  Ing  and  circulating  of  Christian  books.  Permanent 
■ccesaiona  to  their  congregations,  and  to  have  ■  total  settlements  were  only  nude  at  Canton,  but  at  Malacca 
membership  in  their  Church  of  about  one  million. '  also  an  Anglo^hineae  college  was  founded. 
The  number  of  missionaries,  especially  French,  wbo  I  The  peace  of  Maokin  In  1S4S.  the  cession  of  Hoig 
have  since  been  sent  to  China,  is  considerable.  On  j  Koug  to  the  Engliah,  and  the  opening  of  the  five  ports 
January  1,  1867,  a  new  cathedral  was  consecrated  at  to  European  and  American  Chrirtians,  gave  a  new  ilB- 
Pekin,  which  is  one  of  the  largest  buildings  of  the  cap-  pulse  to  missionary  leal.  The  London  Missionary  So- 
ital.  A  bloody  persecution  of  Roman  Catholic  mis- .  clety  gave  inslnictlons  to  tbeir  Chinese  misakmariiB 
slonarles  took  place  in  1866  in  on«  of  the  dependencies  to  meet  in  Hong  Kong  to  consider  the  plan  for  hten 
if  China,  Cores.     See  Corea.  I  operations.    Agreeably  to  the  recommendations  of  tUa 

According  to  the  Shanghai  CoHrier  for  1887,  there'  meeting  (August,  1848),  the  Anglo-Chloese  college  in 
were  in  China  86  Roman  Catholic  Vicariates  Apostolic,  Malacca  was  changed  into  a  theological  aemituuy  fir 
divided  among  the  orders  as  fullaws:  Fuhkten  and  the  training  of  a  native  ministry.  Also  the  printing 
Formosa.  Uominicansj  North  Shantung,  Shansi,  Sbenii,  apparatus  of  the  mission  was  transferred  from  Malacca 
South  Hunan,  Hupeeh,  the  Franciacansj  South  Shan-  to  Hong  Kong,  and  a  medical  eaUblishment  opened  in 
t<ing,  Kansuh,  Mongolia,  Belgian  Semioaiy;  Honsn,  connection  with  the  mission.  In  1843  Shanghai  waa 
Hong  Kong,  Mail'd  Seminary;  North  Hunan,  Augui-  occupied,  and  in  1844,  Amoy.  The  American  Board 
tines;  Kiangnan,  a  W.  Cbibli,  Jesuits;  Kianggi,  Cheki-  stationed  miaaionariea  at  Amoy  in  IS4S,  and  at  Fob- 
ang,  S.W.  Chibli,  Lazarists;  Kwangn  Siechuen  Yun-  chau  In  IS47.  The  American  Epleeopal  Board,  whole 
nan.  Cores,  Manchuria,  Thibet,  Parisian  Seminary)  missionary,  Dr.  Boone,  while  on  a  visH  to  the  United 
Kwangtung,  Kweichow.  Tbe  European  priests  in  all  States,  had  been  consecrated  mlssionaty  bishop,  fixed 
China  numbered  628;  tbe  native  Chineae  priests,  S8S.  on  Shanghai  as  the  most  suitable  sUtion.  Other  ola- 
The  Catholic  population  was  Ml.TSO;  catecbumem,  sionary  societies  hastened  to  occupy  tbe  inlcratbig 
24,900;  churches  and  chapels,  2942;  schools,  1ST9;  pa-  field.  The  operations  of  the  American  Baptist  DnioB 
pils,  81,626;  seminaries,  86;  stadents,  744.  The  oldest  commenced  in  1842;  those  of  the  Soothem  Baptist 
miasion  is  the  Jesuit  mission  of  Kiangnan,  cstablisbed  Convention  (of  America)  and  of  the  (American)  Pre*- 
in  1660,  where  the  Catholica  number  106,000,  and  have  byterion  Board  In  1844;  those  of  the  Church  MisshHf 
18,800  pupils.  Tbe  Lazariala  were  tbe  next  to  enter  ory  Societv,  one  of  whose  miaaionarles.  Rev.  George 
the  field,  which  they  did  in  1690.  The  Dominicans  and  Smith,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Victoria,  in  1S49;  ef 
Franciscans  entered  in  1690 ;  the  Parisian  Seminary  in ;  the  General  Baptist  Mlaeionarv  Society  (EngUnd)  in 
1S31 ;  the  Mail'd  Seminary  in  1843 ;  tbe  Belgian  in  1845 ;  those  of  the  Methodist  Eiriscopal  Church  in  1846; 
1878;  and  the  Augustinea  iu  1879.  The  miasioos  Bre|  those  of  tbe  (American)  Seventh-day  Baptist*  in  1847; 
mostly  supported  by  the '-Society  for  the  Propagation  those  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South  iu 
of  tbe  Faith,"  which  has  its  centre  in  France.  Special  1B48 ;  those  of  tbe  English  Wesleyans  and  the  Fne 
attention  to  Chinese  missions  is  also  paid  by  the  « So- '  Church  of  Scotland  in  1860. 

ciety  of  liie  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus,"  a  children's  mia-|  "  The  first  Protestant  mission  at  Fab-chao  was  estab- 
sionary  society  for  buying  and  baptizing  thooe  children,  lisbed  by  a  miuionary  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
who  by  their  parents  have  been  destined  to  death,  and  mlssIonersfurForeignMissIonsin  January,  1847.  The 
giving  to  them  a  Christian  education.  The  receipts  of  mission  has  averaged  thiee  or  fbui  families  since  its 
tbe  society  amounted  in  1858  to  872,000  fianca.  Up  to  commencemenL  In  April,  1836,  occurred  the  first  Up- 
that  year  329,388  chiMren  had  tieen  bought  and  bap-l  ti«m  of  a  Chinaman  at  thia  city  In  connection  witb 
tized,  of  whom  247,041  had  died  shortly  after  baptiam.     Protestant  missions.     In  Hay,  1867,  a  brick  chnrdi, 

3,  PrulcilanI  Jfitntxu.— Tbe  first  Protestant  mission  caUed  the  "  Church  of  tbe  Saviour,"  built  on  tbe  main 
was  undcrutkcn  by  the  London  Missionary  Society,  street  in  the  sonthem  suborba,  and  about  one  mila 
which  in  1807  eent  the  Rev,  Robert  Morrison  to  Can-  from  tbe  Big  Bridge,  was  dedicated  to  tbe  worship  cJ 
ton,  principally  for  the  object  of  translating  the  holy  !  God.  Its  first  native  chan:h,oanBistlng  of  four  mem- 
Scriptnres  into  Chinese.  He  was  appointed  (in  1808)  bers,  was  organized  in  October  of  the  same  yctr.  In 
translator  of  the  East  IndU  Company's  factory,  with  \  May,  1863,  a  church  c^  seven  memban  was  formeil  at 
a  salary  which  rendered  him  independent  of  the  sod- ;  Chang-loh,  distant  seventeen  miles  ftom  the  ci(r.     In 


CHINA 

Jsna  of  tha  mutt  jtmx  ft  church  of  nhn  mnnban  m* 
orgmniied  in  the  cttf  of  Fnh^hia,  h&Tlng  bHn  diBmiii 
«d  tfVom  the  church  in  the  BnbaHw  to  form  the  chare 
in  the  city.  For  the  flrat  ten  yun  of  thii  miuion' 
•xialeace  onlj  one  iru  bipCii«d.  Daring  the  nex 
Uti  yemtt  twenty-two  member*  were  nceived  into  the 
flnt  church  (armed.  Daring  the  next 
^-thrae  penona  wen  Iwptiied.  Between  IBftS  and 
1858  >  immll  boirdlng-ichiKiI,  i.  e.  ■  Khool  when  tiie 
pvpila  wen  bouded,  chHbed,  and  educated  at  the  ex. 
ptnte  of  the  miuion,  waa  aiutalned  In  tbli  miarion. 
Among  the  papil*  were  four  or  Ave  young 
ere  now  erapiojed  u  native  helpen,  and  threa  girl*, 
all  of  whom  became  clinrch  membaTi,  and  two  of  whom 
■n  wives  of  two  of  the  native  helper*.  There  are  at 
tneaent  a  tralning^chool  for  native  heipen, 
•mall  boarding-echool  for  boja,  and  a  nmall  boi 
adkool  for  girl*  connected  with  the  miasion.  It  em- 
jioyt  (ix  or  aeven  oatire  helper*,  and  three 
coantry  atationi  an  occnpied  by  it.  Part  of  the  mem- 
ben  of  tbia  miaaion  live  at  Ponaiang,  not  for  tknm  the 
Qnrch  of  the  SaHoBT,  and  part  live  in  the  city,  on  ■ 
Ull  Dot  Cu  fkxim  the  While  Pagodft,  in  hoofva  baUt 
and  owned  by  the  American  Board  (eee  SloHJut «/ Ah 
(iain;  below). 

"The  mianon  of  the  Methodiat  Sjilacofl  Church  wu 
calabliabed  in  the  fall  of  I84T.  It  haa  had  an  average 
nnmber  of  foni  or  five  &mllie«.  In  1667  It  baptiud 
tbe  Sr*t  conrart  in  connection  widi  ita  libon.  In  Aa- 
eatt,  ISM,  a  brick  ebarcb,  called  the  'Chiircb  of  the 
True  God,'  the  fliit  anbatantial  church  building 
ed  at  Fnh-chan  by  Proteatant  miaalona,  waa  dedicated 
to  tbe  wonbip  of  God.  It  ii  located  near  Tating,  on 
Ihe  main  itreet,  in  the  aoathem  anburbi,  aboot  two 
third*  of  the  way  between  tbe  Dig  Bridge  and  the  city. 
In  tlie  winter  of  tbe  aame  year  another  brick  chorch, 
kicaled  on  the  hill  in  the  anbnrb)  on  the  aouth  bank 
of  the  Hin,  waa  flnlsbed  and  dedicated,  catlpd  tbe 
'Church  of  HMvenlv  Rest'  In  the  h\\  of  1 
miirioa  HTvcted  a  commodioita  brick  cburcb 
Street,  in  tbe  city.  Ita  mamben  reside  lolneipally  on 
tha  hill  on  which  the  Chorch  of  Heavenly  Rest  1 
AWurici  "//VMotaiit  Afitfim*  in  CUta  (Dee.  1888.) 


built.  OoalamilyliveaaiaconntryaUtiontenortwtlvB 
miles  from  Fuh-chau.     Tbia  miaaion  haa  received  great 

and  farming  district*,  as  well  as  in  Ihe  city  and  suburbs, 
Ithassome  eight  or  ten  countiy  stalian^  which  are  mora 

ber*  or  ita  native  churches,  and  ninety-nine  in  full  com- 
muniou.     It  employs  ten  or  twelve  oatire  helpera.    It 

cipline  of  Ihe  Methodist  Epiicopal  Cb..rch  "  (Doolitlle, 
Social  Lift  ofUu  C-Ahe»,N.r.,  Harper  and  Brothera, 
1866,  2  vols.  ISmo). 

The  fullowing  table  will  show  the  work  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  in  China  for  Ihe  year  181(9.     It 
is  compiled  from  Ihe  Socielj'i  Htport  fur  1890. 

.^ 

|| 

A 

i 

n 

li 

|! 

HokChTsagVl^rl'cV.: 
HlDj.hwsDmrici..., 

'USSSSSS:::. 
SrSftSSS!::; 

Cmlrol  CTiK  Cp-^. 
KlaklugDIatrlel,... 
;  NsnUIng  Dialflcl 

wuhu"iirt«"'.''.';::; 

SK'""-:::: 
KK:::;:].-. 

|jui-ch«u. 

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10 

30 
38 

u 
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101 
S3 

no 

i: 
s: 

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4M 

Sit 
31« 
MM 
1» 

ST7 
W 

31 

M7» 

Tola].... 

31 

Compiled  by  Dr.  L  B.  Gnliek  for  Ibe  Miuiomny  Kaitm. 


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(T|M 

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•M,I73.K 

CHIHA  2! 

Ona  of  the  doK  mnarkible  awakenlnci  thit  ia 
known  in  the  whola  hitiury  of  l^inuntiam  ot 
Cbina  took  plK«  in  1866,  in  conneclion  with  the 
oM-iUtiao*  of  tbe  Tienuin  minion  or  the  F.ng- 
liab  New  -  Connection  Uclhodiits,  etpeciallir  it  Lou- 
Leing,  where,  in  September,  46  penoni  wen  id- 
miUed  to  bapliun.  The  DoonrU  added  to  the  mi*- 
tion  churches  of  tlie  London  Society,  in  Shuighai, 
■ud  the  province  of  which  it  forme  the  cepital,  oam- 
bered,  dorinK  the  jrar  1866, 189.  An  event  of  con- 
lidenble  importknce  for  tbe  Protealant  miuloiu  of 
China  i*  the  eeUbllahrneat  of  a  nioathl<r  reliiiloai  pa- 
per in  the  English  kngaage  (the  Mfitiiiman/  Steorder) 
by  the  miulonarieg  of  the  Uetbodiit  Eplacopal  Chnrch 
^  Fuh-chaa. 

i.  Greek  Miaitmi. — A  minion  of  the  Greek  Chureh 
wu  eatabllahed  Lj  the  Riutlani  in  Pekln  nnder  the 
nign  of  Peter  the  Greit.  Its  object,  until  recently, 
iru  limited  to  the  B^dritaal  eue  of  •  colonf  of  Riuaiui 
■abjects,*bohaillMeDcapturedontlie  Amoor  andaet- 
tled  near  Pekin.  A  treaty  between  China  and  Roaaia 
aathariied  the  Ruaaian  goTemment  to  keep  alx  mia- 
alonules  at  Pekin,  changing  them  once  in  tan  yean, 
with  the  right  of  having  a  few  atadenta  lo  learn  the 
Cbineae  and  Hanchoo  laugaage,  and  to  obtain  a  gen- 
•nl  knowledge  of  Chinese  afiiln.  A  letter  from  ona 
of  the  American  mliaionaiiei  in  Pekin,  in  the  BoMon 
Jfi«»«/yfferaM(Febniarj,  1866),  rtatee  that  "the 
Kaa»ian  miuionariea  in  Pekin  do*  labor  devoutly  for 
the  Chineae  in  the  country  aa  weil  as  in  the  city.  It 
ll  an  UitenMing  fitct,  and  one  which  niaib  a  differ- 
ence between  them  and  the  Roman  CathoUa,  that 
they  translate  and  nM  the  aacred  Scrlpturea.  Their 
version  of  the  New  Testament  into  Cbineae  la  now  In 
print  In  thta  city  [Pekin].  They  have  obtained  alao 
tnm  the  Engliih  miaaiooariea  the  veraion  of  the  Bible 
by  Meairs.  Swan  and  Hallybraa,  and  published  by 
the  Britiah  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  for  tbe  nae  of 
tbelr  ministers  to  tbe  Moniroliana,  and  the  vertbni  of 
the  New  Teitament  published  by  tbe  same  acclety  for 
the  nse  of  their  misstona  In  Ruaaian  Hanchnria."  In 
186G,  the  Pekin  miaaion  numbered  aboDt  300  converled 
Chineae  and  Tartar*.  See  ^mauaJ  'imeriam  Cfd^pa- 
Ha  for  1865,  a.  v,  China, 

IV.  Literoterr.— I1erer,iririMnat££EihHi,  iv,  1-SO; 
Oatzlair(missionar}-  in  China),  HiMorg  a/Chma  (Can- 
Ion,  1833j  translated  into  German,  and  continued  tij 
Neumann,  Scuttgardt,  1847) ;  Abeel.ffuoinur  in  CKima 
(1R9<MJ3, 12mo) ;  Thornton.  Bidory  ofCkimi  (I^don, 
l»H)i  GiKlMhteierhalholackenMuiioMamtKa'ier- 
Tticke  China  (Vienna,  1846) ;  Davis,  Dacriplitm  of 
GUm  (Ixindon,  %  Tola.  Svo);  Wittmann  (Rom.  Cath.), 
Dk  BerriicUeit  der  KireMe  m  ihren  ifutionai ;  Wil- 
liama.  Middle  Kiigdan  (Land,  and  N.  Y.  1848,  Svo) ; 
Morrison, ft™  o/C(iiio(4to);  Atmala de  la  Propoffo- 
Oimde  la  Fot;  Amaal  Rfortt  of  the  PnlataHt  Mit- 
ritmary  Societiei  in  America  and  Engbrndi  Dean,  Tie 
Ouna  .VutiDiU  (N.T.  12mo);  Newcomb,  CstJopadia 
tfflUiuiontt  Sebum,  Becleiiaiticaiyiar-boak for  1S59, 
p.  139,  140,  320  aq. ;  Edkina,  TAc  Rdi^tmt  CoivNIum 
oflht  Ctanefe  (Lond.  1869,  8vo) ;  HUne,  Lift  in  CUiu 
(Und.  1867,  8td);  Unc,  Jownty  Arough  Ike  Ckmete 
Empire  (N.  T.,  Harper  and  Brotbera,  186S,  !  vola. 
]!mo)i  Bush,  nee  Yiari  in  CUna  (Preabyt.  Boarf); 
Uxadowa,  Ti^  Chlntte  and  AeirRAdliau  (Lond.  1866, 
8vo):  Fortune,  71rMrenramC*tBn  (Lond.  184J.evo); 
Haclay.  Ufe  among  At  Chintm  (N.  T.  1860,  ISmo) ; 
Davis,  General  DeKription  of  China  (Lond.  1857,  Bvo; 
N.Y.  8  vo1«.18mo);  DoolitUe,  ffDCKii  £•>  o/(fe  Chi- 
nem  (N.  Y.  1866,  Harper  ft  Drolhen..  2  vols.  12mo); 
Oliphant,  yarratite  of  Ae  Earl  of  Elgin'i  Mimon 
(Edinh,  1859;  N.  Y.  Harpera,  1800,  Bvo) ;  Cobbold, 
iftAlrtt  o/ Mr  CUnHM  tiy  Ufl*K/vu  (Lond.  1859,  8va)  ^ 
Smith,  Coimiar  Ciliei  of  China  (N.  Y.  1850,  12mo); 
Dimon,  Ear^  ChritHanils  in  China  (New  Englander), 
Nov.  1853);  Whitney.  Cldna  and  the  Oiineti;  China 
and  Ae  Wnt  (N'ew  Fjiclsnder,  Feb.  1860,  and 
1861).     SeeCoMrcctDl;  Cobba. 


CHIOS 

CUn'nBretli  (Heb.  Kimf'rM,  rrlfi ;  Id  paoM 
ftwur'ntA  [Josh.],  n^lS;  Sept.  Xmpti  v.  r.  [in 
DenL]  Maxavapia),  the  sing,  form  (Dent,  iii,  17; 
Josh,  xiz,  86]  of  a  town,  also  called  iu  Uie  plui.  Chis- 
MBBOTH  (Heb.  KinnereA',  ninis,  1  Kings  XT,  20| 
Sept.  Xf viptS i  A.V.  "Cinneroth;"  or  JTanaratiC, 
ri'ilx,  Josh.  xi.  :,  Xnnp-iSi) ;  or  perfasfia  the  latter 
form  designates  tbe  region  of  which  the  other  was  Iha 
metropolis.  A  similar  variety  appaan  in  the  name 
of  tbe  adjoining  lake,  whlcb  ii  perhaps  intended  In 
some  of  tbe  above  passages.  The  town  was  a  fortilted 
city  in  tbe  tribe  of  Napbtali,  mentioned  between 
Hakkath  and  Adamah  (Josh,  xlz,  86),  the  onl;  oerv 
tun  reference  to  the  dty  exclusively.  Whether  It 
gave  iti  name  to  or  received  it  fnnn  the  lake,  which 
was  ponibly  adjacent,  li  uncertain.  Jerome  idcntiflBs 
CliemiereA(Ommail.».v.,ZineblaiXit'ipei)witb  tbe 
later  Tiberiat.  Thia  may  bave  been  fnim  aome  tra- 
dition then  eilating :  the  onlj  corrobofUian  which  we 
can  And  for  It  is  the  mention  in  Joshua  of  Hammath 
as  near  it.  which  was  poesilily  the  Emmaoa  (modem 
Hommiim),  near  tbe  shore  of  tbe  lake,  a  little  eoMh  of 
Tiberiat.  This  alluation  of  Cfalnnervth  ia  deni«d  by 
ReUnd  (Falait,  p.  161)  on  the  graand  that  Capamanm 
is  said  tiy  Hatthew  (It,  IS)  to  have  been  on  the  very 
boiders  of  Zebulun  and  Naphlali,  ud  that  Zebnlnn 
was  to  the  south  of  Naphtali.  Bnt  the  evangelist's 
expreasion  hardly  requires  this  atriet  ioterpretatioa. 
The  town,  or  tbe  lake,  appears  to  have  given  its  nana 
(slightly  altered)  to  a  diatriel— ><  all  Cinneroth"  (1 
Klnga  XV,  20).     See  CtMintKETM. 

Sea  or  CiIIIINKRKTH  (r.-^ra-n;;  Sept.  [f)]3dAnoi- 
OH  Xmp(3,  Nnm.  xxiv.llj  Josh'xlli,27)  or  CbiS- 
HRBOTU  (ni-^Ca,  Xtvipi3,  Josh,  xil,  3),  the  inland  sea, 
which  is  most  tkmlliarly  known  to  na  by  ila  New-Teat 
nami  as  the  "  Lake  of  Genaesaretb,"  ortbB"8ea  of 
Tibeii-a"  or  "of  Galilee."  This  ia  evident  from  tbe 
mode  in  which  it  ia  mentioned  in  varioos  paaaagea  In 
the  Pentatencb  and  Joahoa  as  being  at  tbe  end  of  Jar> 
dan,  opposite  to  the  "Seaofthe  Ar>liali,"i.  e.  tbe  Dead 
Sea,  as  having  the  Arahah  or  Ghor  below  it,  etc.  (Deut. 
Ui,lli  Jo9b.xi,i:  xlil,8.  Intfaetwo  fomerof  these 
paaaagea  the  word  "aaa"  ia  perhaps  omitted).  The 
word  is  by  some  derived  from  tbe  Heb.  lUX,  Kinemr^ 
(lavvvpa,  eiOiara),  a  "barp,"  as  if  In  lUn^on  to  the 
oral  shape  of  the  lake.  But  it  la  possible  that  Cin- 
nereA  was  an  ancient  Canaanite  name  existing  long 
prior  to  (be  lataellte  conquest,  and,  like  othcv  names, 
adopted  by  the  Israelites  into  tbeir  language.  The 
subseqnent  name  "  Gennesar"  was  derived  (him  "Cin- 
nereth"  by  a  change  of  letters  of  a  kind  freqaeot  in 
the  Eaat.    See  OKHtnaaiucTU. 

ChiD'nsrotli  (Josh,  xi,  S;  xUi,  8).     Soa  Ce»- 

Chintiii.     Bee  Wheat. 

Chl'oa(Xi'Dc,  according  to  some,  from  X'uv,  saov, 
with  which  its  mountains  ara  perpetnslly  covered! 
according  to  othom,  from  a  Syrian  word  for  maMie, 
with  which  its  forests  abouiided),  one  of  the  principal 
islands  of  the  Ionian  Archipelago,  mentioned  in  Acta 
XX,  16,  and  temaat  aa  one  of  tbe  reputed  liirtbpiacee 
ofthe  poet  Homer.  It  belonged  to  Ionia  (Mela,  li,  7% 
and  lay  between  tbe  islands  L«boa  and  Samoa,  and 
distant  eight  miles  tmai  the  nearett  promontory  (Aren- 
nnm  Pr.)  of  Asia  Minor.  The  position  of  this  island 
In  reference  to  the  neighboring  Islands  and  coasia  coold 
hardly  be  !«««  described  than  In  the  detailed  aawunt 
ofthe  apoitle  Paul's  reCum  voyage  fhim  TriMB  to  Cb- 
sarea  (Acts  xx,  xxl).  Having  come  from  Assoa  to 
Hitylene  in  Lesbos  (xx,  14),  he  anived  the  next  day 
over  against  Cbios  (ver.  IS),  the  next  doy  at  Sanua, 
and  tarried  at  TrogyQIum  (it.);  and  the  foHowing 
day  at  HUetua  (ib.);  thence  be  went  bj  Cos  and 
Bbodes  to  Patara  (xx,  1).     See  HrmJEXx;  SAMoa. 


CHISLEU  !( 

[s  tbe  meooont  of  Hand'*  Tojafia  to  joia  Hireiu  Agrip- 
pi  b  tin  Bluk  Sea,  we  tn  told  (JoMpbus,  Ant.  XTi, 
t,  1]  tb»t,  after  panitig  bj*  Bbodea  and  Coa,  he  «u 
detained  aoma  time  b^  north  windi  at  Cbioa,  and  sailed 
DO  to  Uitjleue  whea  the  winda  becama  mora  favon- 
Ue.  It  appeals  that  dtolng  tfala  tttj  at  Cbioi  Herod 
gne  Toy  liberal  •ami  toirarda  the  reatontion  of  Hme 
pblk  woAi  which  had  aiAred  ia  Iba  Mltbiidatic 
w.  Thia  iiland  doei  not  appear  to  bare  anj  other 
naodatloD  with  tha  Jewa,  nor  ia  it  ipeclall?  mentioned 
Id  connectioD  with  the  first  ipread  of  Christianity  by 
Um  apoatte*.  When  Paul  was  there,  on  the  occasion 
liiErnd  to,  he  did  not  laad.bnt  onlj  pataad  the  night 
■I  aochiFr  (Conybeare  and  Eowaon,  SL  Faid,  li,  211). 
M  that  time  Chio*  enjoyed  the  privilage  of  Iteedam 
(PGn.  V.  se ;  corap.  xvi,  G),  and  it  li  not  certain  that  it 
tndt  waa  politically  a  part  of  tha  Boinan  ptoconanlar 
Asia.  No  recoid  ezlita  of  ita  connection  with  Clirls- 
timily  in  ipoatolic  timea ;  bnt  after  the  iapae  of  ages 
n  rtad  of  a  bishop  of  Chios,  sbowloK  that  the  Qoipel 
had  obtained  a  fiwtiDg  on  tin  shores.  Its  length  ia 
•tioat  S2  miles,  and  In  breadth  it  Taries  tnm  8  to  IS 
(hsTlDff  a  peripheiy  of  900  stadia,  Strabo,  liv,  646,  or 
1!0  Italian  miles,  Toametart,  Vot).  il,  84).  Its  ootline 
li  Doontainoas  and  bold,  and  it  has  always  boon  cole- 
trsted  for  its  beauty  and  froitfalness  (Arvienx.Fty. 
ri,169;  SchDbert,  Aot.  i,  414).  It  ia  very  fertile  in 
roltoa,  liik,  and  fruiL  and  was  anciently  celebrated  fbr 
iciwlne(Pliny,xlT,S;  XTli,S4,i3t  Strabo,  xiv,  eST ; 
Boctcr,  Orf.  iii.  19,  6 ;  Vlrg.  £c/.  v,  7 ;  Athen.  W,  1B7 ; 
i,)a)andmaatJc  (iniay,xli,B6;  xiiv,T4;  Dioacor.  i, 
W).  T1)c  principal  town  waa  also  called  ClilaB,  and 
kad  Um  advantage  of  a  good  harbor  (Strabo,  xiv,  p. 
(li).  The  islana  is  now  called  by  tha  Greeks  Kkto, 
sad  by  the  Italians  Sao  (Hamilton,  Rmardia,  it,  6 ; 
Tbtrenot.  TVravii,  1, 9S ;  Chandler,  Ah  Jfiaor,  c.lBj 
Claikf^  TVht.  ili,  888;  Sonninl,  Trtm.  c.  87;  Olirier, 
Vf.  ii,  103).  The  wholeaala  massacre  and  ensUvo- 
ment  of  the  inhaUtant*  by  the  TnrhB  In  18!!  forms 
an  sf  the  most  ahocklng  incidents  of  the  Greek  war 
«(  bdapcndence  (Haghei,  Tract  m  fir.  AvoJitfKm, 
LaBd.  ]$i2).  See  also  Malta  Bmn,  Geegrapit,  li,  86 
•q-:  Hannprt,  Gaigr.  TI,  iii,  S!S  sq. ;  Hsseel,  Erd- 
iartr.  xiii,  161  sq. ;  Cellaril  Xettl.  li,  19 1  Smith's  D/d. 
•fCbim.  Gr<^.  t.  V. ;  H'CDlloch's  CtatOfer,  s.  t.  Sck>. 
Bsa  Aaia  Uinor. 


UilairctilM. 
Chlslen  (Hell.  Kittte',  1^B9,  according  to  soma, 
Ina  AraMc,  1.  q.  Itdutrgie;  according  to  others  [Bm- 
fty,  Mmatmaiita;  Btrl.  IK!6],  of  Persic  origin :  and 
St  il  appears  on  the  Palmyrene  Inacription  [ed.  Swin- 
len,  PUbK.  Tramadiimi,  xWiii,  tab.  !9]  In  tbe  form 
ii'^lOa,  L  c  K::ivl,  tl  probably  represents  the  name  of 
lit  thin)  of  tbe  Amshaspands  ot  celfvtial  genii  [Boar- 
aait,0>mmnuair<  nr  It  rnmo,  p.  I4G,  1S1, 174] ;  Sept. 
XmiXiv,  Anglicized  "  Caslen"  in  1  Mace  i,  54 ;  iv,  BO ; 
OaUsa  1'>^0S,  Targ.  on  Eccl.  xl,  Sj  Josephns  Xaa- 
iji  et  XanXi^,  A»l.  IIi,S,4j  7,6),  the  name  adopted 
Aaa  Iba  Babylonlaiu,  after  the  Captivity,  by  the  Jews 
Iv  Ihs  third  ciril  or  ninth  eccleaiastical  month  (Neb. 
i,  1;  Zacb.  vii,  1),  corrHponding  to  the  Macedonian 
■oathipamCAnAAoioc;  see  Spanbeim  to  Haver- 
•■ap's  Jiimplmt,  ii,407),  and  answering  mainly  to  the  : 
■oon  of  NoTembcv,  See  HoKTH.  The  following  I 
*«fa  the  days  ipeclaUy  memoimble  fcr  religions  excr- 1 
dsia:  Oa  theSd,  a  feast  In  memory  of  the  idola  which 
Ike  Asaonaana  cast  ont  of  the  Tample;  on  the  Tth, ! 


6  CHITI'IM 

a  tktt  fnstltnted  becansa  king  Jeholakim  bnmed  the 
[otipbacy  of  Jeremiab,  which  Baruch  had  written  (Jer. 
xxztI,  SS).  Scaliger  believes  that  it  was  Inititoted  on 
acconnt  of  Zedekiah'a  baTing  bis  eyes  pat  out,  after 
his  children  had  been  slain  In  his  sight.  This  fast  Prj- 
deaox  places  on  the  29th  of  the  month ;  but  Calmet, 
with  the  modem  Jews,  makes  <t  the  Gth,  and  places  on 
tbe  7tb  a  lastjval  in  memory  of  the  death  of  Herod  the 
'  Graat,  the  son  of  Antipatar.  There  is  also  some  di>- 
'  pute  whether  thia  fast  was  not  obaerred  on  tbe  !8th  of 
the  month.  It  Is  an  argument  In  liiTOT  of  tbe  earlier 
day  that  the  other  wontd  Ihll  In  the  middle  of  the  eight 
daya'  FetUval  of  the  DedlcatlDn, 

On  the  Utb,  the  Chanaea,  or  Iteat  of  Dedicadon  (q. 
T.),  ao  called  (John  i,  1!),  and  kept  as  a  minor  festl- 
Tal  in  commemoration  of  the  dedication  of  the  altar 
after  the  claanelng  of  tbe  Temple  from  the  pollution 
of  AntiochuB  by  Jodaa  Haccabaus,  bv  whom  It  was 
ordered  to  b«  observed  (1  Msec.  Iv,  69).  This  feast 
lasted  eight  days.  A  prayer  for  the  world  in  general 
Is  offered  np  on  the  eighth  day  of  tbe  feast.  In  this 
month  the  winter  prayer  fijT  rain  commences ;  the  pr«- 
cise  day  Is  sixty  days  after  the  antamnal  equinox,  by 
the  calculations  of  Rab  Samuel,  which  varies  (torn  the 
Sd  to  the  Stfa,  bnt  is  genenlly  on  the  4th  of  December. 
See  CaLSKDan. 

Chla'lon  (Hab.  Kulmt',  •,'^Oi,  toaJUeiux,  Sept. 
XooXwv),  the  fkther  of  fHIdad,  which  latter  waa  one 
of  the  princes  of  Benjamin,  selected  on  the  part  of  that 
tribe  by  Jebovah  to  divide  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv,  SI), 
B.C.  ante  1618. 

Chia'lotb-tm'^}OT(aehrtwKulBtA'Taber',rios 
-ai^,Jlimti  of  Tabor;  gepL  Xa(roX«3ao/3.ip  T.'rl 
XanAu&otS  and  XaffoXwa-^a^up,  Vulg.  CttdtlKMia- 
tor),  a  place  to  the  "border"(3>t3>),  of  which  the  "bor- 
der" (3U1)  of  ZebuloB  extended  eastward  from  Sarid 
on  tbe  Boutliem  boundary  (Josh,  xix,  IS),  sppircntly 
outside  ita  territoiy,  at  the  western  foot  of  Kit.  Tabor. 
See  TniBE.  It  is  probably  the  same  elsewhere  called 
aimply  Chusuluith  (Josh,  xlx,  18)  and  Tahoii  (1 
Chron.  vl,  7),  and  seems  to  be  identical  with  tha  C*»- 
o/bj  (XiaXovc,  Chasalus)  of  tbe  (huma^ieon  (»,  v. 
'A;tia(Au3,  Acebaaelutb ;  comp.  s.  vv.  Xt(»\a39a/}wp, 
ChaseUUbori  XaoiXoiic  tbv  ea^up,  Cbaielath),  near 
Ht  Tabor,  in  the  pUin  [of  Esdraelon],  8  R.  miles  E.  of 
Dlocnsaraa ;  also  with  the  Xalolk  (SnA^)  mentioned 
ly  Josepbus  iWar.  iii,  8, 1 ;  comp.  U/t.  44)  as  a  vil- 
lage in  the  great  plain,  and  one  of  the  landmarks  of 
lower  Galilee  (,romf.Z\mi.,Oii  Iht  Giography  o/ FaUt- 
liitffrom  JrwM  Sowvu  in  Ashei's  Ben],  of  Tudela.  il, 
4S! :  and  SeetHn's  Heuen  dtorli  Syrien,  iv,  S11).  See 
AZTfOTH-TABOB.  It  is  doubtless  the  modern  /jtanf, 
seen  by  Dr.  Robinson  on  his  way  from  Nablous  to 
Nazareth,  "In  tbe  plain  toward  Sabor.  on  a  low  rocky 
ridge  or  mound,  not  far  fhim  the  foot  of  the  noithem 
bills,  described  as  containing  many  excavated  sepul- 
chres" (R/Korria,  iii,  182).  It  was  siso  Qbtcrred  by 
De  Sanlcy,  white  paaaing  Ibniugh  the  plain  of  Esdiae- 
lon  towatilsNain,"to  the  left,  and  distant  a  little  mote 
than  a  teagne,  bnllt  at  the  foot  of  the  mounuins  of 
Naiarath"  {/famtivt,  I,  74).  Pococke  (tl,  05)  men- 
lions  a  village  which  he  calls  ZaI,  about  tbno  mllea 
tnm  Tabor. 

Chittah.    See  Wheat. 

CMt'tlm  (Heb.  Kiltim',  Q'^TlS,  a  Gentile  plnr. 
irm  of  foreifm  origin,  Gon.  x,  4  j  Sept.  Ki/r.oi,  A.  V. 

Kittim;'  Num.  xxiv,  2t,  Kmoioi ;  1  Chron.  I,  7 
"Kittim"],  and  Dan.  xt,  £0,  KiruN  v.  r. 'PufiDioi; 
Isa.  ixili,  1,  Kifnoioi  v.  r.  Kinoloi ;  or  in  the  longer 
and  more  properly  national  Ibrm  Kitlvpm',  D''*P9, 
Jer.  Ii,  10,  K(mii>  ;  n*''rir,  Isa,  ixiii,  12,  Kitniip  r. 
r.  Kini'Ct  B*nr,  Eiek.  xxtU,  6,  Ximii/i  T.  r.  Xin- 
ri'p),  a  branch  of  the  descendants  of  Javan,  tin  son  of 
Japheth  (Oan.  x,  4  i  1  Chron.  I,  7),  closely  related  t« 


CHITTIM 

the  Doduiini,  and  remotal;  (u  we  nuy  eoiiGlad*  bom 

ths  ibseaee  o(  the  conjunction  befori  It)  to  the  othei 
dBKendaats  of  Jstu  (mm  Hiller,  SJpilaffm.  iermtuaa. 
p.  136).  Baliuin  foieCold  "thit  abipi  *bouM  coino 
from  the  cout  of  Chittlm.  and  ihould  afflict  Aubnr 
[the   AuTTiuia],   and  afflict  Ebei"   [the   Hi  '_ 

(_Sum.  xxiv,  24),  thna  forelalliag  the  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man invailons.  Daniel  prophesied  (il,  IS)  that  the 
ehipe  of  Cbittjm  ghoald  coids  agaiiut  the  luDg  of  the 
Morth.  and  that  he  sbould  therefore  be  grieved  and 
tom,  which  was  fiilfiUed  when  AntlochoB  Epiphai 
the  ting  of  Syria,  having  Invaded  EgTpt,  wee  \iy  the 
Roman  amliauadnn  commanded  to  desiat,  and  with- 
draw to  his  own  coDntiy  (LIv;,  zUv,  29;  xlv,  10).  In 
las.  zziii,  1, 12,  it  appeara  aa  a  resort  of  the  Seeti  of 
Tyre ;  In  Jer.  ii,  10,  the  "  isles  (Q-**,  i.  > 
diitnttt)  of  Cbittim"  are  to  the  far  wen,  as  Kedar  to 
the  east  of  Palestine ;  the  Tyrlana  procnred  thence  the 
cedar  or  boi-wood,  which  tbej  inlaid  with  ivoij  for  the 
decha  of  their  veasela  (Ezek.  xxvii,  8,  O'-IOK-nS,  A. 
V.  "the  companyof  the  Aihorite«,"bnt  rather  [Ivory] 
lie  daugiltr  oflxKa-itood,  L  e.  inclosed  In  U).  At  a  later 
period  the  name  was  applied  to  the  MacolDnlana  nnder 
Alexander  the  Great  (1  Hhcc-  i,  1,  Xtrriuffi,  A.  T. 
"ChettUm")  and  Pereena  (viii,  1,  Yiinimv  "Citima"). 
Od  the  authoritf  of  Josephos,  who  is  followed  by  Epi- 
phanins  (^Haer.  xxx,  25,  p- 150)  and  Jerome  (QurHt,  >■ 
Gat.  i),  it  has  genenlly  been  admitted  that  the  Cbit- 
tim migrated  from  Phcenkla  to  Cypms,  and  fonnded 
there  the  town  of  Cicium,  the  modem  £7*1^.-  "Chethi- 
mut  poesused  the  island  of  Chelhima,  which  Is  now 
called  Cypma,  and  from  this  all  Islands  and  maritimE 

places  are  called  Cbethim  (XtSi'/i)  by  the 

(Joseph.  Ant.  i,  6, 1).  Other  ancient  writers,  it  may 
be  remarkod,  speak  of  the  Citiina  ss  a  i>b{enlclan  col- 
ony (Pliny,  v,  36 ;  ixxi,89;  Stralw,  XT,  682i  Cicero, 
De  FinOiu,  iv,  20).  Pococke  coined  at  CiUnm  thirty. 
three  inscriptions  in  Phtsniclan  characters,  of  which  sn 
engraving  Is  s'^sn  In  his  Iktcnpiiai  oflka  Eait  ^ 
n3),Bnd  which  have  more  recently  been  explained  by 
Geaeniiu  in  hia  Mmum.  Phonic,  (p.  124-133).  From 
the  town  the  name  extended  to  the  whole  island  of 
Cyprus,  which  was  occupied  by  Phcenlclan  colonies, 
and  remained  under  Tyre  certMnly  until  about  B.C. 
720  (Josephos,  AnI.  iz,  11, 2).  With  the  decay  of  the 
Pfatenician  power  (circ.  B.C-  600)  the  Greeks  began  to 
found  fiouriahlng  settlements  on  ita  coasts,  as  they 
had  also  done  in  Crete,  Rhodes,  and  the  Islands  of  the 
.fgaan  Sea.  The  name  CUtUm,  whlch'ln  the  Arrt  in. 
stance  had  applied  to  Phonicians  only  (for  B^RJl  = 
Crin,  flillitet,  a  branch  of  the  Canaanitish  race — Ge- 
aenius,  Commait.  zm  Jna.  i,  721  sq.),  passed  orei 
blands  which  tbey  bad  occupied,  and  thence 
people  who  succeeded  the  Phomlcians  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  them.  The  use  of  the  term  was  extended  yet 
futher  eo  as  to  embrace  Italy  (Dochart,  FluAg.  lil,  B, 
compares  the  Criia,  Kin'o,  in  Latlum,  menUoned  by 
Dkmys.  Hal.  viii,  c.  83),  according  to  the  Sept.  (Dan.j, 
and  the  Tulgate  (Num.  and  Dan.),  to  which  we  may 
add  the  rendering  of  the  Chaldae  Targum,  which  gives 
ItaUan  Cil-^^ISX)  in  1  Chron.  I,  T,  and  Ap^ia  {V.'^^tV■) 
in  Ezek.  xxtII,  6.  In  an  ethnological  pidnt  of 
Cbittim,  associated  as  the  name  is  with  Javan  and  Elll 
ahah,  must  be  regarded  as  applying,  not  to  the  original 
Phcenician  settlers  of  Cyprus,  but  to  the  race  which 
succeeded  th^m,  vii.  the  Cariana,  who  were  widely  dis- 
persed over  the  Sledilorranean  coasts,  and  were  settled 
in  the  Cyclades  (Tbucyd.  i,  8),  Crete  (Herod,  i,  171), 
and  in  the  iibinda  called  Macaiiia  laaulc,  perhaps  as 
being  tho  residence  of  the  Carians.  From  these  isl- 
ands they  wero  displaced  liy  the  Doriana  and  loniaoa 
(Herod.  I.  c),  and  emigrated  to  the  main  land,  where 
they  occupied  the  district  named  after  them.  The  Ca- 
riana were  connected  with  the  Leiegea,  and  muat  be 
eoDsldered  as  related  to  the  Pelosgic  bmlly,  tbongh 


a  CHOBA 

qnita  distinct  from  the  Hellenic  bnnch  (Knobal,  VU- 
heriafil,  p.  9h  >q,).  Hengalenberg  has  lately  endeav- 
ored (JTM.  ofBalaan,  p.  600)  to  prove  that  in  every 
passage  In  the  Old  Teatament  where  the  word  occun 
it  means  Cyprus,  or  tliB  Cyprians. 

The  moat  probable  view,  however,  is  that  expreased 
by  Kitto:  "Chittlm  leema  to  be  a  name  of  large  iig- 
niflcation  (such  as  oui  Levant),  applied  to  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  the  Medilcrraneui  in  a  loose  sense,  vitb- 
out  fixing  the  particular  part,  thottgb  particular  and 
different  parts  of  the  whole  are  probably  in  most  cases 
to  be  nndsistood"  (PieL  Biblt,  nota  on  Eiok.  xxvii,  6). 

(For  tnTtbar  diMtoasion,  ace  Hichaells,  SpUUagimm,  i, 
1-7,  108-lM;  also  An^eo.  p.  1U8, 1377-1380;  Ge- 
senius,  Tlescwr.  P.7S6;  Mewtoo,  Oa  tb /VqpAecw,  v ; 
RosenmOllsr,  BM.  Groyr.  iii,  878.)    See  EnmouMi. 

CU'im  (Heb.  Kigim',  yfl'),  a  word  that  ocean 
only  once  In  the-  Scriptores,  and  that  in  ui  obacnre 
and  variously-interpreted  paaaage  (Amoa  v,  US),  "Bvt 
ye  have  bone  the  tabernacle  of  your  ifoloeA  mod  CU- 
u,  yonr  tmogeo,  the  star  of  your  god,  which  je  mads 
to  yourselves."  The  Sept.  translates  it  as  *  proper 
name,  SIujiIubi  CPai^av  or  'Pij^v, which  became  still 
further  corrupted  into 'P(f(^),  and  it  is  quotad  in  that 
fbnn  by  Stephen  (Acts  vU.  43).  See  Remphah.  The 
Syriac  translates  it  by  Saturn,  whom  the  Sbemitic  na- 
tions are  known  to  have  worshipped.  But  it  appar- 
ently is  nol  a  proper  name  at  all,  being  derivad  bon 
the  root  ',41,  ibot,  to  itand  u;aight,  and  therefoiv  sig. 
nifiea  simply  a  stofiu  or  idol,  a*  the  Tulgate  reader*  h 
(in  cimnectloD  with  the  following  word),  "MtqgeMai 
idolnmm  vHtmm."  The  some  Is  probably  tme  of  the 
word  rcuilcred  "Uolocb"  in  the  same  passage,  ao  tliat 
tha  whole  may  be  tranalated  (with  Geaeniua),  ■  ■  Ta  tore 
the  tabernacle  of  your  Ung,  and  the  atatua  of  your 
idoli,  the  star  of  yonr  god  which  ye  tnada  to  joor- 
•elvea;"  reforring  not  to  any  specific  d^ty  by  name, 
but  to  the  secret  idolatrous  pncticea  which  the  Jews 
kept  up  along  with  the  worihip  connected  with  the 
divine  ark  in  the  wlldemess,  and  which  ma  pin  a  ml  in 
different  forms  from  tune  to  tinM  in  their  later  histiiiy. 
See  Calf.  Yet,  as  a  "star"  is  mentioned,  it  hoe  not' 
nraity  been  Inferred  that  the  Worehip  of  some  pitmit  is 
alluded  to,  and  this  Jerome  supposed  to  be  Lucifer  a 
Venus.  lAyard  thinks  the  name  identical  with  that 
of  the  Egyptian  goddess  Kr»,  figured  on  tha  Egj-ptiaD 
and  Assyrian  monuments  in  the  character  of  Aatarte 
orTenus  (A^HrrA,  li,  169);  but  he  admits  that  her 
worship  was  tnirowed  from  Assyria  into  Egypt  at  a 
period  later  than  the  Exodus  (p.  170).  On  the  wbole, 
the  above  supposition  that  the  planet  Sstom  is  inttaHl- 


e,  olthon 


canikot  be  sncceasfolly  defended  merely  from  the  ni 
either  hi  the  form  Cbinm  or  Ramphan.  (See  Uoioa, 
hi  his  Seltct.  ExrrciU.  i,  763  Bq. ;  Jahr,  De  C%imi  [Ti- 
teb.  1705] ;  Harenberg,  Dt  idaSi  Ckiim  rt  ffrn^iHiia 
[Brunaw.  172S]  :  Heyer,  Dt  taedSo  tt  bati  idolor.  etc 
[ad  loc.],  [HelmsL  1736];  Wolf,  Dt  CUn  et  Htm- 
pkm  [Lipa.  1741]  ;  Braun,  SActa  Sacra,  p.  -477  aq.> 
See  Satubn. 

Chlo'8  (XXdij,  verJiire,  a  clasiiea]  qbum),  a  remale 
Christian  mentioned  in  1  Cor.  1,  11,  some  of  whose 
household  (nn  nvv  XXoiK.vhere  thaeisdonbtleas  on 
ellipsis  of  d'lniii'V,  comp.  Bom.  xvi,  10, 11)  hod  iafonit- 
ed  the  apostle  Paul  of  the  hct  that  there  were  Fri- 
sians in  the  Corinthian  Church.  A.D.54.  Sheisanp- 
poaed  by  Theophylact  and  others  to  iiava  been  an  in- 
habitant of  Corinth ;  by  Estius,  some  Christian  wooi- 
an  known  to  the  CorinUilsns  elaewberv  ;  by  Hich^ls 
llcyer,  an  Epiiesisn,  having  fiieada  at  Corinth. 
See  CoRitrrauHS,  Epistles  to. 

Choacb.    See  Thdhs. 

Cbo'ba  (Xcu^ri;  Volg.  omits),      . 
Judith  iv,  4,  apparently  situated  in  the  centrsi 
of  Palestine.     It  is  [ovbably  tha  same  place  as 


CHOBAI  257  CHORAZIN" 

Cbota'ld(Xiii/3nO.*rt>lcb  ocean  in  JndiUi  iv,4,G  Iform  rhnrche*.  under  th«  tower  oi  In  tront  of  tha 
(in  the  Utter  vene  XwfSii).  The  name  lUKgeaU  the  hi|;h  altar.  Large  cathednU  alw  oflen  have  aeTsral 
HoBU  (q.  V.)  of  Gen.  xi»,  16  (H^in,  which  aBreea  I  chnira  or  ehapeli  for  aingiiiK  masa.  In  Greeii  and 
■Itb  the  nadinft  of  tlM  Syri»c),  serially  in  connec  Afi"""""  ='"'"^''"  ""' «^'»''"t*>9  ""B*"""  "»"•'- 
idoD  of  Damaacin  in  versa  6,  if  the  'j"  '"  ""'  "'^*  <■'  t*"*  'itaTcb,  to  the  nght  and  left  ol 
the  front  of  the  altar,  in  nunneriea  tin  choir  la  a 
part  of  the  church,  separated  from  the  rest  hj^a  ecreen^ 
where  the  nuns  chant  tha  lervice. 

8.  Id  Protestant  churches  generally,  the  word  desi);- 

nates  the  body  of  tingera,  compmed  tolh  of  males  anil 

females,  who  condact  the  congregational  singing,  with 

or  without  the  aid  of  an  organ.    The  name  is  al*o 

the  place  In  the  cburch  occnpied  by  the  ttng- 


iliilaace  from  the  probable  aite  of  bethulia(q. 
rut  too  groat.  Van  de  Vclde  anggeets  {ilnmnr,  p. 
3U)  that  It  is  prolksbly  the  modem  Kaialiyrlk,  a  vil- 
lige  1^  hour  S.  of  Jenin,  on  the  highway  to  Sebnsti- 
fth  «  Samaria  (ffarrative,  I,  S6S;  oump.  Stewart, 
r<^  oKf  Sios,  p.  1!1 ;  Robinson,  loCn-  " 

mm). 


CUKia  Uo.Ht  renaerea     n.e«ure'  in  our  ver-  -^     g„  Bii-gham,  Orig.  E^U,.  bk.  viii,  cb.  vl.  j  f ; 

m  d>y  cciDiniMiUe*  to  one  eighlh  the  modius  (see 

BraniL),  bat  varying,  acom^ing  to  different  ancient  Chotl-waJl,  or  Choir-Boreen.  is  the  wall  or 
ntbm,  from  one  and  •  half  to  two  pints  English.  .  screen  of  wood,  meUl,  or  Mono  which  diTides  the 
Sis  HcraoLOOT.  I  '^'>oi'  or  presbytery  from  the  rest  of  the  church.     It 

ia  usually  ornamented,  often  with  great  beanty. 


Choir  (Gr.  xopoc)-  The  Greeka  applied  the  term 
dmiu  to  a  drcoLai  dance  performed  daring  McriliceB 
'aj  a  company  of  singers  around  the  altar  of  a  deity. 
Uter  It  was  applied  to  tbia  body  of  singing  dancers. 
Aden  afterwania  were  introdaced,  who  related  some 
ayth  or  legend  of  the  deity  between  the  songs  of  the 
chon^  thus  laying  the  (bundalion  of  the  Greek  drama. 
b  the  parfcclAd  drama,  the  chorua  (compomd  of  flfty 
panis  in  the  tragedy  and  of  twenty-four  In  U»  com- 
tdy)  Kcnpied  a  poaitioo  intermediate  between  the  act- 
«■  and  ItM  ■odience,  giving  in  a  recitatiT) 


CboL    See  Sahd. 

Choloa     See  Wbabki- 

Cholln-    See  Talmud. 

Chomor.    See  Hombk. 

Chomet.    See  Snaii- 

Chooae,    See  Chosbh. 

Chor.    See  Lnm. 

Choral  (I.)  This  term  b  applied  to  t}iat  portion 


Mbet  '<»"■  in  a  song,  counsel,  warning,  encourage-  of  the  Liturgj  of  the  Roman  and  other  chnrcfaea  in 

■at,  or  consolation  to  the  actors.  which  simple  melodies,  usnally  consisting  of  but  foor 

Sbiulsr  bodies  of  singers  attended  the  relipoos  ob-  or  Aye  notes,  are  sung  by  the  offlcisting  priest,  with 

KmacM  of  nearly  all  nations  of  antiqni^.     In  the  responses  from  the  choir  or  the  congretntlon.    These 

Jewish  wonhip  they  were  apecially  prominent  after  date  their  origin  from  the  earliest  period  of  the  Chrls- 

Iht  tiina  of  Osrid,  being  composed  at  times  of  4000  tisn  Church,  and  are  thought  by  some  to  have  l>een 

SB(*n  and  388  leaders.  originally  ancient  pagan  melodies  adapted  to  Christian 

t.  Id  the  development  of  the  ritual  in  the  Chrlatisn  worship, 

ehotchei,  the  body  of  singers  received  the  eame  nsme  (II.)  It  is  also,  and  more  usually,  applied  to  hymn 

it  dmna.      The    Freuch    modification   of  the  word,  tunes  of  a  slow  and  majestic  or  pathetic  movement,  aa 

eleer,  passed  Into  the  Norman  and  early  Engllah  ss  "Old  Hvndrtd,"  tbe  ••Judgmai  ffyma,"  and  "ffrar." 

fin  n  aioir.      The  original  term  dumt  ia  now  ap-  The  Germans  call  all  pulm  tunci  chotals,  but  they 

plied  to  a  body  ofsini^ers  carrying  aQ  the  parts  of  mu-  always  retain  the  original  slow  movement,  sod  all  tha 

rie,  ia  dlstiDction  ttnrn  solo,  doet,  or  quartet  singers;  voices  Join  In  the  melody,  the  organ  giving  tbe  accom- 

■Intolhsportianaf  mnsiesoDgby  thiscbatus.    The  panlment.      In  many  Protestant  countries  all  tbe  Itour 

lee  aurt  noted  okoiit  of  the  present  day  are  that  of  parts  are  sang  in  chorals  as  well  as  In  other  hymn 

■hs Vatican,  in  whichthe  soprano  and  alto  are  aungby  tunes.     For  a  historical  development  of  choral  alng- 

lamcha,  and  tbe  choir  of  tfie  Cathedral  of  Berlin,  in  lug,  see  Musio  (Uibtort  or), 

■hicii  the  soprano  and  alto  are  snug  by  hoys.  j       _. ,_, /h.i.   r ,,i ' -•i«_>»   i. 

Ialb.En^Charcb,.tricUy,?he  tori  denote,  a!  ,    Chor-B  ^™  (Heb.  ffor-.* rf™    ,)|y-ilS  ««*- 

body  of  men  set  apart  lor  the  peritormance  of  all  the  "W  /"™« f  .Sfpt-    Bopamrj.    T.    r.    B^avdv    and 
WTkesoflbe  Chnrchin  tbe  most  Bolemnform.    Prop-.."™"  B.rpoo/3«,  l  e.  Beer-eheba;  Vaig.  laeu,  Aikmi 

air  spsaking,  tbe  whole  corporate  body  of  a  cathedral,  '  w  that  both  appear  to  have  read  -^12),  one  of  tbe 

indadias  capitular  and  lay  mcmliers,  forms  the  choir,  places  (named  between  Hormah  and  Alhacb)  in  which 

■sd  ia  Ihia  extended  seoH  ancient  writers  frequently  "  David  and  hi*  men  were  wont  to  hauut,"  and  to  his 

iM  the  wcrd.      Bnt,  in  ita  more  restricted  sense,  we  friends  In  which  hs  sent  presents  of  the  plunder  taken 

■nUnnderttaudthatbodjormenand  boys  who  form  ttom  the  Amaleltitea  who  had  rolibcd  Ziklag  (I  Sam. 

•  part  of  the  foondation  of  these  places,  and  nbow  xm.  3D).     The  towns  named  in  this  catalogUL  are  all 

i;adaldn^itiBtoperformtbs  service  tomnslc.    Tbe  south  of  Ileliron  ;  snd  Cfaorashan,  therefore,  is  proba- 

cMt  properly  Gonaitta  of  cle^ymeo,  laymen,  and  chor-  biy  identical  with  the  ilmple  AauAN  (q.  v.)  of  Simeon 

ijtir  boys,  and  should  have  at  least  six  men  and  six  (Josh,  xv,  i2 ;  xii,  T). 

tayi,  thae  being  essential  to  the  due  performsnco  of  Chora' Bltl  (Xopoflv  v.  r.  Xo«:«V,  Xopojof..,  and 

the  chants,  servkes,  and  anthems.    Every  choir  is  x-palM.oneoftbecitiesfirriXf.Oln  whichour  Lord's 

lindBd  into  two  pu^  sMtioned  on  each  side  of  the  „,,  ^^y  works  were  done,  but  named  only  In  bis  de- 

thsawl,  m  Older  to  sing  alternately  tbe  versa  of  the  nonciaWon  (Matt,  si,  21 ;  Luke  i,  IB ;  see  Sehersff, 

prtn*  and  hymna,  one  side  answenng  tbe  other.  SalaUmu  enu^im,  Vo  tibi  Cioraiim,  Lips.  1710),  In 

i.  The  term  dnr  is  also  applisd  In  Roman  church-  connection   with  Betbsalda  and  Capernaum,  not  far 

a  to  tha  portion  of  the  church  edlllce  allotted  to  tbe  ft„„  ^^^^^l,   j^  Galilee.  It  appears  to  bats  been  aitua- 

™g«r^n«arlyan*lc«ong  to  the  chancel  (q.v.)  of  Prot-  t^_    ItwasknowntoJeiome,  whodescribes  lt(C«»«. 

•itant  chorcbes.     The  choir  hi  nsnally  in  the  apeli  (q.  (,  jfoftl,  ^n  „  on  tbe  shore  of  the  take,  S  miles  ftom 

n  bthmd  the  high  altar,  at  the  east  (in  the  earlier  Capemaum,  or  12  miles,  according  to  Enaeblos  (Oiw 

amchesbUiewoel)  end  oflhe  church.  ^It^*"  PJ"";  ouut.  s.  v.  Xu.pa:«V,  Choroaalu).     Some  compare  the 

-.^^            ._._!_       .L.    .   .    .,.,..      ^  ..  TalmadicalKfriB«[q.v.](l"""=,-i''"««*<X*.fc 

;  Eunoni  for  wheat  (Beland 

4i«  Dcux  ui  ™«    1,  '■'  ^""^^  P-  1^")  i  "'•"o  others 

s,  e^id^Hy'ln  crncl-  compare  "Haroshsth  (q.v.)of  the  G«imea"(ni^in, 


CHOREPISCOPI  2i 

D^itn,  Jndg.  It,  S) ;  and  Mill  othen  coasidcr  the  DunB 
u  baviDg  been  In  Uw  TarnscuUr  CiamAiu  ('pO^M), 
I.  s.  M<(»rfff>Jiice((U(tbtfoot,  p.lSO*q.).  Origin  aad 
•omc  USS.  write  ths  nama  Chora-Zia  (Xupa  Ziy,  H. 
Emutl,  ObtenaU.  Amit.  1636,  ii,  6),  1.  e.  diitriet  of 
Zi»;  but  this  la  probably  mere  conjecture.  St-WUll- 
btJd  (about  A.D.  TfiO)  vliiled  the  Tjuioua  place*  alDng 
tba  lake  in  the  following  order — 'Htieriaa,  Magdulum, 
Caperaaam,  BethMida,  Choniin  (fitu-^  Tna.  Bohn, 
p.  17),  being  doubttew  guid?d  by  loul  traditloi],  Tor 
the  knowledge  of  the  alte  has  l>«conie  utterly  extinct 
(BoblnMip,  Saearria,  ili,  295).  Some  writer*  at  oae 
lima  luppoaad  It  to  be  the  eame  with  K'lat  rt-Horm,  a 
plan  on  tbe  eaalem  shore  at  tbe  Sea  of  GeaneaanCh, 
where  Saetien  (Seiaea,  i,  9M)  and  Burckhnrdl  (.Trae. 
p.  !6&)deacribe  Mine  ruins;  but  this  la  written  S.  ei- 
HoiMii  on  later  oispn.  A  mnre  racent  writer  (in  tbe 
Hall.  Ut-Zeit.  184£,  No.  1SS)  regards  it  aa  a  place  In 
WaJg  d-JaoHi ,-  but  this  also  lacks  aotbori^.  Po- 
ooche  (fiu(,  il,  79)  apaaks  of  a  village  called  OtraA 
wnong  the  hilli  west  of  Tell-Houm,  10  ot  IS  miles 
Borttt-north-east  of  Tiberias,  and  close  to  Capernaum. 
The  natives,  according  to  Dr.  RichanlBOU,  call  It  Cha- 
TOti.  It  is  apparently  this  place  which  Keith  and  Van 
de  Velde  (.Vemoir,  p.  804)  call  Ktraxek,  and  describe 
as  containing  several  pedeatsla  of  colnmns,  with  lev- 
elled shafts,  and  the  renubia  of  a  building  formed  of 
large  hewn  atuDes;  while  Dr.Holnnsan  {Laler  BiMral 
Am.  p.  S60)  rejects  the  identiHcation  with  disparage- 
ment Cf  tbe  antiqoitles  (p.  847),  although  ha  did  mil 
visit  tbe  Am  (Biblioth.  Sacra,  18S8,  p.  187),  which  Dr. 
Thomson,  nevertheless,  confidently  adopts  (_LamI  wtd 
Book,  11,  S),  apparently  with  good  reason.  H.  De  Saul- 
cj  is  disposed  to  iden^fy  Choraiin  with  the  fonntain 
.^M  et-lio,  near  the  nortliern  extremity  of  the  plain 
of  Genneeareth ;  but  hia  artnimeuts,  except  the  vicinity 
of  the  spots  to  the  lake,  are  frivolous  (Xarratinf,  ii, 
B71>.  Tbt  question  is  intimately  connected  with  that 
of  the  position  of  Capernaum  (q.  v.).  DlssaitatJons 
on  the  curse  pronounced  by  Clirist  against  this  and  the 
ndgbboring  places  (Matt.  li,  21)  have  been  written  in 
Latin  by  Schener  (Llpa.  166U),  Hombech  (MIhxU. 
Sacr.  DItraj.  1667, 1,  iil,  801  sq.),  Schott  (Tbb.  1766). 

ChorSpiBOSpl  (x«f>*"i'*<"''<''i  Bovntni  biAopi),  an 
order  of  nOnisten  of  ancient  origin.  Some  (e.  g.  Kha. 
banns  Hannu)  derive  the  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
bishop  was  chossD  ei  Anro  nKtrdohm;  oth^T«  from 
tor  qnscopi  (heart  of  the  blabop),  as  their  function  was 
to  assist  ^e  city  biehop  in  rural  dialricti,  or  villages 
remote  from  bis  residence.  Tbe  most  simple  and  like- 
ly detivation  Is  from  Ji^a,  coan/iy.  Some  writers 
hold  that  they  were  only  presbyters,  but  il  appears 
certain  (see  the  full  discussion  in  Bingham)  that  they 
dischargisd  episcopjl  fliDcUoDS.  They  acted,  however, 
in  a  aubonllnate  cipaclty.  and  possessed  limited  pow- 
ers, being  subject  to  a  city-blahop,  and  acting  as  his 
colleagues  or  vicars.  They  held  a  different  rank,  but 
posseesed  a  similar  oHlce;  they  were  authorized  to ' 
give  tetters  of  peace  and  testimonials ;  to  auparintend  ' 
the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  their  district;  to  appoint 
ecclesiasUc*!  officers,  readers,  subileacona,  and  exor- ' 
cists;  and  to  ordain  presbytsn  and  deacons,  hnt  not 
without  the  permis^n  and  ciM>peration  of  the  supe- 
rior or  city-blahop.  -  They  poesewed  the  privilege  of 

as  Bubatllutes  or  representatives  of  the  bishop.  The 
canons  of  the  Council  of  Niciea,  A.D.  8!5.  were  sub- 
scribed by  nine  cAorepucnp),  attached  to  dioceaea  of 
whicli  the  bishops  also  were  preaent.  Theae  officera 
were  at  first  confined  to  the  Eastern  Church;  in  the  ' 
Western  they  began  to  be  known  aliout  the  fifth  cen- ' 
tory.  They  were  never  numerous  in  Spain  and  Itily, ' 
but  abounded  in  Africa  and  Germany.  In  the  Weat-  ' 
em  Cburch,  Pope  Nicholas  I  (A.D.  86t)  ordained  that  I 
they  should  abstain  bom  all  episcopal  funcliona  (Man- 
li,  Cone.  XV,  B89) ;  and  Leo  VII  issued  a  aimilar  re- 1 


18  CHOZEBA 

script  about  A.D.  987  (Mansi,  xtUI,  B7S) ;  bnt,  ■ccoid' 
ing  to  soma  writers,  tbey  continued  in  France  till  tbe 
twalftb,  and  in  IreUndtiU  the  thirteenth.  They  wens 
succeeded  by  archdeacons,  rural  deans,  and  vicars- 
general.  In  the  East  the  order  ws*  abolished,  for  tbe 
same  reason,  by  tbe  Council  of  Laodicea,  about  A.D. 
865,  which  decreed  (onon  67)  that  itinerant  preabytera, 
tipioiiurai,  ahoold  visit  the  country  Tillages  for  tbe 
future,  in  lieu  of  mident  chorepiscopi ;  but  tbe  ordei 
continued  until  the  tenth  centurj'.  The  necsadtr  of 
auffragan  blshope  greatly  increased  after  the  rrasatim 
of  the  cAortptiCTpi. — Bingham,  Ong.  Ecdti.  bk,  ii,  A. 
xiv,  }  IS;  Hoabeim,  Biitorical  Commnlariei,  i,  176 
(and  references  there) ;  Siogel,  AUtrlktma;  i,  (87  Iq. 

ChoniM.    Bee  Choih. 

Choaamas'iu  (Xoaaitaioc),  a  name  giren  in  tbs 
Apocrypha  (1  Esdr.  U,  SS)  apparently  as  a  somane 
or  epithet  of  one  Simon,  In  the  Ibit  of  "Temple  ao^ 
vants"  returned  from  the  Captivity ;  but  notliijig  en- 
reapondlng  to  either  name  appears  in  the  Bebrew  text 
(Em  ii,  47). 

CliOB«a  (prop.  "^WS,  badmr';  lAiKriii),  "  eiii^td 
out  from  others  to  some  lionorable  eervice  or  station. 
'  Choaen'  warriors  are  inch  as  are  picked  oat  as  the 
most  valiant  and  skilful  in  an  army,  or  as  beat  adapt, 
ed  l4>  some  special  and  momenloui  enterprise  (Eiod. 
xv,4;  Judg.  XX,  G).  Tbe  Hebrew  nation  was  a 'dice- 
en'  people,  God  having  set  them  apart  to  rec«ive  bis 
word  and  preserve  his  worahlp  (Psa.  c>r,13;  DeBt.Tii, 
7).  Jernsalcm  was 'chosen' to  be  the  seat  of  his  tem- 
ple (1  Kings  xi,  IS).  Christ  is  the '  chosen'  of  Ood ; 
from  eternity  he  was  set  apart  in  tbe  Divine  nUnd  as 
the  only  fit  pcTMm  to  be  our  mediator  and  surety  (Isa. 
xlil,  I).  The  apoatlea  were  'chosen,'  fixed  upon,  and 
set  apart  from  other*  to  bear  witness  unto  Christ's 
resurrection  (Acts  x,  41).  Then  is  an  error  in  aop- 
posing  a  certain  fixed  technical  meaning  of  (he  wonl, 
imspective  of  that  to  vkidl  each  is  'cboaen.'  Tbe 
Christian  Church  (that  is,  'all  in  every  place'  to 
whom  the  Gospel  has  been  announced)  has  been  cho- 
sen lo  the  enjoyment  of  tbe  benefits  and  privileges 
placed  witbin  tbe  reach  of  all  to  whom  such  an- 
nouncement has  been  made-,  while  othei*,  who  rv- 
main  in  ignorance  of  Christianity,  cannoC  be  said  to 
have  been  thus  'chosen,'  Then,  again,  'many  an 
called,  but  few  chosen,"  vii.,  as  having  so  proBted  by 
their  opportunities  as   to  be  accepted  finally."     See 

Choalea,  John  Ovuktoh,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 

bom  in  Bristol,  England,  Feb.  6, 180 1.  He  was  baptised  by 
Dr.  Byland  in  1^0,  and  emigrated  to  America  in  1834. 
Alter  teaching  three  years  at  Red  Hook,  be  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Church,  Newport,  R.  I., 
in  1827,  but  removed  in  iai3  to  Buffalo.  After  serring 
as  paslnr  there  and  in  New  York,  he  returned  to  New- 
port, where  he  remained  s»  pwlor  of  the  Second  Church 
during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  while  on  a  visit 
to  New  York,  Jan.  7,  ISSn.  He  was  a  fVeqoent  coo- 
tribator  to  periodicals,  and  at  one  time  edited  tbe  Bos- 
ton Christian  Times.  Besides  smiiller  works,  be  pab. 
llshed  Tie  Origin  and  HiiUry  of  Mii'irmi,  by  J.  O. 
Choales  and  Thomas  Smith  (Boclon,  lSa7,  2  vol«.«t«). 
See  Hague,  OueourK  eommtnmratin  rfDr.Choala  (N. 
Y.  18B6).— Dnyckinck,  Cyi^lopirdia  ofAmencan  Lilrm 
lure,  il,  317 ;  ChruSan  Rtvira,  1866,  p.  810. 

Chose'ba  (Heb.  Kovba',  K^TS,  tyiitg;  Sept  Xar- 
;i)j3ii,  Tulg.  mndaciwn),  a  place  whose  inhabitants 
("men  of  Chozeba")  are  named  (1  Chron.  iv,  23) 
among  the  descendants  of  Shelab,  the  son  ot  Judab. 
The  name  is  sufficiently  like  the  CiiEZtB  (and  especial- 
ly the  reading  of  the  Samaritan  Codex  of  that  Dame, 
1-1313)  where  Shelab  was  bom  (Geo.  xxzvlii,  fi)  to 
SDggest  that  the  two  refer  to  the  Same  place;  Ibat, 
namely,  aliewhen  (Joah.  zv,  44)  called  Kcfoa  (q>  v.) 
in  Jn^h- 


CHRESTUNS  li 

Tht  heathen  mide  a  mUuks  to  the 
nine  of  ODT  Savioni-,  whom  they  (fenerelly  called  Cira- 
la.  ind  hii  rolloven  (^rrtticuu  (Sueloniiu,  in  CiamL 
H).  Thii  iiDOCedhy  Justin  Mart)'r(.4/>o'. !),  Tertnl- 
liu(JpaJlcB),UKiLu:taDtluB(lv,T}.  dritfu  u  the 
i*iBc  with  the  Belmw  Meuiu,  *nil  lignlHei  a  penon 
ueiined ;  while  Clirnltii,  xpttiriic,  meaiu  good.  Ter> 
tslEu  tells  the  heathen  that  they  were  nnpardonable 
kr  penacDting  Christians  merely  fuT  tbdr  name,  for 


Orif.  Ecda.  bk.  I,  ch.  i,  J  U. 

CSlrestoa.  a  penon  named  by  Snelonlas  iCIaud. 
S)  la  having  incited  a  aeditioi]  among  the  Jews  at 
Eome,  which  led  to  their  expulsion  ftom  the  ci^ 
{aap.  Ada  xviii,  !).  Comp.  Fdlvia.  There  bsv* 
been  two  different  opinlnns  as  to  whom  SuetODlos 
■Kant  by  Ckrattu  (mo  KuIdAI,  aJ  Ad.  ]a  Inc.); 
vbetbcr  erane  Hellenist,  who  had  excited  political  dia- 
tmbances  (as  Heyer  and  De  Wette  suppose ;  sea  Cony- 
bean  and  HovsoD,  St.  Piml,  1, 886),  the  nama  Chres- 
tiii(Gr.  |;pffffT^,  vs^/^  fteqnently  occurring  asbome 
by  manumitted  slavaB;  or  whether,  as  there  is  good 
Riaim  to  think  (lipsins  on  Tacit,  Annal.  iv,  <H  j  Gro- 
tiai,  ot  AeU,  xtUI,  3 ;  Nsander,  Plamtiag  and  TVtu'n- 
•■;,  ii,  £B1),  Suetonina  does  not  refer  to  some  actual 
itinenaion  hetweeoJews  and  ChristLins,  but  contbandi 
Itai  umw  Oiritt,  which  was  most  nnoinal  aa  a  proper 
line,  with  the  much  more  frequent  appellation  of 
(SreAi  (see  TertulUaD,  Apoi.  8;  Lactantius,  /■Wii. 
It,  7,  6;  Milraan,  Uitl.  of  Ckrinitimtg,  I,  430).  Oro- 
rin  (Bitl.  Tli,  6)  places  Claodios's  edict  of  banishment 
In  tbe  ninth  year  of  liis  reign  (i-  e.  A.D.  49  or  60),  and 
^  rtfcn  to  JoMphos,  who,  howeTcr,  saya  nothing 
ilwot  Ihe  matter.  In  King  Alfred's  Anglo&xon 
ranion  of  Oramu.  boweTcr,  tbia  refereoca  to  Joscphus 
ioa  Dot  occar ;  the  regiater  simply  coonecta  tho  ex- 
palilm  with  a  bmlne :  "  In  the  ninth  year  of  hia  gov- 
muaeot  there  was  a  great  famine  in  Kome,  and  CUu- 
dits  ndend  all  the  Jew*  that  were  therein  to  be  driven 
eat"  (Beaworth's  Oronia.  p.  119  of  the  Saioc  and  ITS 
Bftbetrana.  See  this  autementof  Ororlus  commenC- 
•d  OB  by  Scaliger,  Ammadn.  oji  Euseb.  Ckron.  p.  19f). 
On  the  contrary,  Pearson  {Aim.  Pouliit.')  and  Vogel 
(m  Gabler'a  JoaTnaT).  withoat,  howeTer,  glTiug  ded- 
lire  grounds  for  their  opinion,  soppoee  Claudius's 
tninhyeu(i.  e.  A.D.  6S)  to  be  tbe  more  likely  one. 
"KiUiAniCtrCDr.ltmponimnUioiKinAcl.Apnii.p.US), 
OM  ni^t,  on  negative  groonda,  assert  tiiat.  so  long  as 
Hood  Agrippa  was  at  Rome  «itb  Claudius,  Che  edict 
«f  iipaliion  would  baldly  be  publiahed;  i.  e.  previoua 
■o  tbe  year  A.D.  49.  Dr.  Burton,  however  (On  tht 
Orrmaleg!)  of  llu  AOt,  p.  26),  patt  Ihe  date  of  the  edict 
•«H  time  between  A.D.  41  and  4S,  supporting  his 
opinion  by  tbe  fact  "  that  no  mention  is  made  of  Clau- 
iini'a  decree  in  the  Annals  of  Tacitns  which  bsve 
nme  down  to  na ;  and  that,  since  tbe  lost  hooka  of  the 
Annala  occupy  the  tint  aix  yean  of  the  reign  of  Clau- 
diai.  it  is  probable  that  Tacitus  mentioned  this  decree 
ia  one  of  those  books."  Tbe  year  referred  to  In  Acts 
iviil,  !,  is  A.D.  49.      See  CLinmut. 


1.  Origim  -f  lie  n»irge.—Zn  tbe  S.  T.  tbe  word  is 
used  metaphorically  for  the  grace  of  the  Spirit ;  e.  g, 
1  Jaku  li.  30.  t'e  ion!  «  wncliom  (xplaiia)from  lit  Bolg 
0*1.  TbeaetualnaeDfoilinCbristianriteaiaaactibed 
by  Ba^  (and  aome  Komantat  writera  follow  bim)  to 
Ihe  aprntka,  but  there  is  no  foundation  for  tbis.  It  is 
prabahle  that  Ihi  name  Cbristian  (moiiUcrf)  itself  gave 
Km.  at  sn  early  period,  to  the  anointing  of  heathens 
before  or  at  their  baptism.  Unction  Is  mentioned  by 
TirtDllian,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  tbe  Apostolical 
is;  and  hi  the  fiinrth  centory  it  acema  to 
ganeral  oaa  tbnnghoDt  (he  ChDrch.    iWm 


9  CHRISOME 

TertoUian'a  time  (A.D.  SSn)  onward  we  And  tnention 
ofadoubleanointingat  baptism,  one  iMlore,  tbe  other 
after.  The  tatter  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
Xpi'u/'a.  The  firat  (aniou)  was  preparatory,  and  look 
place  immedialely  after  exorcism  and  the  signature  of 
the  cross.  Of  tbe  design  of  chrism,  Cyril  of  Jerosa- 
lem  (Cafarffs.  U/tlag.  2)  says, "  Hen  were  anointed 
from  bead  to  foot  with  tbia  consecrated  oil,  and  this 
made  them  partakers  of  tbe  trae  olive-tree,  Jems 
Christ.  For  Ibey,  being  cut  out  of  a  wild  olive-tree, 
I  and  ingrafted  into  a  good  olive-tree,  were  made  pai^ 
tskersoflhelatnessofthegaodailTe-tree."  Ambrose 
(De  SacnattKl.  lib.  1,  c.  2)  compana  it  to  the  anointing 
of  tbe  wrestlers  before  tbe  combat :  "  Thou  earnest  lo 
tbe  Tout  and  wast  snoinled  as  a  rhamjAm  of  Christ,  to 
flgbt  the  fight  of  this  world."  A  diallnclioD  between 
the  two  anointings  is  made.  ''  Hen  were  first  anoint- 
ed with  tbe  ancient  oil,  tliat  tbey  may  be  Christ'a; 
that  is,  tbe  anointed  of  God \  Int  they  were  anointed 
with  the  precioue  ointment  after  baptism  In  remem- 
brance of  him  who  reputed  the  anointing  of  himself 
with  ointment  lo  be  his  burial"  (.Inatln  Hart.  Jlapons. 
adOrikodox.qa.lST).  Tbe  Apivlal.  ComtUvtiau mtkt 
the  same  distinction  (bk.  vii,  ch.  J2).  Chrysostom 
says,  "Every  person,  before  be  was  baptiied,  wu 
anointed  aa  wrestlers  entering  Ihe  field;  and  this  not 
as  the  high.prieat  waa  anointed  of  old,  only  on  the 
head,  or  right  band,  or  ear,  but  all  over  his  Ixidy,  be- 
cause he  came  not  only  to  be  taught,  but  to  exercise 
btmself  in  a  fight  or  cfimbnt"  (/Tom.  ri  in  Coha."). 

2.  /n  the  Soman  and  Gmh  CAnrc*™.— (1)  At  bap- 
tisni  the  cstecbnmen  is  anointed  with  "holy  oil"  on 
:  the  breast  and  between  the  abooidera.  by  Ihe  priest, 
with  the  algn  of  the  cross;  n/lrr  the  baptiim,  the 
chrism  is  applied  lo  Ihe  crown  of  the  head,  that  the 
person  baptiied  may  know  "that  he  Is  called  a  Chris- 
tian fHim  Christ,  as  Christ  la  ao  called  from  chrism" 
{CalecUtm  of  Tnrit,  p.  ISi,  136,  Bait.  ed.).  (^  In 
confirmation,  the  chrism  (made  of  olive  oil  and  balsam, 
and  conaecraCed  by  the  iiiahop)  constitutea  the  matter 
at  the  sacrament,  a  doctrine  resting  ultimately  upon 
the  forged  decretals  (q.  v.),  and  is  applied  to  the  fore- 
head of  the  person  confirmed  (CalteliUm  i>/  TraU,  p. 
141  aq.).  (S)  In  extreme  unction,  olire  oil  olonc  can 
be  used  (without  balsam),  and  It  la  applied  to  the  or- 
gans of  tbe  five  senses,  and  also  to  the  loins  and  feet. 

The  Greek  Church  agrees  with  the  Roman  aa  to  the 
spiritual  value  of  chrism,  tint  there  are  some  diflbr- 
ences  of  usage.  BotYi  require  that  the  chrum  shall  be 
consecratedj  but  every  bishop  ba-  the  right  lo  conse- 
crate it  hi  the  Roman  Church,  while  the  Greek  coo- 
fines  tbia  power  to  the  patriarchs.  Tbe  Greek  Chnrch, 
however,  uses  a  chrism  compounded  of  some  forty  in- 
gredients, besides  oil  (aee  list  of  them  in  Siegel,  i,  1>9T). 
SeeCoKFiBMATioK;  Extreme  L'kctiok. 

In  the  Protestant  churches  chrism  ia  not  used 

Bingham,  Ong.  EeeU:  bk.  xi,  eh.  9,  lOj  Siegel,  AUtr. 
IhOmer,  i,  396  aq. ;  Elliott,  DtOntatum  of  RonKmum, 
Ilk.  11,  ch.  2,  S;  Bumet,OnlJls.Jr<>cHart.  xz*. 

Chriftome  (/Arumalt).  In  the  Roman  Church  the 
prleat  puts  on  the  baptized  person  after  the  Chrinn 
a  white  robe,  aaying,  "Receive  this  while  garment, 
which  tnsyest  thon  carri'  unstained,  etc."  In  the  bap- 
tism of  Infants  a  white  kcrcblef  ia  given  instead  of  the 
garment,  with  the  same  words. 

By  a  constitution  of  Edmund,  arcblnshap  of  Canter- 
boiy,  A.D.  738,  the  cbriaomes,  after  having  aerved  the 
purposes  of  baptism,  were  to  be  made  use  of  only  lor 
the  making  or  mending  of  surplices,  etc.,  or  for  .the 
wrapping  of  cbalicee.  A  "chriaome  child,"  In  old  Eng- 
lish usage,  was  a  child  in  Its  chrirome  cloth.  Thns 
Jeremy  Tajior:  "Tbia  day  is  mine  and  years,  but  ye 
know  not  what  shall  lie  on  tbe  morrow ;  and  every 
morning  creeps  out  of  a  dark  cloud,  leaving  liebind  it 
an  Ignorance  and  silence  deep  as  midnight,  and  nndls- 
cemed  as  are  the  phantasms  Ibst  make  a  cbriaona 
child  to  imile"  (Ha^  Dgmg,  chap,  i,  aee.  !).  I C 


CHRIST  21 

The  ant  Common  Pr»y»i^book  of  King  Edward  or-  ' 
iat  llut  the  nomiD  Bhall  offer  the  chrlBoms  when  sbs  ' 
cornea  to  be  churched ;  but,  if  the  child  happens  to  die 
before  Ler  chnnhin){,  *he  vu  excDsed  from  offdring 
it ;  uid  it  wu  cuBlomnry  to  dm  it  u  ■  ihroad,  snd  to 
wrap  the  child  in  it  when  it  wi>  burled.  Ueucs,  by 
>n  abase  of  wordit,  the  term  is  now  used  in  Eogland 
Ekot  to  denote  children  who  diq  between  the  time  of 
tbeit  bipli«m  and  the  churching  of  the  mother,  but  to 
denote  children  who  die  betort  they  are  baptlied,  and 
■o  are  incapable  of  Christian  lunal- — CiUediitm  of 
Trtmt  (BalL  ed.),  P-  1B6 ;  Hook,  Chmdt  Dictiimaiy,  «. 
T. ;  Procter,  On  Commim  Frager,  BIS. 

Christ  (XjiiirT-oc,  aHOailtd,  a  Greek  traiulatiDn  of 
the  Heb.  n'^ir^,  Meuiah,  and  so  ased  in  the  Sept.), 
the  official  title  of  our  Savioor  (occurring  flrat  la  i 
Esdr,  vu,  29,  and  coasUntiy  in  the  New  TesL),  as  hav- 
ing been  consecrated  to  his  redemptive  work  by  the 
bsptism  at  Jordan,  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and 
his  plenary  anctioo,  as  the  prophet,  priest,  and  king 
of  his  people.  See  Christ,  Offices  or;  MnsatAU. 
It  thna  also  distinguishes  the  individual  JraoB  (q.  v.), 
which  is  hia  human  appelUtJon,  from  others  of  the 
same  name;  while  his  relations  to  the  Godhead  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  term  "the  Word"  or  I>mos  (q.  v.), 
Christ  therefore  is  not,  strictly  speakinK,  a  proper 
name,  hot  a  dealffnation  of  office.  "Jeaua  Christ,"  or 
rather  "  Jesus  the  Chriat,"  is  a  mode  of  expression  of 
the  same  Und  as  "John  the  BapUot,"  or  Diptizer. 
In  conseqaence  of  not  adverting  to  this,  the  import  of 
many  passages  of  Scripture  is  misapprehended,  e.  g. 
Actsxvii,S;  zviii,6;  Hatt.  xxii,  43.  BuC  the  word, 
though  an  appellative,  intended  to  denote  a  particnlar 
official  character,  came  to  be  used  as  a  strictly  personal 
designation  of  the  I,atd  Jesus.  Even  the  term  Mes- 
siah towards  the  close  of  the  0.  T.  came  to  he  used  of 
the  expected  Redeemer  much  as  a  proper  name  (with- 
ont  the  article  prefixed);  and  Xoinroc  is  often  sim- 
ilarly need  in  the  N.  T.  (e.  g.  Luke  ii,  11 ;  John  iv,  25 ; 
especially  by  Chriat  himself,  John  xvil,  3).  But  as  it 
was  not  settled  In  men's  minds,  when  Jeaoa  iirat  ap- 
peared, that  he  waa  really  MosBlah,  we  usually  iind 
the  article  prefixed  to  Xpumic  "  until  after  the  resur- 
rection, when  all  doubt  vanished  from  the  minds  of  his 
followers.  So,  while  In  the  Gospels  the  name  la  rsre- 
ly  found  without  the  article,  it  ia  almost  as  rarely 
found  with  the  article  tn  the  Epistles"  (Fairbalm, 
BermeiKutical  tfanaal,  p.  23G). 

I,  Hiilorg  of  the  ri(&.— <1.)  Unction,  from  a  very 
earl;  age,  seems  to  have  been  the  emUem  of  cons»- 
crstbn.  or  setting  apart  to  a  particular,  and  especially 
to  a  rell|;iauB  purpoae.  Thus  Jacob  is  said  to  have 
OBomfni  the  lullar  of  stone,  which  he  erected  and  set 
apart  as  a  monument  of  hia  supernatural  dream  at 
BetiMl  (Gen.  xxviii,  18 ;  xxii,  13 ;  ixxv,  14).  Un- 
der the  Old-Teatamcnt  economy  hi|ih-priesta  andhings 
wera  regularly  set  apart  to  their  offices,  hath  of  which 
were,  atricUy  speaking,  sacred  ones,  by  the  ceremony 
of  anointing,  and  the  prophets  were  occasionally  des- 
Imiated  by  the  same  rite.  Thla  rite  seems  to  have 
been  intended  aa  a  public  intimation  of  a  divine  ap- 
pirintmentto  office.  Thus  Seal  is  termed  "the  Lord's 
anoinlal"  (I  Sam.  xxiv,  6) ;  David,  "  the  anointed  of 
the  God  of  Ismel"  (2  Sam.  ixiii,  ]) ;  and  ZedekUh, 
"theaaaiDledDfllieLord"(Lam.  iv,  30).  The  high- 
priest  is  called"  the  aaoiated  priest" (Lev.  Iv,  3).    See 


iO  CHRIST 

bakkuk  (iii,  IS).  It  la  probably  with  reference  to  thU 
use  of  the  expression  that  Moses  is  said  hy  the  miter 
ottheEpiatla  to  the  Hebrews  to  have  "counted  tlw  re- 
proach of  Christ"  (Heb.  xi,  26),  roE  Xp«rroi>  (Aaoi), 
the  same  class  who  in  the  parallel  clause  are  tsraied 
the  "people  of  God,"  "greater  riches  than  the  tn>a- 
ures  of  Egypt." 

(8.)  Id  the  prophetic  Scrlptnrea  we  find  thia  appella- 
tion given  lo  an  illustrious  peraonage,  who,  ondor  vari- 
ous designations.  La  so  often  spoken  of  as  destined  to  ap- 
pear in  a  distant  a(^  as  a  great  deliverer.  iLTberayal 
prophet  David  seems  to  have  been  the  Srst  who  apoke 
oftheGreatDeliverernnderthiaappollation.  He  rep- 
reeents  the  heathen  (the  Gentile  nations)  rmgiog,  and 
the  people  (the  Jewish  people)  imagining  a  vmin  thing 
"  against  Jehovah,  and  against  hia  Awn'fitrrf"  (PsL  ii, 
2).  He  says,  "  Now  know  I  that  the  Lord  savetb  his 
.4fwinr«r'(Paa.xx,6).  "  Thou  hait  loved  righteiMU- 
ness  and  hated  iniquity,"  says  he,  addressing  bimMlf 
to  "Him  who  was  to  come',"  "thereftffe  God,  even 
thy  God,  hath  anoiiittd  thee  with  the  oil  of  gl 
above  thy  fellowa"  (Paa.  xlv,  7).  In  all  the  p> 
in  which  the  Gnat  Deliverer  is  spoken  of  as  *'tha 
Anointed  One"  by  Dsvid,  he  la  plainly  viewed  aa  ana- 
taining  the  character  of  a  king. 

i.  The  prophet  Isaiah  also  uses  the  appellation  "  tbe 
Anointed  One"  with  reference  to  the  promiaed  deliv- 
erei,bnt  when  he  does  so,  he  speaks  of  bim  as  a  proph- 
et or  great  teacher.  He  introduces  him  as  aayioic^ 
"  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  God  is  upon  me,  because  the 
Lord  God  hath  aiurmUd  me  to  preach  good  tidioga 
unto  the  meek;  he  bath  sent  me  to  bind  np  the  bro- 
ken-hearted, to  procl^m  liberty  to  the  cajrtivea,  and 
the  opening  of  the  pHaoD  to  them  who  are  bound  ;  to 
proclaim  the  acceptable  year  of  the  I/>rd,  and  the  imj 
of  vengeance  of  our  God)  lo  comfort  all  that  moorn," 
etc.  0"-  Itl.  1.  "^-y 

c,  Daniel  is  the  only  other  of  the  pra|Aets  who  uses 
the  appellation  "  the  Anointed  One"  In  reference  to  the 
Great  Deliverer,  and  he  plainly  represenli  him  aa  not 
only  a  prince,  but  also  a  high-priest,  an  eipiator  of 
guilt-  "  Seventy  weeka  aro  determined  upon  thy  peo- 
'    pon  thy  holy  city,  to  punish  the  tranagreaaion, 


lakeai 


faina 


and  lo  make  reconciliation 


for  Iniquity,  and  to  bring  In  everlasting  lighteonaneas. 


d  the 


(3.)  Prom  the  origin  and  design  of  the  rite.  It  it  not 
wonderful  that  the  term  should  have  l>een  applied,  in 
a  secondary  and  analogical  sense,  to  persons  set  apart 
by  God  for  important  purposes,  though  not  actually 
anointed.  Thus  Cyrus,  the  king  of  Pernia,  ia  termed 
"the  Lord's  anointed"  (laa.xlv,!);  the  Hebrewpatri- 
archs,  when  sojourning  In  Canaan,  are  termed  "  Qod'a 
anolDled  ones"  (Paa.  cv,  15)  \  and  the  IsraeliUah  peo. 
jje  receive  the  same  appellation  from  the  prophet  Ha- 


mogt  holy.  Know  therofbre  and  nnderstand 
that  from  the  going  forth  of  the  commandment  to  re- 
store Jerusalem  unto  MemoX  the  Prince  shall  be  seven 
weeks  and  threescore  and  two  treeks ;  the  city  shall 
be  built  again,  and  the  wall,  even  In  troublous  time*; 
and  after  threescore  and  two  weeka  shaU  Messiah  be 
cut  off,  but  not  for  himself"  (Daa.  ix,  24-t6).     See 

SeVESTT  WEEKi. 

(4,)  During  the  period  which  elapsed  ftOTU  the  clo«« 
of  the  prophetic  canon  till  the  birth  of  Jems  no  appel- 
lation  of  the  expected  deliverer  aeema  to  have  been  so 
common  as  the  MessUh  or  Anointed  One,  and  this  is 
still  the  name  which  the  unbelieving  Jews  ordinarily 
employ  when  spealclng  of  him  whom  they  still  look 
for  to  avenge  their  wrongs  and  reatoro  them  to  mm 
than  their  former  honors. 

Mewiah,  Christ,  Anointed,  is,  then,  a  term  equiva- 
lent to  consecrated,  sacred,  set  apart;  and  aa  the  rec- 
ord of  divine  revelation  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence, 
The  Bible,  or  book. » la  the  Grsat  Deliverer  called  The 
Measiah,  or  Anointed  One,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
he  is  termed  The  Man,  Tin  Son  of  Han.    Sea  AKomr- 

2.  The  import  of  this  designation  aa  given  to  Jesoa 
of  Nazareth  may  now  readily  be  apprehended. 

(I.)  Ko  attentive  reader  of  the  Old  TesUmentcaa 
lielp  noticing  that  in  every  part  of  the  propheclea  Uwb 
ia  ever  and  anon  preeented  to  our  view  an  illnatrious 
peraonage  destined  to  appear  at  soma  future  distant 
period,  and,  however  varied  may  be  the  flgnrative  rep- 
resentationa  given  of  bim,  no  taaaonalile  donht  can  ha 


CHRIST  261  CHRIST 

«  Um  Mmtity  of  the  indivldiul.  Tbaa  '  entr,"  to  111nstiat«d  tbe  excellence  of  tfas  divine  lav, 
lb  MimIiIi  ia  the  ume  penon  u  "the  seed  of  the  and  the  vickedncBB  ind  danger  of  vjoUting  it,  u  tn 
thduq"  vho  wu  to  ^^  bmiflfl  the  head  of  the  Berpeot"  '  make  it  a  rightoouji  thing  in  "  tbe  Jtiet  God"  to  "  Juft- 
(GeD.iii,15)i  "theaeed  of  AtoAam,  in  whom  all  the  j  tify  tbe  Dnt;odlj,"  thus  prapidatinK  iha  offended  maj- 
uiiHu  of  the  earth  were  to  be  bleued"  (Gen.  xill,  I  eaty  of  heaven  ;  while  the  manifestatioTi  of  the  divine 
U) :  On  gnat ' '  prophet  to  be  isiHd  up  lilie  unto  Ho-  ;  love  in  appoinling  and  accepting  Cbi<  atonement,  when 
IS,"  whom  all  were  to  be  required  to  heu  and  obey  apprehended  by  tbe  mind  under  the  influence  of  (he 
(Dent,  xtiii,  19);  tbe  "priest  afUr  tbe  order  of  Uel-  :  Holy  Spirit,  becomen  the  effectnal  means  ofrecaneilinK 
chiudek;"  "  the  red  oat  of  the  ■tern  of  Jesse,  which  man  to  God  audio  hia  law,  "  trangformlag  him  bj  the 
ibuald  aland  for  an  enaign  of  tbe  people  to  which  the  renewing  of  bta  mind."  And  now,  posaessed  of  "all 
Geulika  should  Mek"(laa.xl,l,10){  the  virgin's  son,  '  power  in  heaven  and  earth,"  "all  power  over  all 
vhoKDime  was  to  be  Immannel  (Isa.  vil,14);  "the  flash,"  "He  Is  Lord  of  all."  AU  external  evento  and 
Iraach  of  Jehovah"  (laa.  iv,  2) ;  "  the  Angel  of  the  all  spiritual  inflaencea  are  equally  under  hia  control, 
CoTintnt"  (Mai.  ili.  1) ;  "  tbe  Lord  of  tbe  Temple,"  i  and  as  a  king  be  exerts  hia  authc^i^  in  carrying  into 
lie.,  ttc  (A.).  When  we  aay,  then,  that  Jcsua  is  the  .  full  effect  the  great  purposes  which  his  revelationa  aa 
Cbriit,  we  in  effect  aay,  "  This  Is  He  of  whom  Uoaea  I  a  prophet,  and  his  great  stoning  sacrifice  as  a  high- 
la  tlie  law  and  the  pcopheta  did  write"  (John  1,  45) ;  |  priest,  were  intended  to  accompllEh.  See  Christ, 
UKJ  all  that  they  say  of  Him  ia  true  of  Jesus.  '  Otficks  of. 

The  sum  of  this  prophetic  leatimony  reapecting  him  1  (3.)  Bntthefiill  import  ofthe  appellation  theCmiiST 
ii  that  be  ihould  IwlouK  to  tbe  very  highest  order  of  '  is  not  yet  brought  out.  It  indicates  that  He  to  whom 
bdag,  the  ineommnnicable  name  Jehovah  twing  repra-  it  Iwlonga  is  tbe  anointed  prophet,  priest,  and  king — 
KDtad  as  rightfully  belonging  to  him;  that  "his  go-  not  that  be  was  anointed  by  material  oil, bat  that  be 
iap  farth  tisve  been  from  old,  from  everlastiag"  (Mic.  |  was  divinely  ig^nnnttd,  gaalified,  commiMiioHeii,  and  (uv 
T,!):  that  his  appropriate  appellatiauB  ahould  be  credited  to  be  the  Saviour  of  men.  These  are  tbe  Ideas 
"Wonderful,  CoDuaellor,  the  Mighty  God"  (laa.  ii,  which  tbe  term  (mauiled  seems  specully  Intended  to 
Sj;  that  he  should  assume  human  nattire,  and  become  convey,  a.  Jesus  was  divinely  ojipoiBCRf  to  the  olBces 
"i  child  bora"  ofthe  laraelitiah  nation  of  tbe  tribe  of  '  he  filled.  He  did  not  assume  them,  "he  was  called  of 
Judah  (Gen.  ilix,  10),  of  the  family  of  David  (laa.  li,  I  God  as  was  Aaron"  (Heb.  v,  4),  "  Behold  mine  Elect, 
1);  that  the  object  of  bis  appearance  should  be  the  in  whom  lay  soul  dellghteth,"  b.  He  was  divinely 
■Intion  of  mankind,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  (Isa.  qualified:  "God  gave  to  him  the  Spirit  not  by  meu- 
ilii,  6) ;  that  he  ahould  be  "  daspiaed  and  rejected"  ure."  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  wsa  upon  biro,"  etc. 
ofhisconntrymen:  that  be  should  be  "cutoff,  but  not  (Isa.  xl,  t-^).  e.  He  wasdivinely  Mnni»inim«f.'  "The 
fa- himself;"  that  he  should  be  "wounded  for  men's  Father  sent  him."  Jehovah  said  to  hhn,  "Tbon  art 
traBtgreBsions,  bruised  for  their  iniquitios,  and  under- ,  my  servant,  in  thee  will  1  he  giorifled,"  etc.  (laa. 
p>  the  chastisement  of  their  peace;"  Ui»t  "by  his,  xllx,  6).  "Behold,"  s«ya  Jehovah,  "I  have  given 
nripes  mcQ  should  be  healed;"  (bat  "the  Lord  should  |  Him  for  a  wltnesa  Ko  the  people — a  leader  and  cvm- 
ky  00  hhn  the  iniquity"  of  men ;  that  "  exaction  ,  mander  to  the  people."  d.  He  is  divinely  accndiUdi 
•inold  be  made  and  he  should  answer  it ;"  that  be  ,  "  JeauB  of  Neiareth."  says  the  apostle  Peter,  was  "a 
tboold  "  make  his  suul  an  otfering  for  sin  ■"  that  after  man  approved  of  God  among  yon  by  miraclea,  and 
tticw  mfferings  he  ahould  be  "exalted  and  extolled,  wondera,  and  aigna  which  God  did  l)y  him  in  the  midst 
lod  nude  \-ery  high;"  that  be  ahould  "aoe  of  the  of  you"  (Acts  il,  82).  "The  Father  who  hath  sent 
triTiii  of  bis  loul  and  be  sstiiRed,  and  by  his  hnowl-  me,"  says  Jesus  himself,  "hath  home  witness  of  me" 
edge  justify  many"  (Isa.  lii,  pauim);  that  Jehovah  (.Tobn  v,ST).  This  he  did  again  and  again  by  a  vcdca 
dualdeavto  him,  "  Sit  at  my  right  bund  until  I  make  from  heaven,  aa  well  as  by  tbe  miracles  which  be  per- 
Ihiiie  enemies  thy  footatool"  (Pm.  ex,  1);  that  be  I  formed  by  that  divine  power  which  was  equally  hii 
Fboald  be  bronght  near  to  the  Ancient  of  Days,  and  and  hia  Father's.  Such  hi  the  Import  of  the  appelU- 
ihai  to  him  shonid  be  given  "dominion,  and  gloiy,  j  tion  CAriif. 

and  a  kinRdom,  that  all  people,  and  nations,  and  \an-  3.  If  ttiese  obeervationa  are  clearly  apprehended, 
goigca  ahould  serve  him  —  an  everlasting  domininn  |  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  giving  a  satisbctory 
■hicb  shall  not  poas  away — a  kingdom  that  shall  not  anawer  to  the  question  which  has  Hometimes  lieen  pro- 
be destroyed"  (Dan.  vii,  18,  14).  All  tbia  ia  implied  |  posed — when  did  Jcsua  Iwcome  Christ?  when  was  he 
ia  saying  Jesna  Is  the  Christ.  In  the  plainer  language  anoinltd  of  God?  We  have  aeen  that  the  expression 
ofthe  New  Testament,  "Jesus  is  the  Christ"  is  equiv-  is  a  ftgurative  or  analogical  one,  and  therefore  wc  need 
ilmt  to  Jesua  ia  "  God  manifest  in  the  flesh"  (]  Tim.  not  wonder  that  its  references  are  varying.  The  qj- 
iiLIG)— the  Son  of  God,  who,  in  human  nsture,  by  his  poHilmatl  at  tbe  Saviour,  like  all  ttie  other  divine  pur- 
etwdience,  and  snffMings,  and  death  in  the  room  irf  the  poeee,  was  of  course  from  etemily :  be  "  was  set  up 
guilty,  has  obtained  salvation  for  them,  and  all  power  from  everlasting"  (Prov.  vlil,  28);  he  "was  tbreor- 
ia  beaven  and  earth  for  bimaelf,  that  he  may  give  eter-  dained  before  the  foundation  of  the  worid"  (1  Pet.  I, 
imI  life  to  all  coming  to  the  Father  through  him.  ;  20).     His  quaiificationa,  such  of  them  as  were  confer- 

(!!.>  WhDe  the  statement  "  Jesus  is  tbe  Christ"  is  red,  were  bestowed  in  or  during  bis  incomution,  when 
Ibu  nuterially  equivalent  to  the  sUtement  "alt  that  |  "God  anointed  him  with  the  Hcly  Gbnst  and  with 
i>  nid  of  tbe  Great  Deliverer  in  the  Old  Testament  power"  (Acts  x,  .W).  His  commission  may  be  consld- 
ScriptnnB  Is  tme  of  Him,"  it  brings  more  directly  be.  ered  aa  iiiven  him  when  called  to  enter  on  the  func- 
Ibn  oar  mind  those  (ruths  respecting  him  which  the  tions  of  his  office.  He  himself,  after  quoting  in  the 
sppellatloo  "the  Anointed  One"  naturally  suggests. '  synagogue  of  Nazareth,  in  the  comm  en  cement  of  hia 
He  Is  a  prophet,  a  prieft.  and  a  king.  He  is  the  great  ministry,  the  passage  from  tbe  prophecies  cif  Isaiah  in 
inealer  at  divine  truth  ;  the  only  expiator  of  human  '  which  his  unction  to  the  prophetical  office  Is  predicted, 
iaai,aBdrecanci1er  of  man  to  God;  the  supreme  and  declared,  "Thii  day  is  this  Scripture  fulfilled  in  your 
•de  legi&nata  ruler  over  the  understandings,  con-  ears."  And  in  bis  resurrection  and  ascension,  God,  as 
Miences,  and  affections  of  men.  In  hia  person,  and  the  reward  of  bis  loving  righteousness  and  hating  in- 
worfc,  and  wmd,  by  his  spirit  and  providence,  he  un-  Iquity,  "anointed  bim  with  the  oil  of  gladnesa  above 
fcMa  the  tnrth  with  reaped  to  the  divine  character  and  his  fellows"  (Pfo.  xlv,  7),  I.  e.  conferred  on  him  a  re- 
win,  and  so  conveys  il  into  the  mind  as  to  make  it  the  gal  power,  friiitful  in  blessings  to  himself  and  others, 
tlhctaa]  means  of  confi>nning  man's  will  lo  God's  will,  br  superior  to  that  which  any  king  had  ever  possessed. 
Ban's  character  ta  God's  cbaracttr.  He  baa  by  his  making  him.  as  the  apostle  Peter  expresses  it,  "both 
■potleeo,  all-perfect  obedisnre,  amid  Iht  oarerest  suf-  Lord  and  Christ"  (Acts  ii,  SB).  As  to  bis  being  ae- 
•  --    - ......         ji  y^  death  of  the    cndiled,  every  miincnlons  event  performed  in  "(hs 


CHRIST 

m<x  to  him  or  b^  bim  may  be  vunred  M  Includid  In 
this  apeclw  oC  ■namtlng,  eapecUllj  the  rinble  deeeaDt 
of  tbs  Spirit  an  him  In  his  lAptiitn. 

4.  TheM  itatnnenu,  vith  regard  to  ths  impoK  of 
the  KppelUliDa  "the  Cbiiel,"  nhow  d*  how  we  are  to 
DndentBDd  the  ttatement  of  the  apoatte  John.  ''Who- 
loever  belisvea  that  Jeiaa  ]a  tbe  Chriat  la  born  of  God" 
(1  John  t,  IJ,  i.  e.  ii  "  ■  child  of  God,"  "  born  again," 
"  a  new  craature ;"  and  the  slmilai  declantion  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  "No  man  can  aay  that  Jecualathe  Lord,' 
1. «.  Um  Cbrat,  the  Meaiiah,  "  but  by  the  Holy  Oboit' 
(1  Cor.  Ill,  S).  It  ia  plain  that  tbe  propoution,  "  Juoa 
is  the  Chriit,"  when  undentood  In  the  latitude  of 
mesnin);  which  we  have  abown  belongs  to  it,  contalna 
a  complete  summary  of  the  truth  respecting  the  divine 
method  of  aalf  ation.  To  believe  that  [unpoaitioa,  right- 
ly undaratood,  ia  to  belie™  the  Goapel — the  saving 
trath,  by  tbe  faith  of  which  a  man  is,  and  by  the  bilh 
of  which  only  a  man  can  be,  brought  into  the  relation 
or  formed  to  the  character  of  a  child  of  God;  and 
thoDgbaman  may, wltfaoutdidne  Influence,  be  brougbt 
to  acknowledge  that  "Jesoa  ia  the  Lord,"  "Haaiiah 
the  Prince,"  and  eren  firmly  lo  believe  that  these  words 
embody  a  truth,  yet  no  man  can  be  brought  really  to 
believe  and  cordUlly  to  acknowledge  the  truth  con- 
tained in  these  worda,  as  we  have  attempted  to  unfold 
it,  without  a  peculiar  divine  influence.  That  Jeaus  is 
tbe  great  comer  (u  tpxi/iitnit,  d  iX3uv)  ia  the  taati- 
mouj  of  God,  tbe  faith  of  which  coDiCitut^  a  Cbrla- 
^o,  the  one  Mig  (rA  !v)  la  which  the  Spirit,  the  wa- 
ter, and  the  blood  unite  in  bearing  witness  (1  John  v, 
6-S).  Thia  historical  view  of  Jeans  Is  not  inconsMent 
with  the  Jewish  Meaaianic  idea,  but  continuative  and 
expansive  oT  it.     See  Jasua. 

CHRIST,  ASCENSION  OF.     See  Ascension. 

CHRIST,  CRUCIFIXION  OF.   8m  Cbdcifiiios. 

CUBIST,  DEATH  OF.     See  CnncinxiOHi  Je- 

CHRIST,  DIVINiTT  OF.     See  CHBimoLOGr ; 

iHCABNATtOH. 

CHRIST,  HUHAKITT  OP.     Sea  Chbiotoloot i 

IirCABKATIOl'. 

CHRIST,  IBJAGESAKD  PORTRAITS  OF.  The 
Goapela  contain  no  notice  whatever  of  the  peraooal  ap- 
pearance of  Chriat.  The  passa^s  in  the  0.  T.  which 
leltT  to  bis  person  (Isa.  lii.  14 ;  liii,  a)  seem  almost  like 
premonitory  warnings  against  any  worship  of  Christ 
"  after  the  desb."  The  Apostolical  Fathers  are  as  si- 
lent on  this  subject  aa  the  Scriptnrea  are.  "Either 
the  Church  was  too  spiritual  tu  desire  such  descripUona, 

completely.  Indeed,  had  all  tradition  of  the  personal 
appearance  of  Christ  died  out,  [hat,  as  early  as  a  hun- 
dred years  after  his  death,  a  long  controversy  arosB  as 
to  whether  he  waain  form  and  features  as  described  by 
tbe  prophet  Isaiah  (lii.  14 ;  liii,  2),  without  comellneaa 
and  beauty.  Jo.'^in  Martyr,  Tertullian,  and  Cyril  took 
the  ground  that  Chriat  waa  phyaicalty  uncomely ;  Cyril 
even  declarea  that  Chriat  waa  the  "  ugliest  of  tbe  sons 
of  men."  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  the  later  fathers 
generally,  declared  bim  to  have  been  the  moat  lieiiuti- 
ful  of  mankind  (Didron,  Ch/iilim  IconnffrapMy,  i,  26H). 
The  spurious  letter  of  Lentulus  to  the  Roman  senate, 
describing  Christ  as  a  man  of  nobis  appporanoe,  with 
curled  hair  parted  En  front,  and  falling,  dark  and  tiloasy, 
over  bis  shoulders,  with  a  smooth,  high  forehead,  a 
strong,  reddish,  and  irregular  beard,  dated  prolably 
■1)0  from  tbe  third  century,  but  has  been  known.  In  its 
present  form,  only  since  the  eleventh.  See  Leiitdi.its. 
When  persecotinn  arose,  the  early  Chriatiaus  felt 
soon  the  need  of  some  visible  sign  of  their  faith.  The  j 
earliest  adopted  was  the  jhA  (q.  v.).  Afterwards  the 
Hgures  under  which  Christ  presented  himself  in  the 
Mew  Testament,  us  tbe  vine,  tho  Lamb  (ofGnd  which 
Uketh  away  the  sins  of  tbe  world),  and,  above  all,  aa  I 
the  Good  Shepherd  (q.  v.)  carrying  a  lamb  on  hie 
shoulders,  wore   introduced  into   " 


2  CHRIST,  IMAGES  OF 

senlptnrea  of  the  Catacombs  of  Roma,  Naples,  and 
Syracuse.  The  so-called  monogram  of  Christ,  via. 
jj  (Ibr  X0,  the  two  first  letters  of  tbe  name  X^irrvc), 
with  or  witboDt  the  letters  A,  U  (the  Alpha  and  Obh. 
ga  of  the  Apocalypse),  appears  about  the  time  of  Coo- 
stantJne  (f  3ST).  See  Cubist,  Hokooum  or  j  Al- 
pha; AoHiJB  De:. 

Again,  the  best  cloas  of  pagan  ihinkera  in  tbe  Bo- 
man  empire,  even  before  the  offlcinl  adoption  of  Chri*. 
tianlty,  had  become  diasatiafied  with  the  complicatioiu 
of  polytheism,  and  were  seeking  for  a  simpler  taitb. 
Pechapa  the  mystery  of  the  unity  of  the  Godhead. 
which  had  been  celebrated  throu^  nearly  all  fbnni 
of  paganism  in  aecret  ritea,  tiad  become  the  commoD 
property  of  educated  minds.  E^ryptian  mythology, 
with  the  am  aa  Ita  great  centre,  had  also  nutde  Its  Im- 
presa  on  the  Roman  mind.  And  thus,  towards  the 
later  periods  of  the  supremacy  of  paganism  fn  the  Bo- 
man  empire,  Apoib,  as  tho  deity  of  the  san,  had  as- 
aumed  the  chief  place  in  heathen  worship.  As  indi- 
cating that  Chriat  was  the  true  "  light  of  the  world," 
the  "Sun  of  righteousness"^4he  most  &vorita  fignra 
used  In  speaking  of  the  Saviour  in  the  early  centuries 
— thia  very  figure  of  Apollo  was  often  Intrndacad  aa 
indicating  Christ.  Orpiaa  waa  alao  often  thus  intro- 
duced, aa  indica^ug  that  Chriat  Is  the  true  charmer  of 
the  evil  paasiona  of  the  human  heart— Indicated  by  the 
beasts  that  quietly  listened  to  bis  music,  and  the  tiae 
ruler  of  the  powers  of  naturr— Indicated  by  tlu  trees 
and  other  plants  bowing  to  bis  mnalc 

Tbe  figure  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  oanally  a  beard- 
leas  youth  not  over  twenty  years  of  age,  with  lone; 
curly  hair  and  a  joyful  countenance,  gave  the  Dwat 
usual  type  of  the  personal  figure  of  Chriat,  when  rep- 
resented on  tbe  sarcophagi  and  in  some  of  the  tntcoti 
of  the  Catacombs.  Many  of  the«e  sarcophagi  art  now 
In  the  Mnseum  of  the  Laleran.  One  of  the  moat  In- 
teresting of  these  youthful  llguree  of  tbe  Saviour  in 
sculptured  monuments  la  that  in  the  tomb  of  Jnniu 
BasBUS  (A.D.  S69),  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Borne, 
in  which  Christ  is  represented  disputing  widi  the  doc- 
tors. Thia  type  of  the  Saviour  as  a  youth  appeared 
again  In  some  manuscripts,  and  in  other  paintings  of 
theearly  part  ofthe  Middle  Ages. 

Quite  a  different  typs,  however,  predominated  at  a 
later  period  in  all  Christian  art  throu^  tbe  entire 
Middle  Ages.  The  first  example  of  it  occurs  In  a  UN 
let  of  ivory  now  in  the  Vatican  museum.  Tbs  seeood, 
and  by  br  tbe  better  example  of  this  type,  ia  a  paint- 
ing In  a  chapel  in  the  catacombs  of  Callistns.  It  is 
coDsidered  by  recent  Roman  arcbEologiata  to  be  of  tbe 
second  century,  but  thia  ia  not  at  aU  prob^le.  It 
repmaents  tbe  Savioor  as  about  thirty-three  yean  of 
age,  with  a  somewhat  elongated  oval  lace,  bearded, 
with  a  grave  and  somewhatmelaocholy,  but  atill  sweat 
and  benign  eipresNon  of  injured  innocence.  Tie  fea- 
tnres  are  not  to  l>e  recognised  as  distinctively  Gnck, 
Roman,  or  Jewish,  but  they  are  highly  Id^  The 
brow  is  high ;  tbe  l-eard  is  sparse,  somewhat  pointed, 
and  ofareddlsh  hue;  the  hair  parts  in  the  middle,  and 
flows  in  abundant  curling  morses  over  the  sbeuldeit 
Of  the  many  varieties  of  representations  of  Christ,  of 
which  Augustine  speaks  as  existing  in  bla  day,  thu 
type  soon  gained  the  prednminance  In  the  Christian 
world,  and  It  hna  held  iti  place  till  modem  times.  In 
the  mosaics  of  the  Basilicas  and  the  Bytantine  chorcb- 
ea,  la  Rome,  Constantinople,  and  Ravenna,  it  gabcd 
I  inexpressible  grandeur,  which  was  not  entirely  lort 
irlng  the  decadence  of  the  so-cslled  Byzantine  period 
orpainting(A.D.eOO-J(K»).  Almost  Its  orininal  pow. 
er  was  renewed  under  the  hand  of  Giotto.  It  6iaHf 
reached  its  highest  clevelopment  in  Christ  aa  the  Re- 
deemer in  I,«inardo's  I^at  Supper,  and  In  Christ  th« 
Judge  in  Michael  Angelo's  Last  Judgment. 

In  the  scenes  of  the  birth.  Infancy,  and  early  child- 
hood of  the  Savioor,  attempts  bare  tilDally  baao  made 


CHRIST,  IMAGES  OF  2( 

toinfoM  Into  hit  bca  indieitloii)  ortbe  divinity  of  hii 
»ilm.  Thi*  iiai  hiiil  lU  clinux  in  tbe  miniiituTe*  at 
Naa  GTMiu  maniiMTipts,  In  tbe  punting]  ottba  pra- 
BiphHlitu,u>dMp«dall;lD  tbeCfarut  DflbeSiidna 
Hukmna  (at  DrndeB).  LAter  in  life,  even  Riphacl 
p«lntad  tbs  joulhM  Cbriit  u  merely  ■  blooming  or 
luj^dag  cfaJliL  Otbet  Italian  palnWn,  in  tbe  de»- 
dmea  of  ntartU  of  tbe  Kventsenth  and  aigbteenth  c«n- 
laiiaa,  painted  portraita  of  beaotlful  children  in  tbe 
inu  ot  their  miatiwiei  as  madonna).  Some  Flemiih 
ud  Dntch  paintan  Imagined  mnea  in  which  Chliit, 
u  a  dntifol  cbild  obedient  to  tbe  lair,  waa  helping  hli 
outbcr  in  inch  homely  datiei  aa  hanging  out  clotbea 
iriucfa  (he  vaa  vaihing,  oi  as  helping  his  father  in  hla 
tabora  aa  carpenter. 

When  repnaonled  aa  disputing  with  the  docton,  he 
jB  mnallj'  placed  on  a  aaat  above  the  olber  flBuraa^ 
vitb  hla  leet  on  a  atocd,  aa  symbol  of  hla  high  position 
and  antharity. 

ens  of  his  llfi)  ha  appeared,  be  Is  often 
the  time  of  CoDStanline,  vitb  a  niiD- 
bu  (q.  ▼.)  aroand  Us  bead,  as  a  symbol  of  his  beav- 
ealy  natora  and  origin.  This  often  alao  Included  a 
cnas,  or  the  mooogram  ^.  He  ii  osoalty  represent' 
ad  largar  than  tbe  sarroundlng  Bgorea.  As  Indicating 
his  aatborily  and  pover,  the  Savionr  is  often  repre- 
sented with  a  globe — tbe  univena— DDder  hla  feet ;  or 

in  bis  hand.  FtpBcially  while  performing  miracles. 
Tbt  Savkmr  waa  uauilly  rspresenCnUn  tbe  early  nurka 
M  wearing  ainnic,  over  which  was  thrown  tbe  po^inn 
at  tbe  ancients.  The  Innic  often  had  two  bsnds  of 
porpla  or  of  gold  on  tbe  breast,  and,  like  tbe  psllinm, 
It  waa  of  white  cloth.  Sometimes  a  rolunte,  the  New 
TaMament,  was  placed  in  hh  hand,  or  be  waa  placed 
between  two  caaea  nf  Toloina^  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament. 

Beaidas  direct  scenes  from  bis  own  lib,  or  repra- 
•ntstiona  indicating  hla  hoi}'  mlaaion,  tbe  Savionr 
was,  daring  the  flnt  centnries,  when  symboKsm  was 
corled  to  a  vary  great  perfsctian,  aametinws  repre- 
Kated  in  scenes  from  the  Old  Teatament,  as  In  the 
Bery  rnmace  with  the  thne  worthies,  with  Daniel  In 
the  lions'  den,  and  in  the  place  of  Uoses,  when  that 
patriarch  was  striking  tbe  rock. 

Beddea  these  extant  repmsentations  cfthe  Saviour 
in  Christian  art,  we  know  that  the  Gnostics  bad  what 
tbay  calle4  images  of  Christ  as  early  as  the  second 
eeatnry.  Raoul  Rocbetle  (Tgpa  dt  tArt,  p.  9  sq.) 
•aya  that  the  cast  of  featores  described  above  as  lie- 
kaging  to  the  beat  portraita  of  Christ  was  derived 
tnm  tbe  Gnoalle  artina.  Compare  also  Irenana,  ode. 
Htr.\,  U,  {  6.  A  century  later,  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der Sevenu  (A.D.  2SS-3.S6)  placed  among  bis  bonse- 
b^  gods  Agnres  of  Abraham  and  Christ  beside  those 
of  the  heathen  deldes. 

Imagea  of  Christ,  claimed  by  the  Romanists  to  be 
of  n)iT>nil<na  cFrigin.are  preaerred  in  severa]  churches 
in  Italy  and  the  Orient.  Host  of  them  are  really  of 
Bjiantine  origin,  and  pnhalily  dated  from  lietween 
the  tenth  and  twelfth  centnries.  Tbe  power  of  work- 
ing miraclea  la  ascribed  to  these  images  I  One  of  Che 
Boat  noted  of  tbem  is  (ia  I  enmiea  (tbe  plctnre  known 
as  tbe  Eeei  Bome\  on  a  linen  clotb  which  a  woman 
naned  Temoica  is  held  by  tradition  to  have  given  to 
Christ  while  bearing  his  cross  to  Calvary  to  wjpe  his 
Icaw.  See  Tebonica.  On  the  cloth  is  the  face  of 
the  Savloar,  with  an  expreasion  of  grest  grief,  and  the 
l«o*  pierced  by  tbe  crown  of  tboms.  Another  is  thst 
whUi  is  said  to  have  appeared  miraculously  when  St. 
^ylvcater  was  consecrating  the  basilica  of  St.  John 
tteran.  and  which  was  formerly  prps«Tved  above 
dw  tribune  of  that  cbarch.  Another  is  the  Ahganu 
[acture,  a  portrait  iritbout  colors,  wbicb  a  baseless  tra- 
dkioB  (of  a»  tenth  centory)  baa  it  [hat  Christ  sent  to 
king  Ahganu  of  Edeaaa,  whan  that  king  wished  Christ 


;3  CHRIST,  OFFICES  OF 

111  come  and  besl  blm  of  a  alckness,  and  tbe  original 
of  which  picture  two  cburcbes — tbe  church  of  St.  Syl- 
vceter  In  Praia,  near  Rome,  and  a  church  at  Genoa — 
^  profess  to  have.  See  AnoARcs.  Another  is  preaerved 
in  tbe  sucristy  or  the  basilica  of  St.  Lawrence,  near 
Rome.  There  are  alao  several  wooden  images  of  the 
infant  Saviour  said  to  have  been  carved  and  painted 
by  St.  Luke,  or  by  angels  J 

Paintings  or  sculptures  of  the  crucifixion  [see  Cso- 
cirii]  are  ntoally  plaesd  over  tbe  alUr  in  BomUh, 
Greek,  Armenian,  and  Lutheran  cburcbes.  In  some 
Protestant  churchea,  other  than  tbe  Lutbeiau,  the  fig- 
ure of  the  Saviour  is  often  introduced  in  paintings  of 
tbe  parables,  the  miracles,  and  other  Biblical  snlijects. 
nndered  in  a  Protestant  sense.  See  Piper,  Uj/Aoiogit 
and  aynbolHi  der  ckritaichai  Kuiut  (Weimar,  184i) ; 
Martigny,  Diciinimaire  dtt  AntigviUi  Cirkiamti  (Par. 
lS6fi)i  Kossi,Aona.5DttsrT<iiK(i  (Rome,  1866);abN)  the 
woriis  of  Aringhi,  Bottari,  Ferret,  etc.,  on  tbe  Osta- 
combe  1  GIQckaelig,  Ouiitat-ArckiKitogiii  (1868,  4to; 
reprodaces  the  so-called  £dessa  [riclure  In  colors,  and 
gives  six  other  portraits);  HarangonI,  IiUiria  itUa 
CtgiptUa  ii  3.S.  dt  Rama  (Rome,  1747);  Mrs.  Jamla- 
aon,  tfMtoTFo/owixiniiB^rt(London,  1864,  Svols. 
Bvo) ;  Lecky,  Bitlory  of  BaMimiditm,  1,  2S1-Z67 ;  Di- 
dron,  CVu*;™  /DHHyrojiAjF  (Bohn'a  ed.),  i,  MS  398; 
Lewis,  SiM),  iTitsai,  tmd  hTmaiy  (Edinb.  18S3, 1  vols. 
Sto),  1,  IBS  sq, ;  SchalF,  CkurA  i/ittor),  111,  UO.     See 

CaTACOMDB;    I  HAOX- worship. 

CHRIST,  LIFE  OF.     Sea  Jucs. 

CHRIST,  UONOGRAH  OF.  —  In  the  Catacomba 
and  elsewhere  ii  to  be  found  a  monogram  in  the  ferma 
£<  Fi  #1  ^<  <»<»PMed  of  the  Greek  letters  X 
and  P,  the  Initial  letters  of  tbe  name  Xpianlf,  Christ 
Sotnetimes  the  Greek  letters  a,  w  (Alpha  and  Omega, 
tbe  first  and  the  laaO  an  combined  with  tbe  other*, 
in  the  form  a^w,  or  suspended  by  chains  (h>m  the 
transvena  bar,  thua  'vn' .  The  precise  date  of  Itn  or- 
i^n  is  unknown;  bat  Killen  iAnmal  CHurdt,  p.  117, 
note)  aasarts  that  It  la  found  on  cuina  of  the  Plolemles, 
and  cites  Aringhi  (Roma  Sublemnira,  ii,  667)  as  bis 
authority.  But,  whatever  tbe  origin  of  tbe  monogram, 
It  came  into  new  prominence  and  widrr  use  from  tbe 
fact  that  Constantlne  (A.D.  SI!)  applied  It  to  the  hea- 
then military  standard.  See  LABAHnv.  Itlacalled, 
therefore,  not  only  tbe  monogram  of  Christ,  but  some, 
times  also  the  monogram  of  Constantlne. — Schaff,  Ch. 
Hilary,  Ii, -JT;  Jumlason,  Hidiiry  /</ our  Lord  in  Art, 
il,3I5;  Uattigny,  Ditl.  dtt  AtOiqtiitii,  p.  414;  Pcrret, 
/vi  Calaambtt  de  Amk,  ill,  VS.     See  Catacombb. 

CHRIST,  OFFICES   OF  (as  Prophit,  Priat,  and 

I.  Or^aonJiKitoryn/lUs  Cinnoii.— Eusebit]S,in 
his  CAurci  HiMtory  (I,  ii),  and  also  in  his  Oemonilrtiiio 
EvangtHca  (Iv,  15),  la  tbe  Hrit  who  appears  lo  bava 
considered  the  mediatorial  work  of  Christ  as  consist- 
ing in  tbe  three  offlces.  The  division  became  com- 
mon In  tbe  Greek  Church,  and  it  is  still  usual  in  tbe 
Russian  Church.  In  tbe  Latin  Cburch  it  has  nut 
passed  so  generallv  into  use,  altbougb  Bellanuin  and 
many  otben  allow  it.  Luther,  MeUncbthon,  and  the 
other  early  Lutheran  theologians  do  not  use  tbe  dis- 
tinction. It  waa  introduced  into  Lutheran  thcoloirf 
by  Gerhard  (q.  v.)  in  hia  Luri  Tkniagie',  was  admit- 
ted by  Spener  into  his  Olmbbun,  and  remained  prev- 
alent among  Lalbeian  theologians  until  tbe  time  of 
Ernesti,  who  wrote  against  it  nnder  the  title  Dt  iffido 
ChriMi  tri^iti,  and  was  followed  by  Zachariai,  Do- 
derlein,  Knapp,  and  others  (sea  Knupp,  Theeiogn.,  % 
107).  In  tbe  Reformed  Cburcb  it  was  sdopled  liy  Cal- 
vin {tnH.  ii,  IS),  was  iidmitted  into  the  Heldell>erg  Cat- 
echlfm,  and  was  gcnenlly  followed  by  tbe  dogmatic 
writera  of  tbe  Reformed  churches,  botb  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  in  England.  The  modem  theology  of  Ger- 
many (aa  the  worka  of  De  Wette,  Schleitrmacber,  Tho- 


CHRIST,  OFFICES  OF 


201 


CHEIST,  OFFICES  OF 


buik,  Kitnch,  Liebner,  Ebnrd,  etc.)  generally  adhere  I  muterial  KDae,  irw  gradually  falfiUcd.     It  vi 

to  It,  reicarding  it  ai  an  tuenlial,  and  not  merely  ac- 

tidsntal  and  formal  division  of  the  mediatorul  work, 

as  ttaa  only  one  which  exhaiut«  it.    It  ia  tued  by  manj- 

ortha  beat  Engliah  theologiaaB.    We  give  hen  a  mod- 

iiicition  of  Ebnrd'a  aitkle  on  the  topic  in  Menog'a 

Btal-EiKfiiopAiUt,  vi,  607  aq. 

II.  Biblical  Fuw— The  propbedea  or  the  O.T.  des- 
ignate the  Redeemer  ae  the  perftet  and  model  prapk- 
rt,  ai  the  servant  of  God  to  whom  the  altribulea  of 
prophecy,  prieathood,  and  royalty  alike  beloD)!;  aathe 
kitigb/  seed  ot  David,  or  the  second,  perfect  David  j 
and  finally  aa  the  prirtt-Hng.  He,  moreover,  in  spir- 
it, caLs  himaelf.  In  the  Gospela,  "prophet,"  and  "aon 
of  David."  In  the  E{M8|1b  to  the  Hebreira  he  is  repre- 
sented aa  the  only  true  and  eternal  higli-prieet.  Tbia 
threefbld  aspect  of  his  mission  is  united  in  the  concep- 
tion of  the  AnmnUd  or  JUtaiah ;  for  aa  Elisha  was  by 
Elijah  anointed  ^proplkel  (1  Kings  xix,  16),  so  was  the 
promised  "servant  of  God"  to  be  anointed  by  the  Spir- 
itoftheLonl;  andastbe  tin^oflB]  ' 
(ISam.  X,  1;  xvl,  IS;  I  Kings  1,13 


the  Lord,  that  the  "  Eternal  might  dwell  with  hia  peo- 
ple." But  such  a  anion  of  God,  "who  ia  a  apirit," 
with  a  material  place  and  edifice,  did  not  agree  with 
the  divine  plan  or  aalvBtion  (compare  John  Iv,  SS, 
!4).  Israel  was  to  acknowledge  that  the  temponl 
redemption,  obtained  tluopgh  David,  waa  not  y*t  the 
tnie  redempdon,  bnt  a  mere  faint  foreshadowing  tho^ 
of.  This  was  indicated  by  tbe  prophecy  in  the  aev- 
enth  ehaptar  of  !  Samuel,  in  which  it  was  ahown 
that  not  David  himself,  but  David's  seed  after  his 
death,  was  to  build  tbe  Lotd  a  honse,  and  that  the  l»id 
would  assurv  the  throne  of  his  kingdom  fbrever.  Even 
here  no  mention  is  made  of  an  iadki<huU,  but  menaly 
of  a  encoessor  of  David  (chap,  vli,  li-l&).  David  al 
tbe  same  time  nnderatood  that  hia  eiafol  race  wu 
not  fit  to  build  the  Loid  *  temple,  and  to  mla  on  hia 
etcmul  throne,  as  be  said,  "  Tiau  kail  tpoia>  alio  of 
thg  trmxt'i  lumK  fir  a  grant  vAtfa  (o  come.  And  it 
lUt  Ikt  ttoainer  of  mm,0  Lord  Godt  (i  Sam.  nl,I9; 
I  comp.  1  Cbron.  xvii,  17).    The  alioskin  in  Psa.  U, «, 


waa  Christ  anointed  king  of  righteoasness  (Heb.  l,  8,  7,  to  this  prediction  b  unmistakable,  and  P»^ 

9).     And  aa  it  waa  ordained  by  tho  law  that  Ot  iigh-  poelic  explanation  of  the  passage  2  Sam.  vii,  19.      So 

priat  should  be  anointed  to  his  office  (Eiod.  xxviii,  Christ  himself  (Hatt.  xiii,  4S)  expUins  it. 

41;  xxii,7;  x»,SO;  Lev.iv,  8i  vi,82!  vii.  86),  ao  Solomon  also  waa  aware  that  the  prediction  of  Sa. 

Christ  was  made  bigh-|^e'<t  "bo*  oJUr  At  law  of  a  't""i  ■^■oald  not  have  its  final  fulfilment  in  hia  m>te- 

caraal  ananuaidmiial,  bul  oficr  tie  power  of  m  emil/a  rial  temple  (I  Kings  viii,  86-27).     After  the  death  of 

life"  (Hob.  vii.  16).     The  conception  of  the  Heasiah  I  Solomon,  prophecy  pointed 

o'r  Anointed  thua  divides  itself  into  the  three  aspects  towardi 


of  prophet,  priest,  and  king. 

Tbe  first  prophecy  liearing  on  the  subject  ia  In  Dent, 
xviii,  lb.  The  people,  afraid  of  bearing  the  command- 
ments of  God,  sent  op  Moses  to  hear  them  (Eiod.  XX, 
19:  Deut.v,!;).  The  Lord  "heard"  thepeopie(Deut. 
v,  3S),  and  promised  (as  they  had 
hear  Him)  that  He  would  send  them  a  propoet  wnom 
eify  could  and  ahould  bear.  The  God  who  revealed 
his  law  in  the  midst  of  thunder  and  lightning,  so  that 
die  people  durst  not  approach  him,  would  afterwards 
upproncA  the  people  through  a  prophet.  On  Mount 
Sinai  the  people  had  to  send  Moses  up  to  God,  and  God 
pimnised,  in  the  future,  lo  send  down  a  prophet  to  the 
people.  Thus  tbe  difference  between  tbe  L^v  and  the 
Gospel  is  sketched  In  it*  dawning  outline. 

The  latter  part  of  Isaiah  (chapters  xl-lxvi)  Is  re- 
lated, though  not  in  the  most  direct  way,  to  the  proph- 
ecy in  Deuteronomy.  In  Isaiah,  not  "  tbe  prophet," 
but  the  "servant  of  God,"  Is  the  predominant  con- 
ception. Isaiah  "labors  in  vain"  (xllx, 4);  a  comtii; 
servant  of  God,  however,  will  accomplish  both  Isaiah's 
task  in  Israel  and  tbe  mission  of  the  people  of  Is- 
rael to  the  Gentiles  together  and  perfectly  (xlis,  6) ; 
and  this  because  he  is  more  than  a  prophet ;  liecanae 
he  takes  Dpon  bimaelf  the  penalty  of  our  sins  (liii.  v)— 
lipib'.^  ims,  "  the  chaedwment  of  onr  peace,"  i.  e. 
tbe  punishment  whose  fullllment  secures  our  exemp- 
tion. He  brings  a  lin-ojeringt  DOK  (ver.  10).  Tbe 
prophecy  does  not  merely  indicate  that  the  prapbat'a 
Diia^n  should  entail  death  on  (he  servant  of  God,  aa 
was  the  case  with  Paul  (Col.  i,  24 ;  2  Tim.  i.  11),  bnt 
that  he  shonM  die  as-  "  '    " 

in  chap.  xlix.  7,  be  ap 
"kings and  princes"  si 


irtain,  particular,  future  descendant  of  Da- 
vid, entirely  disdnct  f^m  his  then  existing  poflt«ritv 
(comp.  Isaiah  vli.l4;  Ix, 6,  with x, !1).   Fromthechas- 
tised  house  of  David,  the  fallen  trunk,  a  fresh  branch 
was  to  spring  (Isaiah  xi,  IX  and  to  rule  over  the  op- 
tions through  a  reign  of  peace  and  righteousneas.    Tet 
to  i  that  he  was  not  to  be  an  ordinary  earthly  king,  tior  a 
''    il  priest,  but  a  king-priest  BCDOrding  to  Oie  or- 
Uelchizedeh,  had  already  been  shown  in  Psa. 
nd  ia  more  fully  developed  in  Zecb.  vi,  13,  IS, 
Ith  distinct  refennco  to  S  Sam.  vii,  Paa.  ex,  and 


Isaiah 

2,  The  MmufutaAm  in  X.  T.—Tbe  carnal  Israel 
awaited  a  worldly,  earthly  Messiah,  who  should  eitab- 
iish  a  worldly  kingdom.  ''ThePrDphflt"(u  rpof^rjfc, 
John  vi,  14)  appeared  lo  them  to  be  distinct  from  the 
Messiah,  a  aort  of  precnrsor  of  the  btter  (comp.  Hark 
viil,  27,  and  John  i,  21) ;  bnt  the  faithful,  enlightened 
by  the  spirit  of  God,  thought  otherwise.  To  them  had 
Jesus  already  been  annoanced  by  John  the  Baptist 
(Hatt  iii,  a;  comp.  with  xii,  18,  Luke  iii,  4)  as  the 
"servant  of  God"  promised  by  Isaiah,  In  whom  the 
prophetic,  priestly,  and  kingly  offices  should  be  united; 
and  the  Lord  himself  appears  in  these  three  aspects  in 
'ife,  hia  paaslon,  and  hia  death. 


When 


e  goes  al 


It  the  "  king 


of  God"  has  come,  and  confirming  his  words  bf  mira- 
cles, he  does  a  prophet's  work,  and  CbeTefon  the  peo- 
ple themselves  rect^nlse  him  aa  the"  prophet" (Luke 
vil,16;  iz,8;  Johniv,!!);  vii, 40).  ButheDotonly 
spoke  aa  a  prophet,  but  he  tea*  and  ii  The  Proplwt, 
therovealer  ofthe  Father  in  the  absolute  setiae.  The 
key  to  this  perception  is  given  us  In  tho  passage  Hrii. 
:piaUii7  sacrifice.  And  1, 1 :  "God,  wtin  at  imtdrg  time*  (md  sn  dirert  i—frs 
as  "  King  of  kings,"  for  Jpa&i  io  timttpait  unto  thefnlkm  ty  tHr  pmpiett,  tott 
'  in  dieietatldasi  ipoieiniBlovMbii  Ui  fioa,"  etc.,  i.e.  ha 


it.v,  IB  a  promise  ofthe  "proph-  has  manifested  tbe  fulneae  of  Ills  ee 
at,"  and  in  Isaiah  xlix-liii  a  promise  of  "a  servant  of  In  a  personal  rovelstion  in  Him  who  from  all  eterolty 
God,"  of  whom  prophetic  preaching,  priestly  self-ot- 1  bat  been  the  one  God  and  conaubstautisl  with  the  Fa- 
f^ring.snilcrowningwith  kingly  power  are  predicated. 'ther.  Therefore  he  is  in  John  t,  1,  called  the  WorJ, 
But  regal  dominion  is  not  merely  assigned  to  the  fu-  in  whom  God  tv  li^xp  expressed  his  essence  to  hiiis- 
tnro  Kedeemer  as  tbe  predicste,  or  as  the  issue  of  his  se1f(irp6E  rivStuvX  "by  whom  all  things  were  made; 
destiny,  bnt,  on  the  contrary,  the  very  root  of  tbe  without  whom  was  not  any  thing  made  that  was  made ; 
Messianic  propheciea  lire  in  tbe  promise  of  "one  of  In  whom  waa  life  ;  and  the  life  was  tbe  li^t  of  men." 
the  seed  of  David,"  whose  "throne  should  endnn  for-  Christ,  a«  the  Word  become  man,  la  then  no  longer  > 
ever."  Redemption  tmm  futpre  servitude  waa  prom-  prophet  ai^rc^  En  word  and  action,  but  is  one  in  hia 
iaed  totbe  seed  of  Alirabam  (Gen.  xv).  Through  Mo-  very  essence.  His  whole  being  aod  eaaence  Is  Aa 
•es,  Joahna,  and  David,  Ibis  promise.  In  its  outward  and  '  nvalation  of  the  Father  (John  xiv,  9). 


CHRIST,  OFFICES  OF 


28!        CHRIST,  SINLESSNISS  OF 


Tb-J  E|iutle  to  the  Hebrswi  rsprmenU  Chrirt  u  > 
Tffcst,  lU)-,  oven  as  the  eltrnat  Idyh-ptittl  (Heti.  tU). 
H«  !•  the  etanul  bigb-priuC  Lieciiue  of  bit  havini{  of- 
r^icd  the  only  eterimllv  valid  KCTinco,  tho  tinil  ucrl- 
tira  Khicb  renders  al!  otbsn  henceforth  gnperflnous— 
Utadf.  !lb  lieing  in  other  parts  o(  the  Scriptures 
■niidend  more  ma  the  kottUt  (victim)  than  ah  the 
priMt,  b  inerelj  a  formal,  not  a  material  ditTsrepce. 
Christ,  OD  the  one  huid,  sbeolatel)'  mUeflHl  the  de- 
Budi  of  God's  law  Dpon  man  (namely,  to  lie  sinless, 
briv.  ind  tilled  with  the  bve  ot  God),  and  thus  ren- 
lati  the  sAcrfimfu  actita  which  we  do  not  render; 
nd,  on  the  other  band,  he  aMamed  the  penalty  wbicb 
the  law  Inflicted  oa  the  sinner,  "Thou  sbalt  die  the 
death,"  on  himSElf;  he  who  owed  nothing  guAring 
6r  tlioee  who  are  debtors.  Se«  ATO>E>iE:tTi  Obe- 
niEHCE.  He  tbna,  by  substitutioD,  took  upon  bim- 
Klf  our  debt  and  ila  penalt}',  and  became  an  axpia. 
loiT  offering  for  us.  For  the  fundamental  principle 
if  sU  offerinn*  for  tin  nnder  the  old  dispcnution  was 
Uiia  Teiy  suliatitDtina  of  one  to  ■ufl'er  death  for  an- 
oditi;  who  conid  have  been  the  mcdiuting  priest  be- 
Iweea  Christ  and  the  Father?  He  himselr,  the  sin- 
las,  holy,  the  XufO( — irpof ^rt}f,  who  bad  ever  been 
widi  the  Father,  was  the  priest  who.  In  otomal  hlgh- 
prinlljr  purity,  gave  himeelf  as  an  offering.  Hia  ac- 
UiBii  and  ills  sufferings  cannot  be  divided.  Ho  did 
Dot  make  an  offering  of  himself  suddenly,  tx  oinipfo, 
with  no  connection  with  his  previoua  life.  On  the 
coDlnry,  his  priestly,  holy  lih  brought  him  to  his 
Itstb.    Thna  was  bis  otMng  a  pisstly  one. 

From  the  death  ot  Christ  tbe  crown  nf  tboms  is  In- 
separable. So  ftoni  tbe  crown  of  thorns  tbe  crown  of 
kiiigiy  dignity  and  power  is  inaeparalile,  When,  in 
the  days  ol  nis  bamiiiation,  he  was  recognised  and  pro- 
cliimed  as  tbe  promised  "Son  of  David,"  the  expected 
"Uaiiab-kin^,"  he  accepted  the  title  (Matt.  It,  27; 
iviii,aO;  ^t,ii;  xil,!S;  xxl,9).  But  tho  fulfilment 
ef  hit  kingly  mission  tuck  place  in  a  manner  entirely 
eppoNt*  to  that  which  tbe  people  bad  expectrd.  Hie 
Un^jly  minion  colminated  at  the  ver}-  moment  when 
be  declared  unto  Pilat«  that  he  was  king,  and  tbere- 
■pon  received  tbe  crown  of  tboms  (JcAn  xvlii,  37,  and 
itXji.comp.  with  verses  12-lS  and  verse  21).  Here 
(be  kingly  office  became  closely  connected  with  tbe 
fritstlv.  As  a  roward  for  thle  royal  abnegation  he 
Taicrowned  with  the  crown  of  glory  (Ilol'.ll.Di  Phil. 
H,  9.  Ill),  became  head  of  tho  Church  (Ephcf.  I,  tS), 
and  IjiFTd  over  all  (Ephes.  i,  2]).  And  all  who  come 
I*  hhn  by  faith  ere  given  to  him  as  bis  own  (John 
XTii,  S),  and  he  claims  far  them  a  share  in  bis  glOT)' 
(vtrMt  n.  34,  V6«.  Tho  ChristUn  Church  is  tbns  fully 
Jutiflrd  in  considering  the  prayer  in  John  xvii  as  a 
tree  high-priestly  pmycr  of  the  priestly  king  and  king- 
ly priest  (I*™,  CI,  -1)  for  hia  people,  aiid  not  merely 
ttw  intercenHion  of  a  pmpktt  tot  bis  disriples. 

Fin;illT,  ndemptlon  by  Christ  is  liest  understood 
aoder  thia  threefold  aspect  of  bis  entire  work.  He 
who  in  bis  own  person  waa  tbe  reveiatian  of  Gcd,  the 
Uyo^  of  God  to  man,  has  by  word  and  oe^n,  and 
by  his  advent,  revealed  to  man,  in  his  state  uf  crrcr. 
Ignorance,  and  ein,  tbe  law  of  Ged  to  man,  and  tbe 
nercy  of  God  to  the  sinner.  Ha  who  In  bis  inrn  per- 
tm  WIS  tbe  eon  of  man,  clothed  with  priestly  bollnesa, 
and  making  of  himeelf  a  pure  ofTering  unto  God,  haf, 
•s  a  mem!<er  of  a  race  which  i>  Kubject  to  the  conse- 
^WDcee  of  sin,  preserved  bis  holine«  under  circum- 
•tances  which  caa«ed  the  curse  of  bttrnan  ein  to  fall  an 
tbe  lirsdofbim.  the  sinless,  and  has  thereby  submitted 
hinuelf  Id  tho  judgment  of  God  in  onr  stead,  i.  e.  haa 
given  hlnteelf  as  an  ex)datory  olTering.  He  who  in  bis 
own  penon  woe  tbe  kingly  chief  of  mankind,  bai-,  in 
otdtT  as  [viMt  to  sacrifice  himself.  Anegone  this  king- 
ly poirer  and  worn  tbe  crown  of  thorns,  but  tharelq- 
hai  attained  the  crown  of  glory,  tba  domlnloa  over  the 
Church  be  has  redeemed,  in  which  and  for  which  he 
■ew  tdgns  over  heaveii  and  earth.  . 


We  find,  in  aU  the  N.  T.  account,  that  in  Christ's 
teachings  be  was  not  eiclusively  a  prophet,  in  hia 
passion  be  was  not  exclusively  a  bigh-priest,  nor  was 
he  a  king  only  after  bla  resurrecllon.  On  tbe  con- 
trary, the  three  offices  cannot  be  thus  mechanically 
set  off  troja  each  other.  The  Scripture  certainly  as- 
cribes to  Christ  a  muuu  jtrophtticum  immtdialum  (di- 
rect prophetical  office)  only  during  bis  visible  life  In 
tbe  state  of  humiliation  (vii.  a  prepjlefta  ptrKia,  by 
which  bis  whole  being  was  in  itself  a  revelation  of 
God,  and  a  propheli/i  officti,  in  words  and  doctrines). 
But  it  teaches  also  that,  as  Prophet  and  Rcveiilcr,  tbe 
exalted  Christ  continues  to  operate  {mmaaproplullaim 
mtdiaboH,  mediate  prophetic  office)  by  his  Word,  wbicb 
he  gave  once  for  all,  as  well  as  by  his  Spirit,  through 
which  he  continues  to  enlighten  tbe  hesru  of  believ- 
ers. In  the  matuu  uictrdolaU  (priestly  office)  we  dis- 
tinguish (■crlplurolly)  the  once-offkred  ollation  from 
tbe  yet  continuing  Interceesion ;  and  in  the  former, 
the  oWirafid  and  mtirfaciio  actita,  the  offering  of  a 
holy  life,  from  the  eirdiei'tia  and  taJii/aelio  patMira, 
the  assumption  of  tbe  undeserved  expiatory  suffering. 
Finally,  tbe  Scripture  lesches  that  Cbrbt,  in  his  etata 
of  bUQiillation,  was  already  king  (rfx/iiil.  or  Tex  wTfaj 
enil).  U  in  John  xvili,  ST.  He  dlfclalma  only  tlia 
"ejierdee"  ol*  kingly  power,  not  the  fact.  We  dis- 
tingnisb  also  the  inherent  regal  glory  and  power  of 
Christ  from  his  exercise  3f  Ibem  —  the  dignilai  rrgia 
frocn  tbe  offlciim — and  In  llie  latter  also  we  distinguish 
tho  Myitan  jFTfitsiF,  the  goi-eming  of  his  people  by  his 
rplrit,  {h>m  the  rtgnum  gloria,  the  dominion  over  all. 
Ihere  is,  in  fact,  no  concrete  point  in  the  existence 
and  activity  of  Christ,  whether  in  the  state  of  humili- 
ation or  of  glorilicaUDn,  (n  which  the  three  offices  are 
nut  found  constantly  connected.  Thus  Christ  remains 
in  all  respccta,  inBrparably.  the  Revealer  of  the  F<>ther 
to  man,  the  Intercessor  for  man  with  God,  tnd  the 
Chief  and  King  of  his  people.  See  Knapp,  Ckrittiim 
Thtoiogs.  %  107  ;  Kltiscb,  Bytltm  der  chritlliclun  Leirt, 
%iB2;  Heraog,An)AA'«ii^}itl>fw.vi,  607  iPve  Smith, 
/irK  LiiKt  ofChntHoK  ThnAogg,  I  k.  v,  ch.  iv,  §  2. 

CHRIST,  PERSON  OF.     See  CH8isroi.oor. 

CHRIST, BESL'RKECTION  OP.   SeeRi 


CHRIST,  SINLESSKESS  OF.  Tbe  ChritUan 
Church  haa  always  held  that  Christ  was  absolutely 
free  ^m  rin.  (Ihis  article  Is  based  upon  Weiss,  in 
Ileraog'a  Real-EiicyHiipddie  [Supplement,  i,  19.1  rq.], 
and  UUmann,  Siaiamtu  r/Jtrnt  [Edinburgh  trana. 
If58].) 

I.  Hutoria^.—l.  To  the  minds  of  the  apostles  tbe 
perfect  sinleaanosa  of  their  divine  KlaFter  prennl»d  it- 
self as  an  nnquestionablefact,  and  this  view  continued 
to  prevail,  throuj^h  the  period  immediately  succeed- 
in  <;,  In  the  development  nf  the  Cnurch'sdotf  ' 


ork  of  CI 


,    Not 


Illicit  St 


made  or  deemed  nrr< 
allusions  in  tbe  early  ecclesiastical  writen  show  that 
the  iloctrino  was  neither  rejected  as  unfounded  nor  Ig- 
nored as  unimportant.  Tertullian  Inferred  tbe  ein- 
ienness  ofClirist  from  his  divinity  j  Origen  regarded 
it  aa  a  peculiar  property  of  the  human  soul  of  Christ, 
resulting  fnim  its  union  with  tbe  divine  Logos,  by 
whose  viitno  it  was  interfienetraled  aa  red-hot  irnn  is 
by  Are,  so  that  tin  became  for  bim  an  impossibility. 
Apnilinaris,  setting  out  with  tho  belief  that  human 
nature  Implies  limitation,  mutahllity,  conflict,  sin,  etc., 
held  that  no  man  can  be  a  perfect  man  witliout  rln; 
and  in  Jrder  to  preserve,  con»i«t«nllv  with  this  view, 
tbe  sinlessnesB  of  Christ,  aacrlflced  bis  true  humanity 
by  adopting  the  opinion  that  the  l.ogos  took  the  place 
nf  the  human  soni  in  Christ,  and  imparied  to  him  an 
IrrceisUble  tendency  to  tbe  good.  Athanasina  beld 
tbe  doctrine  of  a  shilesa  yet  perfectly  human  nature 
in  Christ,  arguing  thnl  sin  dons  not  l>elonK  to  humao 
nataro  prr  te,  wbicb  was  originally  pure  and  sinless; 


CHRIST,  SIKLESSNESS  OF        266        CHRIST,  8INLESSNESS  OP 


uid  (hit  Chriit  »aM,  eouMquently,  uiuma  the  n 
turo  of  nun  without  thereby  being  nude  >ub)ect 
■in,  and  thiu,  bj  bia  parfect  life  mb  b  miu,  hecoine  |  The 
man't  exsmplHr  and  guide  in  bia  conflict  witb  evil 
•nd  progress  iflwards  the  good. 

S.  At  theCaiiDciIofChilcedoTi(A.D.  4(>l)thedoc-i 
trine  of  Christ's  true  yet  sinlus  manhood  wu  fomiu- 
liicd  Iiv  the  worda,  "  truly  inan,  wltb  a  rational  soul 
and  body  of  like  essence  with  ua  si  to  his  manhood, 
and  in  all  things  like  us,  aio  excepted;"  and  there  has 
not  since  been  any  change  vitbin  t!ie  accepted  Chris- 
toloh'ieal  dwtiine  of  the  Church.  The  theoloj^ians  of 
the  Middle  Ages  contented  tbenuelvea  with  tlie  tra- 
ditional doctrine,  without  any  special  eSiirta  for  its 
further  development;  tboaghin  the  contraveraiesvitb 
re^rd  to  the  InimBcutata  Conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  her  ehampiona  sought  lo  add  •eight  to  their  ar- 
guments liy  claiming  that  the  acceptance  oftheir  viewa 
would  recognise  also  the  alnleaaness  of  Cbrist.  A  doc-  [ 
trinjlerrorofa  differeat  sort  hence  aioae,  viz.  the  put- 
ting Christ  in  the  background  as  too  holy  lot  mortalj 
lo  address,  and  sabcUtuting  * 


o/y™  (Edin 


.  ItlSH,  1 


no).     Dora 


8.  One  of  tlie  chief  merili  of  the  Refonnera  ia  the 
fact  that  they  taught  that  Christ  is  individually  and 
immediately  apprehended  by  faith,  and'that  the  Holy 
Scripturea,  not  the  dogmatic  and  liturgical  traditions 
of  the  Church,  are  Ibe  sources  whence  Christian  truth 
is  derived.  They  accepted  the  doctrine  of  the  Roman 
Ciitholic  Church  concenilng  the  penon  and  character 
of  Christ,  ot  which  bis   "  '  '         '  '  ' 

ic«ld( 

4.  ScKluianlsm  might  have  been  expected  to  open 
np  a  new  and  ftaitful  dlacussiou  of  this  subject,  yet, 
apparently  in  antagonism  with  its  views  of  the  peison 
and  office  of  Christ,  it  asserled  not  only  the  sjniessneea 
of  Jeana  aa  a  fact,  but  alao  the  nan  poaaa  peecare,  and 
Indeed  denied  that  he  waa  really  subject  to  tempti- 
Uon.  becaaae  of  his  aupematural  generation. 

b.  From  the  rise  of  German  Rationaliam,  about  the  ' 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  thla  doctrine  has  been  re- 
peatedly impugned  by  wiilera  of  that  school.  Some 
(aa  Reinurna,  Bahrdt,  Tenturini)  even  go  ao  far  aa  to 
characterJEe  Christ  aa  an  imposCar.  So  also,  among 
EnRlish  Rationalists,  Newman,  Pluua  of  Failh,  finds 
tmpeifectiona  In  the  moral  chiracler  of  Christ.  Strauss 
denied  tjhriat'a  sinleaanesa  on  the  ground  prini-ipally 
of  ita  It  priori  impoesibillty,  or  of  the  necesaacy  con- 
nection of  sin  with  tinite  existence,  Pfcaut,  a  recent 
French  writer,  adduces  as  proofs  of  Christ's  moral  im- 
perfections  {Le  Chritt  et  la  eontciaict,  Paris,  ISbS),  his 
treatment  of  bia  mother  (Luke  ii,  41-63;  John  11,4); 
the  expulsion  of  the  profauera  of  tbe  Temple  (Matt. 
x.ti,  12-17,  et  alOi  the  cursing  of  the  fig-tree  (Matt, 
xxi,  17-22;  Uark  il,  12-26);  the  destiticljon  of  the 
swine  (Malt,  viii,  28-34,  et  al.) ;  his  severe  reproofii  of 
the  Pharisees  (Matt,  v,  20,  et  al.) ;  and  ahu  hU  sup- 
posed abnegatioD  of  the  title  good  (Matt,  xix,  17,  et 
al.) ;  but.  In  strange  contradiction  of  his  own  views, 
be  uaea  such  language  as  thia ;  "Towhataheigbtduea 
tbe  character  of  Jesus  Christ  rise  above  the  moat  sub- 
lime and  yet  evcrimpetfect  tj-pes  of  antiquit}- 

Jesus  Christhasbeenhumbto  and  patient;  holy,  hoi v, 
holy  before  God;  tjrrible  to  devila;  witboat  any  sin. 
....  Ilia  moral  lilc  is  wholly  penetrated  by  God" 
(Scbaff,  Prrtm  n/Ckritt.  the  Mirack  o/UMoTy,  p.  208, 
209,  3K>-318).  Other  Rationatiitic  writers  (aa  Kant, 
Jacobi,  and  others)  have  laliored  to  place  in  clear  light 
the  unparalleled  moral  excellence  of  Christ,  as  the  atiid- 
ing  tj-po  and  proof  of  the  dirinita-  of  his  teachings. 
The  denial  of  this  doctrine,  whether  open  or  covert, 
mostly  arises  from  shallow  moral  and  religious  concep- 
tioni,  or  froui  lowering  the  fundamental  moral  nature 
of  sin,  justlticatinn.  etc.,  Into  mere  relations. 

5.  On  the  otliei'  band,  Ullmann  has  laid  the  Cbnrch 


Schaff,  and  Weiss  have  siill  further  contributed  to  lu 
elucidation  (see  references  at  end  of  this  article).  The 
subject  has  lieen  more  or  Icsa  fully  treated:  io  rela- 
tion to  Halionalism  by  Haae  (SIrri/KhnJtai,  iii,  1837; 
LtbtH  Jtn,  and  VosBtiilii) ;  fichweiicr,  in  Stmliai  imd 
Krililrn.  1834,  lil  and  Iv ;  1837,  iii)  -.  in  connection  with 
historico-critical  examination  of  the  person  of  Christ, 
by  Keim  (_Dtr  geKUduliche  Chritti,!,  p.  43,  lOS-llE); 
from  the  atand-pinnt  of  the  doctrbie  of  Cbriatian  mor- 
als and  Church  biitory,  by  De  Wette  {CMnlidK  ^lf»- 
lehrt,  vol.  i,  %  60-53),  ft'eisse  {Evangcliidu  GiaciidUe), 
Ewald  {CaeUchle  Ckritlut,  p.  184  f.),  Sohenkel  {Dcy- 
wiafit,  and  very  waveringly  in  his  Ckiiracterbild  JtMH, 
p.  Si  and  83),  Weiisicker  (Emmgftitiht  GtMrhuJUt,  p. 
437);  from  tbe  stand-point  of  Church  confemons,^ 
Tlu>maBiUB,Uolnian,I'hilippi,andEbrard;  from  apqre- 
ly  biblical  point  of  view,  by  tkhniid,  Iteck,  Geas,  Gaiw 
betl  (ChriM  at  Pnphet,  Prit$l,  ani  King  [Loud.  184^ 
2vols.8vo]),  Stevenson  (On  Ike  Offm  iff  Chriat  {Lmi. 
1834,  Bvo];,  and  Kiggenbach;  fhim  that  of  th«  media- 
tion theology  of  Schleiermacher,  in  treatises  on  the  lift 
orChriaI,byNeBnder  and  others,  and  in  works  on  ddg- 
matics  and  the  history  of  dogmaa  by  Rothe,  Liebnar, 
Domer,  Kititch,  J.  MQller,  Lange,  Hartenien,  ScUk 

II.  SlaC/iaenl  o/du  Doctrine.— The  term  ainlesa- 
nee,  ayaiiofniBia,  involves  a  twofold  idea, j!rs<,  a  nef- 
ative  one,  via.,  "the  absence  of  antagonism  to  tbe 
moral  law  and  to  tbe  divine  wilt,  of  which  that  law  is 
tbe  eipreeslon  ;  and  this  not  only  in  lelation  to  sep- 
Biate  acts  of  will  and  outward  actiona,  bat  alao  in  lela- 
tion  to  the  tendency  of  the  whole  moral  nature,  and  to 
its  most  deep-seated  dispositian"  (Ullmann,  ^Mfeaauat 
of  Jena,  p.  41),  wbich  may  be  expressed  by  tbe  term 
innocence,  goodness  of  nature,  etc. ;  and,  aecond^,  • 
poailivo  one,  viz.,tha  expression  in  outward  fom  of 
this  inward  bannony  by  a  life  of  complete  and  perfect- 
ly holy  activity,  workiux  oat  in  fnll  obedience  lo  the 
will  of  God  the  dutiea  of  each  hoar,  while  keeping  botb- 
apirit  and  bfe  unstained  by  eviL  This  we  tertn  abao- 
lute  holinMa. 

We  h(dd,  then,  that  out  Saviour,  in  his  hnmanitr, 
was,  in  both  theie  senses,  sinlesa ;  at  first  relatiTely, 
)uBt  as  Adam  liefore  bis  tsll,  with  a  perfectly  human 
nature  to  which  the  Ibbility  to  temptation  mnet  be 
conceded;  otherwise  no  true  manhood  could  have  ai- 


■mplo  for 


cinld  hav 


The  doctrine  of  Edward  Irving, 
however,  that  Christ  partook  of  the  sinful  natore  of 
Adam  after  tlw  fcll,  cannot  be  allowed.  It  la  not  neo- 
easary  at  all  to  the  true  conception  of  his  perfeet  ex- 
ample aaa  man  for  elnful  men;  which,  on  the  conliary. 
Implies  tliat  the  second  Adam  abould  not  be  placed  in 
his  human  nature  below  tbe  original  condition  of  Uh 
drat,  and  thus  burdened  with  the  sin  and  weakness  lA 
sallied  manhood.  This  view  would  demand  of  bia  ffi. 
vine  nature  so  mitacnlaus  a  support  of  the  boman  ai 
to  destroy  tbe  fbrce  of  hia  example.  Go  tbe  contrary, 
Christ,  in  hia  humanity,  clothed  with  man'a  original 
purity  of  nature,  lived.  Buffered,  "  was  tempted  in  all 
points  like  aa  we  are,yet  without  sin,"  and  so  coold 
"joBtify  the  ways  of  God  to  man,"  and  show  that  man 
waa  mado  "  anfflcicnt  to  have  stood,  though  free  to  falL" 
Ilia  rrlodvB  ainlesaness  became  absolnte  hoIinctB  in 
the  development  of  his  moral  lif^  in  his  free,  yet  per- 
fect, active,  and  pasaive  obedience  to  the  will  of  hia 
Father.  To  use  tbe  terms  of  the  schoolmen,  tbe  poo: 
■OB  peecare  or  impecnrMKfns  rnuwr,  in  him,  girw, 
through  vanquiehed  opposition  and  the  achieved  re- 
sults of  perfect  oliedienco  in  love,  into  the  nonpoae 
peacart  or  impecrabiSlOM  "Hij-^,  "into  Ibo  impnSBibiU 
ity  of  sinntng,  which  cannot  Bui  becanae  it  will  not" 
(Scbaff). 

III.  Proofi  ffihe  DoHrime^l.  A  priori.  We  may 


CHRIST,  SINLESSNESS  OF       m       CHRIST,  SINLESSNBSS  OF 

agnt,  k  pnofit  tlut  u  Chiiat'i  icknowledgcd  niulon  '  hkimonloDi  tefUmoii;  to  ths  tmtb  of  tbis  doctrine 
«  «anb  «u  tin  moral  eleviUon  aiid  tlia  ulvotloD  of  <  Chriat  !■  degcribcd  in  them  u  the  Holj  One,  the  Juit 
«! nc*  ftom  lin, it  wia  litUng,  n*]',  necvUkry,  ID  OT- '  *nd  Rifihlmiu  (Acts  111,14;  xiil,  II ;  1  Fet,lii,IB; 
dnlosecDoiplUi  thessobJACta,  that  b*  iboutd  be  ni-  ,  IJobn  U,  l,!9j  Ui,T)j  ■>(einp(«d  "like  uwaBn,}^t 
fowt  to  u  to  Uhm  mpBcW.  To  nlia  nun  from  Us  |  without  lin"  (Ueb.  Iff,  16) ;  m.»  our  exampla  "  wbo  did 
rain,  Uw  Prioca  of  hia  aalvatirai  moit  ba  odb  "  who  no  >[n,  neiCbn'  iraa  guila  found  In  bis  month"  (1  Pat. 
it  belj,  barmieM,  ondeHlad,  Kpuate  from  linnera,  :  xi,  Sl.K);  4a  "■  Umb  without  blemiih  and  without 
ud  nada  hi^fbcr  than  tba  beaTeiu,"  while  hia  baart,  '  tpot"  (1  Pat.  i,  19);  as  "an  bigh-priea t  who  la  hoi)-, 
'MKhed  bj  tlH  feeling  of  oar  iiiflrniitia«,"  wonld  turmleaa,  undefiled"  .  .  ■  "who  ncedrth  not  daily  h) 
jam  for  the  renewal  of  taonianil  J.  How  tallyCbrltt's  aStt  aacrlAcea"  "for  hia  own  aiDa,"a9did  other  pripats 
ptrfedlifa  meets  thii  ideal  every  Chriatianfeelij  and  (Hab.  vii,!e,37);  aa  the  Medialor  "who  knpwno  tin" 
with  iihat  deep  and  gralanil  coalidence  does  he,  when  (2  Gir.  v,  !)).  llieie  writinga,  indeed,  are  fuO  of 
iif^fnA  br  (Jie  temptation*  »nd  conllicta  of  his  pro-  prooh  that  bii  apoatiea  and  foiloweni  rarognlBed  in 
batkn,  turn  to  him  who  "  needeth  not  daily  lo  othr  up  Chriit,  becanse  of  hi*  hoiineH,  as  well  ai  hia  wondrr- 
aacriltna  first  for  hia  own  •ina,"and  "then  for  the  sina  '  working  power,  the  Mfuluh  foretold  h;  prophecy, 
sf  the  people,"  is  did  other  prieeta.  <  coming  in  the  fulneae  of  the  divine  spirit  to  be  the 

1  A  pmlenon,  WB  find  that  Cbriallanl^  haa  exert-  fooDder,  lawgiver,  and  king  of  the  kingdom  of  God  on 
ed  (nd  doea  exert  a  power  fur  moni  good  apon  ttie'  earth. 

mid.  Wherever  it  ha*  Ukeu  hold  of  the  hearta  and  I  ChHat  no  leaa  unequivocally  claims  for  himrelfaucb 
nundaef  men  in  its  parifying  power,  we  gee  that  they  '  perfection  of  nature  and  life,  in  the  aaaumption  of  one- 
bare  attained  a  bigber  moral  and  relj^na  atale, aeon-  nea«  with  God  (John  x,  80),  in  tbe  fact  that  he  no- 
ditin  vtlUe&T  beyond  the  pagan  or  even  the  Jewlah  where  praya  for  forfriveneH  of  hia  own  liar,  or  recog- 
Irpea.  Uow  shall  we  account  far  this,  apart  from  the  nisasthat  ain  exists  in  himself,  and,  rpeciScally,  in  tbe 
life  of  the  founder  of  Chriatianity,  imparting  Ita  renew-  {  expreaaion  "which  of  you  convlnceth  me  of  B[n"(John 
ing  power  (a  tbe  heaiti  of  his  fidlowers?     Here  tbeo-  '  viii,  4f), 

riis  of  moial  coodoct  without  aiimple  are  not  caps-  IV.  Olljetiiimi. — Bnt  hrtef  notice  can  be  taken  here 
Ut  of  ptodDcing  aucb  raaulta.  Streanis  do  not  rise  of  tlie  oiijectionB  to  this  doctrine,  vhich  aregTODpedby 
abon  the  level  of  their  eourcea;  no  mora  do  followera  Ullmann  (p.  118)  under  two  classes,  viz.  (1)  those  rurt- 
ofreligiaaa  aystema  rise  above  the  laws  and  principles  ing  "on  a  denial  of  the  actual  sinlesineaa  of  Jeaos," 
<i(  religtooa  Ufe  prescribed  in  the  conduct  as  well  as  ind(!)  tboee  resting  "on  a  denial  of  tbe  poaalbility  of 
Mchiuga  of  tbeir  foonden.  We  may  Justly  claim  that  sinlessness  at  all  in  the  BjAere  of  hnmsD  life;  and  by 
tfaehlghsT  moral  coaditkia  of  Cfaristian  nations  is  due  Weisa  (I.  c.)  under  three  hesds,  via.  (1)  that  nniqna 
makly  lo  the  Influence  proceeding  from  the  spotleea  individuality  (Eintigiiit  dri  Iitdnidutimi)  eontradicta 
hfe  of  Chriat.  .  loth  the  nature  of  the  Individual  and  the  idea  of  the 

Hany  of  the  early  aa  wdl  aa  recent  opponenti  of  human  race  and  its  development  \  (?)  that  linlessness 
Chtiitianily  as  a  system  leiT  testimony  lo  tlw  smpaaa-  ia  irreconcilable  with  tbe  nature  of  man;  and  (8)  that 
hg  nwnl  giealneu  of  its  fbnnder.  lUUe  declared  tbe  same  is  Irreconcilable  wilh  the  sctual  sinful  con< 
tkit  be  fomid  no  fault  in  him  touching  Che  things  dition  of  mankind.  The  former  cbiHlficalion  seem* 
vhtreof  the  Jews  accaeed  him.  and  thrice  asked  the  the  simpler  one,  and  we  prefer  lo  follow  it.  In  re. 
qHstion,"  What  evil  ha^  he  done?"  (Luke  xxili.SS).  gard  to  tbe  objections  of  P^aut,  which  belong  to  the 
TV  Bomaa  centarion,  vbo  witnessed  fais  sufferings  on  first  class,  it  may  enfflce  to  say  that  all  oT  them  ex- 
the  cms,  said,  "  Certunly  this  was  a  rlghteons  man."  ;  cept  Ihe  last  are  founded  on  Incorrect  conceptiona  of 
Jusephns,  if  the  p«Bsage  ba  anthentic  (.In^.  bk.  xvW,  tbe  ppirit  and  purpose  of  Chritt  in  the  several  action* 
dL  iii,  §  iii),  osys  of  him  that  he  "  was  a  tescber  of  noticed,  and  of  the  duty  which  hia  ofOce  as  Uessisb 
sack  men  as  receire  the  truth  with  pleasure."  For-  imposed  on  him.  Viewed  in  the  proper  light,  no  dia- 
fkyry  (A.D.  B04)  aays,  "But  himself  Is  pious,  and  obedience  of  or  disref pect  to  his  parents,  no  outbunt 
gme  to  heaven  as  other  (dons  men  do.  Him  therefore  '  of  angry  passion,  no  wanton  dealruction  of  the  property 
thm  shslt  not  blaspheme."  The  celebinted  tribute  and  diaregerd  of  tbe  rights  or  feelings  of  others  can  be 
•f  RoBiaean  to  tbe  G«pel  and  Its  sntbor  need  not  be  found.  Attention  to  the  scope  and  import  of  the  quea. 
pouted  bare.  A  ftiller  view  of  lie  testimony  of  unhe-  tion  of  ("hrial  to  the  young  man,  "  IViy  callest  thon 
Ksnn  to  the  person  and  character  of  Christ  la  given  me  Good?"  {ri  fii  Xt7«c  ayaBi.v),Ki\l  ehow  that  be 
)■  Ike  work  ofSchaffnferred  to  above.  I  doea  not  reject  the  title  good,  but  Berks  to  lead  the 

S.  BibUciil  Vir*  <^tke  floMtriK.— The  doctrine  of  tbe  [  qnortloner  to  its  Imo  application ;  the  emphaaia,  aa  the 
<Hd.Tertament  writen  In  regard  to  the  original  purity  \  order  of  tbe  words  abowa,  rests  not  on  the  expression 
ndgnndenr  of  man's  moral  and  Inlellectiul  nature  is,  good,  but  the  v^.  "God  only  is  good;  but  be  that 
tbewa  coaelnsiTely  by  the  langnsgo  employed  in  de-  i  hath  seen  mo  liath  seen  tbe  Father." 
ambing  his  ciwlion  and  endowments  :  that  he  was  In  reply  to  the  objection  that  tba  idea  of  sinlessness 
Bide  in  the  Image  of  God;  that  the  dominion  otot  Ibe  Is  inconsistent  wilh  the  growth  in  wisdcm  and  the 
titth  and  lower  animals  was  given  to  him,  etc.  When  development  of  his  moral  nature  nhich  the  Go-pel 
■«nbT  disobedience  fell.thepromiiowaB  given  of  one  portr-nituro  of  Christ  asaigna  to  him,  wb  may  say  that 
t*  come,  who  should  repair,  by  hb  ot-edience  and  pifr- 1  growth  and  development  do  not  necesssrily  or  cou»- 
fcetness,theminmade,andthronghwhommanmlpht,monly  imply  imperfection.  A  human  being,  possess. 
hemniDciled  toGod.  The  coming  of  such  a  Redeem-  inc  in  infancy  and  boyhood  the  maturity  and  complete 
tr  waa  prefigured  in  the  worablp  and  sacritlces  of  pa-  ,  development  of  manhood  and  age,  would  be  a  mon- 
Ortarelial  ti,m«,  in  the  separallon  and  Temple  services  '  Btrosity,  We  expect  from  infanry,  youth,  manhood, 
ertbe  Jewish  nation,  and  In  those  holy  men  who  trom  and  ate  what  befits  each  period,  and  regard  as  irreg. 
timeto  time  sppearedsailBhls  amidst  Ihodsrknosfl  of  I  ular  and  Imperfect  what  is  contrary  thereto.  Again, 
the  world.  Thronghont  all  these  preparatory  mani-  finite  nature  ia  not  necessarilyimpeiftct.  Tba  perfect 
fntationa  the  idea  of  the  slnlessnesa  of  the  coming  j  action  of  such  a  nature  in  conformity  with  the  lawi 
Mejuab  appeara.  In  the  apotless  victhns,  in  the  pu-  '  and  limitations  of  its  Iwing  cannot  be  sinful,  or  ert, 
tiKing  serrices,  in  the  straina  of  the  poets  of  Israel,  j  dence  of  imperfection  aa  Suite  existence,  bnt  Just  tbe 
»nd  in  ^  magnificent  imagery  and  langnsge  of  the    conliwry. 

pnjphcts  ue  ibund,  more  or  less  complete,  the  elements  The  notion  that  Individnal  preeminence  la  Incon- 
■hosa  anion  culminates  fn  the  idea  of  the  sinlcsa  Son  siBtent  with  the  nature  of  the  Individual  or  the  nature 
of  God  aod  Redeemer  of  men  (laa.  ix,  il,  xlii ;  Jer.  I  of  the  i>«  Is  not  warranted  by  the  actual  past  and 
Xul.Slsq.:  Eiek.  xxxvi,  8  rq.,  etc.).  |  present  history  of  man.     We  »ee  that  through  all  pe- 

Tl»  N'ew-Tettament  writing!  bear  nnaqnivocal  and  I  rioda  of  time  individual  men  Mud  out  imminently  en- 


CHRIST,  OBDEK  OF  2i 

dowed  aboTO  their  fallowa.  Ii  it  then  imtioul  to 
auppoH  that  in  view  of  tha  e^at  work  which  Chriit 
cama  to  do,  he  would  ba  nipcrioT  in  purity  to  those 
whom  he  lougbt  to  alevata? 

In  all  the  relatioiu  of  faia  life  on  earth,  Jesui  alwBTa 
did  what  waa  due  to  tbem.  He  did  not  aaclt.  in  virtue 
of  the  connection  of  hit  humanity  in  one  penonsiity 
with  hia  divinity,  to  exempt  hla  bamin  nature  IVom 
the  influence*  which  ]e({itlmatelj  operate  on  it;  but 
mcetlDK  fully  life'e  dutiea  aa  they  Cdine  to  blm,  he  aa- 

over  the  power  of  evil  in  the  world.  Thus  bii  perfect 
bolinaiaaf  life  itands  out  clearly  in  the  moral  heavenK, 
the  unchanging,  ever-brilliant  star  of  hope  whoie  llyht 
DO  cloud  can  ever  dim,  a  aafe  and  turely-{(uidinj(  bea- 
coii  to  thoao  who  traveraa  the  aea  of  Ufa  in  aearch  for 
the  Promiied  Laud. 

Ulrramrt. —VnnanD,  Tie  amlttnat  n/Jem  (Ed- 
tab.  1858, 8vo) ;  Schaff,  Tfc  JVwM  o/ar£i(<BMlon, 
Am.  Tract.  Sodety,  lSnio}i  Martensen,  Chrulian  Doff. 
maHa  (Edlnb.  IBSfi,  8vo)s  Enapp,  ChrUHaa  Tluology,  < 
p.  336,  7  (Phlla.  1853,  8vo) ;  Wcisa,  in  Henog'a  Rral-  \ 
£Vyt'D/)^(r!(Suppicni.  1,10394.);  Dornor,  Z)e/a5aae- ! 
lUi  pirfaile  de  J.  C.  (in  8*J^.  to  A'nu  Ckretaime,  ' 
Nov.  leSl);  Domer, /'rrMfi  of  Ckria  (pi«slm);  Nie- 
mann, Jau  amidaUongkeit  (Hanover,  1866). 

CbilJt,  Order  oC  Kniohts  or  the.  After  the 
•bolllioa  ot  the  order  of  Knights  Templars,  In  131!, 
king  UionysiuB  of  PortnRal  left  to  auch  as  resided  in 
his  dominions  a  large  ahara  of  their  eatatet,  and  in 
1817  reconalituted  them  into  a  new  epiritnal  order  of 
"Knights  of  Christ."  It  was  eanitioned  bv  Popo 
John  XXII  on  conditiDn  of  obedience  to 


pal  a 


He 


branch  of  the  order  in  the  Papal  States. 
The  knights  were  aecnlariied  in  Porto-  i 
gal  in  1789,  and  dlrided  into  three  ciasa- 
et:  "  great  croases,"  of  which  there  wero  \ 
a  ;  "  commanders,"  numbering  460  ;  | 
and  knights,  the  number  of  which  was  ' 
unlimited.  The  distinctive  marks  of  | 
the  order  ars  a  golden  cross,  carved  and 
ornamented  with  ted  enamel,  the  ends 
terminating  In  two  points  j  a  scarlet 
band,  which,  b;  the  papal  knigfata,  la  ' 
carried  aroond  the  neck.  The  Portugal 
grand  crosses  wear  a  particular  dress  an  : 
'    great  occasiooi,  with  a  golden   chain  ^ 

Ver  if  Chriit'"  "t""'^  ""•«  ti'"«»  aronnd  the  neck,  hut ' 
which   is   usually  thrown   across  tlie 

ahonldsriyom  right  to  left;  a  baud;  and  on  the  breast 
a  star,  conUining  in  its  centre  the  i 
cross  oftheorder.  Thocommand-; 
SIS  and  knights  wear  a  similar 

\  star  and  on  the  breast,  with  the  | 

J  lund;  the  latter  pending  fhim  the  , 

f    button-hole,  and  without  the  star. 

Aa  ■  rellgiooa  order,  they  have 

t>een  suppresse<l,  with  all  such  or- 

eurorihoPoniigiieM  ders.  In  Portngal.  — Pierer,  Uni- 

Ordar of ChrlaL       vertoi-Uxikm,  s.  v.;   Chambers, 

Evydapadio,  a.  V. 

ChriatiWork  ot  Sea  ATonaKEMT;  Chbist, 
Offices  nr\  Chbistoloot;  Redexi^ioh. 

Cbriatendom,  the  kingdom  of  Christ  in  its  dilTu- 
rion  among  men  on  the  earth.  Id  the  way  of  terri- 
torial extension,  Christendom  has  bean  enlarging  al- 
most without  interruption  from  the  beginning.  In 
the  second  and  third  eenturlee  congregations  were  ea- 
tabUahed  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  beyond 
the  liniita  of  the  empire  it  collected  churches  in  Par- 
thia,  Pernio,  and  India,  and  extended  to  several  barbar- 
ous nations  whose  lantmatfea  bad  never  been  reduced 
to  writing.  The  convenlon  of  ConnUntlne  Rstsbliah- 
(d  the  first  ChrisUan  etats.      By  A.D.  iSi  the  whole 


8  CHRISTENINQ 

eastern  portion  of  the  Roman  empirs  was  ftea  from 
paganltm,  which  lingered  a  little  longer  in  tho  wool' 
em,  witli^t,  however,  disputing  any  longer  the  aa- 
cendency.  In  the  HIUi  and  sixth  centuries  ChiistiiD 
Ity  conquered  in  great  part  Northern  AfHca,  Spain 
Gaol,  Scotland,  England,  and  a  number  of  the  Grnnai 
tribes.  The  erection  of  the  empire  of  Chariemago 
paved  the  way  for  the  conversion  of  Northern  Eoropc 
The  Saxons  consented  (o  accept  Chriatianitr  in  SOS 
and  Scandinavia  In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cmturief 
Thence  it  spread  Boon  to  Iceland  and  Greenland.  Th 
conversion  of  tho  Sclavonians  of  Eastern  Europe  com 
menced  in  the  ninth  century,  and  was  nearly  complett^ 

the  disaemination  of  Christianity  in  Hungary,  Tran 
sylvinia,  and  Russia  commenced.  At  the  same  tinw, 
its  territory  was  lessened  in  'Western  Asia,  Northern 
Africa,  sod  a  part  of  Southern  Europe,  by  the  progrcaa 
of  Hofaammedaniam.  In  the  period  tmjD  the  elev- 
enth to  the  aixteenth  century  the  conversion  of  Nortli- 
cm  Europe,  and  in  particular  of  Pomeranla,  EsthoDia, 
and  Livonia,  was  completed.  A  part  of  Eaatern  Eu- 
rope, however,  was  gained  by  the  Mobammedans,  bat, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  large  newlarrilory  was  aecuredtii 
Chrlatianity  In  Western  Africa,  East  India,  and  Amer. 
ica,  in  connection  with  the  discoveries  of  the  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards.  After  the  aixteenth  cvuturr 
the  newly-discovered  continent  of  America  began  to 
be  filled  up  by  a  Christian  population,  thus  making 
the  second  Chriatian  continent.  The  Roman  Church 
for  some  time  seemed  auccesaful  in  Chriatianiaiiig  Eaat- 
ern  Asia,  especially  Chins  and  Japan,  bat  its  progroa 
was  stopped  by  persecution.  In  the  Elgbteentb  cen- 
tury a  new  Christian  atate  sprang  up  in  South  Africa, 
in  connection  with  tho  political  rule  of  the  Dntch  and 
the  Engiiah.  The  uineteentb  century  opened  with 
brighter  proapecta  than  any  preceding.  In  South  Af- 
rica the  territory  of  Christian  nations  extended  j  in 
Weatem  Afk^ica,  Uberia  was  fannded  as  a  Cfariatlan 
republic  ;  iu  Northern  Africa,  Algeria  Is  filling  np  with 
a  Christian  popnlatioD;  and  in  Eastern  Africa,  Aliys- 
sinia,  which,  In  spite  of  Its  Isolation,  has  preserved 
since  the  fourth  century  a  kind  of  Christianity,  pmm- 
ises  to  le-enter  the  union  of  the  ChrisUsn  atata.  Aos- 
tialla  liaa  already  Income  the  third  Christian  divi^OB 
of  the  world,  with  only  a  few  weak  remnanta  ofp^ 
ganlsm.  In  Asia  the  Karrns  of  Farther  India  have 
been  brought  under  the  influence  of  Christianity, 
while  In  the  north  nearly  one  third  of  the  coatinrat 
fomu  part  of  a  Christian  state.  Thns  the  teiritary 
of  ChHstlBnily  at  present  comprises  three  out  of  tba 
Ave  large  divisions  of  the  world,  with  a  considerable 
part  of  the  tno  others.  Uireover,  large  territottea 
In  Asia  and  Africa,  though  rot  yet  Christlanlaed,  ore 
under  the  dominion  of  Christian  nations,  and  hardly  a 
alniile  country  is  at  present  left  into  which  Chriatian 
mlaaionaries  have  not  forced  their  way.  Thus  the 
time  seems  near  when  the  extent  of  Christendom  wili 
coincide  with  Hie  extant  of  the  earth.  The  following 
eBtimate  of  the  Christian  population  ot  the  world  is 


bated  upon  ilie  IstcM 
tcclesia^icaltuiistics: 

(1889)  woiiis  ou  poUtical  and 

7S3,6A0.0I)0 
IM,  790, 000 
30,000,000 

6,00D.0D< 
1,000,000 

u^oooioa 

1,H0,«» 

Cirt«U^ 

Eurap.  .::: 

a;ooo,«» 

8.000,000 

l.Hl.MROOO 

201,000,000 

I0S.0OU,0U0 

Seo  also  Smith,  TMa  o/CAitr,A  I 
CHRisTiAsrrr. 

CbriBt-AiiipOlla  (xpiimitKOpiia),  tdSag  ofOaia. 
See  SmosY. 

dtrlatening,  a  name  given  to  the  act  of  baptism, 
(1)  oa  if  thereby  tho  child  were  noA  a  Cktiabat ;  ot 


CHRISTIAN  268  CHKISTUN 


(f),  M  btptism  OsM  (ha  Ciruttna  or  Chrutaud  name   . 
tlUm  child.  ] 

Clulatlaii  (Xpiinovot),  the  ninte  given  to  thoce  I 
■bo  belien  Jemu  to  be  the  Measiah  (Acta  zi,  !6).  i 
CoDHnantiton  and  critica  an  not  agreed  whether  the  < 
tMawat  ot  Chriat  gave  tliia  appellaUon  to  Ihemtrlwt,  I 
K  vbetber  it  was  bestowed  on  then  ^7  oiAcrt.  Nei- 
du(  Tie*  appears  to  be  wholly  true  ot  wholly  Use. 
Sach  titlf*  do  not  uaoally  oiiginata  in  any  arbitnry 
■ly,  nor  do  they  ifoing  froia  a  single  party,  but  retb-  - 
«r  arise  from  a  conventional  asseot  to  their  appropri-  f 
rfauas.  It  was,  indeed,  the  Interest  of  tbe  Chrintiane  '  ready  been  fdmiliarlzad  tbrougbout  tbe  Eact  by  Uie 
tohan  some  name  which  mi^hi  not,  like  tbe  Jewish  I  Roman  dominion  ;  but  it  is  precisely  the  kind  of  Dsme 
ODD  (Saiarenes  or  Galilioans).  imply  reproach.  And  [  whicli  wonld  have  been  bestowed  by  the  haughty  and 
tfaoogh  the  terms  bnlhm,  Ae/nUhfal,  tUel,  laiiiU,  b<-  \  disdainful  apirit  of  victoriona  Komc,  nhich  is  sn  often 
Imtn,  duegibt,  or  Us  Clutrci,  m^ht  suffice  among  marked  in  oarly  Christian  history  (John  xviii,  Bl ; 
tll•1■selva^yetnolleoftbom  werosufficientlydeAnitei  Acts  xxii,S4;  xicv,  19;  Kviii,  I-l).  That  the  disci- 
fat  aa  appellation,  and  might  perbaps  be  thought  to  I  piss  shonid  have  been  called  from  '  Christns, '  a  word 
aaror  of  ranlty.  The}'  would  therefore  be  notdltin-  •  implying  the  office,  and  not  tarn  'Jesus,'  the  ixnw  of - 
rJiaiA  to  adopt  one,  especially  for  exoteric  use.  Yet  \  oar  blessed  Lord,  lesds  us  to  infer  that  tbe  Ibrmer  word 
the  nsccasitr  was  not  so  great  as  to  stimulate  them  to  ,  was  moat  frequently  on  tbeir  lips, '  wfaich  harmoniEoe 
whereas  tbe  people  at  large,  in  having  |  with  the  most  important  fact,  that  in  tbe  epistles  be  la 


Apol.  lii,  16;  Zoslm.  Ui,  II;  Ammon.  HarceU.  zxil; 
Procop.  BelL  Peri,  ii,  8)— would  certainly  have  tb 
taided  the  progress  of  tbe  new  reli^n ;  and  a*  va 
.'en  in  modem  tines,  that  it  is  the  tertdency 
d  sects  to  brand  each  other  with  drriiive  epU 
,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  name  '  Chris- 
tians' resulted  ntber  from  philosophical  indilTerence 
than  from  theological  batred.  The  I.atinized  form 
of  the  word  — Greek  in  form,  Latin  in  temiioation 
not  indeed  a  conclusive  proof  thst  it  emanated 
■     -  '      '       had  aU 


to  ipeok  of  thia  new  sect,  would 
(inctiTe  appellation;  and  what  so  distinctive  as  ono 
fcnnsd  from  the  name  of  its  fbnnder?  It  is  there- 
fiirs  meat  likely  to  have  been  anggested  by  the  Gen- 
tile hlhaliitania  of  Antioch,  and  to  have  oarly  come 
ints  general  use  by  a  sort  of  camnion  consent.  (See 
Conrbeare  and  Howson'a  LJi  mdEpuIki  of  SI.  PaaL, 
i,  IIS.) 
Than  b  no  reason  to  think  with  some  that  the 


lily  called,  not '  Jesus,'  but '  Christ'  (Lacti 
Jnmit.  iv,  7).  In  biter  Umes,  when  the  festnrea  of 
the  '  oxitiabilis  enpetstitio'  were  better  known,  bfc 
cause  of  its  ever-widening  pmgreu  (Tacit.  Attn,  xv, 
44),  this  indiff^rentism  was  superseded  by  a  hatred 
OKoinst  'lie  imiiik  aa  intense  as  tho  Christian  love  for  it, 
and  for  this  reason  Itie  emperor  Julian  '  couDtcnanced, 
and  perhaps  enjoined,  tho  use  of  the  less  honorable  ap- 
<  pellation  of  Galllnans'  (Gibbon,  v,  SI3,  ed.  Milman; 
Mm*  "Christiane"  was  given  in  absolute  deriiion. '  Greg.  Maurene,  Oral,  iil,  81).  Yet,  as Tertullian,  in 
When  used  by  Agrippa  (Acts  xxvi.  2B),  there  Is  no  |  an  interesting  passage,  points  out,  the  iuhh  so  detest- 
proof  that  it  was  a  term  of  reproach  ;  had  be  intended  |«d  was  bannlesa  in  every  aense,  for  it  merely  called 
derlsioB,  ha  might  have  emploi-ed  the  term  Nasarene,  diem  tiy  the  offlcc  of  thoir  master,  and  that  office  mere- 
whlcb  was  in  frequent  use  among  Iho  Jews,  and  has  i  ly  implied  one  act  apart  by  solemn  unction  (_Apiiog,  S). 
eoatinued  current  in  the  East,  wherever  tbo  Amble  |  "  It  appears  that,  l>y  a  wiilely  prevalent  error,  the 
langosga  is  spoken,  to  the  present  day.  The  esrly  Chri»tianBwenuBnerallycaliedCAr*jtKmi(.\pi)(rnavDi, 
adoption  of  it  by  the  Christians  themselves,  and  tho  j  Snoton.  Nm,  16  \  Claud.  SG)  and  Ihcir  founder  Chrtf 
Banner  in  which  thev  employ  It,  are  aufScient  to  die-  Ita  (q,  d.  xpfrruc,  ea-ceflnU),  a  mialake  which  is  vet; 
pel  all  idea  oi  thla  liatntv  (I  Pet  iv,  16).  The  only  \  easily  accounted  tut  (Lactant.  iiutit.  Dit.  Iv,  7).  and 
reproach  connected  with  the  name  would  be  the  inev-  \  one  wblcb  the  Christians  wore  tbe  less  inclined  to  re- 
liable  one  arising  IVom  the  profbsaiim  of  faith  implied  '  gret,  becsnse  it  implied  their  true  and  ideal  character 
in  it  Neither  ia  the  view  of  others  more  pmbable,  |  (Clem,  Alex.  Stn^.  II,  iv,  IS;  Tert  ApoL  c.  B).  Sea 
lliit  it  was  a  name  imposed  by  divine  sppointment.  |  Chbkstianb.  The  cKpUnation  of  tbe  name  Christian, 
The  term  xpll^riZm  (translated  "called"  in  the  pas- 1  as  referring  to  the  'unction  from  tbe  Holy  One,'  al- 
tage  first  quoted),  oanally  relied  upon  to  sustsin  this  though  supported  iiy  the  authority  of  Theophllus  Antl- 
vlsw,  has  other  algnl  A  cations  than  that  of  an  oncnlar  ■  ocbenns  (A.D,170),''  who  lived  not  long  after  the  death 
response,  and  is  f,iirly  capablo  of  tbe  meaning  aasign-  of  John'  iad  Avbi!iir.\,  Vi\  can  only  be  regarded  as  an 
ed  to  it  in  our  version.  adaptation  or  an  after-thought  (sec  Jer.  Taylor,  Dite. 

"This  world-f,in>ous  name  (William  arTyre,tv,  9)1  i/(7'»!|(m,Sfl), 
annrs  but  three  times  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  '  "  lie  adoption  of  the  name  marks  a  very  Important 
v,tt;  zxTi,18;  I  Fat  Iv,  16).  In  the  flrst  of  these  ,  epoch  In  the  history  cf  the  Church ;  the  period  when 
paHages  we  are  Informed  that  it  arose  in  tbe  city  of  |  it  had  emrr/ed.  even  in  the  Gentilo  observation,  fWim 
Antioch,  daring  the  year  spent  there  in  preaching  by  ,  its  Jewish  environment,  and  hsd  enrolled  follower* 
Psol  and  Daml-ba.^  A.D.  R4,  Both  Suidas  (ii,  8930,  a,  j  who  continued  GntiL-i  in  every  respect,  and  who  dif- 
sd.  Giisfiird)  and  Maialas  (ChnmograiA.  x)  say  that  |  fered  widely  from  the  Jcwit^li  proselytes.  '  It  express- 
thensmewaa  lint  uaed  in  the  episcopHie  of  Evodlus  at  j  ed  tbe  memorable  fact  that  a  community  condsting 
Antiixsh,  who  Is  ssid  to  have  been  appointed  by  tbe  :  primarily  cf  Jews,  and  dimcted  exclnaively  by  Ibcm, 
apostle  Pel«taahiBsuccessor(Jeronio,  CAmntc.  p.429),  could  not  be  denoted  by  that  name,  or  by  any  name 
That  Erodios  actoally  invented  the  nsme  (Malalaa,  I.  |  among  them.  To  tbe  disciples  it  signiHed  that  they 
e.)  ia  an  aaaertion  which  may  be  disregarded  as  safely  |  were  witnesse*  tor  a  kina.  and  n  king  whom  all  na- 
sa  the  medieval  lictioq  that  it  was  adopted  at  a  coon-  i  tiona  would  be  brought  in  duo  time  to  scknowledge' 
eil  held  for  the  purpose.  I  (Maurice.  EccL  tliit.  p.  79).     See  Buddeus,  Dt  nrigmt, 

"The  Dsme  itself  was  only  contemptuous  In  the  i  diifmliilr  ft  uta  iHmrhu  CiruHani  (Jen.  ITll;  also  his 
anotha  of  those  who  regarded  with  contempt  him  I  Jtitcrll.  Sacr.  i.  3»0  sq.) ;  Wotslenli  A"oB.  TiH.  in  Acta 
from  whom  It  was  derived  ;  and  as  it  was  a  universa]  ,  xi;  Zeller.  IML  Wdrttrb.  t.  t.  Christen,  etc."  (Kltto, 
practice  la  name  political,  religious,  or  philnsopbical ;  s.  v,). 

■Kietiea  fhiro  the  nsme  of  their  fonndem  (as  Pytlia-  I  To  bo  denominated  CiriMHim  was,  in  tho  ostimatloa 
gorean*.  Epicureans,  ApoUonii,  Casarlani,  VlteUiani,  j  of  the  coofbssora  and  martyrs,  their  highest  honor, 
etc.),  it  waa  advantageous  rather  than  otherwise  tor  i  This  la  illustrated  In  the  nairativo  which  Eusebins  has 
the  Ckitatlaiis  to  adopt  a  title  which  was  not  ntoa-  \  copied  (torn  an  nncient  tecord,  of  one  Sanctua  of  Vien- 
•■r^aSBEBive,  and  which  bora  witness  to  their  love  |  na,  who  endured  all  the  inhuman  tortures  wfaich  art 
and  wonhip  of  their  master;  a  name  Intrinsically  da-  could  Inflict.  His  tormentors  hoped,  by  the  contino- 
— j;-_  —  (,  „  the  witty  Antiochene^  notorious  In  ance  and  severity  of  his  pains,  toextort  from  bim  some 
~"  'ir  their  propensity  to  bestow  nick-  acknowledgment  which  might  Implicate  him;  but  he 
■  ""  ■■    -    ■"  —     .-      .    -'ludo^  neitberdie- 


CHRISTIAN  27 

cluing  to  th«n  his  name,  nor  hli  natire  land,  nor  hii  | 
conditbD  in  Ijfo,  wheCher  Fniciimi  or  riave.  To  all 
their  ialam^tatoriea  be  only  replied,  ClirMamia  mm; 
nSnnlnfc  that  hii  nama,  hla  country,  anil  hi)  kindred 
all  wen  inclnded  in  this.  Of  the  same  Import  was 
the  deportmant  of  the  martyr  Lncian,  aa  related  by 
ChrTiostoin.  To  every  qnMtion  be  replied,  "  I  am  a 
ChriMian."  "Of  what  conntty  am  )-ou?"  "lama 
ChHetian."  "Wbat  ii  your  oecupation?"  "I  am  a 
Chriitian."  "Who  are  your  parents?"  "I  am  » 
Cbriitian." — Blagbam,  Orig,  Eeclii.  bk.  i,  ch.  I. 

ClulBtlaii,  Unit  biahopofPrunia,  was  bum  at  Frei- 
enwalde,  in  Tomerania,  in  the  Uiter  part  of  the  I2ih 
century.  He  becaioe  ■  monk  of  the  Ciitcrcian  order, 
in  which  he  acquired  great  eminenix  for  bia  jriely  and 
learriag.  In  1:210  he  went  ai  miiHonary  to  Prusaia, 
which  coontry  had  before  reaiaied  allatiemptaatChria- 
tianiution.  lie  proved  siicceaaful  in  hia  undertaking, 
and  was  made  bishop  of  Pruaaia  in  1214.  In  order  to 
give  a  permanent  protection  to  the  Church,  he  fonnded, 
in  Ills,  the  order  of  the  Knighta  of  Chrial.  He  died  in 
1841.— Neander,  Ci.  Hilary  (Torrey),  iv,  48;  M'Lear, 
MutiOBtmUidiUiAgfM,^  341. 

CbrlstlBn  BndeaTor  Sooiaty.    See  Ehdkav- 

OH-CllBlsnAK. 

ChilBtiaiilty,  (1)  In  th«  otfjtttite  mue,  U  the  re- 
ligion of  Chiiatiana,  inclnding  doctrines,  morals,  and 
inatltutions.  Of  Christianity,  the  Scriptarea  of  the 
Old  BDd  Mew  Tcatamenta  are  the  sole  foundation  and 
Sonrca,  as  containing  "  all  things  nacessaiy  to  salva- 
tion; BO  that  whatever  ia  not  read  therein,  nor  may 
be  proved  thereby,  la  not  to  be  nqnired  of  any  man 
(hilt  it  ahoald  be  believed  as  an  article  of  the  faith, 
or  be  thought  requisite  nr  necesaar)-  to  aalvatioo" 
(ort.  vl  r/lh  Ckurch  of  Entgland).  (2)  In  the  myrc- 
tm  sense,  it  denotes  the  Christian  faith  and  life  of  the 
Individual,  in  which  la  manifested  the  life  of  Christ, 
tho  God^nan,  imparted  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
statement  of  Christian  doctrines,  In  ECieutiflc  farm,  is 
the  ol^fett  of  theology  (q.  v.).  The  special  docliinoB 
are  treated  under  their  proper  beads  in  this  dictionary. 
Tho  proof  of  tba  divine  origin  and  authority  of  Chris- 
tianity ii  the  province  of  ApologriKt,  or  the  Etidfneti 
of  Chtistiani^.  Sea  Ai^louktics  ;  Evidemccs. 
The  statement  of  the  practical  principles  of  Chriatian- 
ity  belongs  to  fXAkt  or  Menlt  (q.  v.}.  The  instltu- 
tiona  of  Cbrlstianlty  are  treated  under  the  heads 
CuimcH,  Baptism,  Lohp'b  SopruB,  Mimistrt,  8ac- 
RAMEirrt.  The  aggreasive  movementa  of  Christianity 
in  lieathen  countries  an  treated  under  MiatiOMB;  its 
present  tenilorial  entent  under  Chbibtesdom. 

The  iitbiiy  o/ Chriitiimlg  la  the  hitlory  of  the  re- 
ception of  the  teachings,  onlinances,  and  institutions 
of  Christ  among  men,  and  embraces  what  ia  more 
commonly,  but  lesa  properly,  called  the  hiatory  of  tho 
Christian  Church.  We  give  a  brief  aurvey  of  the  hia- 
tory of  Christianity,  and  dirida  it  for  this  purpose  into 
Sve  periods. 

I.  yrom  lit  Fomdatim  of  Ckr'atianitg  vnlil  ilt  Bi- 
tabl':tlmtiit  <u  a  Slate  RtUgion  m  lit  Fourth  Cmtvy.— 
When  Chriat  appeared  upon  earth,  both  paganism  and 
Judaism  had  loat  their  Influence  ovi^>'  the  maaa  of  the 
people.  Preeentimenta  of  the  proclamation  of  a  purer 
religion  were  widely  disseminated.  Among  the  jewa, 
the  Messianic  hopes  which  had  been  awakened  by  tho 
prophets  had  (taincd  new  strength  from  the  political 
oppression  under  which  the  nation  so  long  snfffered. 


were  olwaya  eager  to  bear  him,  thouijh  the 
eotial  secCa  of  tboae  times,  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
cces.  opposed  him.  After  the  aacenuon  of  Chrltt,  the 
disciples  were  prepared,  by  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  on  the  day  of  I'enlccost,  to  carry  on  the  dissemi- 
nation of  Cbristbnlty.  The  flrst  congregation  was  es- 
tablished at  Jemsalem,  the  second  at  Antiocb.  In  Ju- 
dea,  and  eapocially  in  Jerusalem,  the  apoitlea  and  other 


0  cHRisnANrrr 

Christiana  were  cmelly  persecuted,  and  Stepben  -«s* 
stoned  and  became  the  fint  martyr.  But  one  of  tb* 
leading  initigalon  of  the  persecution,  Saul  of  Taraaa, 
was  soon  converted  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and  ea- 
tabllshed  new  churches,  not  only  smong  the  Jews  in 
a  great  many  provinces  of  the  Kuman  empire,  bat  also 
smong  the  pagans.  At  Autloch,  the  follower*  of  Je- 
sus, who  during  his  lifetime  liad  had  no  distingulabing 
name,  received  the  name  CAndmu.  See  CuBiariAX. 
Paul  warned  the  congregation  in  Cwinth  noltoaMuma 
party  names,  as  parties  of  ApoUoa,  of  Paal,  of  Crphaa, 
or  of  Christ;  but  the  tenn  h  applied,  not  to  distinguish 
Bjnir'y  among  Christians,  hut  to  distinguish  Christiana 
fVom  pagans  and  Jews.  By  the  Jeaa,  the  Chiisliani 
were  for  a  Ion/  time  called  GalilBaas  or  Nazarenea. 
The  Cbriatians  of  Jewish  extraction  separated  oal7 
by  degree!  from  outward  connection  with  the  >yiia> 
gnguea,  and  the  fundamental  eltmenta  of  a  charch 
conMitntlon  were  not  derrlnped  before  the  Bccond  half 
of  the  lirst  century.  The  details  of  this  develo|  ment 
liave  been  of  late  the  subject  of  most  minute  and  ingo- 
nloni  InTCBIigationa,  but  the  datkneu  in  which  the 

poraneous  literature,  haa  been  involved,  ia  far  thim 
being  remoTed.  Comp.  Apostolic  Aoe;  Crckck. 
The  apostlea  remained  the  centre  for  the  Christian 
churchea,  and  devoted  themselvea,  in  connection  with 
ao-called  evongelltta,  to  the  spreading  of  the  Gospel, 
while  under  Ihcm  presbvters  (or  bishops)  were  the 
teachen  and  superintendents  of  particular  congrega- 
tions. Deacons,  and  sometimes  also  deaconesses,  wne 
charged  with  the  care  of  the  poor  and  other  social  wants 
of  the  community.  The  spread  gf  Christianity  vavo  rise 
to  repeated  persecutions  by  the  Roman  emperors,  some 
of  which  were  local,  while  othm  were  more  or  [cf* 
general.  Usually  ton  persecutions  are  conntsd,  vil. 
first,  nnder  Nero,  64-6K,  by  whose  order  aeTcrml  Chris- 
tians of  Rome  were  put  to  death,  Sao,  as  Is  reported, 
charging  them  with  having  caused  tbe  great  confla- 
gration. In  the  second  persecution  (SS- 96),  Domitian, 
mlainterpreting  the  royal  otSce  of  Christ,  ordered  tb* 
surviving  relations  of  Christ,  whom  he  looked  upon  as 
rivals,  to  lie  put  to  death.  Tho  third  persecution  was 
under  Trajan,  in  Bithynis,  In  116.  Many  aero  puu- 
Ubed  as  apostates  from  the  slate  relii^n,  although  a 
iport  from  the  younger  Pliny  bore  n  good  testimony 


>  thei. 


The 


D  lie. 


Hadrian,  did  not  proceed  IVom  the  gover 
but  the  Christians  greatly  suffered  in  many  places^ 
especially  in  Asia  ftlinor,  from  riots  of  the  mub.  The 
flrth  perseciition,  under  Uarcns  Aurelins,  in  177,  af- 
fected especially  the  congregations  of  Lyons  and  Vi- 
enna, in  Gaul,  and  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  Among 
the  martjTS  was  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna.  From 
the  sixth  persecution,  under  Septimius  Sevems,  ia 
302,  especially  the  Christians  of  Eg^pt  and  Asia  Minor 
bad  to  sulTer.  The  seventh  persecution,  under  Haxi- 
mln,  in  SS6,  was  properly  directed  only  against  tha 
bishops  and  leaders  of  the  congregations,  but  the 
Chriatiaiu  auffered  greatly  during  hie  niga  ttota  tha 
mob,  especially  In  Cappadocia,  becaute  earthquakes 
and  other  calamities  chF  that  kind  were  laid  to  their 
charge.  Very  severe  and  extensive  was  the  ninth 
persecution,  under  the  emperor  Dedus  (S49-SB1),  who 
was  alarmed  at  tbe  rapid  increase  of  the  Chrii-tian 
population.  In  conseqaence  of  the  (Bverity  of  the 
persecation,  many  Christians  apostatized  and  many  . 
congngatioDs  were  destroyed.  The  ninth  perseca- 
tion, under  Valerian,  in  Sfi7  and  SS8,  was  also  very 
cruel.  He  ordered  bishops  to  be  exiled,  prohibited 
the  assemblies  of  the  Cbriitiana,  and  decUrod  slate 
officers  who  warn  Christians  to  have  forfeited  their  of- 
lices,  and,  later,  also  tbclr  Uvea.  The  tenth  and  last 
pannution,  nnder  Diocletian.  In  30S  and  304,  was  the 
severestofall.  The  edlctofBOaordereriall  thechnrch- 
es  of  the  Christians  to  be  burtied,  the  state  oncers 
who  were  Christiana  to  be  declared  infaroiau,  and  til 


CHRISTIANITY  2; 

tlM  ChtiiUina  to  be  made  alsTee.  According  to  an 
tdirt  Df  301,  &1I  Cbrirtiani  wen  to  lie  compelled  Ly 
Udnru  Co  urriflce  to  the  pa)(iii  eode.  With  the  al>- 
fiuuon  of  Diocleli*D  In  80S,  (he  en  of  perHcntlona 
tairi  (ut  Benkcndorf,  Hutorie  der  ttin  Bauplvtr. 
fiifmgtn,  Leipe.  1700,  6vo).  Thon  CfarutinnB  who, 
liKnH  wi^  or  otber,  auceumbed  in 
mre  celled  liqm  (q.  v.),  of  whom  there  were 
tUswa,  u  LiMlaliri,  SacrificaH,  Tha^ficoH,  ana  ira- 
iiumti  thoie  who  remained  aleadfatt  nere  caJIed  Con- 
fimtm.  Sea  Cosfmsobb.  Chrisdanity  was,  how- 
enr,  not  peraecuted  bj  all  the  Boman  nnpwon,  but 
•u  talented  by  aoaie,  and  evea  Tavored  bjr  a  ten,  e. 
K.  Carai^la,  Alexander  Severtia,  and  Philippna.  In 
3W  Conttantine  eaUblished  toleration  of  Chrutianitj 
b  (be  provincca  of  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain.  Con- 
TBiion  to  Christianilj  waa  eipreaslj-  permitted  by  an- 
etbatdictorConalantineinSlS,  and  reatoration  of  (he 
Chriatian  churches  ordered.  Even  an  indemnification 
tltta  the  public  treaiorr  waa  promiaed.  Conatantlne, 
I7a4ecreeaf824,  establiihed  foil  nllKloaa  liberty  for 
tha  Chrialian  reli^n  to  the  whole  Roman  empire,  ami 
natortd  to  liberty  Iboae  who,  under  Diocletian,  had 
tnn  eDslaved.  Toward  the  end  of  hia  reign  he  even 
tataededieta  against  patcaniam.  He  waa  baptized  him- 
•tlf  (hortij  liefors  bia  death.     See  C«XBTA:m!iE. 

Chriatianity  during  the  Hnt  period  of  Ita  hiatory 
wii  not  only  exposed  to  the  penecutlou  of  the  am- 
peron,  but  alao  to  the  likrary  atticka  of  many  pagan 
acbolin,  as  Lucian,  Celsns,  Porphyiius,  Hieroclei, 
and  olhera,  which  called  forth  among  the  Christians 
a  number  of  apologetic  writen.  See  Apolikiibtb. 
DiiHnaioaa  and  divisions  wen  very  aameroua  among 
flu  Chriatians  from  tha  earliest  period  of  the  Chnrch, 
A  stikt  Ihie  of  demareation  eatabliahad  itself  between 
the  fffintnon  faith  (otthodoxy)  and  the  aeceaaione  (her- 
■ay).  Aa  early  u  the  apostolic  age  ws  And  the  Gnos- 
tici,  Simoaiana,  Nicc1latte^  Cerinthiana ;  in  the  second 
ctBtnry  the  liaAilidians,  Carpncntiana,  Valentinlans, 
Kaaarein.',  Ophites,  Potripaaeians,  Arlemnniies.  Mon. 
taalsu,  Manicheaas,  and  othcra ;  In  tha  third  century 
tba  Monarch  ians,  Samaateuaisni>,  Noetlans,  Sal^llians, 
NoTBtlans,  etc.  Moat  of  these  controvenies  concerned 
Um  penon  of  rbiiat;  some  related  to  the  creation  of 
the  world  and  of  the  spirits ;  others  to  (he  Lord's  Sup. 
fit  i  only  a  few  bad  regard  ta  the  diaclpline  of  tha 
Charcb  and  aonw  other  points. 

The  [JHOMru  constllutbn  gradually  developed  itaelf, 
the  congregHtions  In  vilkgea  and  smaller  places  seek- 
ing a  coflaection  with  tbe  bixhopa  of  the  town.  Of  a 
regalsr  ■vfropo/iroa  constitution,  only  the  first  begin- 
Buig  ii  foaad  during  this  period,  but  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  were  already  regarded 
Bi  lbs  heads  of  very  extensive  eceleaiaitlcal  districta. 
Chriiliaa  ministers  assumed  a  distinguisbing  name 
(lima),  and  a  peculiar  dreu  Itar  divine  service,  and 
they  were  divided  Into  msny  claaaes  (see  Bingham, 
Oryima  Sedraa;  PUnck,  GnrL  der  rhitlSfi-kirch- 
Xdi/n  Grtrilickaflnrrfaiiimg.  Hanor.  1803).  Towarda 
tie  eod  of  this  period,  nsort  began  to  be  had  to  eyn- 
eds  and  conucila  to  settle  ecclesiastical  disputes.  See 
CotTiiciLa.  The  form  of  public  worship  waa  gndual' 
ly  fixed  In  imitatioB  of  that  of  the  Jewish  eynaeogue. 
ud  eoQibted  of  prayer,  singing,  reading,  and  in(«r- 
preting  the  Scriptarea.  Baptism  was  performed  in  the 
Bime  of  Jesus  ;  the  agrpa  (q.  T.)  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per (q.  r.)  were  celebrated  after  divine  service.  The 
aODrces  ofdoctrinewero  the  epistles  nf  the  apostles  and 
ttie  records  of  the  life  of  Jesus  (tbe  Gospels).  Some  , 
ef  the  gospels,  which  are  now  regarded  es  spocijphal, 
■en  in  nie  in  aame  of  the  churches,  and  some  impor- 1 
tuce  waa  alaa  attrlbnted  to  ecclesiastical  tradition. 
Chndi  discipline  waa  Tery  atrict,  and  all  grave  of- 
fences were  punished  with  eacluskm  (excommuak*- ' 
tin).  Asceticism  and  monastieism  fannd  their  Rrst  I 
adhscirtB  in  this  period  in  Anthony,  Paul  of  Thebea, 


1  CHRISTIANITY 

II.  FromlhtDiathnfCor\tan^ne(heGrtailoCharU. 
magae  (A.D.  8S7  to  BOO).— '1  he  last  attempt  to  auppreaa 
Christianity  by  force,  gr  at  least  to  repreca  ita  further 
advancement,  was  made  by  Julian  the  Apostate  (q.  v.), 
but  It  failed  utterly.  Hia  successors  remained  Chris- 
tuns,  and  ChiistiaDity  became  the  religion  of  court 
and  state.  The  Church  and  the  state  began  to  exert 
a  powerful  and  reciprocal  influence  upon  each  o^er. 
See  Chueloh  amd  St.itk.  The  metropolitan  constitu- 
tion waa  organiiDd  throughout  the  whole  Church,  and 


with  it 


n.rep. 


resented  by  the  four  patriarchs  of  Some,  Conatsntino- 
ple,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch.  The  bbhopa  of  Itoms 
liegan  to  claim  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church. 
Councils  and  synods  became  more  frequent.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  provincial  councils  of  the  drst  period,  mm. 
menlcal  councils  (q.  v.)  (of  which  one  had  been  held 
during  tbe  flrst  period,  via.  that  of  Kics,  A  D.  US), 
to  which  all  bishops  of  the  Christian  Church  wen  in- 
vited, wen  held  at  Constantinople  (381, 653),  at  Epbe- 
sus  (4al.  4.19),  at  Chalcedon  (451).  See  CocKLiLa. 
They  were  occauoned  ly  doctrinal  controversies,  the 
number  of  which  iireatlv  increased  during  this  period. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Chun^h  on  tiie  per»>n  of  Christ 
waa  attacked  by  the  Arians,  Eunomiana,  ACtlans,  Ano- 
mmans,  Adoptlina,  Neatoriana,  Eutychians,  Mono- 
phy sites,  Jacubltea,  Hnnothelites,  and  other  sects;  that 
ofthe  Trinity  by  the  Tritheitea;  that  of  the  nature  of 
God  by  the  Seleuciana  and  the  Anthropomorphites. 
The  Church  also  rejected  the  views  of  the  Antidilio- 
mariarui,  Bonosians,  Joviniana,  Collyridians,  on  the 
Virt.'in  Hary;  tho^e  ofthe  Euchitea  and  Priadllisn- 
ista(mcidilieil  Gnostico-Munichean  doctrines);  those  of 
the  Ueletiana  and  Donatists  on  the  constltutjon  ofthe 
Chnrch.  MoiKatie'tm  waa  rapidly  developed  after  the 
fourth  century ;  and  as  the  lower  secular  clergy  were 
generally  ignorant,  the  mlaaionary  work  and  the  cul- 
ture ofletters  were  almost  entirely  left  to  the  monks. 
The  ignorance  of  clergy  and  people  fucilltalad  tbe  in- 
troduction of  many  innovation!  and  corruptiona  in  the 
doctrine  ofthe  Church,  auch  as  tbe  veneration  of  sainta 
and  relica.  Pomp  and  magniHeence  were  introduced 
into  the  celebration  of  divine  worship,  and  the  aria 
began  to  bo  used  to  serve  eocleiiaslical  ends.  The 
Latin  language  was  retained  In  worship,  though  it  waa 
no  longer  aoderstood  l>y  all  the  people.  The  changes 
in  the  ancient  disciplino  ofthe  Church  (for  which  in 
niajiy  cases  even  paymcnta  of  money  wen  subetituled) 
exerted  a  most  dlaaatrous  influence  on  the  Christian 
life.  In  the  IlUnlure  of  this  period,  the  names  of 
Chrjaostom,  Augustine,  Cyril,  Theodoret.  Isidor  of 
Pelualnm,  taldor  of  llispalis  (Seville),  and  Johannea 
Damascenus,  stand  forth  most  conspicuous. 

III.  From  Ciarknagme  to  Gres^iy  VII  (A.D.  BOO  to 
1078). — Among  the  Germanic  trilica,  tlio  Frnnka  wen 
attached  most  flrmly  to  Christianity.  Charlemagne  in 
bis  conqueata  always  eougbt  to  niukc  Christianity  the 
establlahed  religion,  and  bia  wars  against  the  Saxons 
and  Sclavoninns  wen  wan  for  (be  extension  of  Chris. 
tianity.  The  degraded  condition  ofthe  clergy  and  tbe 
Church  in  his  states  induced  Charlemagne  to  attempt 
various  reformatory  measures  In  behalf  ofthe  Chnrch. 
By  the  establishment  ofconTenta  and  cathedral  Schools, 
he  sought  to  promote  the  education  ofthe  clergy.  By 
his  order  the  corrupt  translation  of  the  Bible  was  cor- 
rected,  the   congngatlonsl   slnKing   improved,  i 


o  tbe  SI 


a  in  diT. 


and  annual  viiitatlons  of  the  diocese  by  the  bishop* 
introduccL  See  CifARLmAays.  While  Christian ily 
rapidly  advanced  in  Morthem  Europe,  the  body  uf  the 
Chnrch  was  divided,  in  consequence  ofthe  rivalry  of 
the  bishops  nf  Rome  and  Conatantinople,  into  the  Weat- 
em  or  Latin,  and  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church.  The 
two  churches  excommunicated  each  other,  and  a  per. 
manent  union  ha<  never  dnce  been  effected.  The 
Greek  Church,  flrst  enalaved  by  the  emperors  of  Con- 
staatinople,  and  afterwarda  trodden  down  by  tha  Turka, 


CHRISTIANITY 


became  petriSed  and  aUthmBry.  In  the  Raniin  Cbnrch 
the  rights  of  mctropolltina  and  hiibopa  wtn  more  and 
more  curtailed,  and  those  ofthe  pope  enlarged,  especial- 
Ij-by  the  pieudo-lsiiloruin  Uecretala.  See  Decretals. 
Fai-sk.  Spain,  England,  and  the  otbrr  EurDpeon 
COuntrieB  gradually  surrendered  theic  eccleeiiBtieal ' 
dependence,  and  the  pope  became  all-poirerful  In  I 
exercise  of  jurisdiction  a>  well  a>  in  doctrinal  doclMni 

propert}';  tbepope  entered  the  ranks  ofsecular  prince 
and  strDTe  to  sot^ect  oven  tbe  eecnlar  gorcromcDts  i 
bis  influence  and  rale.  Moat  of  the  literary  inttitu- 
liona  founded  b}'  Charlenu^e  were  auapeoded  within 
half  a  century  after  bis  death,  and  the  general  igno- 
rjnce  of  the  clergy  became  po  great  that  tbe  bishops 
had  to  order  that  "every  cUrgj'man  mntt  know 
least  the  Apostles'  C>«ed."  The  ibeology  of  this  pe- 
riod ipoke  litUe  of  Christ,  his  work  and  his  merits ; 
the  belief  in  tbe  iaten-ession  of  the  saints,  in  the  effi- 
cacy of  their  relics,  and  similar  points,  liecame  prom- 
inent in  the  mind  of  the  (Jhurcli.  The  pope  re- 
lerved  to  hinuelf  die  euroinatkm  of  the  genuinenees 
of  tbe  relics,  and  tbe  beatiflcatlon  and  canonlistion  of 
holy  men.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  roaatj-  (q.  v.) 
came  up  in  England  and  Holland,  and  new  fbstlvals 
were  Introduced,  especially  festivals  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  Higrimagea  (q.  v.)  commenced  In  this 
period.  In  ecclesiastical  arcbitecture  tbe  Romanic 
style  was  developed  In  the  tenth  century.  Ai 
the  doctrinal  controversies,  those  on  the  Lorf's  Supper 
(q.  V.)  were  the  most  Important.     Klomlity  was  gen 

not  prevalent  among  the  cler^iy  and  in  tbe  monasterie? 
and  immntslity  parsed  over  from  them  to  the  people. 
IV.  From  Gngory  VII  la  Ihe  BrformotiOK  (107B 
]&]7).— Tbe  oppreiskm  of  Christianity  by  tbe  Turki 
called  forth  the  crusades  against  tho  Saracens  (1090- 
1!4B),  in  order  to  deliver  the  Holy  I.and.  See  " 
■ADEa.  Palestine  was  conquered  and  held  for  a  abort 
time,  and  several  orders  of  Christian  knights  were  ei 
tablished  there  for  the  protection  of  Christianity  ;  bi 
towards  the  close  of  the  13th  century  it  was  recoi 
qnered  by  tbe  Saracens,  hy  whom  Christianity  wi 
liarely  tolerated.  Tbe  oppreesion  Buffered  liy  tt 
Greek  Church  led  to  an  attempt  at  a  new  union  wit 
tbe  Roman,  which,  hawever,  was  aoon  given  up  as  in 
practicable.  The  power  of  tbe  popes  reached  its  cl 
max  under  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III.  Imt  it  son 
began  attain  to  decline,  eBpecially  through  the  papal 
aebism  (1378-1414),  dnrlnft  which  two  papal  sees  (  ' 
ed — Rome  and  Avignon.  Tho  popes  secured  tbe  rijibt 
of  the  inveatitnre  of  the  bishops  and  abbots,  and  tbe 
ademption  of  tho  clergy,  and  enforced  througbunt 
Churrh  the  celibacy  (q.  v.)  of  the  clergy.  The  Bi 
was  less  and  leia  appealed  to  as  the  rule  of  faith ;  the 
fathers  and  tradition  took  Its  place.  The  pope  be- 
came the  sole  legislator  and  judge  in  mutters  of  (hlth. 
New, doctrines  and  practices,  anch  as  auricular  confcs- 
■ion,transntiBtaiit[ation,  and  indulirences,  together  with 
new  festivals  (e.  g.  CoTpa  ChriMi),  were  established. 
The  Inquisition  and  tho  mendicant  orders,  especially 
the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  cruabed  out  all  oppe- 
siiion  to  tbe  ruling  Church.  Public  worship  greatly 
licgenetated.  The  Maas  became  its  centre;  aermona 
became  rare,  and  consisted  mostly  either  in  unlntelli- 
fihlo  pcholastic  lectures,  or  in  comic  Invectives  afcainst 
the  foUies  of  the  times.  The  increasing  corrapUnn 
among  tbe  clergy,  and  still  more  the  traffic  with  in- 
dulgences, undermined  Ihe  piety  of  the  people.  At- 
tempts to  stop  the  prevailing  abuses  were  frequently 
mode,  l«th  by  individaals  and  liy  smaller  and  larger 
denominations,  among  which  the  Albigenses  (q.  v.), 
Waldcnscs  (q.  v.),  and  Huaates  (q.  v.)  were  promi- 
nent. At  the  request  of  the  Cbnrch  tho  secular  gov- 
ernments proceeded  against  these  secta,  and  crusades 
were  preached  for  their  extirpation.  Moat  of  them 
were  extirpated  ;  bnt  tbe  ITaJdnun  bi  lUly,  tbe  Mo- 


2  CHRIbTlANITY 

raman  Bretlirai  in  Germany,  and  the  LoUrirdt  in  En|^ 
land,  survived  to  see  and  to  shore  in  the  great  Uefor- 
mation  of  the  leth  centniy.  In  lifob.gieal  sci'oM, 
Scbolaatlciam  arose,  a  ayatem  full  of  acute  snbtletiea, 
lint  entirely  incapable  of  satisfying  the  religious  santa 
of  Ibe  heart.  In  opposition  to  the  Schotastics  (q.  v.)^ 
many  pious  Mystics  (q,  v.)  strove  to  maintain  a  pure 
Biblical  Chris^anity,  more  by  ignoring  Ihe  antbctip- 
tural  doctrines  of  tbe  Church  than  by  openly  rejecting 
them.  In  ecclesiastical  architecture  the  Byzantine 
style  waa  aupplanted  in  France,  Engbnd,  Spain,  and 
eapecially  in  Germany,  by  tbe  Germanic  or  Gothic, 
which  reached  tbe  bighest  stage  of  develi^ment  In  the 
13lh  and  14th  centuries. 

V,  From  the  Rrf^rmation  tmlU  lie  prrtent  TtaM.— 
The  contToversiea  called  forth  by  Wycllffe,  Hnss,  and 
other  reformer)  of  the  Middle  Ages,  awakened  in  larg< 
circles  tbe  longing  for  ■  thorough  refrrmalJon  of  Ihe 
Church.  Tbe  councils  of  Constance  (q.  v.)  end  Basle 
(q.  V.)  at  flrst  attempted  to  cany  through  Ihia  refor- 
mation, bnt  tbey  only  diminished  a  few  of  Ihe  gniaseit 
abuicB,  being  lotb  unable  and  unwilling  to  remedy 
them  thoroughly.  The  corruption  of  the  Church  not 
only  continued,  but  certain  aLiutes  (e.  g.  the  traffic  in 
Indulgences)  became  to  fla^Tant  thai  at  the  lieginning 
of  the  16lh  centurj-  contempt  of  the  Church,  her  offi- 
cers, doctrines,  and  ordinances,  became  almoit  general 
throughout  Europo.  When,  therefore,  Luther,  Zwin- 
gle,  and  others  raised  the  standard  of  a  radical  refar- 
mution  of  tbe  Church  on  the  Jusis  of  the  Bible,  miU 
lion*  of  Christiana,  especully  in  Germany,  Switicp. 
land,  Holland,  England,  Denmark,  Sweden,  PrasEia, 
at  once  rallied  around  it.  See  REroniiATiOK.  Though 
the  Reformers  did  not  agree  on  all  points  of  doctrine, 
tbry  were  unanimous  in  claiming  the  Bible  as  lilt  ml* 
of  fHftb.  decidedly  rejecting  everything  which  had 
crept  Into  the  Church  in  opposition  to  the  Biblical  doc- 
trine, Tho  Roman  Church  made  many  uncucceasfljl 
attempts  to  suppress  there  reformstory  movements, 
'"Cq-"-).  the  most  pow- 


erful a 


itituted  for  this  special  purpoae.  These  attempts, 
which  led  to  the  war  of  the  Huguenots  in  Fraace,  and 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  In  Germany,  were  In  vain. 
,  From  some  countries  the  Roman  Cbnrch  was  entirely 
excluded,  while  In  others  it  had  at  least  to  prant  to 
ProlapUnts  equal  rights  and  toleration.  The  Chareh 
saw  ilaelf  also  compelled  to  convoke  a  GenenI  Conndl 
[see  Tbeut],  and  to  aliolisb  at  least  a  few  oftho^rors- 
est  abuses.  A  few  futile  effiirts  were  made  to  bring 
about  a  union  with  the  Protestants.  The  doctrine  <S 
Ibo  Roman  Church  received  in  the  Council  of  Trent 
its  final  form,  yet  since  that  period  several  doctrinal 
controversies  (e.  g.  Jansenism  [q.  v.]  and  Quietism  [n- 
v.]  In  France,  and  the  philotophy  of  Hermes  [q.  v.] 
end  Gunther  in  German;-)  have  required  new  decl- 
Bi,>ns  of  the  Papal  See.  The  Galilean  Church  (q.  v.)  in 
council,  with  Boesuet  (q.  v.)  at  its  head  (16^2),  and  a 
nnmlwr  of  distinguished  bishops  In  Gemiiiny  [see  Fe- 
bhoniuh],  Italy  [see  Kicci],  and  other  countriea,  pro- 
tested against  making  the  Infallibility  claimed  l>y  the 
popes  a  doctrine  of  the  Church ;  yet,  on  the  whole,  the 
popes  have  been  so  successflil  In  enforcing  obedience  to 
their  doctrinal  deflnitione  and  dirislona,  that  in  18M 
an  entirely  novel  dogma  [see  Immacdi-ate  Cokcep- 
tiok]  was  proclaimed  by  Pope  Pius  IX,  without  the 
sanction  of  a  GenenI  Council-  Some  princes,  as  Jo- 
Mph  II  of  Austria,  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  and  othtn, 
have  attempted  to  restrict  Ihe  absolute  power  claimed 
by  the  pope  over  clergy  and  people,  moatly  wilbout 
success.  Still  le^a  succeaaful  were  certain  attempts  to 
establish  national  "  Catboik"  churches  independent  of 
Rome  (viz.  the  "  French  Catholic  Cbnrch"  in  IfSl,  tbe 
•'German  Catholics"  in  18U).  Thesa  movements 
were  not  made  on  the  gmund  of  the  Btbla  and  of  re- 
vealed Christisnity,  and  therefore  necessarily  were 
failures.    The  relation  between  the  different  rtatea  of 


CHRISTIANITT  2! 

Empa,  Id  whliA  the  Ronun  Chnrch  i>  ncogntwd  u 
■  UMte  rvlii!ioii,  and  tha  papa,  Is  NgnUted  by  Catieor- 

Tin  PrtttiUail*  in  coune  of  tima  tbmiad  k  nnmbar 
of  dilTennt  danoaunatiaiu,  amoog  vhich  two  miin 
Undenciu  are  tu  lie  diatingulahed,  viz.  tlie  Lutberan 
ud  Uw  Refonoad  Cburcbea.  Tbc  latter  vara  lubdi- 
Tided  Into  the  GennaD  Raformed,  Swiaa  Reformed, 
Dutch  Hafonned,  Presbytcrianii,  Baptlit,  Congnga' 
ItoDtl,  and  other  minor  churches.  The  Chnrch  of 
Ed^^d,  as  tit  as  It  identilied  itself  with  tha  Refonna- 
tim. belong!  to  tha  class  of  Refurnied  churches;  ^et 
It  retsliu  also  eiiangh  elements  from  the  time  before 
the  Rerarmstion  to  leave  room  for  the  continuance  of 
s  pafty  which  rejects  slIoKether  the  Proteitant  char- 
acter of  [he  Church,  refuses  association  with  other 
Fniteitint  denominations,  and  acknowledges  only  the 
ehnrehei  which  claim  the  so-called  aponlolical  anccee- 
lioa  of  bishops  aa  vdlid.  From  the  Church  of  Eng- 
Und  iprang  the  Method-tU  (q.  v.),  who  discarded  ev- 
eiTlhinj  Dn-Protestnnt  In  the  mother  Church,  and 
took  at  once  a  pnJminonC  place  amoD);  the  Reformed 
diBominatloDS.  In  tha  lapidit}-  of  their  extension 
the;  hafe  sorpassed  all  other  bodies  of  Proteatant 


IB  tho  Pnitertant  cl 


Chriitisns. 

In  a  large  part  of  Ei 
haTi  itnliiituuBtelT  allowed 
an  undue  influence  over  ecclesiastical  aRairs— an 
d«Dce  which  has  generally  been  used  for  (ho  enl 
tabJngatioD  of  the  Cbnrcb.  Oa\f  bj  hard  struggles 
have  A'umlen  from  slate  reilglDns  secured  toleration. 
Usnj  of  them  had  to  crou  the  Atlantic  in  order  to  be 
at  libtttj  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dict«lea  of 
eoiucienea.  The  declaration  of  Ametican  independ- 
ence wu  the  Arst  havj-  blow  against  stat^-churchlsm ; 
mi  the  independence  of  the  Church,  which  was  now, 
tor  tha  flnt  time,  carried  through  on  a  Urge  scale, 
worked  »  well,  that  all  the  European  churches  began 
ts  feel  the  influence  of  the  now  principle,  and  gradual- 
ly to  hMsea,  at  loatC,  the  connection  between  Church 
and  state.  The  question  of  a  union  between  TSrions 
Freteiitint  bodies  has  been,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Behnnation,  a  (srorits  idea  of  man;  dislinjjulshed 
aan,  though  il  has  frequently  led 
pwties  and  of  conCroveiales,  especially  as  generally 
these  schemes  of  ecclesiastical  union  have  been  at- 
lemptsd  with  the  aid  of  the  aecalar  arm,  Tho  most 
important  of  Iheae  attempts  was  the  estaliiishment  of 
the  Uuited  Evangalical  Church  (q.  v.)  of  Gsrmany  in 
1817,  Ibrouf^  the  Instramentality  of  Frederick  William 
III  at  Pmsaia.  In  modem  limes  tha  opinion  has  gain- 
ed grwnd  that  the  large  number  of  evangelical  ilonom- 
bsjcion)  has  had  a  beneRcial  rather  than  a  disastrous 
bdwin™  on  the  advancement  of  Christianity,  and  that 
U  would  be  better,  instead  of  aiming  at  ecclesiattical 
uilbrmily,  to  form  a  cordial  allUnce  ft  evangelical 
Chrinians  of  all  denominations.  Thisledtothg  form- 
«ioa  of  tho  KMaiUed  "  EBonjeficai  AlUaitrr"  (q.  v.), 
which  soon  assamed  grand  dimensions.  It  hss  held 
torn  large  assemblies,  which  bave  been  called  the 
tnt  iKumenlcal  councils  of  Protestant  Chrlitianltj. 
The  development  of  theology  during  this  period  has 
osBtred  mostly  in  Germany.  See  Gihmah  Theol- 
OOT,  The  ttruEgIs,  after  the  Reformation,  between 
Lalheranism  and  Calvinism,  was  soon  followed  by  the 
■ore  important  contest  between  Christianity  and  an 
taUel  philoaophy,  nprasented  by  the  Deists'  in  Eng- 
Isndithe  EncyclopHlists  in  France,  and  nationalism  in 
Geimaay.  The  belief  in  Christianity  was  for  a  timo 
■BdanniBad  in  a  Urge  proportion  of  the  European  pop- 
lUDon,  but  with  tha  beginning  of  llw  nineteenth  cen- 
lory  a  powirfal  reaction  In  Csvnr  sf  ChristUnity  has 
sat  ta.  The  inflnence  of  CbriatUnlty  over  the  politl- 
eil,  sodal,  and  lltenry  life  of  mankind  Is  now  grealar 
Una  inr  befbre.  Bat  InHdal  partiea  have  not  been 
waatUginthe  nlnel«enth  ceDtury.  Among  them  may 
ba  laaad  Yonng  Qeimany,  the  Frae  Congngationa 


3  CHRISTIANS 

and  German  Catholics,  the  Young  Hegelians,  the  S(h 
ciatiatic  Mechanics'  Auociationa  in  Switzerland  and 
France,  the  Uaterialism  In  natural  science,  the  l'ca[> 
livist  followers  of  Comle,  the  Wc'tmlOBter  Review 
and  its  party  in  England,  the  Hormona  and  Spir- 
itualists in  America.  The  movements  of  these  par- 
ties have  led  to  a  new  development  of  powerful  agen- 
cies in  defence  of  Christianity.  In  nearly  every  d^ 
partment  of  science  and  literature  tho  works  of  former 
centuries  huve  been  aurpisaed  by  modem  Christi-n 
writers.  The  various  denominations  vie  with  eacb 
other  In  eatohliehing  religioua  periodicals,  which  al- 
ready form  one  of  the  grandest  characteristics  of  the 
church  history  of  tbe  nineteenth  century.  Free  as- 
sociations tor  religious  and  other  charitable  purposea 
have  rapidly  multiplied  ;  missionary  socletioe,  Bililo, 
tract,  and  tiook  societies  have  displayed  a  wonderfol 
and  unpirallolcd  activity. 

Thus  tiie  spread  of  CbrisUanlty  thnn  tbe  beginning 
baa  been  like  to  the  growth  of  tho  "grain  of  mustard 
seed;"  tiMlay  ita  branches  overshadow  the  wbolo  earth; 
the  prospects  of  Christ's  kingdom  on  earth  are  bright- 
er than  at  any  previous  period  of  its  history'.  Com- 
pare Smith.  Tabla  of  Church  Ilitlon)  (especisll  v  the  col- 
umn "General  Characteristics").    SoeCuc 

CUUBCU  UlBTOBr;    TUEOLOOX. 


1.  Hutory. — ThU  body  is  purely  American  in  ita  or- 
igin, having  aprung  from  threa  dilTiirent  sources  wide- 
ly apart  from  each  other — tho  Methodist,  Baptist,  and 
I'reabyterian  Churches  in  illflbrcnt  p;irts  of  America. 
(1.)  \V!i(>n  the  so-coUad  "O'Kelty  recession"  from 
tho  Methoillst  Episcopal  Church  (q.  v.)  took  place  in 
the  year  1793,  the  seceders  at  first  took  the  name  of 
"  Republican  Uelhodiala,"  bntaftemard  asaumod  tbe 
name  of"  ChristUna,"  avowing  the  N.T.  as  their  only 
code  ofdoctrino  and  discipline.  (2.)  In  tbe  year  1800, 
Dr.  Aimer  Jones,  a  member  of  the  Baptist  Chnrch  In 
Hartlnnd.  Vermont,  "becoming  dissotiifled  with  tbe 
creed  of  his  church,  and  with  all  SECtarinn  denomina- 
tiunn,  and  preferring  the  Bible  alone  as  tho  confcsshm 
of  bis  faith,"  organlted  a  chnrch  of  twenty-five  mem- 
bers in  the  town  of  Lyndon.  Vt.  In  a  few  years  he  waa 
joined  by  ministers  from  tho  Close  Communion  and 
Free-will  Baptist  churchce,  who  left  their  former  asso- 
ciationf,  and,  In  soma  cases,  broBgbt  their  flocka  with 
them.  (3.)  The  third  source  of  tho  new  sect  was  found 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennoseeo.  About  tha  yaar  1801, 
several  ministers  withdrew  from  tho  Jurisdiction  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  snd  "organized  Ibemselves  Into 
a  new  aud  independent  preebytery,  cjlled  the  Spring- 
field Presbyter}-.  Tliey  kept  up  this  orKinization  for 
about  two  years,  when  they  formally  adopted  a  new 
name  tor  themselves  and  followers  —  that  of  Chris- 
tians." (Sea  Davidson,  Prttbyttrian  CJurci  n  Ktn- 
luetg,  chap,  viii.) 

The  three  bodies  thus  separately  or^nlied  were 
Anally  brought  Into  one  society,  adopting  the  common 
name  "  Christians."    They  have  become  qnitc  namer- 

At  tha  Quadrcnnbl  General  Conference  of  this  de- 
nomination hold  ot  Marshall,  Michigan,  00  October  !, 
1860.  and  the  following  <Uys,  the  fallowing  40  Annual 
Conferences  woro  represented  l>y  delegates : 


1                             Co^a^cs. 

IM^M 

W 

(tew  York  Westers 

Wc 

CIIKISTIANS 


»."i.i 

i? 

NeirJerMy... 

Ji 

s 

1 

u 

Nonheni  IlUnoli  ud  a«iU>*m  WIkumIo. 

M 

R 

».K,™:::::::::::::::::::::::: 

S 

n 

ssffiKi-wi;.""^."."*:^: 

M 

« 

Tbe  Re".  I.  C.  Goff,  of  Illlnote,  wu  ulacted  Preti- 
dinL  A  letter,  aipreesini;  lumiaiiy  of  vlewi  uid  fts- 
temal  fcetinga,  was  read  from  the  Ataociation  of  Gen- 
eral BapliaCs  in  England,  tbls  bcinx  tlie  flrgt  commu- 
nlcatiDd  of  the  kind  since  I82B.  The  General  Confer- 
ence Tcplied  b]r  a  series  of  TeututioDs,  reciprocating  the 
Aelinga  of  ttie  (lenerel  liaptiet*,  and  by  nppalnUag  > 
delegate  t«  attend  tbeir  next  annual  meeting.  It  was 
IHolved  to  eaUUliih  ■  Bibtlcil  institnte  in  the  3UK 
of  New  York,  and  to  increau  the  nomber  of  denotniiiB- 
tlonal  periodicolB  liy  the  eataLiishmect  of  a  Quarltrli/ 
and  of  an  A  imual  Rr^er.  The  original  platfonn  of 
the  deDamiaation,  namely,  "That  tbe  name  Cbriitian 
b  the  only  name  of  diilinction  wblch  ire  take,  and  by 
which  «■,  aa  a  denotninatioD.  dedie  to  be  known,  and 
tbe  Bible  our  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice,"  waa 
nuauimooaly  reaffinncd. 

A  conTcatloa  of  membera  of  the  denomination  In  Uie 
Bouthem  SUlea  ("Southern  ChrisUan  Conventkm") 
mu  held  at  Mount  Anbum,  N.  C,  an  Hay  %  1866, 
at  which  It  Mai  resolved  to  reTlTe  the  denominational 
book  concern  at  Suffolk,  Va.,  which  had  been  deatroj- 
od  by  flre  toon  aRer  the  beginning  of  the  war.  See 
Attmial  Ataerieaa  Cydopadia  for  1S66,  ■.  v.  Christian 
Connection:  Minatao/tiit  U.S.C^iadramiatCltriMlim 
Comtclion  (Dayton,  1866). 

II.  Doclriofi. — Each  coDgragatlan  of  "  Chriatlans" 
li  Independent,  and  they  take  the  Blbla  u  their  bind- 
ing standard  of  doctrine.  The  following  principles 
appeal  to  he  generally  recognised  among  tbem;  (1) 
liie  Scripture!  are  Inspired,  and  are  of  divine  au- 
thority. (2)  Every  man  haa  a  right  to  interpret  the 
Bible  for  himself,  and  therefore  differences  of  theolog- 
ical views  are  no  bar  to  Charch  fellowship.  (8}  Then 
is  one  God,  bat  the  doctrine  of  tbe  Trinity  la  not  gen- 
erally received.  (4)  Christ  it  a  divine  being,  pre- 
existed, and  is  tliB  mediator  between  God  and  man. 
(5)  Clirist's  sufferings  atone  tor  the  alns  of  all  men, 
who,  by  repent^inre  and  faith,  may  be  saved.  (S)  Im- 
mersioD  is  the  only  proper  form  of  baptism,  and  believ- 
ers tbe  only  proper  sulijecta  (rejecting  Inbnt  baptiam). 
(7)  Communionat  the  Lord's  table  ia  open  to  believars 
of  all  denominations. 

in.  ffopemiiKn/ nnrf  (Titapes.— Though  each  congre- 
gation is  theoretically  independent,  there  are  "An- 
nual" or  "  State"  Conferences,  composed  of  ministerial 
and  lay  delegates  from  tbe  churches,  which  receive 
■nil  ordain  pastors,  etc.,  but  can  pass  no  laws  bimUng 
the  several  churches.  They  have  an  American  Chris- 
tian Convention,  whose  officers  from  1866  to  186T  were : 


4  CHRISTIANS 

PrrtHenl,  D,  P.  Rke,  of  Haaeacbnsetts ;  BtarlOTf, 
N.  Summerbell,  of  Oliio;  Stcrtiaij,  of  Utaioman)  !jf 
parlnumi,  D.  E.  Uillard,  of  Uicbi|,'Bii ;  Secrtlarf  of" 
i:diietUkmai  lirpartmeiU,  J.  W.  Holey,  of  Maisacbo- 
•etts;  Jirtrrlaiyiifikf  Sahbatk-tdutol  Dtparlnutii,  I.C. 
Goff,  of  Illinois ;  Secretary  of  lU  P^MMag  Jjrparf- 
mnit,  C.  A.  Horse,  of  Ohio.  The  forms  ot  wonhip, 
etc.,  an  In  general  the  same  as  tbose  in  the  Baptiat 


di  be  rtfled  "The  Aner- 

Bti«i  ihjiU  be  to  vrrsufv^ 
may  be  thmght  proper 


me  Semur?  for  bacU  dpjMriiiHDi  herelDafter  pfortdH 
ill  of  Ihs  above  oAotn,  tscKM  tin  Vke-ptvaldeDto,  $tu1i 
'  y  twkbx  for  tUv  lena  cs  IboT  reiirF^  and  hdIU  th 


either  ca«e  the  order  to  bear  the  •apctlun  andsTgtuluraof  Ite 
Prvtdml  and  BcmUrT  of  the  CaDvaitJan.  He  ahall  ctre 
bonds  Id  the  aceeptaBon  of  tbe  EiKniiie  Uord. 

Aar.  X.  Any  pemn  (hall,  on  the  permrDI  of  ImvtT-fTa 
dnllan  IdIo  the  tmmr;,  be  enUUed  Id  ■  etnlOcsca  of  llfe- 
Diflubarvblp;  or,  cd  the  like  payutent  of  Ihrre  dijlarv,  to  a 
cntlAcAle  of  quadmulsl  nnabcnihlp.    ICvery  ClirlAian  b^ 


I  CDlleitFi  and  BiUlol  and  lllatsry  bMltirtw,  as  w^u 
t  Ihov  (Ireaily  eOabtWiad  hj  tbe  dtaunlDatioa,  a^  aiAt 
rlog  lot  llM  BiBbtr]-  by  pecuolary  loan  i» 

ihlne  Departi — ■  ■'■-"  ■■ ' '  ■■■- 

MgribsiTena) 


1y.  « 


proper. 

IV.  S(a(w({a.— Tbe  d< 

In  the  United  States  three  periodicals,  via.  7%t  Chit- 

Sa»  (discontinued  during  tiie  war,  hot  rerircd  in 

1SGT),at$afR)Ik,Va.i  Tkf  Btrald a/ Gotptl LOtrtf— 

tbe  first  religions  newspaper  pnbliahad  in  this  atmt- 

r  Issued  Septeaaber  lat,  ISOS—oow  puk 


CHRISTIANS,  BIBLE  273  CHRISITE 

lislKd  at  Kcwburyport,  Hiu. ;  ■nil  Tha  Gaipd  Hrrald,  ahoot  of  the  ancient  CbristUn  chnrcbes  in  Peralk.  In 
It  Uajton,  O.  Ths  itateineDti  concemint;  their  sU-  the  >lxtb  centuty  they  were  in  regular  cannettian 
tUa  gnatlj  vary.  Belcher,  The  Reli^oUi  Dtmimi-  with  the  Neatorian  Church  of  Waslem  Asia.  Under 
aaHmt  m  lU  Oititrd  Slala  (IHH).  gives  to  them  e07  j  the  patriarch  Timalheut  (778  to  820)  tbey  received  ■ 
iir^mi2ed  churches,  48B  minulers.  and  ^,000  commu-  metropolitan,  and  thencefurth,  al>o,  their  Liihops  were 
Diraou.  In  l8S»lhf}' claimed  19UCchurcliHBii<)  1452  I  ordained  by  the  Neatorian  patriarch.  The  IndUn 
Aiaiiften,  an<l  147.263  commuiiicatith  The  denocni-  ,  princeii  conferred  on  tbem,  especially  at  the  begipning 
nation  hat  spnad  in  England  and  die  Engliib  peuea- ,  of  the  ninth  century,  many  privileges,  for  which  tbey 
gigu.  Their  inatltBtiaiu  of  learning  are  Cfariatian  |  were  etpeciallyindebtedtoonaThoniaaCananaiuR,  alio 
Csioa  College,  at  Henm,  Ind. ;  tiraham  Colle^  in  '  named  Uar  Thomaa,  who  wae  probalily  not  a  bishop, 
Ninfa  Canlina ;  and  academie*  at  Wolfborough,  K. '  but  a  rich  and  influential  merchant.  In  consequence 
H.,  ind  Starkey,  N.  Y.  They  are  to  commence  a  Bib-  of  the  great  incresse  of  their  number,  they  afterward 
Ilia]  School,  and  bare  fixed  its  location  at  Kewark,  |  farmed  an  independent  atste,  which,  after  the  eitinc- 
N.  T.  More  than  sixty  Conferences  tiave  been  organ-  tlon  of  the  royal  line,  fell  by  inheritance  to  the  ruler* 
ind  IB  the  United  Slataa  and  Canada,  which  meet  an- 1  of  Cochin.  Tbey  greatly  suffered  from  the  many  con- 
pully.— Winebreanet,  J/iiMry  oj"  ail  CenoniiutwH ,'  testa  of  the  Indian  princes  among  each  other,  which 
Delcher,  Bittory  t/Rdig.  Dnom.  inOaU.  8.,  Gorrie,  i  the  Mohammedans  ekilfallv  turned  to  their  advantage. 
OarDlri  aiul  Sfelt :  Scbem,  Ecdaiattiaii  Year-took,  \  The  St.  Thomaa  Chriitlani,  therefora,  oflerod,  in  1&02, 
p.  78;  Doird.  Rellgiom  m  Amrriai.  I  the  crown  to  Vtxo  de  Gima.     Their  connection  with 

CluUtlWM,  Bible  also  called  BrVMlItea,  after '  ""•  Ne«orl»n  patriarchate  seems  to  have  been  early 
theirfoander.Williain  Bry«n,»Melliodist  local  preach- I  intaWiP**!-  Between  1120  and  1280  their  eccleeiee- 
.r  ia  Comwali,  who  left  the  Wealeyan  body  in  1816.  ""I  h"*  •'»''■'•  "  '^^^  *"  '«''•  B""'  <«•  ConsUnlloo- 
H<  T»|ddlv  gathered  churches  in  Devon  and  Corawsll,  |  ?•«  ">  "^  f"'  '^e  episcopal  consecration,  and  from 
biit  left  the  party  which  he  had  formed  in  1819.  The  I  'I"*™  »"  "ome;  Uter  the  chnrch  and  the  clergy  became 
towminstion  commenced  iu  operations  in  Canada  in  altogether  extinct,  so  that  only  one  deacon  was  left. 
IbevearlSSl,  and  WM  organizedthereundera  separato  H«°"'  '"  "«■  "">  'l«'«g«<*'  *«"  «"»  ««  the  Nesto- 
Coiifcrenee  in  IBM.  In  1866  the  Bible  Christians  had  '  >■'«»  P"t™rc[i  to  «li  for  a  bishop.  Tho  patriarch  or. 
J7  dremti  and  43  home  missions  in  England  and  53  ;  ^""led  the  two  delegates  priests,  and  sent  home  wrth 
slxnid.  with  246  itinerant  preachers,  1B91  local  preach-  !  "'«'"  '"o  bishops,  Thomaa  and  John.  John  remained 
m,  !3,1!»  members,  1050  on  trial,  39,943  schobrs,  I '"  I™*"-  ^°'-  Thomas  n»n  returned.  Patriarch  Ella* 
•ad  eiTi  leachen.  Their  creed  is  IVeslfyin,  and  w  ,  Ct !«»)  »ent  him  again  to  India,  with  one  metmpo- 
19  ibeir  govemnient,  only  man  popular,  aee  Uktiio-  '"•  Jaballaba,  and  two  bi.hope,  Jacobua  and  Dcnha. 
Disr^  They  reported  that  they  found  bishop  John  still  alive, 

n.^^  ,=^  ,  ^        ...      ,        .,„      .  .     I  and  80,000  ChriotisnlamiiieB  in  twenty  towns.     Later 

OlrirtifliM  of  at  JoJm.  In  the  middle  of  the  ,  Portugueae  reporta  eatimate  the  number  of  famUics  at 
l.a.  century  certain  Carmelite  miesionancs  di«»vcred  jo  oOO.  On  account  of  their  poverty,  and  the  oppies. 
.»rt  rsudmg  n  the  n..«H1«rh«.d  of  Rasrab  and  Su«^  ^^  .^ich  they  suffered  from  ™ny  sides,  they  invoked 
™^hsg  ttemaelTM  iVfl»«™.  orM^d^m,,  and  ca  led  |  jt,  p„teotion  iif  the  Portug-ic«.  The  Portu^eae  pro- 
bv  Uje  Molmnmodans  SdlnaM  (Sab..,  a  name  Uken  ^^^  „,,  ^  ^u^^  by  the  ealahliahment  rf 
pebably  from  the  Kor^)  to  whom  they  gave  the  Jesuit  misaions  among  them.  In  1599  the  archbiahop 
aim.  of  Johannites,  or  St.  John  Chriatuna.  Comp.  „f  q^,  prevailed  upon  them  to  submit  to  the  pope,  and 
^m  a  Jesn  aarofto  or.g,nu  r^m  et  srron,™  ,„  ^  .^^  j^^  „f  ^^  ^^  held  by  him  at  Di- 
a™««.on«a.Aia»«.(ltam.l652,8vo.>  One  of  amper.  Only  a  few  oongre^lion.  in  the  monnUina 
^"  ^.5"  ■*""  ^^^*^f  ."""  tC-A^  A--""-  i  kapVaW  uL  thi.  union.  But  in  1658  a  large  nnm- 
^  ^A-^  ^^«-Jl!yT  ^rT^''l'",J:f  ^  "'  »*■""  •■"'"'  -^  "»'  "-""^tion  with  Rome,  and 
Wf«  rniiftu  a  MuM.  fiorb^g,  8  vols  Lond,  1816-  ,^i,i,^^  ^e  independence  of  the  Church.  In  1889 
Ifi,  ilo),  and  fragment,  of  others,  beaides  many  ac- ,  (he  number  of  (non-unlled)  Tboma.  Christmns  wu>  ev 
nnati  of  t"veUers.     In  the  t/«err,<i(  £«cyclo]«dui  j  y^^j^  ^^  -^^    „f  ^^  ^^.^  ^^y,  g  ^^^^ 

rf  Ench  and  Oruber  Ge«n  us  hie  given  a  general  „f  ^^^^  gg  ooo,  with  97  churche^  still  follow  Iheir  old 
™w  of  their  system  (art,  Zabier),  which  he  show,  to  g  ,,„  ^j,  ^yj^  y,,  ^^J^^„  ^.^  ,„ji„,  identified 
ta  Oa«ti<>««t.c,  and  ncariy  reUle.Ho  that  of  Zor<^  themselves  with  the  Latin  rite.  Tbey  are,  nnder  the 
«*»  John  being  represented  as  en  inarnated  «.n.  BHtiah  gm'emmen^  free  ftom  any  ecclesiastical  re- 
Tl.  iMgua^e  of  their  holy  books  is  an  Ar.miean  dia-  ,t„,„t  ^„^  ^^  aiSongthemaelvea  akind  of  apiritual 
Wtin^rmediate between  Syrkc  and  Chaldaic.  They  „  uic,  nnder  a  blehop  choeen  by  themaelve.  and  In 
prslcsd  0  have  come  from  the  Jordan,  and  to  have  ^^ieh  the  priesti  and  elders  administer  justice,  using 
tl^T\  k'^?„  '■y  "^^  Mohammedans  Some  ,^^^^^^^  „  ^  ™„  „,  punUhment.  Tl»? 
wri^  i^dmit  that  they  «e  really  the  deKendante  of  „  „,a  ^u,  ,„  „kno»Wg,  dependence  en  the  patrC 
J^ld»clple^orof  John  Baptists.  On  the  other  ^^  ^J^„y^^.  Th.v  c5uhem«lves  Syrian  CSr* 
l^t^P^  °-  J  "^^  '?  ^^*T.^r™;'.i*?^'  '™.  «'  -^  -^j™  C*-"*  o/Mahjala.Tb^y  still 
r"V  ^.S^"  *'™."r«**a';  ??'■  ?;  "^":  celebrate  the  ^p.,  and  their  id.r«,pecting  the 
G».Ur  a»r^  Jf^ory,  1.  S  M :  Woshefan,  <>»™.ta.  lord's  SupperTclin;  to  thcae  of  the  ProtUtan^  but 
?Z^-y<  \^^^]i  ^  t.1?  '■  ***"»"'  Ckurd^J'"^ ;  in  preparing  the  bread  they  are  said  to  use  wilT  and 
{Torrey  .),  i,  876.  Smi  U»i.>o.BAFTI8Ta,  M.kde.  ^u.*^  llicy  aarint  with  oil  the  body  of  the  infant  at 
"'•  f""*^"-  baptism.     Tholr  priests  aro  distinguished  hv  the  tan- 

Cliilatl«na  of  BL  Thomaa.  This  name  is  now  sure,  andareallowedtomarry.  Their  churches  contain. 
ipflicd  only  to  a  people  residing  on  the  Malahar  coast,  |  except  the  croiu,  no  eymboli  or  pictnrcs.  tlyrLic  is  ihe 
b  the  foath  of  India.  But  in  former  centuries  8t.  language  employed  in  their  Lturgiea  and  other  churcb- 
Thomas  Christians  were  mentioned  also  in  other  East-  services,  but  the  Scriptures  are  expounded  In  Mulalur. 
BnoNDtrieei  thus  Connas  Indicopleuste*  found  them  See  Heniri„',  A«tA£'iKytiip&{tr,  x,  279;  Schem,  £Jci(- 
n  Arabia  bafon  686.  The  acconnta  of  the  Portu- I  riiwticaf  frar-hwi;  for  IS60.  See  Nsstorians. 
pesa  navigaUra,  who  flrat  virited  the  Thomas  Chris-  ChiiBtla,  William  B.,  an  eminent  Methodist 
tlusoflndiaiiitlH  fifteenth  century,  represent  them  I  Episcopal  minister,  was  bora  in  Clermont  County, 
IS  protcMiog  to  be  deacendanti  of  the  proselytes  of  the  O.,  Sept.  2, 1808,  studied  at  Augusta  College,  Kentucky, 
ipostle  Tbomaa,  who  is  beliared  by  some  to  bare  car^j  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  1825.  and  died  in  Cin- 
risd  the  Gospel  iolo  India.  Other  acooMlts  represent  dnoMi,  Match  20, 1842.  During  his  Urm  of  sen-ice  in 
Uamai  thedeacetidaBUorBcolanyof  Neclorisn*.  It  the  ministry  he  occupied  the  most  imponanl  pulnits 
SHDi  most  irobable  that  tbey  ware  originally  an  off.  I  of  the  denomination  with  great  honor  and  usefuhi^ 


CHRISTMAS  276  CHRISTMAS 

Htistationa  vera,  1825,  Union;  18SS,  Ptqua;  1837-8, '  Saturnalia.  JablODaki  endeavon  to  ibjw  that  it  oTlg< 
Zanesville;  18^,  CinciUDatl;  1880,  Ubanoo  Diitrict;  Inated  with  the  BaiOidiuii  inEB;pC((^>wniJ^  ii,  S7!>. 
1834,  Cincinuitij  1885-8,  Cin<;mn>>ti  Dlitrict;  18S9- ,  "The  inetltulioD  ms}' be  eaffldentlj  «iplaJDed  Ly  tba 
40,  Urbaaa.  He  waa  three  time*  eiected  a  member  of  '.  circumRance  that  It  wai  tbe  tatle  of  Che  age  to  n.al- 
thB  General  Conference.  Hla  mind  wai  of  tiroad  com-  tiply  feUiTula,  and  that  the  analog  of  other  eventi 
pBBi,  and  he  wai  well  veraed  in  theology  and  eccleai-  '  in  our  Saviour's  hintory,  which  had  alrsady  been  mail' 
uticHl  polity.  In  all  dtaciuuDna  la  tlie  confbrencea  |  ed  by  a  diatlnct  celebnitiDa,  may  Datanlly  have  pidnl- 
ho  woB  an  able  and  (ucceuful  debater,  and  eeldain  ed  aul  the  propriety  of  marUog  hii  nativity  nith  tba 
fiuled  of  his  aim.  In  the  pnlplt  he  waa  preeminent.  |  urne  lionoralite  distinction.  It  waa  celebrated  vith 
His  preaching  waa  Iot(ical  and  vigorous,  and  lie  poured  :  all  the  marks  of  respect  uiually  beatowed  on  fa<Kl)  fc*- 
fbnh  a  Hood  of  fervid  and  paBsionats  cloqnence  that  tivil*,  and  distinguitbad  alio  by  the  ruatom,  derived 
carried  bia  audiences  with  him,  and  Lrouglit  veiy  many  probulily  frnni  beatben  antiquity,  of  interrhaDging 
•0  CbrisL  Ilia  death  wai  tTiDiii|>hBnt.^il/iniUei  nj"  preaenta  and  making  entertain meDli,"  At  the  nma 
^Wcmuu,  111,  347 ;  Sprsgue,  .Iwnib,  vli,  7U3.  time,  the  heathpn  winter  holidays  (SatBmi.lia.Juve- 

ClulatmaB,  the  day  (Daccmlier  ^etli)  which  is  eel-  nalla,  Brumalia)  were  undoobtedly  trinaformed,  tnd, 
ebnited  tiirouKhout  nearly  the  whole  of  Cbristendnui  so  to  speak,  fancliflad  liy  the  cstablithinent  of  tbe 
BSlheUrthdayoroDrSaviour.  "ItieoccDpicd,  there-  l.!hriaUnua  cyclo  of  holidaya ;  and  the  heathen  cue- 
fore,  with  the  event — the  incarnation  —  which  fumis  toma,  bo  far  si  they  were  liarmlcea  (e.  g.the  ^-ivingof 
tha  centre  and  turning-point  of  the  history  of  the  '  presents,  lighting  tapers,  etc.),  wera  bnmght  over  into 
world.     It  ii,  of  all  the  fettivalB,  tbe  one  most  thor.  I  Chriitiiin  use. 

oughly  Interwoven  with  the  popular  and  bmily  life, ',  The  Christmas  Q/ch  of  festivals  gradually  grew 
and  stundi  at  the  head  of  the  ^ireat  fbiBta  in  the  Wcat-  up  uround  the  observance  of  the  day  of  Uitivity.  It 
era  Church  year.  It  continues  to  be,  in  the  entiro  cmiiraced  Chrietmaa  eve,  or  Vigils,  which  were  crU- 
Catholic  world,  and  in  tbe  greater  part  of  Protestant  Lrati^  with  eipecial  solemnity,  because,  though  the 
Christendom,  the  grand  jnbileo  of  children,  en  which  precise  day  of  Chri*t'a  lilrth  conid  not  be  aBcprtained, 
innumerable  gifts  celebrate  the  Inflnita  love  of  God  in  it  is  certain  that  he  Mas  liom  in  tbe  nighl  (Luke  ii,  g>. 
tbe  gift  of  bia  only-begotten  Son.  It  kindles  in  mid-  The  four  Sundays  before  f'hristmaa  were  made  prepa- 
winter  a  holy  Are  of  love  and  giatilude,  and  preaches  ratiiin  daya  for  the  fertival,  and  called  Advent-Eun- 
In  the  longeet  night  the  rlaing  of  the  Sun  of  l.ife  and  daya.  See  Advent.  Memnrlul  days,  etc.,  for  tba 
the  glory  of  the  I.ord.  It  denotes  11m  advent  of  the  Martyr  Stephen  (Dec.  SG),  St.  John  (Dec.  !7),  Uasta- 
true  Golden  Age,  of  Iho  freedom  and  equality  of  all  the  ere  of  the  Innocent*  (Dec.  !8),  were  BFtabliehed  in  the 
ledcemod  before  God  and  in  God.  No  one  can  meai-  fourth  centur)'.  Tbe  festival  of  Clrcumdtion  and  New 
ura  the  Joy  and  blessing  which  from  year  lo  year  flow  Year  (.Tan.  1)  is  of  later  origin,  while  Epiphany  <Jaii. 
forth  upon  ail  ages  of  life  from  the  contemplation  of    B)  Is  earlier  than  (.'bristmaa. 

the  holy  child  JesuB  in  bis  heavenly  innocence  and  dl- '  In  later  B;;e8  many  observances,  tome  pleasant 
vine  humility"  (SchalT,  Chui-ek  U'-ilery,  iii,  §  77).  others  absurd,  grew  up  around  the  CbriatmaB  feMivaL 

The  observance  of  Chrlstmai  is  not  of  diiine  ap-  Accounts  of  old  EnLli.h  Chrietmas  nsBf-es  may  ba 
pointmen^  nor  ii  it  of  K.  T.  origin.  The  duy  of  ttaund  in  Chambers,  Amt »/ ZJi^s  (Edinb.  1864,!  vola. 
Chriflfs  birth  «annot  be  BscflTtained  tatm  the  N.  T„  8vo),  and  In  Brand,  Pillar  AntigmUti  (Lond.  IWI, 
or,  indeed,  from  any  other  source.  Tbe  fathera  of  the  H  vola.  ]3mo).  Among  them  are  the  following.  It 
firat  three  eenluries  do  not  apeak  of  any  (ipeciBl  ob- '  waa  cnatomaTy  to  light  candles  of  large  siie,  and  tu 
■ervance  of  the  nativity.  The  Ivptiim  of  Jesus  was  lay  upon  the  fire  a  huge  log,  called  a  t'mU  dug  oT 
celebrated  in  tbe  Eaatern  Church  by  A.D.  220,  hut  CAr'ttsHuMoel,  a  custom  notyet  txlinctio  rame  piuts 
not  in  the  Westera  until  the  fourth  centurj' ;  and  the  of  England.  Yule  (fmni  bael,  a  wheel)  wii  a  ann- 
Eaatern  Church  Anilly  adopted  the  Christmas  (eBtiv.l  feai-t.  comineniorative  of  the  turn  of  the  sun  and  the 
from  the  Wealem  (about  A.D.  S8D>.  Some  writers  lengthening  of  the  day,  and  seems  to  have  beeo  a  pa- 
(«.  g.  Cave,  Primifirt  Chritlirmity,  pt.  i,  cb.  vii,  p.  lEM)  ried  of  pagan  festival  In  Europe  from  ancient  time*. 
Iruee  the  observance  lo  tbe  2d  century,  aliout  the  tima  .  At  court,  among  many  public  bodies,  and  in  dietln- 
ofthe  emperor  Commodua,  Cave  cites,  to  prot-e  that  guiefaed  fomilics,  an  officer,  under  various  titles,  waa 
It  was  olnerved  before  tbe  tlmo  of  Constantine,  the  appointed  lo  preside  over  the  revela.  Leland.  speak- 
foUowuig  sad  story  from  Bannius  (.In.  SOI,  p.  41):  Ing  of  the  court  of  Henry  VII,  A.D.  1489,  mentions  no 
"  While  the  per«ecution  raged  under  Diocletian,  who  Abhct  of  Mitrmk,  who  was  created  for  this  pnrpoee, 
then  kept  his  court  at  NicomediB,  the  tyrant,  finding  who  made  much  aport,  and  did  right  well  his  olSoe 
Diultltudes  of  ChTistians,young  and  old,  met  together  (Colttrt.  \M.  App.  2liS).  In  Scotland  be  waa  termed 
to  celabrate  Christ'a  nativity,  commanded  tho  church  the  AlAal  rfUnrtatm;  but  the  office  waa  suppreesed 
door  lA  he  sbnt,  snd  lire  put  to  it,  which  reduced  them  t  by  act  of  Parliament,  A.D.  1S&6.  Stow  iSnnrf  nf 
and  the  church  lo  aohea."  But  it  is  historically  cer-  I  /jxx/vo,  p.  >E>)  describes  the  same  officer  aa  /.onf  of 
tain  that  the  Christmas  festivsl  proper  "  is  of  compar-  j  Jf ifTu/r.  The  PurltauBregardedthesedlrenioaa, which 
atively  late  inatitntHni.  This  may  doubtless  be  ac-  i  appear  to  have  offended  more  againat  good  taste  than 
counted  for  in  the  following  manner.  In  the  first  ^  against  morality,  with  a  holy  hotror.  Prynne  says, 
place,  no  corresponding  festival  was  presented  by  the  in  his  strong  way  (in  Ifitlriiy-ifatlix),  "  Our  Cbristmaa 
Old  Teatamenl,  as  In  the  case  of  Easier  and  Pentecost,  lords  of  misrule,  together  with  danclhg,  masks,  mani- 
In  the  second  place,  the  day  and  month  of  the  birth  mcriea,  stage-players,  and  such  other  Christmas  diior- 
of  Christ  aie  nowhere  stated  in  the  Gospel  history,  and  ders,  now  in  use  with  Christiana,  were  derived  from 
cannot  be  certainty  determined.  Again,  the  Church  these  Roman  Satnmalia  and  Bacchanalian  festivals, 
lingered  at  lirst  about  the  death  and  resurrection  of  ttIkA  thoald  onus  aUpiom  CkritHaiit  tttnaUy  to  lAom- 
ChriBt,  the  completed  bet  of  redemption,  and  made  inaltlhtm."  The  dishes  most  in  vogue  were  ftinneriy, 
this  the  centre  of  the  weekly  wonhip  and  the  Church  for  breakhst  and  soppfor  on  Christmas  eve,  a  boar's 
year.  Finally,  the  earlier  feast  of  Kpiphany  afTordod  head  stock  with  rosemary,  with  an  apple  or  an  oranga 
a  substitute.  The  artistic  religions  impulses,  howev-  ,  in  the  mouth,  plum  porridge,  and  minced  [de*.  Eat- 
er,  which  produced  the  whole  Church  year,  must  soon- '  lug  tbe  litter  woa  a  lest  of  orthodoxy,  aa  the  Puiitaiu 
er  or  later  have  called  into  exiatence  a  festival  which  conceived  it  to  be  an  abomlnaUon  ;  they  were  oriejo- 
forms  tlie  groundwork  of  all  other  annual  festivals  in  |  ally  made  lontr,  in  imitation  of  tbe  manger  in  whidt 
honor  of  Chriat"  (SrhafT,  1.  c).  To  account  for  Ihe  or-  '  our  Lord  waa  laid  (Selden's  TtMe-Ta^f).  The  boDsn 
igin  ofChtistmBS,  therefore,  it  is  not  necessary  to  trace  and  churcbea  were  dressed  with  evergreens,  and  the 
It,  OB  some  writers  do,  to  tit  ftaA  of  dtdiaUion  cele-  I  former  espeeiilly  with  miMletae — a  cnalom  pcobably 
braled  by  the  Jews ;  or,  aa  others  do,  lo  the  heathan  |  ai  old  ai  the  DnkUcal  wonhip.     Whrther  tU«  ftatl> 


CHRISTOLOGY  2: 

nl  wu  alnji  calabnisd  od  Daetmber  i&th  Is  ■  nib- 
jKt  of  diipdle.  It  W4a  oot  till  Cbc  lixth  ccntnr]'  that 
the  whole  Chriitian  world  concnmd  In  cclebntlng  Iha 
■■tjiitj  on  the  lama  day.  As  to  the  quotJOD  of  tha 
diti  ofChriu'i  binh,  toe  Natititt. 

CfariitniW  day  Ii  observed  by  nearly  all  churches 
b  tbs  world  excvpt  tbe  DissentarB  of  the  British  Isl- 
indav  tnd  the  AiDnieau  churebea  that  bav«  ifffaiiK 
IMn  tbtm.  In  the  Roman  Cbarcb  three  masses  are 
fgitonad:  one  at  midnigbt,  one  at  daybreak,  and 
one  in  tbe  morning,  SometiiDes,  however^  thd  three 
■iisn  sre  s^d  dlrectlj'  one  after  the  other.  Both  in 
the  Greek  and  Boman  churclies,  the  manger,  the  boly 
bnily,  etc.,  are  somettnies  represented  at  large.  In 
tfai  Church  of  England,  and  in  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal  Chncb,  dirina  service  is  held  always  on  Chrlst- 
BB*  day.  In  the  Rtnner,  the  Athanasian  Creed  Is  re- 
qdnd  to  be  said  or  suDg.  ir  Christmas  fall  on  a  Fri- 
day, it  is  not  to  be  ■  fast.  In  the  Weileyan  Method-  i  manlons,  have  held  to  tha  fundamental  importance  of 
ifl  Chorch  in  England  the  day  is  always  observed,  I  Cbristology ;  and  with  Oie  subsideDce  of  what  may  be 
and  genrrallt/  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Cbarch  In  called  minor  dlscnsslons,  Cbristology  has  of  lata  aa> 
Ike  Isrge  cities. — Bingham,  Or^.  Ecelai.  bk.  zx,  cfa.  suoMd  new  promineDee.  The  Turltan  theology,  no 
fr;  Cokman,  Chritian  Anliquiliet,  ch,  xii,  g  4;  Dor.  j  less  tbaa  the   so-called  sacramental  theology,  holds 


7  CHllISTOLOGY 

TBRCEUIOR  ;     JoSTinCATIOir  ;      BBDBMPTtON  ;     S^ 

The  doctrine  of  tbe  person  of  Christ  is  the  central 
doctrine  of  Christianity.  Out  view  of  the  wbols  chan 
actar  and  Issues  of  bis  redemption,  and  consequently 
oar  whole  system  of  thought,  both  theological  and  eth- 
ical, depends  upon  our  view  of  tbe  person  of  Christ. 
The  Chnrch  has  always,  wHh  a  sure  instinct,  under- 
stood the  fundamental  importance  of  this  doctrine; 
but  after  tbe  settlement  of  the  early  dispates  by  the 
Council  of  Cbalcedon  (see  below),  the  discussion  of 
other  topics  (e,  g,  sin,  grace,  and  predestination),  es- 
pecially in  the  Western  Church,  became  necessary, 
and  Chrislologi-  was  apparently  thrown  into  the  back- 
ground. So,  at  a  later  period,  tbe  discussions  con- 
cerning the  atoning  work  of  Christ,  and  of  tbe  merha 
of  his  death,  took  precedence  of  that  of  bis  person. 
"  '  all  classes  o' 


Mr,  Pmtn  of  Ckritl,  1, 1'g ;  Naandar,  Ltfc  of  Ckiy- 
fUm  (Land.  1S45,  Svo),  p.  340  (itlree  Chrysostoi  ' 
driMmai  Hamilg) ;  ThacnpKin.  ChriitiKU  owJ  Iht  S 
urmalia  (BiilicHtca  Sacra,  xil,  144) ;  NoHk  BriliA . 
*n,  Tiii,  !02  (Christmas  Lllaralure);  Siegel,  CAiirf- 
BAtirdiUcke  AUertlmmtr.  ii,  189;  Cassel,  WeUm^ek^ 
tai-UnprQuge,  BrOacAt,  lad  AbtrgtHibe»  (BerL  IMl) ; 
Hsrbaeh,  Die  AhAtb  WeAuditttal  (Frankfort,  1866). 
Cllilatologyi  a  word  of  comparatively  recent  ori- 
gia  In  theological  sdence,  now  nsad  to  denote  the  doc- 
triDsoforconccraingChriet.  Trench(5/i(dyo/ironii) 
fleds  It  in  u*e  in  one  or  two  cases  among  the  English 
dirinia  of  tha  17th  century.  Owen  gate  the  title 
XpitTa\oyia  to  his  trestise  on  the  Penan  of  Christ 
(Owen's  ITori.,  Bassell's  ed.  IH.G,  vol.  -■<;).  Fleming' 
CirltUogy  (Lond.  1705-8,  8  vols.  Svo),  contains  (]) 
general  view  of  Cbristology ;  (!)  concerning  Christ  ss 
the  Lego* :  (8)  concerning  Christ  as  he  is  Logos  msdo 
msB.  Tbe  wold  boa  only  been  common  in  Englinlx 
tbtology  within  tbe  but  twenty  years;  sad  both  thi 
common  use  of  the  term  and  tbe  speci.J  treatment  of 
th)  lobject  are  due  to  German  theolo^-iana  within  tha 
pnaent  century. 

is  to  tbe  scope  of  Cbristology,  and  its  proper  place 
in  lystematie  theology,  some  writers  Include  under  \\ 
all  that  relates  to  the  history,  the  person,  and  thi 
woA  of  Christ.  Haae  <,BiKU>grt.pnltM.  Dogmatik) 
mikes  Christology  the  second  chief  division  of  Dog- 
tastics,  and  inclodas  under  it  not  only  the  pereon  and 
■vk  ^  Christ  as  comnMinly  defined,  but  also  Christ 
la  the  Church,  the  sacramonts,  etc  Coqoeral  (Chritt- 
dift,  Paria,  1868,  i  vol*,  iimd)  givaa  tbe  following 
dtSnltion :  "  Una  Christologie  eet  uoe  tlude  de  U  per- 
■onns  ou  de  la  nature  de  Jisns  Christ,  de  sea  rapports 
svec  Dien  et  arec  rhumaniti,  aiosl  que  de  son  aavn 
»acemonde"(p.l).  Cbristology  and  Soteriology  ore 
ckaely  related  to  each  other.  Somo  writers  (e.  g. 
Peh)  biclude  tha  former  nnder  the  latter.  Kling  ia- 
dudes  tinder  Cbristology  both  the  person  and  the  work 
if  Christ;  it  Is  impossible,  be  says,  to  sefanta  them, 
kaeaose  Christ  li  the  Saviour  of  men  in  virtue  of  what 
bt  is  in  hb  divine  human  person,  and  tbia  person  is 
aenaaary  to  tha  accompllshmrnt  of  the  Kork  (Heru^, 
aat-EatsUopiJU,  li,  683).  The  litest  tendency  ap- 
painlobeto  con  Itn  a  tbe  word  Cbristology  more  strict- 
ly to  the  doctrine  of  tbs  person  of  Christ,  leaving  his 
wgrk  to  be  treated  aeparalely,  IhoDgh  In  close  and 
fiul  connection  with  bis  penon.  (So  Hagenbuib, 
ISMarj  of  Dottrmf  i  Sbedd,  Hitlorj  of  Oattrina  ; 
Beck,  ft^ww^eseiUcMc,  etc.)  In  this  article  we  con- 
Iba  ennelvee  to  thla  namwer  nse  of  the  term.  The 
work  of  Christ  (((nav,  John  tv,  84;  svil,  i,  rendered 
b  tbe  Latin  Church  anans,  ogieiiam)  Is  treated  nnder 
(he  keada  Chubt,  Orncn  of  ;    ' 


that  Christ  is  the  centre  of  the  Chrlatun  systi 
Flavel^  *'  The  knowledge  of  Christ  is  the  very  mar- 
row and  kernel  of  all  tbe  Scriptures,  the  scope  and 
centre  of  all  divine  nveiations  ;  both  Testaments 
meet  in  Christ.  The  right  knowledge  of  Christ,  Ilka 
a  clew,  leads  yon  through  the  whole  labyrinth  of  the 
Scriptares"  (Fowieai'ii  nf  Ufa  opatid  up,  Serm.  1). 
Llebner,  a  modem  German  divine,  evpressea  the  same 
thought  in  more  sciantllic  fbrm  {Ckriiitiogie,  Gdttin- 
gen,  184B):  "The  question.  What  do  you  think  of 
Christ:  whose  son  is  hep  has  become  again,  in  Its  full 
force,  the  cardinal  qnestian  of  theology  ;  theologians 
become  pre-eminently  Chrlstologians;  tbe  stone  which 
the  (theological)  builders  bad  rejected  has  again,  in  re- 
ality, become  the  comer.  And  there  arises  again  lor 
onr  age,  with  peculiar  adspledness  for  apoloKellcal 
purposes,  that  grand  and  majestic  tnia  of  Christolog- 
leal  truths,  fkom  the  centre  of  which  all  is  seen  in  true 
evangelical  fulness,  and  in  the  proper  evangelical  or- 
der, up  to  tha  doctrine  concerning  the  Trinne  and  only 
true  God,  and  down  to  every  question  connected  with 
Christian  ethics.  And  what  here  comas  to  light  la,  to 
say  it  In  a  few  words,  tha  system  of  all  systems.  'The 
Church  has  In  sanctified  and  gigantic  specula* 
id  the  foundation;  the  Church  of  every  sno- 
coeding  period,  when  alive  to  her  calling,  iias  con- 
tinned  her  eSbrts  in  tha  asme  direction,  anil  it*  com- 
pletion will  require  the  efforts  of  the  Church  to  the 
end  of  days.  It  is  the  system  of  the  eternal  divine 
thoughts  that  aiw  laid  down  in  the  Cscts  of  rei-elation, 
and  have  been  actualized  moat  distlDCIIy  in  Christ, 
ily-begotlen  Son,  and  which  are  reproduced  by 
the  believer,  wbo  by  a  living  fsitb  hss  recvved  these 
facts  within  himself.  We  sbsll  grow  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  Jesus  Christ  as  (Ac  InOh,  in  whom  all  riches  of 
wisdom  and  knowledge  are  hid,  and  shall  learn  to  un- 
derstand and  show  more  clearly  that  only  those  views 
of  God.  of  creation,  of  the  wwld,  of  men,  of  sin  and 
gnce,  tiint  have  their  root  in  tbe  Christological  troths, 
ire  tenable  and  Ticlorions;  in  short,  that  Christianity 
imbodics  ail  true  philosophy  as  well  as  all  spiritual 
ife."  So,  with  rehrance  to  the  theological  conflicla 
if  tbe  age,  especially  In  Germany,  Domer  remark*  i 
'  It  Is  gratifying  to  sea  bow,  in  the  long  conflict  be- 
ween  Christisnlty  and  reason,  the  point,  on  the  han- 
dling of  which  the  decision  of  the  controversy  turn*, 
■e  and  more  distinct  to  the  con- 
irgies  of  all  parties  engaged  In 
this  conflict  are  gathered  ever  more  and  more  around 
tho  pereon  of  Christ,  a*  the  central  point  at  irhlcb  tbe 
matter  must  be  determined.  Tb*  advantage  of  thi* 
Is  obvioo*  as  respects  the  seHliunent  of  Ibis  great 
strife ;  aa  In  other  things,  so  here,  with  tb*  ri^ht  atate- 
of  tha  question,  tbe  answer  is  already  half  (bond. 


CHBISTOLOGY  2: 

It  ts  euj-  also  to  Ms  that,  in  point  or  bet,  alt  lies  tn 
the  qoeslion  whether  such  ■  Chriit  ■■  dwelli,  if  not 
■IviyB  In  til*  wurda,  yet  ever  la  the  mind  of  ths 
Cbarcfa — one  In  -whom  the  perfect  penonil  nnioD  of 
the  divine  and  human  appeared  hi«torically — b«  ni^- 
esary  aad  actmil.  For  let  na  aiippo«e  that  philoiophy 
could  incontrovertibly  eatabllth  aod  csrrir  to  tha  con- 
viction of  all  thoughtful  men  that  the  penon  of  a 
Christ  in  the  unw  Kliove  act  forth  is  a  aelf-contradic- 
Uon,  and  therefore  an  impaisibility,  then  would  be  no 
longer  any  conflict  between  Chrictian  theology  and 
philosophy,  IwcauB*  with  the  peraon  of  Chriit  would 
be  aboliahed  the  Chiiitian  Iheologj-,  aa  well  u  the 
Christian  Church  altogether.  And,  convanoly,  were 
it  brought  irndor  the  recognition  of  philotophy  that 
the  idea  of  an  historical  as  well  as  an  ideal  Christ  ii 
neceaiary,  and  were  a  speculative  construction  of  the 
person  of  Cbrl-it  once  reached,  it  is  clear  that  pfailoao- 
phy  and  theology,  essentially 


dthen 


ardhnve 


rather,  properly  speaking,  would  have  become 
and  philosophy  would  consequently  not  have  relln- 
qnished  her  existence,  bat  conflmied  it."  Care  is  to 
be  taken,  however,  not  to  run  into  the  Romanist  error 
of  substituting  the  incaroation  for  the  death  ofChrirt, 
and  ofpnttingaside  the  worli  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which 
Is  tfao  specisi  life  of  the  present  dispensation  of  grace. 
The  "  socrainental"  system  lends  to  this  by  its  theory 
that  Christ  is  present  in  "  the  body"  in  h la  Church,  iu- 
Mesd  of  in  his  Holy  Spirit.     See  HoLi  Sfibit. 

The  Chrlstoloey  of  tho  Old  Testament  will  be  treat- 
ed under  the  arttcle  Mbbsiau.  See  also  the  article 
CuniBT.  U'e  here  discuss,  briefly,  I.  The  Chritlolo- 
gy  of  tlie  N.  T. ;  II.  The  Chrlstoiogy  of  the  Church : 
III.  The  prinrlpai  Cbristological  heresies. 

I.  CHRISTOLOGT  or  tkb  New  TEaTAMCirr.— 
The  older  divinea  generally  odd  nee  the  posfagts  of  tho 
N.  T.  which  treat  of  the  perron  of  Christ  under  the 
heada  of  (I)  the  Divinity  of  Chrift ;  (?)  the  Humanity 
of  Christ.  The  lirat  claaa  of  paeeages  adduced  general- 
ly includes  those  which  assert  the  pre-esistenre  of 
Christ;  then  follow  passages  which  ascribe  divine  func- 
tions and  attributes  toChri»t;  and,  thirdlr,  those  which 
givB  him  divine  titles  (comp.  Watson,  Thiol,  liutilvttt, 
I,ch.xxv-xxxii;  Hill, Dirmrp, book  iii).  Thonicent 
discussionB  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Gospels,  and  aa  to 
tbe  so-called  development  of  doctrine  in  tho  N.T.,  hnvo 
nuulo  it  more  convenient  to  stats  tho  Chrislolo^'j-  uf  the 
N.  T.  under  the  followtng  heads:  (1)  Christ's  own  tes- 
timony aa  to  his  person,  with  tho  doctrine  taught  hy 
bis  acts,  as  rerordetl  in  the  Gospels,  (a)  the  Svnoptlst!< ; 
(6)  John;  (S)  Tlie  Chrislology  of  the  spostlcs.  Pyc 
Smith  [Scripture  Talimmy  to  the  ^fr^^ilA,  books  iii,  iv) 
makes  the  two  heads  following :  1.  Tho  Person  of  Chrift, 
as  taught  in  the  Gospels  and  in  our  Lord's  assertions 
and  indnialions;  3.  Tho  Person  of  Christ,  as  Unght  by 
tho  Apoadea. 

1.  ThtSsmi>jiticalGotpiU,teithiABTtitimBi^ofaritl 
at  la  Hit  Pertm  (soo  Uomer,  Pcrstn  f/  Ckral,  vol.  i. 
p.  62  aq. ;  ond  Schaff,  Ptrtm  t^f  Ckritt  rte  Mirage  of 
Bitttyrg,  p.  115  e<[.;  both  of  whom  are  used  in  what 
Ihllows).— (1.)  Christ  ealla  himself  viuc  9iov,  Sen  of 
Cod,  nnd  this  in  the  highest  sense,  as  Implying  tho  di- 
viuitvof  his  own  person  (Malt,  xxvi,  08;  svi,16, 17). 
"  Ho'  is  not  mer«ly  a  son  of  God  (as  David,  the  kings 
of  Israel,  or  the  prophets  were  so  styled);  not  merely 
one  of  the  sons  of  God,  but  The  Bm.  the  only,  the  well- 
beloved  (Matt.  Hi,  IT ;  :<vii,E;  xiii,4!-(G).  Davtd'e 
ton  is  Davids  Lord.  The  phrase  " Son  of  God'^  has 
three  meanings  in  the  synoptical  Gospels:  (!)  What 
may  tie  called  the  phyiical  meaning  (Matt,  i,  'is ;  Lnke 
i,  83),  because  he  has  this  name  by  natnrc,  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  mode  of  his  birth.  Of  John  it  la  said, 
"He  shall  be  filled  with  llie  Holy  Ghost  from  hit  moth. 
er's  womb"  (Luke  i,  16\  where  the  existence  of  the  | 
person  of  John  precedes  the  filling  with  the  Holy  | 
GhoEt.     But  of  Jesus  it  is  said  that,  because  he  comes  I 


8  CHRISTOLOGY 

into  being  through  the  power  of  tile  Holy  Gboat  (Lok* 
i,  3S).  because  he  ia  conceived  by  the  powei  of  tho  Holy 
Ghost  (Matt,  i,  W\  and  so  is  from  a  divine  «aenc«,  ha 
has  the  name  Son  of  Ood  (Luke  i,  35,  3!) ;  God  nU  at 
(Matt,  i,  28);  God  baa  In  him  rwieemed  bli  people  (Luke 
il,  11),  yea,  all  mankind  (Lnke  ii,  14,  SI).  And  it  i»  not 
one  of  the  natures  that  bas  tbii  name,  bat  tbe  entin 
person.  But  wbst  this  la  by  nature  and  in  itael  f,  that 
must  it  become  through  a  truly  human  development. 
So  far  as  he  verides  and  monlly  realiies  this  natural 
divine  Sonship,  we  have  (2)  the  fetmd  meaning  of  the 
phrase  "Son  of  God,"  via.  the  Miail  sonship  (Lnke 
ii,  4B,  62;  iv,  8,  »).  That  he  also,  in  this  sense,  per- 
fectly represented  the  Sonship  of  God  wis,  for  the  time 
preceding  this  public  manifeslatinn,  ettestf  d  by  the  ut- 
terance at  bia  baptism  (Hall,  lil,  17).  Without  tbe 
physical  sonship  as  a  preaupposition,  the  ethical  would 
be  impossible,  whereby  be  is  the  Holy  One  of  God,  the 
sinless  man,  come  to  bring,  personally  in  himself,  tha 
work,  or,  divine  law  into  actual  manifestation  (Matt,  v,  17); 
but  even  on  that  account,  in  a  perfectly  hnman  way, 
in  a  progressive  manirestation,  advancing  thnm^h  con- 
flict (Matt.  lix,  16, 17 ;  Mark  i,  IB ;  Luke  iv,  13 ;  xifl, 
to,  60).  So  (fl)  withnnl  both  the  physical  and  the  eth- 
ical, the  official  sonship  would  be  impossible  :  wblcb. 
conversely.  Is  as  natanlly  and  neceasarily  tho  end  of 
Iwth  the  others  as  Ihe  ethical  Is  of  Ihe  physical.  This 
third  meaning  of  the  phrase  Is,  Indeed,  that  commonly 
attributed  to  it,  OB  a  designation  of  the  Messiah,  by  his 

cing  tbe  Christian  idea  of  Ihe  divine  Sonship  within 
the  meagre  limits  of  the  Jewish  Idras  of  the  He«Blafa" 
(Domer,  vol.  1,  f>S  sq.).  See  Missiah  ;  So:i  of  Gap. 
'  (i.)  Christ  calls  himself  also,  and  most  commonly, 
Mc  niSp^-nav,  Son  "fi/an  (about  eighty  times  in  all 
the  Gospels.  See  inyKjAiHoa's  Crtijt  CmcDnfoiHv, 
B.  v.).  The  uoe  nf  this  phrase  clearlv  denotea  bis  true 
and  perfect  manhood.  "But  why  should  Chrirt  uso 
it?  Why  call  himself  'a  manP'  Is  it  not  becanse,  in 
the  mind  of  Christ,  the  sense  of  human  Bonsbip  was 
secondary  to  that  of  the  divine?  But  why  call  faimsetf, 
not  simply  man,  or  the  eon  of  o  nun,  but  'the  Son  of 
Han?'  Is  It  not  because  be,  being  divine,  could  not  be 
simply  a  man,  like  others,  imperfect,  or  even  sintnl? 
Does  not  tho  phrase,  as  thns  used  by  Christ,  Indicate, 
not  simply  that  there  Ilea  in  him,  of  neeesrili-,  b  perfect 
equality  with  others  In  what  is  cMentiBl  tohomanity, 
but  also  that,  at  the  some  time,  bo  corresponds  to  tin 
ideal  conception  of  man  7"  (Domer,  I.  c).  Tbe  es- 
prcasion,  cAa  Son  of  if  an,  while  it  places  Christ,  "in 
one  view,  on  common  ground  with  us,  as  flesh  of  onr 
Hcsh  and  lione  of  our  bone,  already  Indicata,  at  tbe 
same  time,  that  be  is  more  than  an  nidinary  individ- 
ual ;  not  merely  a  son  of  man,  like  all  other  descend- 
ants  of  Adam,  Imt  the  Son  of  Man ;  the  Han,  in  the 
highest  seme:  the  ideal,  lbs  nniveisal,  tho  absolnla 
Man ;  tho  second  Adam,  dcpcendtd  frcm  heaven  ;  tin 
Hood  of  a  new  and  superior  order  of  the  mcc,  the  King 
of  Israel,  tho  MessUh"  (Schaff.  1.  c).  So  also  Trench: 
"Uc  was  '.Sin  of  Afim,'  as  alone  realiiing  all  which 
In  the  idea  of  man  was  contained,  as  tbe  Becond  Adam, 
tho  bead  and  representative  of  the  race — the  one  trae 
and  perfect  flower,  which  over  unfolded  itself,  of  the 
root  and  stock  of  humanity.  Claiming  this  titlo  as  bis 
own,  ho  witnessed  a^lnst  o|^»sito  poles  of  error  con- 
cerning bis  person — the  Ebionite,  to  which  the  exdn- 
sive  nse  of  the  title,  >  Son  of  David,' might  have  led, 
and  the  Gnostic,  which  denied  the  reality  of  the  boman 
nature  that  bore  it."  Xcta  oa  Ihe  ParabUt,  9tb  Lond. 
p.  9i.      (Matt,  ix,  £7)  xv,  2S;  xil,  S3;  sxxi,  9; 


xxii,4lBq.,etc.) 

"Ths  appellation  tkt  Son  of  Man  doea  not  express, 
then,  as  many  suppose,  the  hnmlliation  and  codAd- 
^owasion  of  Christ  simply,  bat  fab  elevation  nther 
nliove  the  ordinary  laTel,  and  tbe  aetoaliiation.  in  hin 
snd  through  him,  of  the  ideal  standard  of  bntnan  na- 
ture under  it!  moial  and  rell^ons  aepeet,  or  in  its  n> 


CHBISTOLOGY  279  CHRISTOLOGY 

btlaoloGod.  This  interprelatjon  iisugguted  gram-  gnnndiraTk  of  tbs  ethical  UachiHB  which  i«  the  m^B 
mabolly  by  the  uu  of  the  definils  urlicle,  and  hiator-  object  of  his  epiitle.  He  calli  Christ  "uur  Lord  Jesus 
jolly  by  tha  oriKin  of  the  tenn  in  Dan.  vij,  18,  where  Christ,  the  Lord  of  Glory"  (u,  1),  in  which  puaeage  the 
it  lignifiei  the  Heiaiah,  as  the  head  of  a  unlTeraol  and  royal  function  of  Christ  is  exprrssly  set  fotth,  aa  also 
Mamal  klngdoni.  It  commends  Haelf,  moreover,  at  in  his  second  coming  to  judgment  (t,  7-9;  coinp.lv,  IS). 
once,  as  (he  moat  natural  and  significant,  in  such  paa-  (3)  "The  discooraeg  otpeler  in  tkt  Aett,  having  for 
nges  IS, '  The  Son  of  Han  hath  power  to  forgive  sins'  ttieir  ob^t  the  establishmsDt  of  the  bith  among  un- 
(Ualt.  ix,  6 ;  Hark  il,  10) ;  '  The  Son  of  Han  is  Lord  believers,  all  present  the  Chrlstology  as  their  centra, 
even  of  the  Sabbath  day'  (Halt,  xii,  8 ;  Mark  ii,  28) ;  point,  yet  rather  in  tho  Old  Testament  farm.  For 
'The  SiHi  of  Han  shall  cnmo  in  the  glorj  of  his  Fa-  instance,  the  appellation '  Servant  of  God,'  n-aic  Biov, 
tbcTi'  'The  Son  of  Man  is  come  to  save' (Hatt.  xvlii,  i  is  taken  ftam  the  prophets,  andalso  the  aSBertlon  of  the 
11 !  comp.  Luke  lia,  10).  Even  those  passages  which  |  aooinling  with  the  Holy  Gbnst.  As  respects  particu- 
an  quutid  for  the  oppoaila  view  receive,  in  our  inter-  lars,  the  fortunes  of  Christ  are,  accord ing  to  Pc lor,  pre- 
pretation,  a  greater  force  and  beaaty  from  the  sublime  dieted  by  the  prophets  (Acts  i,  16 :  ii,  16,  S4 ;  iii.  18, 
teatrait  which  placee  tha  voluntary  condescensiua  and  22-SG ;  x,  M  j  1  Pet.  ii,  7,  22-25 ;  i,  10),  as  well  as  the 
hamliityatChTist  in  the  monaCrlking  light,  as  when  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (AcU  ii,  IG.  23,  31;  I, 
be  lays. '  Foxes  bare  holes,  and  birds  of  the  air  have  16).  Christ  himself  is  anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
■eats,  but  the  Son  of  Man  hath  not  where  to  lav  his  and  with  power  (x,  88) ;  by  God  is  made  both  Laid 
bead'  (Luke  ix,  58) ;  or,  '  Whosoever  will  be  chief  and  Christ  (ii,  SS),  as  God  hath  glurilied  bim  (iii.  IS), 
among  you,  let  him  be  your  serranti  even  us  the  Son  uppointed  him  to  1m  Prince  and  Saviour,  the  Judge  of 
of  Man  came  not  to  tie  ministered  unto,  but  to  minis-  (be  living  and  the  dead.  Here  everything,  in  accord- 
tar,  and  to  give  his  life  a  ransom  far  many' (Matt,  xx,  ance  with  the  historical  starting-point,  proceeds  from 
t7,!8).  Tbns  ttie  mauhood  of  Christ,  rising  far  above  tbe  humiiiatioa  of  Christ;  but  the  end  at  which  this 
all  ordinaiy  manhood,  though  freely  coming  down  to  repreacntation  aims  from  the  iirst  is,  tiiat  He  Ih  the 
id  loaest  ranks  with  the  view  to  their  elevation  and  Prince  of  Life  (AcU  iii,  16),  wham  the  bonds  of  death 
tcdemption.  is  already  the  portal  of  his  Godhead."  I  could  not  hold;  who  has  gone  up  into  heaven  (ii,  33; 
(Schaff,  Ptra*  <•/ Ckriil.  118  sq.).  Christ  «Uo,  in  I  xxiv,  31),  and  is  now  Lord  of  all  (x,  38-42)." 
roany  passages,  calls  himself  simply  "The  Son."  who  I  In  the  epistles  of  Feter  it  is  not  onli-  the  cose,  as  in 
Maodi  to  the  Father  in  relations  bo  peculiar  that  he  |  the  Acts,  that  the  life  and  death  of  (bri't  are  spoken 
narercelisGod  "Our  FBtber,"as  he  directs  his  follow-  of  as  fuimiing  the  0.  T.,  buttheO.  T.  dispensation  is 
crs  to  do,  but  "Hy  Father,"  ftom  whom  he  received  ]  made  to  look  to  and  depend  on  Christianity  (1  Pet.  i, 
witness  at  the  Transfiguration  as  the  only  and  well-be-  10,  11).  "  In  the  prophets  the  rvivfia  Xpisrot)  wa« 
lured  Son.  Among  the  adi  ascribed  to  Christ  in  the  ;  operative  j  it  wrought  in  them  its  own  preparation, 
synoptical  Gospels  (leaving  ont  his  miracles),  one  of  ,  foretelling  the  grace  in  Christ,  his  sufTeringB,  and  the 
the  most  signideant  is  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  which  gioiy  that  should  follow.  In  Christ  are  ve  chosen 
he  claims  as  his  attribute  aa  the  "  Son  of  Man"  (Matt,  from  eternity  (1  Pel.  i,  2) ;  we  ara  eternally  contem. 
ii,  3.  6;  Luke,  v,  20,  24);  and  which  the  Phariseea'  plated  by  tbe  Father  as  standing  in  the  sanctification 
tonudered  blasphemous,  as  well  they  might,  if  Christ  of  the  spirit;  as  destined  for  obedience  and  for  purify- 
had  been  umply  man.  Id  instituting  the  rite  of  bap-  ing,  through  the  blood  of  Jeaus  Chriat  (I  Pet.  i,  M). 
tim,  he  puts  his  awn  title,  "Son,"  along  with  that  of  1  As  respects  the  bistorlcai  appearance  of  Christ,  there 
tbe  Father  and  of  the  Holy  Ghoet.  Further,  he  as-  is  ascribed  to  him  true  manhood  (1  Pet.  iii,  18 ;  iv,  1). 
aibes  to  himself  a  power  inlinitely  beyond  tbe  human, ,  Thus  tha  epistle  is  as  far  trom  Docetism  aa  from  Ebl- 
sad  in  thia  respect  puts  himself  on  an  equality  with  i  onitism. 

Gad  (Luka  x,  23 ;  Hatt  xxvUi,  IS)  (Doiner,  I.  c).        Jadt  places  Christ  along  with  the  Father  in  the  for. 
Saa  S0!i  OF  Haw.  mula  of  salulatioa  (ver.  S)  and  in  the  doxology  (veT. 

i.  JiJm'4  Gotptl. — Here  it  is  not  necessary  to  dilate  |  24,  2a);  the  being  kept  in  tha  true  and  most  holy  faith 
w  with  regard  to  the  Synoptical  Gospels,  inasmuch  OS  ,  (ver.  20)  is  a  being  preserved  in  Christ  Jesus  (ver. 
in  St.  John  the  Cliriatological  doctrine  takes  s  more  1 1,  B)  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost  (ver.  20).  The  persons 
ddnile,  if  not  mare  scientific  form,  and  its  teaching  is  whom  Jude  opposes  are  not  merely  such  as  have  prao- 
Mt  matter  of  dispute,  at  least  to  the  same  extent. !  ticallr  swerved  from  the  right  way  (ver.  8,  15) ;  thejr 
Jidm's  Goapel  leaches  the  pre-existenceofChrlsL  "It  are  also  teachers  of  error,  because  they  deny  the  only 
ascribes  to  the  Son  not  merely  a  moral,  but  an  essential  \  God  and  our  Loni  Jesus  Christ  (ver.  4). 
diriaity ;  a  not  merely  econamlcal,  but  an  ontologioai ,  The  Stcoad  tlpitllt  o/Pfltrlaa  more  definitelj' to  do 
«■  metaphysical  relation  to  the  Father.  It  also  teaches  |  with  orrarists,  especblly  the  "heretics"  who  "deny 
the  true  manhood  of  Christ,  and  its  perfect  historical  the  Lord  that  Inught  them"  (ii,I).  To' Christ  belong 
nalily:  and,  finally,  that  (be  Son,  with  the  Father  and  !  fiiyaXiinr7|c(i,  16),  fofo  cai  dpirii  (I,. 1);  be  is  the  b«- 
tbe  UtAy  Ghost,  eompiela  tbe  end  of  creation  in  the  loved  Sou  of  God,  in  wham  be  is  well  pleased  (i,  IT); 
nooadliation  of  nun  with  Gad  (John  i,  1.  2,  U,  18  .  he  is  our  amrnp  (1, 1, 11,  etc.),  our  Lord  (i,  2,  N,  etc.), 
[omp.  xvii,  2];  1,32,34,61;  iv.G;  v,26,27i  vi,  58;  I  who  hath  an  everUsting  kingdom  (i,  2),  and  whose 
tiii.ia;  x,15,  38:  xii,  M;  xiv,  23:  xix,  2S,  30;  xi,  I  eiatUtioa  is  not  Unght  in  cunningly  devised  myths, 
10"  (Domer,  I.  c. ;  Bloomfleld.  ffvs  Ledum  on  iht  but  is  attested  by  tho  propfaeta  and  eye-witnesses  (i,  16; 
Gtfdnf8t.Jolm  [1823, 12ma] ;  Sadler,  Emnamtl,  eh.  j  18 1  iii,  2)  (Dom'er,  i,  72). 
i,{i|;Lond.I8GT,  Svo]).  On   tbe  Christology  of  the  H.  T.,  see,  besides  tb« 

S.  1%I  ApetUa.  —  (1 )  St.  Paul  gives  hu  teatlmonv  works  already  cited,  Gess,  Lekre  tvn  der  Frrtm  CM4ti 
both  as  to  the  divtaitj  and  the  faamonlty  of  Christ,  his  (Basel,  1856,  Svo);  Sadler,  £ton<i)WM'J(Lond.  1857,  ftvo, 
•WsUp  and  bis  Ueasianic  work,  as  fully  as  St.Jahn, '  e»peciat1y  ch.  1);  SchaiT,  ApntToUc  CKnnA,  §  148; 
e^edally  setting  forth  the  purely  Christian  idea  of  ,  Goodwin,  Chrul  Oe  Mtdialor  (Plvmoutb,  1819,  8vo); 
thiVfasiah(tlom.t,3;  v,6-10;  vi,8-10;  is,  6;  viii, ,  Hooker,  Ecct-i.  Polilg.bk.v,  61 ; 'Waterhinds  IVorb 
l;lCor.li,T;  viii, 6;  x,  16;  xv, 3-8  [comp.  Arts  ixii,  (12  vols.),  vol.  Iv;  Pve  .Smith.  Fir^  Uifi  •/  7A^ 
MO];  1  CoT.iv,  47  [1  Cor.  111,18-18;  2  Cor.  v,  16-  wy,  bh.  ii,  chap,  iv;  Gatney .  Biblicil  NMa  U.  Canfrm 
ll]l  Gal.iv,4,S;  Bph.i,  20-28;  FhiL  0,6-10;  Col.  I,  Ae  Z)ei»y  o/"C4™(  (Lond.  1830,  Svo),  and  the  writers 
li-n,stc;comp-Heb.i,6.10-l2).  The  testimony  of  generally  on  the  Trinity,  on  the  Divinity  of  Christ, 
Pad  is  well  staled  by  Sadler,  Amwmv^  ch.  i,  %  S.  and  the  Life  of  Christ.  Prof.  Bevschlag.  af  Halle, 
See  slse  Denier,  i,  61.  in  his  Chri^ologieiifiK  r.(Berlin,  l>66,8vo),  attempt* 

(1)  Tbe  Epistle  of/aiaeihas  been  called  an  Ebioni-   to  show  that  the  N.'T.  lepiesents  Christ  as  divine,  but 
lUi  Gospel,  as  if  its  Christology  were  of  a  lower  type,    not  as  pre-existent,  or  equal  with  tbe  Father,         i 
Bat  James  evidently  presupposes  the  /oilh,  n  the        II.  CHKISTOLOGT  ov  the  Cudrch.     "Hie  Idi^ 


CHRISTOLOGY 

trine  of  the  panon  and  work  of  ChrM  rornied  the  mtin 
topic  of  theological  ■pecnUtloD  and 
early  Church,  and  is  again  tba  moi 
loua  problem  of  modem  times.  The  pecoliwity  of  hia 
Pcraon  cunsUts  in  [he  perfect  onion  of  the  divine 
human  which  constitutes  him  tho  Mediator  betv 
God  and  man,  and  the  Savloar  of  the  foUen  iice. 
baa  alwaya  been  the  faith  of  the  ChriaUan  Church, 
tn  every  ago  it  has  had  to  encounlei  a  new  coemj 
the  old  enemj  in  erer-vaiyiPB  phaaea,  and  to  achieve 
new  Iriuinphd  in  the  refutation  of  error  end  tho  vindi- 
cation of  truth.  The  orthodox  Chrlatoiogy  ia  derived 
tram  Ibe  New  Teatanient.  eapeclally  from  St.  Paul  and 
St  John  (aee  abore),  and  hai  gradaallj-  been  unfolded 
[n  sharp  conflict  with  a  lurge  nnuibeT  ofChristological 
Ikereaies,  each  serving  to  elicit  a  clearer 
particular  aspect  either  of  the  divinity  or  < 
%  of  Christ,  or  of  the  union  of  the  two  naturea.  "The 
peiioa  of  Jeaus  Christ  Id  the  fuinesa  of  its  theanlhrojdc 
life  cannot  be  exhaostiveiy  set  forth  by  any  formulas 
of  human  logic.  Evan  the  imperfect,  4nlte  pemonality 
of  man  has  a  mysterious  background  that  escapes  th« 
•pecuiativc  comprehenBlon ;  how  much  more,  then,  the 
perfect  personality  of  Christ,  In  which  the  trcmendoiu 
antithesii  of  Creator  and  creature,  infinite  snd  Unite, 
Inmiutabie,  eternal  Being  and  changing  temporal  be- 
coming, are  harmoniously  conjoined!  Tho  formulas 
of  orthodoxy  can  neither  beget  the  faith  nor  nourish 
h ;  they  arc  not  the  bread  and  the  water  of  life,  but  a 
itandatd  for  theolojiral  investigation  and  a  rule  of 
pnlilic  teaching"  (SchaflT). 

TSt  Orthodax  Chrulalm/a  U  essen^lly  th< 
the  Ureek,  Latin,  and  evan)(clicat  Protestant  chnrches. 
It  forms  (like  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  so  closely 
connected  with  it)  one  of  the  fundamental  1;onds  of 
onion  between  the  great  divlaiotia  of  CbrlFtendom.  Tot 
there  have  Iwen  some  new  featurea  broaght  out  since 
the  Reformation.  We  subdividB  it  Into  ecumenical, 
tcbolastic,  and  evBDgelical. 

1,  Tho  (EcoMEmcAL  or  Cathouc  Christology 
was  prepared  In  the  antc-Nicene  age  (se«  Bull's  Hr- 
Jauiofida  Niaaia),  and  fully  matured  in  the  Klcene 
and  post-Kicene  age.  The  doctrine  of  the  person  r' 
Christ,  in  inseparable  connectioo  with  the  doctrine  i 
the  Holy  Trinity,  was  the  chief  problem  of  tbeologli 
■peculation  ftom  the  third  to  the  middle  of  the  liflh 
century,  and  was  settled  by  the  fonr  great  tecumenicsl 
councils  of  Nicaea  (_SS6),  Conatantinoplo  (881),  Ephcsua 
<4S1),  and  Chalcedon  (451).  The  first  two  were  mun- 
I7  concerned  with  the  assertion  of  the  strict  divinity  of 
Christagainstita  partial  denial  by  Arianiam  and  Seml- 
Arianiam.  The  last  two  set  forth  the  relation  of  the 
divine  and  the  human  natnre  of  the  one  person  agiinat 
the  oppoaite  extremes  of  NeBtorianisni  and  Entychian- 
lam.  Tlie  decne  of  the  Council  of  Ephesna  was  more 
negative,  a  condemnation  ofNestorius.  But  the  Coun- 
cil nf  Chalcedon  tiave  a  clear  and  full  statement  of  the 
positive  doctrine  of  Christ's  person,  and  summed  u] 


suit  oft 


itarian  and  Chrlstological  controversies  which  had  agi- 
tated the  Church  so  long. 

The  Chrlstological  symbol  of  the  Chalcedonian  or 
fborth  (ecumenical  Synod  of  4E1  ranks  next  in  au- 
thority to  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  Creeds,  and  has 
not  Iwen  superseded  to  this  day.  "  It  does  not  as- 
pire to  comprehend  the  Christological  mystery,  but 
contents  itself  with  setting  forth  (he  facta  and  estab. 
Ilahing  the  Iwnndaries  of  orthodox  doctrine.  It  doea 
Dot  mean  to  preclude  further  theological  diacueaion,  but 
to  guard  against  such  erroneous  conceptions  as  would 

would  place  the  two  in  a  fiilse  relation.  It  ia  a  l%h^ 
house  to  pcant  out  to  the  ship  of  Chritlological  speen. 
lation  the  channel  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  and 
to  save  it  from  stranding  uprn  the  r*efa  of  Neslorian 
Dynphysitism,  or  of  Eulychlan  Monopbyaitlsm.  As 
Iha  Nicene  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  stands  midway  be- 


10  CHRISTOLOGY 

tw«en  Tritheism  and  SahelUanlam,  ao  the  Chalc«donlam 
formula  strikes  the  tnu  mean  between  Neatarianiam 
and  Entychianiam.  But  It  contenia  itself  with  aettiug 
forth,  in  clear  oulUnea,  tba  final  rtnll  of  the  tbaan. 
tbroplc  proceH  of  tncamation.  leaving  the  study  irfiha 
proce$t  itself  to  adentllla  theology"  (Schaff). 
The  Chalcedonian  symbol  ia  as  foUows: 

iDf  Itmth  <«  and 


ir  l.ord  J  HI 


head  am  Eomplele  ••  10 

i.  niashwd,  Iruir  God 

■nd  trulr 

nun,  of  a  reasonable  kdI 

untlal  al»  with  UB  u  to 

hkmuiliaod;  like  unt 

uhia  all 

hln«>,  relwllhoutilnias 

lohl.Gu]l«dbe«ol>.n 

DftbatV 

ber  hBfore  all  wortd.,  Ini 

Si  to  h<i  mauhiiod,  In 

days  bom,  for  us  men  .i> 

for  oar  sidrailDa,  of 

J«  M-xta 

Usrr,  the  mother  of  Gal 

DBS  and  the  »me  1.1 

rln;  Ben, 

nm<V)nr»««.r,,U 

iU,'^ 

»..,  (n  di>a6«>  nahuU,  or. 

■  llh  lh»  prwot  Gi«k 

e>i.i.M. 

^.m,,  <^  two  nstura,  w 

tile  tan* 

Ihlofl,  KiOxml  con/wior 

(in^xir-),  mf/ou' 

iip<»-r->),  villiOia  KTei* 

onioa  of  lb«  naUiea  b 

'K^iiHrl. 

foM  (,^x-«,t.);  tliedM 

-l«,.wi;h,dhy'.h.lrun 

OD  bul  tho  pMulisrll^ 
d  tnHh   oonrurrinK  In  0 

I'Xh^ 

".•nl^ 

and  b7p«U.I^     We   rop 

en  DDt  a  Boo  dlrldad 

de»dlDl»l..>l>erH><.^bu 

and  (yn\j. 

begolMn,  aD<<  Ood-Uuo^ 

onr  Lord  JwuiChHiLe 

miutL* 

prophal*  had  before  prmJaiiued  CDD«ni(iig  him.  a 

d  ho  lilai- 

•eir^hxlh  taii(tilua,uidth 

i7°<bol  of  the  falbera  halfa  band. 

The  same  doctrine  is  set  forth  In  a  mors  condcnaad 
ftorni  in  the  second  part  of  the  so-called  Athanaaian 
Creed,  which  originated  [Ovbaldy  in  the  school  of  An- 
guatine  during  the  tiflli  century,  and  ia  tha  third  of 
the  cecnmenical  aymbole : 

"  t'urthennors.  II  la  necensrr  to  everiaitiBE  HUraUrai  thai 
wa  biUere  al«  rightly  In  the  iDcarmUon  oronr  Lord  Jvai 
Chrlsl.  Now  the  right  fsllh  1^  thai  we  brVlme  and  rfmtrm 
thai  ocr  I.anl  JvuiUlirbl.llic  Hod  of  (Hid,  !■  God  and  man; 


*an{ptlou  tk  the  luanhoud  Id 


ij  iinllj  of  peran.D. 
at  man,  »  Ood  ani 


•gether. 


la  IKI<  Clirlat^wboiutferwd  lor  out 

(For  an  analyais  sndcriticiam  ofthb  cecumenical  or 
Catboiic  Chriatology,  aee  Sbedd'a  UiHorf  ofCknatii^ 
Dottrine,  1,  809  sq. ;  Schafl'-s  ChrrcA  BiHoiy,  Hi,  7*7- 
TCi,  and  the  respective  secdons  of  the  works  of  Baair, 
Elomer.  and  others  quoted  below.) 

!.  The  SrHOLABTic  Chritlology  of  the  Middle  Arm 
la  represented  mainly  l:y  Anaelm  (tile  author  of  Our 
Dati  home,  with  his  epoch-making  theory-  of  the  atcmt^ 
mnf ;  see  AkbeIx),  I'eter  the  Lombard,  and  1  honiu 
Aqnlnaa.  It  conSned  itself,  aa  regards  the  perwm  of 
Christ,  to  a  dialectical  analysb  and  defenae  of  tha 
old  Catholic  dogma,  with  soma  unfruitful  specuIatioiiB 
on  minor  points,  especially  on  the  abstract  question 
whether  Christ  would  have  become  incarnate  if  tfa* 
Fall  had  not  taken  place.  Thomaa  Aqnlnaa  decided 
for  the  fanner,  aa  the  safer  (brmola  (ai  lumv  mom  pte. 
caHd,  Dmimcanuit¥imi)mJ\aiie()\  RnprrchtorDcuti, 
Duns  Scotus,  and  Alexander  Hales  Rir  the  othei  view. 
This  question  has  recently  been  taken  np  again  and 
ably  diacaaaed  by  J.  UQIler  against.  Do  ner  ^u  J  Ueb- 
ner  for,  the  doctrine  of  Incaraation  without  a  FalL 
See  Brit,  and  For.  Eewtg.  Rrrifir,  Jan.  1861.  art.  iv. 

8.  The  PKOTESTAHT  or  EvAHQKUCAi.  Chrirli  logy. 
The  churches  of  the  ReformatiDn,  both  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  or  Calvlnistie,  adopted  in  their  confeffians 
of  fallb,  either  In  form  or  in  subatance,  the  lLr«  astn- 
menlcal  Creeds  <the  Apostles',  (be  Nicene.  and  tba 
Athanauan),  and  with  them  the  ancient  Catholic  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  and  Christ's  divine-human  charac- 
ter and  ROTk.  which  doctrine  is,  in  fkct,  the  r 


JpalP 


h  doctrine  is. 
mbola.     We  ai 


CHRBTOLOGY 


Word  of  tba  F^lhar,  btgottflj  ftvui 

d  Virgin,  CpfW  •ulnt.ncti  w  UiM  l»o 

maihoid,  wtreJoLiHd  InnELhcr  1>  CUM  Penon,  nenr  ID  bs  dl- 
rMid,  Thnrof  1>  one  Chriat,  vwj  Und  ud  1117  Dwn:  wbo 
IrmlT  rolfcrtd,  »m  cnxUlKl,  d«d,  ind  borW,  lo  ramneOe 
bli  F&thBT  to  DB,  uid  to  be  4  Hcrlflcv  not  only  liar  origlul 
fidll.  bat  tito  for  Bctiw]  aina  of  men." 

Tin  H'crtminriw  QM/aaom,  which  givu  tb«  cle«r- 
ctt  uti  itTDQgHt  axpnagioD  lo  the  bith  of  the  Mrictir 
Kclbiiiwd  or  Cslvinulic  churchei,  thiu  ataUa  Hm  doc- 
biiK  of  Chriat'i  peraon  in  ch.vUi,  §  i\ 

~bc  San  c<  God,  the  BSDotid  tnimii  In  Iha  TrinUr,  belDK 
md  alnul  0«d.  of  one  (DbUHe  ud  equal  vllb  the 


iwT  end  eteTDA]  Ond,  or  ime  (DbeUDce  : 


CHEISTOLOGT 

formed  01  Calrlniitic  chorcbea.    The  Lnthenm  dtrtnei 

diMinguiab  three  kinds  of  the  ermmtBiieatio  idiomaivm, 

■•derived  ftorothe  eomnunttonaftiroriiTii;  (l)j»- 

ioButtiatm  (or  I'Aoiroiijricoi'),  whereljy  the  prop- 

of  one  lutare  ire  tnnirerrcd  (ud  applied  to  the 

penon(Rom.i,  8;  1  P«t.fil,18j  iv,!);  (2)  yt- 

_  dtlei/Katiaaii  (jcoivoirDiT)ncoi'),  vlwnbf  the  diro- 

nXioiiara,  i.  e.  the  redemptory  tnnetlotu  >Dil  actians 

Mch  IwlDDg  to  tbe  whole  penon  ere  prediuted  onlf 

one  or  the  other  nitare  (1  Tim.  U,  5  sq, ;  Heb.  i,  2 

) ;  (8)  5«m»  aiaiinatiaim  (ot)T,;iar«Ji')  or  mqfu- 

irvn,  wherehj  tlie  human   nature  is  elnthed  and 

ignified  by  the  attrlbntee  of  the  divine  nature  (John 

iii,13;  v.ST;  Matt,  xiviil.  18,  SOj  Rom,lx,(>;  Phil. 

"   10).     Under  thii  haad  the  Lutheran  Cbnrcb  cliima 

certain  nbiquity  or  oronipreaence  for  the  body  of 

Cbriat,  on  the  ^rDund  of  iu  penanal  union  with  tbe 

divine  nature ;  yet  she  makei  tbla  abiqaltv  dependent 

on  tbe  will  of  Cbriat,  who  can  be  preaenl  with  hli 

whole  peraon  wherever  be  plesaaa  to  be  or  has  prom- 

iaed  to  tie.      But  tor  thia  very  reamn  the  Retbrmed 

divinei  reject  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  conmmiealu) 

idiomalion,  and  prononnce  the  prcTNUtlKmea  idiomaliaE 

lo  be  mare  flKurea  of  apeecb  (dXAoicuin;.  a  rfaetorical 

exchange  of  one  part  Ibr  another).     See  Cai 


ere  IwpanUr  Jeloed  Ifvitther 
rioD.  compMltloo,  or  eDnnukm. 


AJpMltlOO, 

>  verr  Ool  and  tbtt  man,  jtt  tma  Clirtat,  the 
flilT  MadlUor  between  Ood  and  man." 

The  2d  Article  of  the  Metbodlat  EplMopal  Cburcb 
ia  tbe  aame  aa  that  of  the  Cburcb  of  England, 
that  tbe  worda  "  begotten  from  everlaatinic  of  Ibe  Fa- 
ther," and  "of  her  aahetanee,"  an  omitted  (probably 
bj  typographical 

On  Ibi*  general  baais  of  tbe  CbaleedoniaD  Christol- 
egy,  and  following  the  indieatknis  of  Ibe  Scrfptures  aa 
the  only  mle  of  bitb,  the  LntberaD  and  Refbnned 
chnnhei  have  tnlll  lome  addhional  viewe  or  detet- 
oped  new  aapecta  of  Cbriat'a  peraon.  Protoetantiim 
eaanot  ooomtentlj  adopt  any  doctrinal  or  disciplinary 
dadiioni  of  tbe  Cboicb  aa  atrlctly  Inlklllble  and 
abaolute  jbafa,  bat  simply  wltb  Uie  reaervatlon  of  tbe 
tight  of  AiTtber  iiiaraiib,  and  with  tbe  onderstandlni 
tl  a  conitant  progreea  in  tbsolo/y — not.  Indeed,  of  i 
pnicreia  beyond  Christ  and  tbe  Bible,  but  in  the  ever 
deepening  appuhenaion  and  subjective  spproprialioi 
of  Christ  and  hia  infallible  word.  There  ia  a  charsc- 
toteic  dilhrence  between  the  Chrlalology  of  tbe  Ld- 
tbctan  and  tbat  of  tbe  Reformed  Confeulons  wbicli 
alhcta  the  whole  ayatem.  Upon  the  whole,  we  may 
lay  Ibat  tbe  farmer  baa  a  leaning  towards  tbe  "  ,  ~ 
Iu  contbaion  of  tbe  divine  and  human  nature,  the  lat- 
tir  to  the  Neelorian  sepBratlon;  yet  both  distinctly 
disows  tbe  Entychian  and  Naalorian  hereaiea.  (On 
tbe  dlArence  between  tbe  Luthrmn  and  Reformed 
Chrlatology,  compare  especially  the  very  abli 
aeiiU  treatise  of  Schneckenbnrger,  Vir  nrtknAai  Lrhre 
torn  iappiilr*  Sttmdt  CJtriMi  tndi  UOnriiekfr  imd 
firmirUr  Fiatimg  [PfiinhalRi,  3d  ed,  1861];  also 
VatjUidndt  DanUOm^  d.  buitriteAr*  u.  rrformh  . 
Lttriiyri^f,  edited  by  OOder  [Stattgart,lB66].)  The 
pngnaa  mads  in  Cbriatology  aincs  ths  Reformation 
within  the  limita  of  the  Cbnicedonian  ortbodoiy,  o 
at  sll  evanta,  not  in  conflict  with  it,  relatw  to  the  con 
uanisn  of  the  two  naMres,  and  to  Ihe  atalsa  and  tl 
sBSna  of  Christ 

(a)  Tbe  doctrine  of  tbe  eommwiieraio  n&MKKm,  tb 
anBrnnnication  of  attributes  or  properties  nf  one  ni 
tart  lo  tbe  othar  or  to  tbe  whole  person.  The  begii 
Ring  of  it  maiy  be  fiMUtd  in  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and 
John  d(  Damaactn ;  bnt  (t  baa  been  mocb  more  fallv 
■lifiyeJ  t7  tlie  Lntbenn  Cbnrcb  Id  tbe  interest  of 
her  pecnUar  tenet  of  the  ubiqnity  of  Christ's  tiody.  In 
trder  U  aopport  Lolber'a  eachariatlc  theory  of  cor 
MaatiBtion  BO  called,  it  wai  embodied  in  tba  Fo 
It  CmujiJim,  bnt  ba*  never  been  adopted  in  the  Re- 


tt) Tbe  doctrine  of  a  twofold  HaU  of  Cbriat— the 
atate  of  AmntfiaftM  and  Ibe  slate  of  txalliiliim.  Tbla 
is  baaed  upon  Phil,  li,  &-9,  and  la  no  doubt  anbslan- 
liallf  true,  Tbe  Malui  enaonittaBw  (MumiSalUKut) 
emteacee  the  supematnral  conception,  bbtb,  circum- 
cision, education,  earthly  life,  paasion,  death,  and  bur- 
ial of  Christ ;  tlie  lUOia  ezallaiiimii  includes  the  reanr- 

or  God.'  Aa  to  the  descent  Into  hell,  or  Hadea  rather, 
the  Lutheran  and  tbe  Reformed  chorcbea  differ  accord- 
ing lo  their  dilferent  conceptiona  of  thia  difficult  articla 
in  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The  Lutheran  Conftoaiona,  re- 
garding It  aa  a  triumph  over  bell,  make  the  thiemmt 
orfan/emt  the  first  stage  ofthetfotHi  aallalianU,  while 
tbe  Reformed  Confeaaions  view  it  as  the  last  stage  of 

point  from  the  one  state  to  the  other,  and  tbas  belongs 
lo  both.     Tbe  Lutheran  Creed,  moreover,  refen  tbs 

ing  tlie  divine  as  not  ausceptlble  of  any  humiliation 
or  exaltation.  The  Refbtmed  symbols  refer  them  to 
both  natures,  so  that  Christ's  haman  nature  was  In  a 
Mats  of  bumilUtion  as  compared  with  its  htnre  exal- 
tation, and  his  divine  natnre  was  in  the  state  of  humil- 
iation aa  to  its  eitomal  manlfeatation  (ratume  occvtla- 
(WW).  With  tbero  the  Incantation  itself  ia  tbe  begin- 
ning of  the  atate  of  humiliation,  while  tbe  Lntbenn 
symbols  exclude  the  incamatlon  troai  the  hnmiliadon. 
Between  the  Lutheran  divinea  of  TQbingen  and  Glea- 
aen  there  was  a  controveray  in  the  17th  centnry  about 
Ihe  qneetion  whether  Christ  in  tbe  state  of  humilia- 
Uon  entirely  abstained  from  tbe  nae  of  bis  divine  at- 
tributM  (rivamii),  or  whether  be  used  them  secretly 
(^tpv^ni).  The  divines  of  Gieesen  defended  the  former, 
those  of  Tubingen  tbe  latter  view.  Both  schools  were 
agreed  as  to  the  posMSslon  (rr^ic),  and  differed  only 
as  to  tbe  ase  Cxp^mc).  f>t  tbe  divine  attributes.  This 
controversy  baa  been  renewed,  in  a  modified  form, 
ankong  recent  German  divines.     See  KRVoeia. 

(c)  The  tbreefbid  offiet  of  Christ.  (1)  The  prtjAet- 
ical  ofBce  (bmwi,  or  affiaiem  prt/pMeUam)  includes 
teachbg  and  tbe  miracles  of  ChrlsL  (!)  The  pneMy 
ofEce  (maiaf  taeerdntate)  consists  In  the  aattefactlon 
made  Ibr  [he  rini  of  tbe  world  by  Ibe  death  on  the 
cross,  and  in  thh  contlnasd  btercMsion  of  tbe  exalted 
Saviour  tor  his  people  (rtdrmplw  el  mfcroessto  •noep- 
dotaiit).  (8)  The  tii^  office  (eumw  rsjiina),  where- 
by CbrisI  founded  hIa  kingdom,  defends  bis  Cbnrcb 
against  all  entmio,  and  niks  all  things  in  heaven  and 
on  earth.  The  old  divines  distinguish  between  tbe 
nlgn  of  nston  (ryusn  w 


CHRKTOLOGY  2( 

•BibnoM  all  tUng*;  tha  rrigs  of  gi»c«  (rrgMntpni- 
(m),  whlob  rclata  to  the  chofcb  miliUot  od  wtli ; 
Mid  the  Teign  of  glory  (r^jiMai  storui),  wUcb  MongB 
to  ll»  cbuicli  triumphant  ia  baaTui. 

4.  iforfgm  Chriitological  ■paealitioiu.  Upon  the 
wbol«,  tbe  oTthodDi  doctriae  hu  laid  tha  nuuD  atnu 
npon  tlw  dirioc  g1en»at  id  Christ,  and  l«lt  th*  huauui 
•leniant  mon  or  leia  ont  of  il^t,  without  OTtr  deny- 
ing It.  Badooilinn,  On  the  contniy,  diTeloped  the 
human  alement  to  the  exclusion  and  denial  of  tha  dl- 
*iD«.  When  avaDgelical  theology  revived  attar  tba 
Telgn  of  BationalUm  in  German;,  It  endeavored  to  do 
Jnatice  to  both  elements,  and  BO  to  reconatruct  the  old 
Chriatology  a*  to  >et  forth  the  alnlau,  yet  truly  hDmui 
character  of  Christ  ^tn  hla  infiuicy  to  full  maturity, 
without  pr^udtce  to  his  dally.  Scbleiennacliat  open- 
ed a  new  era  of  ChristoloKical  speculation,  but,  foreali- 
ing  the  Chalcedonlan  ba^  of  two  natnraa  in  one  per- 
son, be  discarded  the  proper  Idea  of  the  incatnaiion 
as  the  unioD  of  the  eternal  persona]  Logo*  with  human 
Datnre,  and,  after  all,  presented  Christ  nwrel;  as  ■ 
perfect  model  man  without  sin,  In  whom  God  dwelt 
In  a  pecaliar  manner,  ai  he  did  in  no  otliar  man  before 
cr  since.  This  indwelling  of  God  la  with  him  only  a 
principle,  a  power  of  lift,  and  not  tbe  second  person 
of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Schleiermacber's  view  of  the 
Trinity  Is  essentially  SBbalUsn.  From  him  and  from 
Hegel's  philosophy  proceeded  two  opposite  currents 
of  Christologlcal  speculation — a  hamanitaiian,  nega- 
tive and  infidel,  culminating  in  Strauss  and  Beoan 
(sea  below,  nnder  the  second  dividon.  No.  IS),  and  an 
evangelical,  positive  and  in  the  main  orthodox,  which 
labon  to  reconcile  the  old  Wtb  of  the  Church  in  the 
God-Han  with  the  demands  and  forma  of  modern 
thought.  The  principal  evangelical  writers  on  tha 
Christolo^cal  problem,  under  Ita  latest  phases,  are 
Domar,  Lange,  Goaschal,  Liabner,  Martensan,  Thoma- 
bId^  Gess,  Ksfania,  Ebrsrd.  Some  of  these,  especlsl- 
ly  Tbomauos,  Gess,  and  Godet  (Commentary  on  John), 
have  Btralnad  the  Paulina  Idea  of  the  hnotit,  the  self- 
Umitation,  self-renandslion  of  the  Logoa,  fa  beyond 
farmer  conceptiona,  even  to  a  partial  or  entire  self- 
emptying  of  the  divine  essence  and  suspension  of  tlie 
Inner  Trinitarian  process  during  tha  earthly  life  of 
Ovist,  while  others  reatrict  tbe  tauuit  to  the  laying 
aside  of  tba  divine  fonn  of  existence  or  divine  dignity 
and  glory.  Domer  oppoeea  these  modem  KenoUcs  or 
KenoslBts  {Kautihcr)  aa  a  new  sect  of  Theopascbltes 
and  Patripasslsns,  and  he  assumes  a  gradual  ethical 
and  vital  unification  of  the  pre-ezistent  Logos  and  the 
human  nature,  by  a  eondeacendon  of  tbe  former  and 
an  elevation  of  the  latter.  This  view  leaves  room  tor 
the  growth  of  the  Messisnlc  consckrasuees,  but  malies 
tha  Incarnation  Itself  a  process  of  growth  which  was 
not  completed  till  the  resnirection,  or  at  least  till  the 
b^itiam  of  Christ. 

These  modem  Inquiries,  however,  samestiprofomid, 
and  valuable  as  they  are,  have  not  yet  led  to  deSnile 
•od  generally-accepted  results.  English  and  Amer- 
ican theology  have  not  lieen  affected  by  them  to  any 
constderable  extent ;  Dr.  Shedd,  in  his  able  though  in- 
Complete  Hittonf  of  Chrit&m  Doctrine,  even  ignores 
them  altogether,  and  pronounces  the  Cbalcedoniau 
symbols  the  tie  plat  ultra  of  Chriatological  knowledge, 
"beyond  which  it  Is  probable  the  hnmao  mind  is  un- 
able to  go  in  tbe  endeavor  to  unfold  the  mystery  of 
Christ's  complste  person"  (1, 403).  But  there  certainly 
hava  been  very  important  advances  made  within  the 
last  thirty  years  in  the  critical  hiatory  of  the  life  of 
Christ,  and  in  the  manifold  exhibition  of  his  perfect 
humanity,  wblch  itself  is  an  overwhelmina  proof  of  his 
divinity.  (For  a  review  of  tha  recent  Cbrist/dogical 
specnlatloiu,  see  Domer,  in  bis  large  work  on  tbe  his- 
tory of  Cbrlstology,  ii,  1S60  sq.,  ^gl.  tnns.,  dlv.  2d, 
iii.  100  sq.,  tni  in  several  dissertations  upon  the  im- 
mutabUitv  of  God  in  the  Jakriicher  far  Dealflt«  Tit- 
atogit,  1866  and  1E£8;  also  Woldamar  Schmidt,  Dot 


12  CHRISTOLOGT 

Dngma  mn  (7o(Aiseiucia>,  mil  Bautimg  m/Jk  BMOta 
Linntgtvtrmidie  dor  Gtgmtdta  [Leipiig.  ISeSJ.) 

III.  CH HISTOLOGICAL  HERESIES.  The  nn- 
moroOB  Christological  enVTs  may  be  divided  into  ttiree 
classes,  according  as  they  relate  either  to  the  divine  or 
to  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  or  to  the  union  of  the 
two.  Ebiouiam,  Socinlanism,  and  BatJonalisDi,  in  ita 
various  shapes,  deny,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  tba 
divini^  of  Christ ;  Gnosticism,  HanichaJsm,  ApoUins- 
rianlim,  deny,  more  or  less,  his  real  humanity ;  whila 
Nestorlanlsm,  EntychLsnlsm,  Uonophyaitism,  and  Uo- 
notbeletlsm  admit  the  Godhead  snd  manhood  of  Christ, 
but  place  them  in  a  false  relation  to  each  other.  Ve 
present  them  here  in  chronological  order. 

1.  Ebionibm  (see  that  article),  tha  MrliMt  Christisn 
heresy,  was  nsentlally  Jewish,  and  looked  npon  Chris- 
tianity merely  as  a  perfected  Judaism,  upon  tbe  Gas- 
pet  as  a  new  law,  and  upon  Christ  aa  a  second  Hoses. 


ived  tbe  ni 


«  of  tba  aect  tt 


of  their  doctrine  of  Christ  (^i^-N,  poor) ;  but  the;  re- 
garded themaelvas  as  thegennina  followers  of  the  poo 
Christ.  They  held  that  Jesus  wss,  indeed,  the  prom- 
ised Messiah,  the  Sou  of  Datid,  and  tbe  supreme  law- 
giver of  tha  Chorch;  yet  a  mere  mui,  the  aon  of  Jo- 
seph and  Uary.  and  that  his  death  had  no  atoning  eSi- 
cacy.  With  this  ware  cloaolv  connected  other  here- 
■iea.  The  |MnuJo-C2eawiUHK  BnmiHri  (see  Ctxata- 
nxu)  differ  from  the  otdinarr  Ebionifm  by  peculiar 
specniative  and  seml-Gnoatlc  ideas,  and  teach  '>i-' 
Christ  ms  the  last  and  highest  repreaentaUve  of  tha 
primitive  religion  which  appeared  in  the  seven  [illan 
of  the  world,  Adam,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  Inac. 
Jacob,  Hoses,  and  Christ.  These  are,  in  reality,  only 
different  iDcamationa  of  the  same  Adam,  or  primitive 
man,  tha  true  prophet  of  God.  Christianity  and  Ho- 
aalsm  are  identical,  and  both  coincide  with  the  religion 
of  Adam.  Whether  a  man  believe  in  Hoses  or  Christ 
Is  sUthe  same,  provided  he  blaspheme  neither.  Chris- 
tianity is  an  advance  only  in  extending  this  primitive 
religion  to  the  Gentiles  (comp.  Scbliemann,  DU  Oat- 
emlmm  md  der  EbitmUumiu,  1844,  p.  S6!-&fi2). 

S.  OMoertciBH,  which  flourished  in  the  second  cen- 
tury (see  article),  varied  in  its  Christolog;  according  le 
Its  Dumerona  schools  of  Cerinthus,  Banilides,  Valentine, 
Marcion,  etc,  and  generally  dealt  more  in  vague  no- 
tions and  specniative  fancies  tlian  in  solid,  cleaHy-de- 
flned  doctrinee  and  arguments.  But  Ita  Christologj 
was  a  radical  denial  of  tlie  myatery  of  the  incamatlrat, 
and  therefore  anci-Christlan,  accoriing  to  the  crilerioa 
of  John  (1  John  iv,  S),  although  from  a  view  the  very 
oppoulc  of  Ebioniim.  While  tbe  iauer  denied  tbe  di- 
vinity of  Chriat,  GnoeUciam  waa  docrtuHe  (bene*  Do- 
ctlum),  1.  a.  it  denied  the  realness  of  Christ's  human 
natore,  and  resolved  it  Into  an  empty  show  and  decep- 
tive appearance  (^unfoi^,  fai^aefta},  or  a  Izmn^ent 
vision,  after  the  manner  of  the  Indian  Hj-thokcr. 
The  real  Christ,  or  Saviour,  is  one  of  the  nans  or  di- 
vine powers,  which  either  assumed  this  spectrml  form 
of  humanity,  or  united  himself  temporarily,  at  the  bap- 
tlam  in  Jordan,  with  tha  man  Jeans  of  Naiareth,  to 
forsake  bun  sgsin  at  tbs  passion.  But  he  entered  into 
no  real  contact  with  a  human  body  which,  as  a  part 
of  matter  (t'>Xi)),  waa  regarded  as  essentially  evil  and 
antagonialic  to  God  ;  be  waa  not  actually  bcon.  be  did 
not  suffer  and  die,  nw  rise  agsin.  He  appeared  lika  a 
meteor  from  the  sky,  te  disappear  again.  Redoeed  to 
a  modem  phtlosophlcal  conceptioo,  the  Gnostic  Christ 
is,  in  the  end,  nothing  more  then  the  ideal  tfiiH  at 
man  himself,  the  Christ  of  Strauss  and  modem  pas-  j 
theism.  Tslentiunii,  the  moat  ingeoioos  among  tba 
Gnostics,  distinguialied  tbe  jvai  Xptvnic,  or  liaaaiinlj 
Chriat:  the  aur^p,  or  Jaana ;  and  Um  nim  Xfrniiu 


CHBISTOLOGY  21 

ImMT,  DBlMd  Uffliclf  at  tbt  bsptiim  In  Jordu,  to 
tnoouBcv  bit  diTlna  gnoaU  on  einh,  and  Uid  ipiriiiul 
pwwn*  to  perbctioD. 

S.  The  llAittciLMi.^  ijiten,  which  arc  know  beat 
from  the  wTilinBi  of  St.  ADgiutine  (who  hlmHlf  be- 
lODged  to  the  sect  for  nlae  Teui,  uid  wu  thereby  bat- 
Itr  abla  to  nfnta  It),  wu  euenUnlly  Gnoitic  and  Do- 
cetiMlc,  and  b;  Iti  pemited  view  at  bod/  and  matter 
*■  OMentinllr  erll,  wboUf  eicludiid  the  idea  of  an  in- 
csrution  of  God.  The  Uanicbuni  held  that  the 
apoMlea  cornpled  and  bUified  the  real  teachia{[i  of 
ChrM,  bat  that  Hani,  the  pnimiHid  Paraclete,  haa  re- 
■torad  them.  Tracet  of  the  Hanichaan  berea;  ran 
Ibroogh  ■  nomber  of  aeeta  irf  the  Uiddle  Agea. 

1.  Ante-Klcene  UnrTAMAHisH,  or  Houabcbuh- 
IIM, — Hie  AntitTinitarlana  of  the  third  cmturj-  moat 
b«  divided  failo  two  diatinct  claaaaa ;  (a)  The  rational- 
Mk  or  dgnamic  Honarcblani  denied  the  divinity  of 
Chiiat,  or  explained  it  aa  a  mere  power  (tuva/iii),  al- 
Ibongfa  they  Kanerallf  admitted  hia  anpematoral  gen- 
entwn  br  the  R<Aj  Spirit.  To  thiwe  belong  the  Au>- 
oun,  TBioDOToa  and  the  Thkodotukb,  Artkmoh 
■adthiiABTKiioanB^and  PADLorSAMoaATA.  (See 
lb*  aareral  articlea.)  (fi)  The  Patripaaiau  (ao  called 
tM  b7  Tertnlllao)  held,  in  conneetioD  with  their  Idea 
of  the  divine  onltj  or  manarchy,  the  doctrine  of  the 
dirinity  of  Chriat,  bnt  they  ucriflced  bis  indepeodent 
parionalitj  to  the  dirinity,  and  merged  it  into  the  ea- 
aence  of  the  Father,  ao  that  the  Father  waa  aaaertad  to 
bBT«  aDflered  and  died  on  the  croea,  which  la  abaurd. 
Thia  ichool  waa  rrpreaenled  bj  pHA^tSjta,  Notros, 
CaLuarrtm  (Pope  Caliixtna  I),  Bbrii.i.ds  of  Boetra, 
and.  in  oonnectloa  with  a  nry  original  and  Ingenloaa 
dDctrineof  theTrinitr,  bj  Sabbludb,  all  of  thetbird 
CTiitaiy.  (See  th«  aepaiale  aiticlei  on  theae  beratlca, 
and  the  iclaTant  aectioaa  of  the  Doctrine  hlalorita  of 
Honachcs,  Hagenbach,  Neander,  Banr,  Beck,  etc.) 

i,  Aklanisn,  ao  c^ed  after  Arlaa,  preabyler  of 
Alexandria  (t  336),  ihook  the  Chorch  to  its  tsij  bate 
daring  the  greatar  part  of  the  foartb  century,  and  call- 
ed faith  the  flnt  two  ncumcBlcal  coanciln,  via.  NieaM, 
)t&,  and  Conatantinople,  3S1.  Itt  doctrine  waa,  that 
Chriat  b  a  middle  bainK  between  God  and  man,  a  sort 
of  demi-god,  wbo  pre-exiated  before  this  world,  and 
who  created  thla  world,  yet  waa  himaelrcreattNl  oat  of 
■othing,  the  Drat  creatore  of  God,  and  amseqoently 
of  a  different  eiwnca  (Jrtpo-oucnoc),  and  not  eternal 
(cns/ia  JE  oim  Hvrmv,  fir  rori  (n  oit  ^}.  Against 
thla  view  the  Nicane  Creed  aaserte  that  Christ  la  "  Qod 
efOwi.  Light  of  Light,  very  God  of  veyy  God,  bagot- 
len,  Dot  made,  being  of  one  sobstanoe  (jfio-oi/mot) 
with  the  Fatber."  (On  the  history  of  ancient  and 
nodem  Arianlam  and  ita  literature,  comp.  the  articUa 
AauinsM  in  vol.  I,  p.  888-898;  Athaxasids,  i,  SOS- 
US;  also  SchaFa  BiMorg  of  At  CliriMtiim  Clmn*,  iii, 
a«-670.) 

<.  SDit^auiRaM  ia  an  bconaistant  middle  doc- 
trine between  tba  Arlan  heresy  and  the  Athanaslan  or 
Nicene  orlhodosy.  It  asaarta'  the  similarity  of  Chriat 
to  tbe  Father  (uuoi-auaia — a  very  elastic  term),  in  op- 
position to  tbe  Nicene  C(heqaality  (u/io-aiHriu)  and  the 
Arian  diffioence  of  anbstance  (mpo-auvia).  It  was 
a  itning  political  church  party,  under  the  emperor  Con- 
ttiatiua  (t881),  and  waa  led  by  Enseblua,  bishop  of 
,  Micomedia,  bnt  it  dliappearsd  before  the  second  ceca- 
menlcal  coandl  Id  SSI,  which  marked  the  final  down- 
fiU  of  Aiianlsm  within  tbe  llmlta  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, wbile  it  oontinned  to  linger,  withoat  vitality,  I 
among  tbe  barbarians  till  tbe  aeventh  century. 

7.  ArOLLiN  ASIA  DISH  ia  a  partial  denial  of  the  ha- 
manlty,  aa  Arianlsm  of  Che  divinity  of  Christ.  Apolll- 
naris  tbe  younger,  bishop  of  Laodicea  (died  abontSiW). 
elherwise  orthodox,  and  highly  esteemed  for  bis  leam- 
iog  aad  piety,  ascribed  to  Christ  ahnman  body  (oiufia) 
and  a  haman  (aninul)  aoul  (Jt/x4  ii^OT^),  but  not  a 
hanan  spirit  or  reason  (^(r|[4  Xoyixii,  animaratlooalla, 
veer,  iTMvfia);  potting  the  divio*  Logos  In  the  place 


3  CHRISTOLOGY 

of  tbe  human  reason.  He  wished  to  secure  a  trnabb 
carnation  and  vital  unity  of  the  eternal  Word  with  the 
human  natore,  but  at  the  expense  of  tbe  most  impor- 
tant constituent  in  man,  snd  tboa  be  reached,  inatead 
of  the  idea  of  the  God-man,  ^iax3pwTsc,  only  the  Idea 
of  a3(r>c  eapai^ipof  (tlie  veiy  opposite  of  Uie  Neato- 
rian  at&pvixotiio^pof^  Thla  heresy  waa  condemn- 
ed by  a  council  at  Alexandria  Id  SS2.  (For  particolnra, 
see  art.  ApoLLiNABia,  vol.  i,  p.  '^6,297;  and  Schaff, 
Omnk  HiOory,  vol.  iil,  p.  708-714.) 

8.  NE^TORiANiaH,  from  Neatoriua,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  died  in  exile  about  A.D.  UD,  bad  ita 
roola  in  the  Anliochian  school  of  theologj',  of  which 
MeBloriua  waa  a  pupil,  and  agitated  the  Chnreb  with 
gnut  violenoi  fiom  128-451.  Neatoriua  believed  that 
Christ  waa  fully  God  and  (nlly  man,  but  ha  put  the 
two  naturea  only  into  an  external  mechanical  relatjon 
to  each  other  (avfafna.  affinity,  intercourse,  aUaeh. 
'■    ■        from  (;  ...     - 


idtbec 


'0  natur 


pense  of  tbe  unity  of  tba  peraoo.  Hence  be  took  great 
olTsnce  at  the  term  MoAer  of  God  (3iordic<i;,  Dripara, 
JfoteriM),  which  then  began  to  be  applied  to  tbe  Vir- 
gin Marj',  and  has  since  pasaed  into  tbe  devotional  and 
theological  vocabulary  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Chnreb. 
He  denonnced  [he  term  as  heathenish,  abaurd,  and 
blasphemoua,  since  the  eternal  Godhead  could  not  be 
born  in  any  sense  whatever.  This  gave  rise  to  the 
Nestorlan  contrarerey,  In  whicb  the  violent  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  look  tbe  most  prominent  part,  at  tbe  cbank 
pion  of  the  honor  of  tbe  Holy  Virgin  and  the  doctrine 
of  a  real  Incarnation,  although  with  a  decided  leaning 
to  the  o^waita  extreme  of  Uooopbyaltiam.  See  art. 
Cikii.  or  Albxamdria.  Neatoriua  was  condemned 
by  the  third  ocumenical  council,  held  at  Epheaua  in 


name  and  doctrine  are  perpetuated  to  this  day  in  the 

sect  of  (he  Nestorians.     (See  the  anidea  NEETORioa 
and  NKBTORiAHa,  and  tbe  lilerature  below.) 

9.  EDTrcaiAMiBH,  ao  called  rrom  Eulycbea  (q.  v.), 
an  aged  preabyter  and  archimandrite  ofCoastanUnople 
(died  soon  after  461),  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  t!w 
torianism,  and  presents  the  consiatent  developtnent  of 
the  Alexandrian  school  of  theoloKy  aa  oppoeed  to  the 
Antiochian.  Eatychss  likewise  held  Christ  lo  be  tbe 
God-nun  as  well  as  liestoriua,  but  be  presaed  lb* 
uni^  of  peraon  to  the  excluaion  of  the  distinction  of 
tbe  two  natures.  He  denied  that  two  naturea  could 
be  spoken  of  q/ter  tbe  Incamation.  Tba  human  na- 
ture waa  ahsorlicd  in  tbe  divine  bv  that  act,  or  deifled 
by  the  peraonal  l.ogot,  to  that  even  his  body  was  un- 
like ours,  of  a  heavpnly  character  and  substance  (a 
ou/ia  itv3pwirou,  but  not  a  oiDfu  avSpumvov).  Henoe 
it  was  proper  to  tay,  God  la  bom,  God  tuffered,  God 
waa  crocitled  and  died.  The  strongest  opponent  of 
this  view  was  Theodorel,  the  well-known  Cborch  his- 
torian, a  friend  of  Nrttoriua.  At  first  Eutychianlam 
triumphed  at  the  Robber  Synod,  ao  called,  which  waa 
held  at  Ephesus  A.D.  449,  under  the  lesd  of  the  vio- 
lent patriarch  Diotcurus  of  Alexandria,  who  Inherited 
all  the  bad  and  none  of  tbe  good  qualitiee  of  bb  pred- 
ecessor Cyril.  But  tbe  fourth  iBcnmenlcal  council, 
held  at  Chalcedon  (near  Constantinople)  A.D.  451,  re- 
versed this  deciaion.  condemned  the  Eutycbian  doo- 
trine  aa  heresy,  and  set  Ibrth  In  clear  and  precise  lemu 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  tbe  person  of  Christ,  main- 
taining with  equal  deciaion  the  distinction  of  naturea 
Against  Eutyches,  and  the  unity  of  person  against  Ne»- 
lorinx.  (Sec  sub.  1. 1.  above.)  In  this  trlnmpb  of  the 
orthodox  faith,  Leo  I,  bishop  of  Home,  had  an  impor- 
tant share,  snd  his  dogmatic  letter  to  Flavian  of  Con- 
stantinople waa  made  the  basia  of  tbe  aynodical  deci- 

10.  MoNoPHTarnBit  la  only  a  miMMcation  and  coo- 
tinnation  of  Eutychlanism.  As  the  term  Indicates,  tbe 
Honopbysitea,  although  they  rejected  tbe  Eutycbian 
notion  of  an  abaorption  of  the  haman  natore  Into  tbe 


CHRISTOLOGY  21 

divine,  iMvertb«l«u  bild  Brmly  to  tbe  doctrine  of  but 
one  nUnre  Id  Cbiiat.  Thej  conceded,  indeed,  b  cdid- 
potite  rwtuta  Oiio  fiois  vaviiros  or  fii'a  fioit  iiTrri), 
bat  not  two  luturea.  Thej  aunmed  >  divtnity  oT 
qualities  wllboat  correapondlng  aubitucea,  and  ouule 
the  bumenitj  of  Christ  m  mere  accident  of  the  immu- 
table divine  aabMance.  Their  litni^ad  shibboleth 
was,  God  lua  beat  emeifcd,  which  the;  introduced  into 
tbe  trisaglon  (uyiof  li  Stiij,  iyiof  iaxnoos,  Syiog  a»a- 
VaTOQ,  u  amupuiStic  S'  V'^C,  Atqaop  v/'^C — an  exten- 
tion  of  the  wrspbic  ascription,  lea.  vl,  3).  Hence 
they  were  also  called  Thbofabcuites  {Biatraax""!)- 
The  Moncphysite  controversies  commenced  soun  after 
tbe  Council  of  Cbalcedon,  which  fklled  to  paci^  the 
ChuRh,  and  convalsed  the  East,  tnni  patriarchs  and 
emperors  down  to  monks  and  peasants,  for  more  tluu 
a  bandred  years.  The  detailed  history  will  be  pre- 
tented  in  a  special  article.  The  lifth  CBcamenical  coun- 
cil, held  at  Constantinople  A.D.  &&S,  which  was  to  end 
these  violent  strifes,  resulted  in  the  condemnation  of 
the  Antiocbtan  (Nestorisn  and  semi-Neetorian)  theol- 
ogy, and  a  partial  victory  of  the  Alexandrian  Monoph- 
yiitism,  a«  far  as  it  could  be  reconciled  with  the  sym- 
bol of  Cbalcedon.  Nolwithstandinf;  this  concession, 
the  Monophysltes,  like  their  antipodes,  the  Nestorians, 
continued  as  separate  sects  in  hostile  oppoaitlon  to  the 
Orthodon  Greeli  Church.  They  are  divided  into  sep- 
arate branches,  the  Jambila  in  Syria,  the  Coplt  In 
Efiypt,  the  Aij/uiniaHi,  the  ^rmauaiM,  and  tbe  Ma- 
nmitei.     (See  the  respective  articlaa.) 

11.  The  MoMoTH  ELITE  contTOTenv  la  a  contlDua- 
tion  oriho  Nestorian  and  Eutychian  controrersles,  and 
relates  to  the  question  whether  Christ  had  but  one  will 
{Sikriiia)  or  two,  a  divine  and  a  human.  Nestorian- 
Ism,  of  course,  required  two  wills  ss  a  complement  of 
two  natures,  while  the  Honophysltes  taught  bnt  one 
will.  The  empen>r  Heraclius  proposed  a  compromise 
fiutnnia — one  divine  human  enerjcy  (yia  Sioi^pir^  i"- 
ifiytia),  but  it  was  opposed  in  the  West.  The  sixth 
(Bcnmenical  council  in  Constantinople,  A.D.  680,  set- 
tled the  dispale  by  teacbinR  tbe  doctrine  of  two  wills 
barmonioDsly  oo-operatiug,  the  human  will  following 
Uie  dirine  (Juo  fiiaiti  aiX^/jnro,  oix  i""»ivT'a,  <iAA' 
Jiro/uvov  ri  dySpi!nni-av  oiTBi/  SJXij/ui  icni  vnoratr- 
toinvov).  Thus  Monotheletism  waa  condemned,  lint 
was  adhered  to  by  the  Haronites  on  Mount  Lebanon 
till  tbe  time  of  the  Crusades.  The  Monopfaysites  (q. 
T.)  are  all  Monothelitaa  (q.  t.). 

12.  The  Adoftiah  controversy  arose  in  Spain  to- 
ward tbe  close  of  tbe  eighth  century,  and  tamed  upon 
tbe  question  whether  Christ,  accoriing  to  bis  human 
nature,  waa  the  Son  of  God  by  nature  (naturaliltr),  or 
only  by  adoption  (nuna^xitiBe).  The  latter  doctrine 
Iras  condemned  as  heretical  in  a  synod  st  Frankfort 
on  the  Mune,  7M.  (See  arUcla  Ai>omABi9Ta,  vol.  i, 
76,  and  Eupahddh  of  Toledo  and  Felix  of  UrRel.) 

13.  SocntiAHiBM,  aaystcm  of  ultra  and  psendo  Prol- 
catanUsm,  Rrnnded  by  Lillus  Socinna  (died  166it)  and 
bis  nephew  Faustus  Socinus  (died  1604),  returned  al- 
(nott  to  the  poor  and  meagre  Christolo)^  of  the  Ebi- 
onttrs  and  Naiarenea,  and  added  to  It  tbe  hentbenl>>h 
notion  of  an  apotheoeie  of  Christ  after  his  death.  It 
teaches  that  Jeans  of  Ifszareth,  thoo^  snpematarally 
cenceived,  was  a  mere  man,  but  favored  hj  God  with 
eztraordinaiy  revelations,  elevated  to  heaven,  deified 
in  reward  of  his  holy  life,  and  intrusted  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church  which  be  founded.  It  subatt- 
tntea  for  an  Incarnate  divinity  a  cnated  snd  delegated  I 
divinity.  Invocation  of  Chriat  is  allowed,  but  not  en- 
jtdned;  it  is  an  adiapboron.     See  Socihians;  Soci- 

11.  Modem  UntTABiAinsK  in  England  and  America 
has  no  uniform  and  settled  belief  conceminic  the  per- 
son of  Christ,  and  brancbea  ont  into  two  vervdiflivent 
tendencies,  the  conservative,  represented  by  Channing, 
which  in  ila  approach  towards  ortbodoKy  rises  to  a  sort 
of  high  Arianlsin,  and  tbe  radical,  repieaentad  by  the 


CHRISTOLOGT 


1  ainks  alnKMt  to  tb* 


erratic  Theodore  Parker,  « 

mythical  Cbrbit  of  Stranss,  and  sacrifices  hla  aiiilaM 
perfection,  although  Parker  has  some  eloquent  pas- 
sages on  the  superiority  of  Christ  over  all  other  aages. 
The  more  serious  class  of  Unitatians  make  great  ac- 
count of  the  perthct  example  of  Christ,  and  Chaoning'a 
aermon  on  the  "Character  of  Christ"  (IFonb,ToL  IT, 
p.  1-29),  Is  one  of  tbe  noblest  tributes  to  the  moral  per- 
fection of  Jean*  of  Naaareth.     See  Uhitariakum. 

15.  RATIOHAuaii  has  assumed  different  phasaa,  BDd 
resorted  l«  various  theoriee  concerning  the  persoD  of 
Christ,  which  agree  only  in  the  denial  of  his  divinity, 
and  of  all  the  sopematunl  or  miracnkos  event*  In  Ut 
history.  The  WolfenbOttel  FragmaDtkt  (Relmsnu) 
represents  the  hypothesis  of  wilful  impostora ;  Panlna 
of  Heidelberg  the  hypothesis  of  innocent  dalndon, 
which  mistook  eitraordlnary  medical  cores  Kit  aoper- 
natural  miracles,  and  an  extraordinary  man  for  a  di- 
vine being ;  Sbauss  and  Renan,  the  theory  of  poetical 
fiction,  the  one  in  its  uiylhicsl,  the  other  in  its  legend- 
ary form.  (Comp.  on  these  different  Christological  bj- 
potheses,  Schaff,  Tie  Penm  nfCltritt;  lie  Miracle  of 
Hitbirif,  mA  a  Reply  to  Btratut  and  Renan,  ftad  a  Cot- 
lectiem  of  ToUmoma  of  Vidx^imrt,  1865.)  But  all 
theee  rationalistic  attempts,  instead  of  explaining  the 
myatery  of  ChriM's  life,  only  substitute  an  unnatural 
prodigy  for  a  supernatural  miracle.  They  have  been 
tried  and  foond  wanting;  one  has  in  turn  superseded 
the  other,  even  during  tbe  lifetime  of  their  chanplon*. 
Paulus  rpjects  the  hypothesis  of  Reimams;  Straost 
most  acutely  refutes  I^nlus;  Renan,  in  part  at  least, 
dissents  fram  Strauss  ;  the  unprincipled  Schenke] 
makes  a  batf-way  approach  to  both  in  his  insigniflcaot 
ChiraeUrhUd  Jem,  and  ia  in  turn  treated  with  ct,ii. 
tamptuous  scorn  and  the  keenest  esicasm  by  Stratm. 
(See  Die  Balben  wd  dit  6'inufli,  186£.)  The  old  and 
ever  young  faith  In  the  divine-homan  Bedeemer  has 
outlived  all  these  attackp,  and  la  now  atroDgei  than 
ever,  the  only  refnge  and  comfort  of  a  rinfnl  worid. 
It  is  in  conflict  with  these  latest  forms  of  nnbelief  that 
the  evangelical  theology  of  Germany  baa  achieved  ita 
greatest  triumphs  and  most  lasting  merits.  Fiance, 
England,  snd  America  have  engaged  in  the  battlf,  and 
contributed  their  share  towards  the  detbatof  the  mod- 
em antt-Cbrist,  and  the  defence  of  the  true  Chrirt  of 
the  Gospels  snd  of  the  Church,  on  whom  the  salvation 
of  the  world  dependa. 

Literatart Besides  the  works  on  *|>ecial  topics  a1. 

readv  quoted,  we  mention  on  the  fleneial  Bubjeirt  Dio- 
nysins  PeUvlns  (Jesuit,  died  1659),  De  litalogieit  dog- 
matSxa  (Paris,  1644-50,  snd  other  editions),  torn,  iv 
snd  V,  ie  matenallime  VeH  (the  most  profoundly 
learned  Roman  Catholic  work  on  doctrinal  blstoiy) ; 
George  Bull,  ilr/amajtifaiA'HWWr  (Oxford,  1686,  and 

tiul  identity  of  the  Trinitarian  snd  Chriitological  faith 
of  the  first  four  centnrira,  though  defective  In  not  ad- 
mitting a  gradual  development  of  dwiirto?  and  lotfical 

tbl  identity  of  reIigious/<nM);  Dan.Watetland.I'w- 
dioi^OB  of  Chritft  Dimilg  (Oxf.  I7IB;  a  very  able 
defense  ot  the  orthodox  &i1h  against  the  high  Arian* 
ism  of  Dr.  Sam.  Clarke  and  Dr.  Whitby);  Chr.W.F. 
Welch,  VaUdamiige  Kirehtn-  mti  KctarUOorie  (Lpa. 
176S  sq,  vols,  ii-ii ;  exceedingly  learned  and  minute, 
but  dry  and  tedious);  Edw.  Burton,  Tatimrmia  of  ike 
Anh-Nie  ns  Fatlun  lo  Us  Divitats  of  Chritt  (3d  ed. 
Oxford,  1829};  F.  Cbr.  Bsur.  i>ie  diriiUidit  Ukn  ns 
(far  Drrieinigkeit  und  Mnaduiierdiaig  in  iirir  jesaMcAt- 
Hrlm  EMmchrhtng  (Tubingen,  1»4I-13,  B  vols.  -.  very 
learned,  able,  and  crillcsl,  but  ikeptioal);  J.  A.  Dar- 
ner, Entvickelutig^aMdUt  dtr  Ldm  eoa  der  Ptno» 
Chrim  (1HS6,  Sd  ed. ;  Stuttgart,  1846-58,  in  1  vols. ; 
the  most  learned  and  complete  blstoiyof  Cbristtdogy; 
Eng.  tranaL  by  Alexander  and  Simim  in  Clark's  For- 
eign Tbeol.  Library,  Bdinb.  1861,  6  vols.);  B.  WUba^ 
force,  T^  ijoctniie  of  Out  Imeanaliat  if  our  LariJttat 


CHRISTOPHER 

(Mt<lth  ed.  London, ISiS);  M.?.3idl€ 

«r.  Eh  taeanation  '•/tit  Bon  of  God  Ae  f' 
i/amrlaMa  JViiM(Lond.lB67);  Schnff.  HiMtory  0/ tit 
OHiliaii  Oardi  (N.  York,  1867,  vol.  iii,  p.  ;i>5-783). 
Awng  tbe  Zini  q/*  CArwf  whicb  bare  to  do  mainly 
■ith  bii  hiitorj  and  chancier  u  a  maa  on  earth  we 
natino  Iboae  ot  J.  J.  Hna  (1781),  K.  Uau  <18Sa ;  5th 
ti.  1866),  Naander  (13S7 ;  Sth  ed.  1863 ;  Eng.  tranal. 
LjU'Cliatockand  IllDmaiithal,N.¥.I34e),  8epp(184S: 
us  ed.  1862,  in  6  roll.),  lange  (IMT.  3  Tola.  Eogl. 
mill.:  Edinb.  1BG6,  in  6  vols.),  Kwald  (1864)  and 
J.  J.  Tin  Oatenee  (ISW,  8  vein.),  Ri(cg*nb.ch  (1868), 
C.J.  Elliratl  (1861),  8.  J.  Andrews  {N.Y.  1862),  Pre»- 
mui  (Pari^  ISSS ;  Eng.  tranal.  Lond.  18E6,  Sto).  To 
tbcK  moat  b«  added  a  number  of  amaller  woils  on  the 
DHnl  charicUr  of  Chilit  and  hia  ainleaa  perfectioQ  ta 
u  argnmcDt  for  hia  diviDity,  viz.  UUmann,  Dit  SHitd- 
tmgtat  Jem  (Hunbnrg,  7th  ed.  1864} ;  J.  Young,  T^ 
Otriil  B/Biitory  (London  and  M.  Y.  185j):  Harsce 
Bwlinell,  Tht.Charader  "/ Jemi,  f^ibutdKig  hit  Clau- 
ifiatUM  wilk  Mat  (N.  York,  1861,  ch.  x  of  bia  work  on 
X'ltuni  and  the  Supernatural,  and  also  separatelf 
fnnifd):  ^W.Scb^B^TkeFa-Kmsf  Ckriil,ae  ilira- 
ded/ffirfnry,  etc.  (Bueton,  1865;  the  aune  in  German, 
Hatch,  and  French  tnnil.);  Ecct  Homo  (Lond.  and 
K.T.t866,  a  theological  aenaation-book  by  an  anon- 
ymoni  aothor).  and  Iti  counterpiirts,  Ecct  Dnu  (Edinli. 
]8e7 ;  likawiae  anonymoni)  and  Don  Homo :  God-man 
(br  ProtTheopb.  Paraooa,  a  Swedeaborgian,  Chicago, 
18£T). 

CIlllBtopIiaT,  St.  (Cbriatophoni,  Ckritt-brarrr),  a 
Mint  ud  miftjT  of  th«  Hooun  and  Greek  calendara. 
Tb*  Itgeoda  make  him  twelve  feat  high,  and  enoimoBB 
MUaeaofhimanidlltobe  tbandincatbednls.  The 
place  ud  time  of  bia  birth,  and,  in  fad,  bia  very  ex- 
iitniee,  an  donbtfuL  He  la  aaid  to  have  luffered  mar- 
Ijrdani  under  Declni.  Hli  day  in  the  Greek  calendar 
ii  Uaj  g ;  in  the  Ronuui,  July  ib.  Of  the  cnrioua  1e- 
RtBd  of  St.  Chriatopher,  and  the  rapreaentationi  of  it 
in  media  val  art,  aefl  Ura- JaxDWon,  SarredandLepend^ 
oj  Jfll,  11,  U9-ie0.  Sea  alio  Aela  Sandonnn,  July 
15 :  Butler,  Lita  ofSaiutt,  July  ib ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Ge- 
amfe,..v. 

Chtlatopher,  Pops.    Sea  CBRinoFnoBiia. 

Chtlatopb&niS  (Xpin-D^poc,  ChrUl-tairer),  an 
tfiibH  applied  originally  to  Chrialians,  eapecudly  to 
Btnyi*,  a>  "bearing  all  for  Cbrtat,"  and  therefore 
"biariiig  Chriit."  It  aftarwarda  became  a  proper 
une  (Chriatopher).  See  Euaebltu,  Of.  Bill.  Iii,  10; 
Bugham,  Orig.  Ecda.  bk.  1,  ch.  I,  j  4. 

CliilBtopli6nu,  Fan  (Nov.,  903,  to  June,  Mi\ 
Itpiaed  hia  predeceaaor  Leo  V,  and  impriaoned  him; 
IM  wna,  in  hi*  tarn,  aooD  driven  tmm  power  br  a  rs- 
mll  of  tha  Rimiana,  led  by  tba  moiiiter  Sergiui  (q.  v.), 
md  fivcad  to  retire  into  a  convent,  where,  in  June,  904, 
h  net  with  a  wietcbed  death.  Some  Roman  Catho- 
lic writara  count  him  not  among  the  regular  popea, 
lot  among  the  anti-popea. 

Chitrto-aacmm,  a  aocie^  founded  at  Delft,  Hol- 
kad  (17(7-1801),  fcr  tbe  parpoae  "of  promoting  the 
anion  <rf  all  Chriatlaii  deiMmlnadana  which  admit  tbe 
IMaity  of  Jmui  Chriat  and  redemption  by  tbe  merita 
(f  hia  paaaion."  It  wai  eatahliaheil  by  two  memhera 
fike  KalbrmedCbnreb,ensDf  whom  (Onderwa  Vyi- 
riad-Camaa')  wai  buTgoniaAer  ef  Delft.  It  sepa- 
HW  "  worebip"  fttim  "  teaching,"  and  nwd  a  liturgy 
hmedaftertbat  of  the  Church  of  England.  Itnum- 
botd  at  one  time  eooie  SOOO  memben,  mostly  Meo- 
Mtile*,  b«t  baa  now  nearly,  If  not  quite  died  Dttt.  See 
>B  iprriogy  and  ikelcb  of  the  aociety  in  the  work  Hei 
re»MKik9iC3ntft>5(Kn<«ni»niZ>a//1(Leyden.l801). 
-Hue,  C5L  HitUxy,  %  4«6 ;  Wet.er  u.WeltP,  Kirclien. 
kiOat,  U,  314 1  Betiog,  Beai-EaiyUap.  il,  6S8. 

ChrlsU,  Fun  (i^axpMFTOi,  Hark  xiii,  K).  No 
^■v  tbu  twan^'foat  dlBtoant  panona  have  appeared 


5  CHRONICLES 

making  preteneions  to  be  the  Cbriat.  Tn  the  tnalnto- 
tiance  of  their  cUimetotbe  Heedahabip  there  ha«  been 
a  great  expenditure  of  blood  and  trcaaure.  They  have 
appeared  at  different  timaa,  fVom  an  early  date  in  the 
second  centary  till  16^.  The  drat  was  called  Caiiba, 
or  Barcocheba  (q.  v.) ;  and  tbe  Jewa  admit  that,  in  tbe 
defence  of  thia  falsa  Meaaiab,  they  lost  between  five 
and  aix  hnndred  thousand  aonla.  The  lait  that  gained 
any  conaiderable  number  of  converta  was  Hordccai,  a 
Jew,  of  Germany,  who  lived  in  IGSS.  Oar  Lord  warn- 
ed hia  followers  that  each  bin  Chriala  sbonld  make 
their  appearance  (Matt,  xi,  S4).     See  ANncHRiBr. 

dtrodegang,  bishop  of  Metz  In  tbe  eighth  cen- 
tury, wa«  bom  of  noble  Prankish  parents,  brought  up 
at  the  conrt  of  Charles  Martel,  and  made  bis  record- 
er (rtfemdimia).  In  742  he  was  isised  by  Pepin  to 
the  bishopric  of  Metz,  and  was  very  active  in  building 
cbarcbes,  and  In  increailnK  the  influence  of  Rome  dur- 
ing the  reat  of  his  life.  He  Is  chiefly  known  as  tba 
founder  of  the  Order  of  Cathedral  and' Collegiate  Can- 
ons, and  as  the  author  of  a  Rule  of  Monaatic  Life  {Rtg- 
vla  Sinetra)  for  tbe  regulation  of  the  monka  c^  the 
monastery  thst  he  founded,  whitber  he  transported  the 
retiques  of  Gorgonoa,  Nabor,  and  Naiarius,  given  bim 
by  Paul  I.  See  Casoms.  He  died  A.D.  766.  His 
Role  (that  of  Benedict  of  Knrsia  modified)  consists  of 
thirty-foar  canons  and  a  preface,  in  which  he  says  that 
"tbe  necBHitj-  of  bis  new  rule  arises  from  tbe  clergy 
neglecting  tbe  rules  already  in  existence,  and  there- 
fore he  comes  forward  to  remind  them  bow  tbey  should 
live."  —  D'Acbery,  SpcHtg.  i,  56fi  ;  Perti,  Moaum. 
Gtrm.  iJ,  267;  Uansi,  Ome^  xiv,  313;  Hoshelm,  Ot. 
HiM.  c.  vlli,  pt.  11,  ch.  li,  n.  33;  Neander,  Ck.  Hitlmy 
(Toney's),  vol.  iii,  106  aq. 

CbioniatiliB,  blsbop  of  Aquileia  (after  388),  a  dis- 
tlnguisbed  theological  writer  of  tbe  Latin  Church. 
The  place  and  date  of  bis  birth  are  not  known.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Jerome,  Ambroae,  Rutinn*,  and  other 
distinguished  men  of  that  period.  It  was  Chnimatbia 
who  induced  Jerome  to  transIaCa  tbe  Old  Testament 
into  Latin,  and  Jerome  dedicated  to  bin)  the  com- 
mentary on  Habakkuk.  When  the  contioveny  on 
tbe  writings  of  Origen  broke  ont  between  Jerome  and 
Rufiuus,  ChromatluB  In  vaJn  endeavored  to  reconcile 
the  former  friends.  He  disapproved  of  tbe  writinga 
of  Origen,  but  opposed  the  exclurion  tFom  the  chnrdi 
of  Rulinuf,  whom  ha  had  baptiiad,  and  who  bad  dedi- 
cated to  blm  several  works.  When  bishop  AnaMa- 
sius  of  Rotne  condemned  Rnflnus,  and  commanlcated 
the  sentence  to  ChromatiuB,  tba  latter  deemed  it  hta 
right  to  dissent  from  the  Rooian  bishop,  and  received 
Rufinus  into  the  communion  of  his  cbnrch.  Cbrooka- 
tius  was  a  warm  defender  of  Chrysostom,  and  the  lat- 
ter wrote  bim  a  letter  of  thanks.  Uoet  of  the  works 
of  Cbromatius  are  lost,  among  others  bis  LtOrr  ta  Jt- 
rtyme  (on  Ruflnna),  and  his  IMter  la  At  Smpavr  Bono- 
rim  (in  defence  of  Chrysostom);  but  there  are  still 
extant  Ditcourta  on  lit  Eigit  Btatilitda,  treatises  On 
tit  f%fli  amd  Sirdi  CiapUn  of  SI.  ilatHno  and  On 
£apfu«.  and  a  small  number  of  Letters.  These  works 
have  been  edited  at  Basle  (1528  and  1651),  Lonvain 
(I64R),  in  Galland's  Bibtiolitai  Patnim,  vol,  vii,  and 
by  Pietro  Braida,  at  Udlne  {Saneti  Clmmatii  tpitmpi 
Aquikjentii  Scripla,  we  Opataiia,  M.iUHm,  1816, 4to). 
— Wetier  und  Welta,  Kirtien-LBiibm,  ii,  6261  «■*•. 
Script.  Ecda.  Biit.  Liter,  i,  378  sq. 

ChronlclBB  (Q^^;n  ^nS'a,  dOrt/  hag-famin', 
teordt  [or  ord]  of  the  dagt,  1  Kings  xiv,10.  Sept  pq- 
fiara  riuv  v/upLuv,Vulg.  vtrba  dierum;  1  Chron.  xxvii, 
24,  fit^Mov  \irfiiiv,fiati!  Esth.  TJ,  1,  prrjitoaiiva,  (M- 
Bola !  1  Eadr.  11,  IS,  uroiivriiiaTiapoi ;  1  Hacc.  Xvi, 
24,  ^i/JAiow  ^jMpruv),  Journals  or  diaries,  1.  e.  the  record 
of  tbe  daily  occurrences ;  tba  name  originally  given 
to  the  record  made  by  the  appointed  historiograpbera 
In  tbe  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel,  nanally  called 
more  simply  "  book  of  the  kings  of  IsMal  and  Judah" 


CHRONICLES 


CHRONICLES,  (FiBST  ind  Second)  Books  op, 
tbedulgiutkiDiB  tbeEngllahBibleafthe  Uitofthe 
UMorifui  bouki  of  the  Old  Teat.  pneediuK  Ezra;  bat 
In  the  Hell.  Sciipturu  they  coaclude  tin  entire  tdI- 
nma.    See  Bible.  | 

I,  JVcnu.— The  Hebnwi  c«ll  them  B'^iajn  -"^a? 
(*ee  abaTe),  itgulen  iffeU^,  uid  redttm  tham  but  one  I 
book.  Thii  Sept.  truBiUton,  wba  regirded  them  ae  | 
two  books,  ueed  the  appellatlau  HapoXi  iirofiiva,  tUi^ 
OntUsJ^  ai  if  the]'  were  nppl&maaaTj  to  the  other  hia- 
toiical  recoids  belongInK  to  the  Old-Tent,  canon.  The 
Vnlg.  teUiDi  both  the  Heb.  and  Greek  name  in  Latin  | 
ctuuacten,  DiJbrt  jamMivt,  or  hajamim.  and  ParalijM-  \ 
OKWOH.  Joioina  talla  u«  {ad  Dutfuuon.  ei  SngaliiHi.) ' 
tliBt  Id  his  time  thayfbrniedonlf  one  book  in  the  Ueb. 
USS.,  bnt  had  been  divided  by  tha  Chrutian  churches 
Dsing  the  Sept.  for  convenience,  on  account  of  their  i 
length.  In  bit  Ep.  lo  PauBiBa  he  tiirtber  expljJni  [ 
tha  name  Fandqxmiaioii,  and  eulogizes  the  book.  The ; 
name  Oiroaiea,  or  Glm«tror«in  Sier,  which  ia  given  in  ' 
Mune  copiea  of  tba  Vnlg.,  and  fhim  which  we  derive  j 
nor  Englbh  nanu  of  "Chronicle*,"  Kama  to  lie  takeB  | 
fVnm  Jerome'*  saying  in  hi*  prolegiu  GaltrAii,  "  DSirt 
hijarttn,  i.  e.  vordi  of  dagt,  which  we  may  mora  bIe-  ! 
nlflcantly  call  the  Cintiieoii  of  tbe  whole  divine  biitd- 
ry."  It  was  possibly  snggeflted  to  him  by  hi*  having 
translated  tbe  Chramca  of  Buseblus  into  Latin.  Later 
Latin  writer*  have  given  them  the  name  of  Ep^anrrU 
At.  Tbe  division  into  two  books,  otter  the  ezample 
of  (he  Sept.  and  later  vertiona,  vaa  adopted  by  Bom- 
berg  in  hit  Heb.  Bible,  ahice  wliicb  time  it  haa  been 
nnivBTsal. 

IL  Omfosff.— (a.)  In  I  Chron.  i-lx  it  given  a  aerie* 
of  ganealo^cal  tables,  intarapened  with  lustoricai,  ga- 
0){riphical,  and  ntber  notices.  These  genealogiea  are 
not  complete:  the  generations  of  Adam  (o  Abraham 
(ch.i,l-S8)j  of  Abraham  and  Esan  (i,  28-M)i  of  Ja-' 
cob  and  his  ton  Judab  (il);  of  king  David  (Ih');  of 
Judiih  lo  another  line  (lv,l-S3);  of  Siineoa  (Iv,  14- 
4S);  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  BlaBaaseh,  with  historical 
and  topographical  no|]cea(v};  two  liita  of  the  sona  of 
Levi  (vi,  l-SD) ;  geuealoglca]  ragiaters  of  Heman  and 
Aaaph  (v1,  31-48):  of  Uerarl  (vi,  14-AO);  of  Aaron, 
with  a  ilatofthe  residences  of  the  Leviticalfamilles(vi, 
SO-SI);  Hat  of  the  aona  of  lasachar  (vii,  1-£);  of  Ben- 
jamin and  Naphtali  (vii,  6-13) ;  of  Hanasseb  (vii,  14. 
J9)i  ofEphraim,  with  notices  of  their  poasesaionii  (vii, 
iO-iff) ;  at  Ather  (vM,  30-10) ;  a  tecond  list  of  the  de- 
Bcendimta  of  Benjamin,  with  tha  genealogy  of  Saul 
(vUi):  list  of  fimiliea  dwelling  at  Jeniaalem,  witli  in- 
timations  of  the  tribes  to  which  they  belonged  (ix). 

(t.)  1  Cbron.  x-xxix.  conlaina  the  hiatorj  of  David's 
nign  from  tba  death  of  Saul,  partly  agneing  with  the 
account  given  of  him  In  the  books  of  Samuel,  thoDgh 
with  aeveral  ImportaBt  additioBS  relatlBg  lo  tbe  Le- 
TJtea. 

2  Chron.  l-ix  contains  the  history  of  Solomon. 

3  Cbron.  x-sxviil  fumishea  a  succinct  accoont  of 
the  kingdom  otJudiA  whUe  Iirail  ttlU  rei 
aeparate  from  the  history  of  tbe  latter. 

2  Cbron.  xxix-xxxvl  deacribea  the  khigdom  of  Jn- 
dah  after  tbe  downfall  of  Israel,  especially  with  refar- 
ence  to  the  worship  of  God. 

From  this  analyaia  it  tppeara  that  tbe  Chronicle* 
contain  an  e^ritome  of  tacred  hisloiy,  particalarly  from 
the  origin  of  the  Jewish  nation  to  the  end  of  the  first 
captivity.  Besides  Important  notices  of  a  historical 
character  not  found  in  the  other  books,  there  ate  oth- 
ers of  a  doctrinal  and  devotional  natare.  There  is 
one  psalm  (1  Chron.  xvl,  7-86),  the  first  which  David 
■ssiiined  for  pnblic  worship  (verae  7). 

IIL  J>ic(»i>.— This  Is  tuch  aa  suha  tha  time  imme- 
iialtfy  asbaaqnent  to  the  Captivity.    It  ia  eubetantlal- 


6  CHRONICLES 

ly  the  aame  with  that  of  £ira,Nebemiab,  and  Eatber, 
which  were  all  written  shortly  after  the  Babylonish 
exile.  It  Is  mixed  with  Aramaitmi.  markinfc  at  onca 
the  decline  of  the  Jewt  In  power  and  tha  oorrapcion  of 
th«i  native  tongue.  The  pnie  Hebrew  had  tben  bseii 
laid  aside.  It  was  lost  during  their  aojoura  in  Baby. 
Ion.  Tbe  orikograplis  la  charaderiiad  by  ao  adaption 
of  tba  malrtt  lectionit  and  tteqaent  intercbangei*  ol 
tha  weak  letters,  with  other  pecoliaritica  (taa  helow, 

SO- 

IV-  Afft  and  .litfAor.— iBtemal  evidence  rafficieiit- 
ly  demonstrates  that  the  Chronicle*  were  written  after 
tbe  Captivity.  Tfana  the  history  ia  bninght  down  (o 
tlie  end  of  tlie  exile,  and  mention  is  made  of  tbe  reato- 
ration  by  Cymt  (2  Chron.  xisvi,  81,  82).  It  is  certain 
that  they  were  compiled  after  tbe  time  of  Jeremiah  (t 
Chron.  xxx*,  25),  who  lived  to  Me  tbe  destnctioo  nt 
Jernsalem  bj  the  Chaldjeana.  Tbe  same  opinion  ii 
EDpported  by  the  character  of  tbe  crAograj-iif  and  tbe 
nature  of  the  langitoge  employed,  as  we  have  already 
teen,  both  which  are  ArtmfBAn  in  comjilexion,  and  bar^ 
moniie  with  the  bookt  cenfeeeedly  wrilten  after  the  cx- 
lle.  The  Jews  generally  (unanimously,  according  to 
Huet,  Drmontt.  ErmfftUca,  W,  H)  ascribe  the  Chmni- 
clet  to  Eara  {Baba  Batkra,  f.  xv,  c.  1).  In  fact,  the  in- 
ternal evidence  at  to  the  time  when  the  bookt  of  Chron. 
idea  were  compiled  secmi  to  tally  remarkably  with  tbe 
tradition  concerning  their  suthorship.  Kotwithsland- 
ing  this  agreement,  however,  the  authentlcitv  of  CSno- 
ii-lti  has  been  vehemently  impugned  by  De  Wette  and 
other  German  critics,  wboee  argumenta  bare  heen  soc- 
cesahliy  refuted  by  Dshler,  Kelt,  Hovers,  and  other*. 
It  haa  Ikcen  clearly  shown  that  the  attack  was  ground- 
ed not  upon  any  real  marks  of  spnrionsnesa  in  tha 
books  themselves,  but  aolely  upon  the  desire  of  tba 
'  critics  in  qneatinn  to  remove  a  witness  whoae  evidence 
was  fatal  to  their  bvorita  theory  at  to  the  poat-Bab^ 
Ionian  origin  of  the  book*  of  Hoaea.  If  the  scconnta 
in  the  bookt  of  Chronicles  of  the  counes  of  prieits  and 
Lavltee,  and  the  ordinancet  of  divine  aervlce  aa  ar. 
ranged  by  David,  and  realored  by  Heiekiab  and  Jo- 
,  tjah,  are  genuine,  it  necetaarily  follows  that  the  Levit- 
I  ical  law  a*  set  forth  in  the  Pentateuch  was  not  Invent- 
I  ed  after  the  ntnni  from  the  Captivity.  Hence  tbe 
sncceesful  vindication  of  the  authentid^of  Cbroniclea 
bas  a  very  impoTtant  bearing  upon  many  of  the  very 
gravest  Ihcological  i)neationa. 

There  is  particularly  the  drenmatanca  (hat  these 
books  bring  down  the  genealogy  of  David  (1  Chmn. 


c.)to 


aU  h 


subsequent  to  the  rei<lnration.  Indeed,  tmm  the  T*- 
semblance  of  several  of  the  names  given  in  that  Urt 
with  some  of  tbone  in  the  ancestry  of  Christ  (Loka 
ill,  26,  26),  the  genealogy  of  David  Is  there  brongbt 
down  to  the  ninth  generation  after  Zembbabel 
(Strong's  /larmoni/  aid  Kijiatilioii  nf  lAr  GmpriM,  p, 
17,  note  m).  Thi*  passage,  however,  may  have  b^ea 
added  by  final  editors  of  the  sacred  canon,  traditioDal- 
ly  reputed  to  have  lieen  tba  members  of  the  Great 
Synagogue  (q.v.).  That  tbe  author  was  at  least  a 
contemporary  of  Zembbabei  is  dear ;  tnd  to  show  still 
more  the  writer's  intimate  acquaintance  with  and  in- 
I  terest  !n  him,  Sheiomitb,  a  dsagbter  of  Zembbabei,  is 
I  inserted,  and  numerous  details  given  abont  the  family. 
I  The  name  Hattusb  (verse  22)  occurs  also  in  Eira  viii, 
2.asthatofadeficendsnt  of  David  who  returned  with  - 
Em  (torn  Babylon :  this  would  fkvor  tbe  view  ad- 
vanced if  the  Identity  could  be  established;  but  fbr 
this  there  is  no  evidence.  But  a  mora  impoitant  note 
of  time  is  the  notice  in  1  Cbron.  Ix,17, 18,  regarding 
the  Levilical  porter*,  "who  hitherto  O^H"^?,  awefl 
nou,  to  the  time  of  tbe  writa)  waited  iii  the  kmg's 
gaU ;"  and  of'  two  of  which,  Akkub  and  Talmon, 
mention  is  made  in  Neh.  xll,2G,  S6,  as  "keeping  the 
ward  at  the  threaboldt  of  the  gatea  ....  in  the  days 
of  Nebemlah,  and  of  Ena  tb«  priest  the  tcriba." 


CHRONICLES  2( 

Hum  cODcliiikni  otdato  from  hisbiTlca]  noticw  an  I 
nilniwd  bj  Tuiou  pecaliirttiBi  of  aspreHinn  kod 
by  the  vbol*  liMmy  chumclu  of  Lht  campoiitian. 
Of  tb«  pKaluritles  marking  tbc  lata  aj^  of  tho  writer 
la  the  Urm  rn'<3  (Mroi,  >'palaE«")i  applied  to  the 
Tapk,  ilut««d'of  tbe  old  and  (unal  ^3''n  (Atrial),  l 
TUt  wa>  an  imitation  of  the  great  Peralau  eitiea,  In  ' 
ornapODdenM  with  which  Jeruaalsm  ia  conceiTed  of 
■  having  it*  palace,  afterward*  called  Bapic-  Saa  Ba- ! 
tT*.  Another  term  with  which  the  Hebrew!  became  j 
icqulnted  in  Babylon  waa  ^'AS  (tuM),  bytnu,  which 
oRnn  in  none  of  the  older  booki,  notwitlutanding  the 
traqetnl  mtntion  of  910  (jAoA),  or  "  Ana  linen,"  and  ia 
fooDd  onlr  in  1  Chron.  iv,  21  j  xv,  !7 ;  !  Chron.  U,  14 ; 
fii,14;  T,li;  Esth.l,6i  Tiil,lBi  and  in  a  book  writ- 
m  in  Chaldjaa,  Enk.  xxvli,  16  (Eichhorn,  Eimiatamg, 
)!«}).  So  alao  tba  mention  of  '^-f^ti  (adartoa, 
"inm,"  bat  more  correctlj  daric,  I  Chron.  Tiiz,  7  ; 
alB  Ezra  li,  S9 ;  viii,  S7 ;  Neb.  vii,  TO),  a  Penian  coin, 
tbecnmntmonej-oftbBtinie.  Jahn(£Weifwi$,  S  60) 
nien  to  a  remark  In  2  Cbron.  ill,  3.  that  the  cnbit  wa> 
afUr  the  "  fital  (or  old)  measure,"  Intimating  that  a  new 
•tindiTdwuin  ate  in  the  time  of  the  writer.  Thellt- 
4aij  chaimctar  of  the  work.  In  general,  entirely  beto- 
kani  a  period  when  the  languaga  waa  greatly  deteriora- 
ted throaKb  foreign  inflaencBii.  paTtlenlari;  during  the 
tille,  niaDifi»ling  many  peeallarltiei  of  itjle  and  or- 
Ihagraphy.  Uany  ezamplea  of  the  lattn,  aa  the  in- 
tarcbinge  of  txirpli  with  ie  qniesoent,  may  b«  aeen  on 
oniparing  the  two  llita  of  DaHd'a  henwe  in  I  Chron. 
b  and  1  Sam.  llil.  With  reapect,  again,  to  tha  later 
baoki,  more  particolarly  that  of  Eira,  there  are  many 
fagpivtant  reaamblaDcn,  a  list  of  whieb  may  be  fbund 
la  HiTemick,  p.  170. 

tba  determination  of  the  age  of  the  compoaitlon 
Banowi  the  ground  of  inquiry  a>  to  ita  aatborablp. 
The  Jewiih  opinion  tlut  Ear*  waa  tba  aothor  of  the 
Chnididra  waa  Dnlvunally  racelred  down  to  the  mid- 
dk  of  the  HTenteenth  cantnry,  when  It  waa  called  In 
i{BMtion  by  the  EngUtb  delMical  writer  Hobbe*,  who 
•MigMd  to  it  an  earlier  date.  It  waa  Sptnoia  who 
bit  Nferred  it,  on  the  contrary,  to  a  later  period  than 
the  dme  of  Ezra,  bringing  it  down  to  the  time  of  the 
UaKabeei,  a  riaw  adopted  in  modem  tlmee  by  6ram- 
btrg.  and  partly  by  De  Wette.  Cacpzov,  Eichhorn, 
Bivamlck.Welta,  and  modem  writen  in  genend,  con- 
fer Eua  to  b«  the  author.  Ewald  (CeicitJL'e  da 
Fglta  iMTod,  Id  sd.,  1,  Sb!)  admlta  that  the  Chnmicles 
•ad  the  book  of  Earn  an  by  the  same  anthor,  and  even 
eonlenda  that  they  originally  formed  one  work,  not  the 
prodoction  of  Eira  hinuelf,  but  a  much  later  writer. 
jahn  deniee  all  appearann  of  almilarity  between  the 
Chnnielea  and  Eira,  and  aacribaa  tba  former  to  aome 
aakaown  writer  at  the  cloae  of  the  Captivity. 

Tba  idenUly  of  autbonUp  of  the  booka  of  Cbronl- 
dM  and  Eira  can  be  eatabliafaed  by  nnmerong  argn- 
BMuti,  beaidei  the  nuulu  of  aimiUrity  In  expreuion  al- 
nady  ad*ertad  to.  The  internal  relation  of  Che  Cbron- 
Iclia  and  the  Imok  of  Eira  waa  early  recogniied.  This 
ia  aeen  from  the  arrangement  of  the  two  adopted  by 
the  Sept.  different  from  that  of  the  Jewish  canoi' 
Panhtr,  the  writer  of  the  Udrd  (apocryphal)  book  o 
£xnt  baa  wnnght  op  the  two  writing*  into  one.  The 
«Bcla^D  of  Chronicle*  and  the  beginning  of  the 
book  of  Exra  are  altnoat  Identical  In  e:ipreai>ion,  fhim 
vbich  it  la  but  tvaaonable  to  Infer  that  the  one  was 
iatanded  to  be  ■  cootinaatiDn  of  the  other;  the  one 
hiateTy  terminating  with  the  decree  for  the  restora- 
lioD  frna  optirity,  tba  other  narrating  how  that  de- 
fnt  wu  obtained  and  how  It  was  curried  out.  With- 
ing  wonla  of  the  book  of 
T  aicoedingly  abrupt,  pieeenting  a 

-., .raient  which  Is  in  reality  only  a  con- 

tiaution.  (See  Em  1, 1.)  The  ronneetion  tboa  Indi- 
cated ia  fimher  erinoed  ^  tbe  style,  the  manner  of 


7  CHRONICLES 

narradon,  and  of  n^pvding  eTenta  from  a  Levitieal 
point  of  view,  common  to  the  two  worki;  the  whole 
spirit,  in  fact,  and  charactarlsdca  aie  Ideatlal.  Thai 
the  frequent  citations  of  the  law,  and  In  ibnilar  terms, 
aa  I3D1^a$  (Jcawnni^pat),  meaning  "  according  to  tba 
Liw  of  Hoses"  (1  Chron.  xxiil,  81 ;  S  Chron.  xzxr,  18; 
Eira,  ill,  4)  yet  abo  in  Neb.  viii,  18).  The  descrip- 
tions of  the  tacrifldal  riles  are  In  the  two  tiookt  very 
full,  and  in  nearly  the  same  terms  (comp.  Ella  ii,  2-G, 
with  passages  like  1  Cbron.  xri,  40 ;  2  Cbron.  viii,  18 ; 
xiii,  11) ;  BO  alao  the  account  of  the  celebration  of  the 
passOTcr  (Ezra  vj,  19,  etc.,  and  3  Chron.  ui,  Bfi),  and 
the  order  of  the  Leviles  in  charge  of  the  Temple  (tlira 
iii,  B,  9;  1  Chron.  xxxili,  i,  8).  What  presents  the 
greatest  apparenl  contnat  in  the  two  booka  ia  the  blgh- 
priest'a  genealogy  in  1  Chron.  vl,  l-lCi,  In  the  descend- 
ing line,  tenniDatlng  with  the  Captivity,  and  in  Eire 
vii,  1-f,  In  the  ascending  line,  tna  that  priest  himself 
to  Aaron  ;  but  a  little  consideration  will  reconcile  the 
discrepancy.  The  two  lists  are  partly  parallel,  and 
partly  the  one  la  a  contlnoatloD  of  the  other;  a*  re- 
gards the  tatter  point  there  can  be  no  conflict,  and  as 
lo  the  former  it  will  be  observed  that  the  Hat  in  Ezra 
Is  considerably  abridged,  many  link*  being  omitted 
(Bertheau),  and  this  conld  (Ik  mors  readily  be  done  if 
the  writer  bad  elsewhere  given  a  complete  register. 
See  Eeba  (Booe  or). 

The  only  serione  objectian  to  their  authotahip  by 
Ezra  la  the  bet  (above  noticed)  that  certain  geneal- 
ogies (e.  g.  of  Zeruhhabel  (1  Chron.  iii,  19-84 ;  comp. 
that  of  the  higb-priests,  Neb.  xii,  U)  are  continued 
much  later  than  his  time;  but  these  fbw  verses  may 
have  lieen  Inserted  by  a  later  hand,  without  affecting 
his  general  aatborsblp,  jast  as  the  notioe  of  the  death 
of  Moeea  (Dent,  xxiiv)  most  have  been  added  to  the 
PenCatencb  by  another  hand  than  tds  own.  See  Can- 
on (or  ScitiPiDitE). 

V.  fintfMOHiIJfctloi).— The  booka  of  Chronicles,  aa 
compared  with  those  of  Kings,  are  more  didarlic  than 
hiitorioaL  The  UMoria^  tendency  is  sabordinated  to 
the  didaelic.  Indeed,  the  purely  historic  form  appeari 
to  1>e  preserved  only  In  so  far  aa  it  presented  an  appro- 
priate medlom  for  thoae  religions  and  moral  obsarvs- 
(Ions  which  the  author  specially  aimed  to  addace. 
Samuel  and  Kings  are  more  occupied  with  the  relation 
of  poXUcat  occurrences,  while  the  Chronidea  famish 
detailed  accoants  of  eedttiatlienl  Institntion*.  Tba* 
1  Chion.  xtU,  11-14,  comparttl  with  3  Sam.  viii,  12-16, 
tnanittets  more  distinctly  the  Heaaianic  character  of 
the  promises  made  to  David  (see  Pye,  Ser^.  Tetl'mo- 
njr,  1. 171).  So,  too,  in  the  genealogical  table,  while 
BO  place  Is  given  to  some  of  the  tnbea,  aa  Dan  and 
Aaher,  that  of  Judah  In  the  line  of  David  la  traced 
down  to  the  writer's  own  time  (1  Chron.  i.  1-ST ;  U,  1, 
8-16;  iii),  beyond  any  other  historical  notice  of  the 
0.  T.,  and  connecting  with  the  geneskig;  of  Christ 
(Matt.  i).     Bee  Gemsaloot. 

Thn  pbm  of  these  books,  of  which  the  book  of  Eira 
la  a  continnation,  tbrmlng  one  work,  immediately  be- 
comes apparent  if  we  consider  it  as  the  compilation 
of  Eira,  or  some  one  neariy  contemporary  with  him. 
I  One  of  the  greatest  difficultiea  connected  whh  the 
Captivity  and  the  return  mnst  have  been  the  maln- 
j  tensnce  of  that  genealogical  distribution  of  the  land* 
'  which  yet  wa*  a  vital  point  of  the  Jewish  economy. 
Accordingly  It  appears  to  have  been  one  to  which  both 
Km  and  NebemUh  gave  their  earnest  attention,  a* 
David,  Heiekiah,  and  other  kings  had  done  before 
'  them.  Another  dUBculty  intimately  connected  with 
'  this  was  the  maintenance  of  the  Temple  services  at 
Jerusalem.  This  could  only  be  effected  by  the  resi- 
dence of  the  priests  and  Levite*  In  Jernsalem  in  the 
order  of  their  connea;  and  this  residence  waa  only 
practicable  In  case  of  the  payment  of  the  appointed 
tithes,  flrat-fndti,  and  other  oSkrtnga.'  As  soon  tn 
these  ceased  the  priest*  and  Levltes  were  obliged  to 


CHRONICLES  2( 

dbpene  to  thair  own  TilUgts  to  obtain  ■  lit elihood, 
■nd  tb«  Temple  xrvkn  vera  neglected.  But  tben, 
egatn,  the  nglMen  of  the  Levltinl  geoealogiM  were 
neo(Bui7  in  order  that  it  migbt  be  known  who  wera 
entitled  to  ench  end  inch  atlowuicea,  u  porten,  u 
liDgere,  u  priesti,  and  no  on,  becima  all  these  offlcea 
vent  b^  ruoiliea;  and,  again,  the  payment  or  the 
tithes,  firetrfruita,  etc.,  was  dependent  upon  the  differ- 
ent famlllea  of  Isnel  beinx  citabliBhed  each  in  his  in- 
heritance. Obvioualj-,  therefore,  one  of  the  moet 
preeeing  wanta  of  the  Jewtab  commanltT  after  their 
retnrn  from  Bab}>lon  would  be  troaty  genealogical 
reconia,  and  if  there  were  any  aoch  'jt  eziatence,  the 
•rrangement  and  publication  of  them  would  be  one  of 
the  greileet  eervicee  a  person  in  Eira'a  aituation  could 
oonfer.  But  further,  not  onlj  liad  Zerubbabel  (Eira' 
ill,  T,  Ti),  and  after  him  Eira  and  Nehemiah  (Eire  ii, 
viii ;  Neb.  Tit,  viii),  labored  moat  eBmeillj  in  the  teeth 
ofimmenae  difflculties  to  restore  the  Temple  and  the 
public  worahip  of  God  there  to  the  condition  it  had 
been  in  under  the  king!  of  Judah,  but  it  appean  dear- 
Ijr  from  their  policy,  and  from  the  language  of  tlie 
contemporary  prophets,  HaggaJ  and  Zecbariah.  that 
they  had  it  much  at  heart  to  reintiiM  tomethinK  of 
national  life  and  tplrit  into  the  boaom  of  the  people, 
•Dd  to  make  them  feel  that  they  were  still  the  inherit- : 
ora  of  God'a  covenanted  merciea,  and  that  the  Capdv.  < 
ity  had  only  temporarily  interrupted,  not  dried  up,  the 
etteam  of  God's  favor  to  their  nation.  Now  nothing 
could  more  eSbctuallr  aid  these  piooi  and  patriotic 
dadgni  than  Betting  before  the  people  a  compendlons 
hlMory  of  the  kinf^om  of  DaTid,  wbicb  sitould  em- 
brace ■  foil  account  of  its  proaperity,  ahoold  trace  the 
iilia  which  led  to  Its  overthrow,  but  should  carry  the 
thread  through  the  period  of  the  Captivity,  and  con- 
tinue it,  as  ft  were,  nnbroken  on  the  other  side ;  and 
tboee  paaaagea  In  thrir  former  iiistoij  would  be  eape- 
clally  Important  which  exhibited  their  greatest  and 
beat  king*  as  engaged  in  building  or  restoring  the 
Temple,  in  rafbrming  all  corruptions  In  religion,  and 
MAloDsIy  regnlsting  (he  eervicea  of  the  houpe  of  God. 
Ai  regards  the  kingdom  of  Israel  or  Samaria,  seeing 
it  had  utterly  and  bopetessl]'  passed  away,  and  that 
the  existing  inbabitaote  were  among  the  bittareat "  ed- 
veiaai^ea  of  Jndah  and  Benjamin,"  It  would  naturally 
engage  vet;  little  of  the  compiler's  attention.  These 
dOnaideratioDs  eiplaln  exactly  the  deaign  of  that  his- 
torical work  which  conaista  of  the  two  books  of  Cbron- 
ielea  and  the  book  of  Eira.  For,  after  having  in  the 
lint  eight  chapters  given  the  genealogical  diviaiona 
and  eettlemenle  of  tlie  variouB  tribes,  the  comjuter 
marks  dlstinctiy  his  own  age  and  hla  own  puqwui  by 
Intbrmlng  us,  in  ch.  ix,  1,  of  the  diaCurbance  of  those 
■ettlementa  hy  the  Babyloniah  Captivity,  and,  in  the 
Iblhiwlng  versea,  of  the  partial  restoration  of  them  at 
the  return  from  Babylon  {S-!4)j  and  that  this  list  re- 
fer* to  the  bmilies  who  had  ntumed  from  Babylon  is 
clear,  not  only  from  the  context,  but  from  its  nlnser- 
tbn,  Neh.  xi,  B-33,  with  additional  matter  evidently 
astriacted  from  the  public  arcUns,  and  relating  to 
timaa  aubeeqnent  to  the  retnrn  fkom  Babylon,  extend- 
ing to  Meh.  xil,  27,  where  Kebemlah'a  narrative  ia 
again  reanmed  In  continnance  with  Keh.  xl,  3.  Hav- 
ing thoa  abown  the  re-establishment  of  the  returned 
families,  each  in  their  own  inheritsnce  according  to 
the  houses  of  their  fathers,  the  compiler  proceeds  to 
tlw  other  part  of  his  plan,  which  ia  to  give  a  conUnn- 
ooshistory  of  the  kingdom  of  Jndah  from  David  to  his 
own  times,  introduced  bj  tbe  cloeing  scene  of  Seul'a 
lifb  (ch.  x),  which  introduction  la  itself  prefaced  by  a 
genealogy  of  the  house  of  Saul  (ix,  86-44).  extracted 
frnm  tbe  genealogical  tables  drawn  op  In  tbe  reign  of 
king  Hezekiah,  as  ia  at  once  manifest  by  counting  the 
thirteen  or  fourteen  generations,  from  Jonathan  to  tbe 
aona  of  Aiel  incluaive,  eiactiy  correspoDdinE  to  the 
lonrtaeD  fTom  David  to  Henfciab  incluaive.  This  part 
arthaplanextendsfromlCbron.  tz,86,  lotheendof 


a  CHRONICLES 

the  tKiok  of  Eit>;  1  ChroD.  xr-xiil,  xiQ-xxtz;  S 
Chron.  xiii-xv,  xxiv-zxvl,  xxix-xxxi,  and  xxxv  an 
among  the  passages  wholly  or  in  part  peculiar  to  tha 
books  of  Chronicles,  which  mark  tbe  purpoee  of  the 
compiler,  and  are  especially  sull«d  to  the  age  and  tbe 
work  of  Eira  (q,  v.). 

VI.  Aoanxt.— It  Is  evident  that  the  Chroniclea  wera 
compiled  not  only  from  former  inspired  writers,  but, 
for  the  most  part,  from  public  records,  registers,  and 
genaalogiea  belonging  to  the  Jews.  That  national 
annals  existed  there  can  be  no  doubt.  They  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  as  In  1  Chron.  ixvil,  24.  Tbejr 
contained  an  account  of  the  moet  importenl  events  ia 
the  biatoryofthe  Hebrews,  and  were  generally  lodged 
in  tbe  tabemade  or  Temple,  where  they  could  moet 
conveniently  be  consulted. 

The  following  are  the  explicit  rrferauxt  by  the  com- 
piler himself  looldermemoiTsor  hiatorical  works:  (1) 
The  book  (O'^-IS'l,  inmfi  or  ocft)  of  Samuel  the  sear, 
the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  tbe  book  of  Gad 
the  seer  (1  Chron.  xxix,  29).  This  cannot  meen  tbe 
iuaiNred  books  of  Samtwl,  because  they  do  not  oontaia 
the  entire  history  of  David  ("  his  sets  first  and  last''). 
It  refers  to  a  history  of  hia  own  times  written  by  Sam- 
lud  to  a  contlnnation  of  It,  embracing  succrediog 
I,  written  by  Kathan  and  Gad,  from  which  it  ia 
ilile  that  part  of  the  contents  of  the  present  books 
of  Samuel  was  drawn.  See  Natbah;  0*D.  (2)  The 
book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  tbe  prophecy  of  Afaijah  tbe 
Shitonite,  and  the  visions  of  Iddo  the  seer  {%  Chron.  ix, 
39).  See  Ahijah:  Iddo.  (3)  Thebookof  Shemalah 
the  prophet,  and  of  Iddo  tbe  seer  omctrtmggmitalogiia  ; 
or,  aa  De  Wette  translates  it,  o/W  lie  mamtr  of/am- 
i^-rfgittrt  (2  Chron.  xil,  Ifi).  See  Skemaiah.  (4) 
The  ttorj,  or,  rather,  tbe  oiierprrtaHim  (O^TC,  nid- 
nuK)  at  the  prophet  Iddo  (2  Chron.  xili,  22).'  '  (5)  Tbe 
book  of  John  the  son  of  Hanani,  inserted  in  tbe  honk 
Kings  of  Israel  (2  Chron.  xx.  Si).     See  .1 


(6)T 


7  of  Cm 


I,  by  !■ 


n  of  Am 


(2  Chron.  xxvi,  2S).  (7)  Tbe  vision  of  Isaiah  (he 
prophet,  in  the  book  of  the  Kings  of  Jndah  and  Israel 
(2  ChroD.  xxxii,  as).  See  Isaiah.  (See  Gesenius's 
C<Miinflitar«ter(<<ii  Jaaia;  BMtit.  %t.)  (N)  Tbe  ear. 
iDg*ofti»seers(2Cbron.xixiil.I9).  See  Doe  ai.  <~9) 
The  interpretation  of  the  book  of  the  Kings  (2  Cbron. 
ixiv,  27).  (10)  The  book  of  tbe  Kings  of  Judah  and 
larsel  (2  Chron.  xvi,  11;  xxv,  26;  xxvii,  7;  xxriii, 
26;  xxxv,  27;  ixxvi,  8).  Tbisconid  not  have  been 
our  present  books  of  Kings,  but  pnWc  omiait,  because. 
In  several  instaucea  where  th-:  reader  is  referred  to 
them  fbr  farther  informetion,  onr  books  of  Kings  con- 
tain less  than  what  la  aUted  in  the  Chronicles.  (II) 
Tbe  book  of  tbe  Kings  of  Israel  (2  Chron.  xx,  S4). 
(12)  The  words  or  bistoriea  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  (t 
Cbron.  xiiUi,  IS).  It  is  probable  that  Nos.  10,  11, 
and  IS  refer  to  the  same  historkai  work.  See  Kinos 
(Books  or).  (18)  The  Chroniclea  of  King  David  (1 
Chnm.  xxvU,  24).  (14)  Tbe  UmenUtious  (2  Chmn. 
xxxv,  2S).  This,  bowever,  haa  been  thought  by  soma 
not  to  mean  tbe  Lamentations  of  JeiemUi  whidi  we 
now  have,  bnt  other  Lamentation*,  composed  1^  the 
propltet  on  Iht  Stallt  ^JotiaJi,  and  long  aln«  lost.  See 
Lamsmtatiokb. 

In  addition  to  the  abore  avowed  documents,  tbe 
compiler  must  have  had  others.  Thus  the  lists  of  Da- 
vid's heroes  (xi,  10-47).  of  theee  who  came  to  him  at 
Ziklag  (ill,  1-22),  of  the  captains,  princes  of  the 
tribes,  and  officers  of  David's  bousehdd  (xxvii),  the 
number  and  distribution  of  tbe  l.evites,  and  the  minute 
Information  given  respecting  divine  worship  (xiiii- 
xxvi),  must  have  lieen  derived  ftiHn  written  sourcre 
not  included  In  Ibe  boot  of  lit  Km$i  qf/mul  amdJt- 
doA.  Some  documents  are  mentioned  by  the  compiler 
which  he  did  not  km.  Thus  a  writing  of  Elijah,  ad- 
drensed  to  Jehoram,  Is  spoken  of  in  2  Chron.  xzi,  12. 
See  Eluah. 


CHRONICLES  21 

In  1  Chnn.  i,  9,  «ii  hkTe  onlj'  ■  few  nfarencea  to 
Ite  origin  of  th*  gcnuJogicBl  lul«.  Throughoat  moat 
of  [Ui  pottkm  the  compQtr  nllcd  on  regUten,  irhicli 
be  canfuUf  fallDwed,  but  does  not  definitely  cit«  (rtt, 
M I  CfaiOD.  V,  7, 17 ;  vii,  7,  9 ;  ix,  1).  AlthDU)ib  the 
[mettogiu  of  1  Chron,  Mi,  3,  tie  subiUntUlly  tbe 
unu  M  in  Ganesii,  BTsatlr  abridged,  (od  with  ths 
»i»l(in  of  Detrlv  all  the  historical  notice*,  theM  mal- 
Un  being  tlnaAy  to  well  known  u  to  nnder  repeti- 
lira  nnneccMkCT  —  a  Btrong,  liecause  indirect  (rgu. 
BCBt  for  Ibe  aathoritr  of  the  MdhIc  writing*— yot  the 
gntia  portion  of  those  whlcb  follow  is  foand  nowhere 
tiK.  Even  la  lhi«  abridgment  of  the  older  fcenoslo- 
giistliere  ii  man ifeited  much  independence.  In  proof 
<ir  Una  it  is  onlj  neceuory  to  observe  eotne  of  tbe  ap- 
imided  nodcea,  e-  g. :  1  Cbron.  i,  61,  ^'Hadad  died 
ilso,"  an  addition  to  Gen.  xxivl,  39,  it  being  Inferred 
bj  UengiCenbarg  (Cown.  ijf  lie  Pnlalrudi,  11,  2ib) 
tiid  others,  from  the  latter  pauage,  that  Hadad  wis 
•till  living  in  tbe  time  of  Moms.  See  Hadad,  After 
I  Chron.  ii.  Z,  the  geneali^csl  llets  are  inten^raed 
wilb  fuller  details,  and  the  work  attaina  to  mote  com- 
pMenestand  independence. 

It  has  been  Inqaiied  whether  our  present  books  of 
Stmiicl  and  Kings  were  among  the  sources  whence  the 
Cbmiicle  writer  drew  bis  materials  F     The  question  is 

Sink;  by  Hivemick and othen  in  the  negative.  The 
firtt-aanied  critic  adduces  threo  argoment*  in  favor  of 
IliE  bypotbeeis  that  tbe  parallel  accounts  were  derived 
from  the  earlier  books,  only  one  of  which  appears  to 
Bi  valid,  vi».,  tbe  certainty  of  tha  Chronist'a  having 
known  the  earlier  books.  After  denying  Che  force  of 
ill  l]>e«e  arguments,  Keil  proceeds  to  adduce  some  pos- 
itirt  gnntncls  against  tbe  hypothesis  that  the  books  of 
Kings  and  Samuel  wore  used  as  sources.     Tbe  cnnsid- 

iagin  validity  {Eiolat,^,  p.  480-^W,  Frcf.  IMM).  If 
ih<  compiler  of  Chronicles  knew  tbe  csnonical  book!-, 
ibytbonld  it  be  thought  that  he  abstained  from  using 
tlKm?  They  would  bare  bcillUted  his  work.  The 
m«t  convincing  proof  that  he  both  knew  and  osed 
IhcD  i!  fornished  by  some  forty  parallels,  which  arc 
odtB  verbal  Thus,  in  2  Cbron.  1,  14-17,  there  is  a  [ 
paragraph  almost  Terl>ally  coinciding  with  1  Kings  x, 
K-9.  Again.  1  Chron.  xvii  and  xvili  are  in  many  j 
placrs  verbally  parallel  nitb  3  Sam.  vii  and  Till.  Coni' 
pinalaol  Chron.  xix,  1-xx,  1,  with  3  Sam.  x-xi;  3  I 
Chn)n.x,I-xi.4,witbIKingsxii,I-!4;  iChron.iv,  ' 
lt-18,  with  1  Kings  xv,  13-16;  3  Chron.  xxr,  1-4,  IT- 
!«,  with  1  Kings  xiv,  1-6,  S-Sfl;  3  Cbron.  xxxiii,  K9, 
■ith  2  Kings  xxi,  1-9 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  21-36,  with  2 
Kiajs  xxi,  19-2G,  etc.  Kor  can  all  these  colucidencet  | 
bt  explained  by  a  common  use  of  Che  older  docaments, 
for  ID  nuny  of  the  passages,  evidently  abridgments, 
ttw  caiDpressinn  or  selection  ts  identical.  See  Sau- 
im,  (Books  or). 

On  llie  other  hand,  many  particulars,  more  especial- 
ly in  the  Uvea  of  Davtd  and  Solomon,  recorded  in  these 
books,  are  entirely  passed  over  In  tbe  Chronicles,  and 
ia  their  stead  are  given  notices  of  the  state  of  religion 
and  of  pnUie  worship. 

(I.)  TVprMcf;xi/ossM>K>iWMriet3roiHcfe>arD:  The 
laaWy  scene  between  Michal  and  David  (3  Sam.  vi, 
jn-I3);  David's  kindness  to  Hephiboshetb  (2  Snm.  ix); 
bis  adultery  witb  Batbsheba  (2  Sam.  xi,  3-xii,  26); 
hu  son  Aamon'a  defilement  of  Tamar,  and  the  rebel- 
lioDorAbsalomCtSun.  xiv-xix);  tbe  revolt  of  She- 
ba(3  Sam.  xx):  tbe  delivering  ap  of  Saul's  sons  Ut  the 
Gibeooites  (2  Sam.  xxi,  1-11);  the  war  with  tbe  Phil- 
ittniu(2Sam.  xxi,15-17);  David's  pulm  of  lhank>- 
prinii,  and  last  winrds  (3  Sam.  xxii-ixiii,  7);  Adoni- 
jah's  attempted  usurpation,  anil  the  inoinHng  ofSol- 
nwn  (I  KinzB  i)  t  David's  lost  will  (1  Kings  ii,  1-9) : 
Solomon's  throne  sstablbhed  by  the  punishment  of  his 
opponents  <1  Kings  ii,  lS-46) ;  his  marriage  with  Phs- 
noh'i  dan^tai  (1  Kings  iii,  1);  his  wlaa  decidon  (1 
11—10 


19  CHRONICLES 

Kings  ili.  16-38);  his  offlccn,  glory,  and  wisdom  (1 
Kings  iv);  bis  strange  wires,  and  idolatr)*  (1  KingaxI, 
1-40).  Tbe  entire  omission  of  the  history  of  tbe  king- 
dom of  Israel,  except  that  it  was  carried  away  captive 
by  theAsayrians,  as  a  punishment  for  its  sins  (I  Chrun. 
V,  25. 2e),  is  noteworthy  (see  above.  §  6). 

(2.)  i/aller peculiar  to  Hie  Chronldet.—Tbe  list  of  tbe 
heroea  who  came  to  David  at  Zlklag,  and  of  Uie  hosts 
who  came  to  Hebron  to  make  him  king (1  Chron,  xii); 
David's  prepsration  for  building  the  Temple  (ch.  xxii) ; 
the  enumeration  and  order  of  the  Levites  and  priests 
(ch.  xxiii-xxvi) ;  tbe  order  of  the  army  and  its  csp- 
(ains  (ch.  xxvil) ;  David's  directions  in  public  assem- 
bly sbortly  before  his  death  (ch.  xiviji,  xxix);  Reho- 
boam's  fortifications,  his  reception  of  tbe  priests  and 
Levites  who  Bed  th>m  tbe  kingdom  of  Israel, bis  wives 
and  children  (3 Chron.  xl,  G-2t>;  Abijah's  war  with  Je- 
roboam (xiii,  3-20);  tbe  notice  of  Abijab's  wives  and 
children  {xiii,  21) ;  Asa's  works  in  fortifying  his  king. 
dom  and  his  victory  over  Zerah  the  CusWte  (xiv,  8-14); 
a  prophecy  of  Aaariab,  which  induced  Asa  to  put  down 
idolatry  (iv,  1-15)  i  the  address  of  tbe  prophet  Hanani 
(xvi,  7-10);  Jehoebaphat's  endeavors  to  restore  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  hia  power  and  riches  (xvii,  2- 
xviii,  1);  his  iDStmctions  and  ordinances  as  to  judg- 
ment (ch.  xix);  bis  victory  over  tbe  Ammonites  and 
Moabites  (xx,  1-SO);  his  prevision  for  bis  sons,  and 
their  death  by  his  son  and  successor,  Jeboram  (xxi,  3~ 
4);  Jehoram's  idolatr7  and  punishment  (xxi,  11-19); 
the  death  of  the  high-priest  Jehniada,  and  the  apos- 
tasy of  Joash  (xxlv,  15-32) ;  Amsiiah's  warlike  prep- 
arations (?:  xv,  5-10) ;  bis  idolatry  (XXV,  14-16);  Ua- 
ziah's  wars,  victories,  and  forces  (xxvl,  6-15);  Jo- 
tham's  war  with  tbe  Ammonites  (xxvii,  4-6);  Heie- 
ktah'*  reformation  and  passover  (xxix,  B-xxxi,  31); 
his  riches  (ixxii.  17-30);  Hunasseh'a  captiiily,  re- 
leaM,  and  reformation  (xxxiii,  11-17)^ 

(S.)  MaUermarr/aUy  rrtattdm  CArontrfrs.— Ths  list 
of  David's  heroes  (1  Chron.  xii,  11-17),  of  which  the 
names  (ver.  43-47)  are  wanting  in  3  Sam.  xxiii,  8.  etc. ; 
(he  removal  of  the  aA  from  Kiijath-Jearim  to  Mount 
Zion(l  Chron.  xiii;  xv,  3-M;  xvi, 4-43;  comp.  with 
2  Sam.  t-i) :  tbe  candlestteks,  tables,  and  courts  of  the 
Temple  (2  Cbron.  iv,  6-9:  comp.  with  1  Kings  vii,  38, 
39);  tbe  description  of  the  bruen  scaffold  on  which 
SolomDu  knelt  (2  Chron.  vi,  13,  IR,  witb  1  Kings  viil, 
33);  in  Solomon's  prayer,  the  passage  3  Chron.  vi,  41, 
42,  from  Psa.  exxxii,  7-9 ;  the  mention  of  the  fire  from 
heaven  consuming  the  hnrnt-alTering  (2  Chron.  vii,  1, 
Ptc.);  the  enlargement  of  the  divine  promise  (3  Chron. 
vii.  12,  le,  with  1  Kings  ix,  B) ;  Shishak's  invasion  of 
Judiea;  the  address  of  the  prophet  Sbrmaiah(S  Chron. 
2-8,  with  1  Kings  xiv,  23);  Amaiiah'a  victory  over 
the  Edomitcs  (3  Cbron.  xxv,  11-16,  with  2  Kings  xiv, 
7) ;  L'liiah's  leprosy ;  its  cause  (3  Chron.  xxvi,  lG-31, 
with  2  Kings  xv,  fi);  tho  passover  under  Josiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxv,  3-19,  with  3  Kings  xxii,  21,  etc.). 

(4,)  Other  peculiarities  distinguishing  the  book  of 
Cbronifles,  and  lilting  it  for  Ibe  altered  circamstanccs 
in  the  time  of  its  compositiDn,  are  the  sabstitutian  of 
mndem  and  more  common  expressions  for  such  as  had 
become  unusual  or  obsolete  (comp.  in  tbe  original  1 
Chron.  X,  12,  with  1  Sam.  xxxi,  12  ;  1  Chron.  xv,  29, 
with  2  Sam.  vi,  16,  eto.).  particularly  the  suhstitutioii 
for  the  old  names  of  places,  those  which  were  in  neo  in 
tbe  writer's  own  day  ;  thus,  Geier  (1  Chron.  ix,  4), 
instewfof  Gob  (2  Sam.  xxi,  18) ;  Abel  Haim,  Abel  an 
the  water  [Merom]  {2  Chron.  xvi,  4),  Instead  of  AIkI- 
betb-Haachah  (I  Kings  xv,  20).  So  also  tbe  omission 
of  geographical  names  which  had  become  unknown,  or 
had  ceased  to  1>e  of  interest,  as  Helam  (2  Sam.  x,  16, 
IT),  omitted  In  1  Chron.  xix,  17 ;  so  also  Zair  (2  Kings 
viii,31;  comp.with2Chmn.  xxi,  9).  See  paiUcular- 
ly  2  Sam.  xxlv,  4  8,  compared  with  1  Chron,  xxi,  4. 
there  is  tAxi  the  endeavor  to  substitute  more  definite 
axpreasions  for  such  aa  were  indeflnite,  and  so  poe- 
sibly  ambiguous  (as  2  Cbron.  xxxvlii,  8 ;  comp.  *14>- 


CHRONICLES 


T,  S4,vitb!Kingaxxil, 


!  Eingi  XTi,  8 ;  !  Cbron. 

16). 

Other  li«t.  occur  in  Chron.,  wliich  ■»  glwn 
conaiderablc  extanakin  or  in  ■  diffarent  coanectlt 
Ibe  uriier  book*,  *.  g.  the  mctiton  of  Darld,  1  CI 
ii,  10-12;  comp.  Kuth  Iv,  19.2S.     Still  other  Vat, 
peculiar  to  ths  Cbn>nkle»,  u  IL  I»-&3 ;  iii,  16- 24 
■i-23,  M-43;   V,  l-!6,  83-8G;  vi,  1-31.     Th«e  litter 
jtonealogies  ire  obvionplj'  tranacrlbod  from  auma  fegis- 
t:r,  in  which  were  preMrved  the  geaeilogiei  of  the 
triheB  and  families  dnvn  up  at  different  times.     1  his 
appears  ^m  the  ytrj  different  agea  at  which  difTer- 
cot  Kenealogipa  terminals.  Indicating  of  course  the 
particaW  r^gn  when  eacii  woa  drawn  up.     Thus,  e. 
g.  the  line  of  the  high-prieste  (1  Chron.  ri,  1-15)  DiDit 
have  been  drawn  up  during  the  Captivity;  that  in 
EiO-Oa,  in  tlia  time  of  David  or  Solomon ;   thoae  of 
IIcniBn  and  Asaph,  in  the  aume  chapter,  in  the  time 
of  David;  that  of  the  oonB  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chmn. 
iii,  10-34)  as  late  at  leaat  aa  the  close  of  the  canon, 


The  SI 


ewide< 


ergenci 


:n  the  age  of  other 


of  Edom  before  the  reign  of  Saul,  was 
obviously  compiled  from  very  ancient  aonrces.  The 
aime  may  be  aald  of  the  incident  of  the  slaughter  of 
the  sons  of  Ephralm  by  the  Gittites,  1  Chron.  vli,  91 ; 
vili.l3;  and  oftbe  account  of  the  eons  of  Sbela,  and 
their  dDniinion  in  Moab,  1  Chion.  iv,  !1. ».  The  mU- 
Itary  census  of  tho  tribes  of  Issacbar,  Uenjamin,  and 
Asber,  in  1  Chron.  vii,  evidently  formed  part  of  the  re- 
tarna  made  to  David  (i  Sum.  xxlv,  9).  Tbe  curions 
di>tails  concerning  the  Reabenites  and  Gadites  in  1 
Chron.  V,  must  have  been  drawn  from  contempor*!? 
documents,  embodied  pnihably  in  the  tcenealoglcBl  rec- 
ords of  Jotham  and  Jeroboam,  while  other  records  used 
by  the  compDer  are  as  late  aa  after  tiie  return  from 
Baliylon,  aucb  aa  1  Cbnm.  ix,3  sq. ;  2  Ciiion.  xxxvl, 
20  aq. ;  and  others,  aa  Eira  ii  and  iv,  6-!?,  are  aa  late 
■a  the  time  of  Artaxerxee  and  Mehemiah.  Hence  it 
is  further  manifest  that  the  books  of  Chronicles  and 
Esra,  though  put  into  their  presetlt  form  by  one  hand, 
contain,  in  bet,  eitrads  from  tbe  writings  of  many  dif- 
ferent wiitora,  which  ictrt  tztani  at  Ms  tinu  Ike  cma- 
pilat'on  mat  made.  For  tbe  full  account  of  the  reign 
of  David,  he  made  copious  extracts  from  the  Looks  of 
Samuel  the  seer,  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  Gad  tbe 
seer  (1  Chron.  xiix,  29).  For  tho  reign  of  Solomon 
he  cofded  f^om  "the  booh  of  Natban,"  from  "tbe 
prophecy  of  Aliijab  tlie  Sbili  nite,"  and  from  "  the  vts- 
ioni  of  Iddo  tho  seer"  (J  Chron,  ix,  99).  Another 
workof  Iddo  supplied  an  account  of  the  acts,  and  tho 
ways,  and  aayinea  of  kini:  Abijah  (xtii,  99);  while  yet 
another  book  of  Iddo  eoneeralng  genealogies,  with  the 
book  oftbe  ptttpbet  Shemuab,  contained  tho  ads  of 
king  Reboboam  (xii,  15).  For  later  times  the  "  Book 
of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah"  is  repeatedly  cited 
(2  Chron.  xzv,  20;  zzvii,  7;  xxxii,  39;  xxiriii,  IB, 
etc.),  and  "(ho  sayings  oftbe  seers,"  or  perhaps  of  Ifo- 
zai  (xxxiii,  19):  and  for  tbe  reigns  of  UzKiali  and 
Heiekiah  "the  vision  of  the  prophet  Jsaiah"  {xxvi, 
22;  xxxli,S2).  In  other  case.%  where  no  reference  is 
made  to  any  t>ook  as  containing  farttier  itifnrmation,  it 
is  proliaHe  that  tbe  whole  account  of  such  reign  Is 
IraiiBcribed.  Betidea  tbe  alaive-named  works,  there 
was  also  tbe  public  national  record,  called  "back  of 
the  Chronicles"  {t-pjn  t'^a'n  -lEp),  mentioned  in 
Koh.  xii,  23,  from  which  doubtleu  tbe  present  books 
look  their  name,  and  IVom  which  the  genealogieB  and 
other  matters  in  them  were  proliahly  derived,  and 
which  are  alluded  tn  as  having  e:nlBtcd  as  early  as  the 
reiftn  of  David,  1  Chron.  xxvii.  24.  These  ■'  Chroni- 
cles of  David"  {"'■'"';!  ~l?r^  O^tT'^  "^^)  "=  P""*" 
ably  the  same  as  those  (Hie  t-)-\  ^^21)  obove  refer- 
nd  to,  as  written  by  Samuel,  Nnthnn,  End  Gsd.     From 


0  CHRONICLES 

this  time  the  affnits  of  each  king's  reign  were  Tegnlar- 
ly  recorded  In  a  book  called  at  first  "the  book  of  tbe 
acts  of  Solomon"  (ntil^  "-na^-iBp,!  Kings  xl,  41), 
by  the  name  of  the  king,  aa  before  of  David,  but  after- 
wards in  both  kingdoms  by  the  general  name  of  cbrm- 
iclea,  aa  in  the  comrtontly-recuTring  formola,  '^  Kov 
the  reat  of  the  acts  (B^^a'^)  of  Reboboam,  Abijam, 
etc. ;  Jeroboam,  Nadab,  etc.,  are  they  not  written  in 
the  book  of  the  Chroniclea  of  tbe  king*  of  Jndab"  or 
"of  Israel"  (1  Kmgu  xlv,  28;  xv,  7,  etc.)?  This 
continues  to  tbe  end  of  Jehoiakim's  reign,  ai  appears 
from  2  Kings  xxiv,  B;  2  Chron.  ixivi,  B.  It  was 
doubtless  from  this  common  source  that  the  pttaaagea 
in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  identical  with  the 
books  of  Chroniclea  were  derived.  All  these  several 
works  have  perished,  but  tbe  most  important  mattets 
in  them  have  been  providentially  prrserred  to  na  in 
tbe  Chroniclea. 

VII.  DitcTfpanaa  and  Conlradietioiit. — Tbe  credi- 
bilitv  of  the  Iwoks  of  Chronicles  has  twen  greatly  coD- 
te:te<1  by  rutignslistic  writers,  lut  by  none  with  more 
tenacity  Ihun  De  Wette,  first  in  huBettragt  r*r  Em- 
ieitmg  (Halle,  ia06,  t,  1-132),  and  subcequently  in  the 
succeaaive  editions  of  bla  Enleitmg,  where  be  has 
brought  together  every  sort  of  difficulty  and  alleged 
contradiction,  many  of  which  rest  only  on  assump- 
tion* which  would  not  be  tolersted  if  applied  to  any 


a  Bjblical  w 


It  in 


<t  In  thii 


itiadictloiu  be- 
tween Its  statements  and  those  of  the  other  hiatodal 
liooks,  particulmly  as  reparda  proper  names  and  num- 
liera;  Cut  these,  even  if  they  cannot  be  satisfactori- 
ly explained,  scarcely  warrant  calling  in  qaeetion  tbe 
sinceritj-  or  the  credlUllty  of  the  writer.  Thu,  for 
Instance,  It  Is  oljected  that  1  Chron.  11,  6  is  ■  false 
combination  of  1  Kings  v,  II  [iv,  SI] ;  Lnt  nothing  la 
more  common  than  the  recurrence  oftbe  Bame  names 
in  diHerent  ftmilies  and  tribes,  snd  at  diSerent  peri- 
ods; and  although  Htverntck  unnecessarily  admits 
that  some  of  the  names  in  the  two  pasaages  are  identi- 
cal, it  would  certainly  Indicate  rare  confusion  on  tbe 
part  of  the  writer  of  the  Chronicles  to  bring  (ogethrt 
times  and  persons  ao  tiir  apart  from  one  another. 
Ethan  the  Eirahite,  of  the  family  of  UrnrI  (1  Chron. 
vi,  29  [44]\  waa  one  of  David's  masters  of  fong  (1 
Chron.  xv,  17),  and  the  author  of  Psa.  Ixxxiz.  He 
man,  also  an  Etnbitc,  snd  author  of  Psa.  Ixxxvii^ 
was  a  leader  of  David's  sacred  choir  (1  Chron.  XT,  17), 
and  it  is  utterly  inconceivable  that  perions,  a*  it  would 
appear,  so  well  known  to  the  writer  oftbe  Chronicles, 
ehnuld  so  Inconsiderately  be  reckoned  among  tbe  pos- 
terity of  Judah,  and  asMgned  to  a  time  ao  long  ante- 
cedent to  that  of  David.      Bee  Hemaw. 

There  are,  however,  real  difficulties,  particularly  In 
the  genealogical  tallies,  and  also  in  variotu  numtiical 
!tat<ments,  and  tbeae.  It  may  be  supposed,  arote  in  a 
great  measure  from  corruption  of  the  text ;  for  It  b  In 
such  cases  that  there  Is  the  greatest  facility  for  the 
rise  and  tbe  perpetuation  cf  false  readings,  the  context 
alTordlng  little  aid  for  their  detection,  or  rectificatioii 
if  delected.  Tbe  text  of  the  Chnmides  furnishes 
many  Instances  of  such  comipthms,  although  in  lev- 
cral  esses,  where  it  dllTers  ftnm  tbe  corresponding  |i*s- 
sages  in  the  hooks  of  Samuel  and  of  Kings,  it  is  jest 
as  possible  that  It  shows  Ibe  true  reading.  A  remark- 
able case  is  1  Chron.  vl,  IS  [28],  "And  the  son*  of 
Samuel,  the  first-bom  Vashni  and  Abtah,"  comp.  with 
1  Sam.  i-ili.  2,  "  Now  the  name  of  bis  flrst-lram  was 
Joel,  and  tbe  name  of  hia  second  Abiah."  It  i*  easy 
to  see  how  this  contradiction  baa  arisen.  Tbe  nam* 
Joel  bad  fnllcn  out  of  I  Chron.  vi,  IS,  and  some  tian- 
*criber,  aeelni!  the  necessity  for  some  name  after  "the 
fiist-bom,"  transformed  ''!tni  (veJiaA-Aeii),  "and 
the  second,"  into  *  proper  lume,  Vashnl.  The  mlf- 
Ukc  is  as  old  as  tbe  Sept —  ri  npitriTowtc  Inn  mi 


CHRONICLES  21 

Alka.  Tbe  Syrbc  and  Anbic  read  «  In  S*iaB«l 
{Jtv.'ifSac.  Lil.  April,  iSbi.  p.l9a>. 

(t.)  Pmuc™  where  the  reading  in  Chronicles  ue 
•binail}' cormpt ;  loinMimee  the  work  Itaelfihowing 
Ibi  tmDeoiuneu  of  tbe  rajding,  e.  g.  2  Chron.  Iji,  15 ; 
ir,S,aRiipv«l  withl  King)  vii,  1»,  £6,  etc 

fi)  PuftBfj?(fl  where  the  correct  reading  IH  ttimt  of 
Iht  Cbnmicles.  The  rather  ot  Anau  ii  dengnited  in 
1  ChnMi.  ii,  17,  "  Jether,  tbe  /tknadiit :"  in  2  Sun. 
ITU,  U, "  Itlm,  ID  Itra^te."  Example!  of  namei>- 
ial  ttitFmenta :  1  Ctnm.  XTiil,  4,  compared  with  i 
Sub.  Tiii,  4 :  1  Chron.  xLn,  IH,  comp.  with  2  Sam.  x, 
M;  I  Chron.  .txi,  12,  with  J  Sara.  xiiv,13;  2  Chron, 
ill.  15,  ind  1  KioKi  vli,  IS,  with  !  King*  xxv,  17.  where 
Uh  beightof  the  "cha]»ters"  on  the  bnien  pillars,  at 
ginn  in  the  flrM  two  puugea,  ia  conHrmed  liv  Jer. 
lii,!};  2Chron.lx.  25,  compared  with  1  King^iv,  SC; 
1  Chnin.  xl.  11,  compared  with  2  Sam.  xxili,  8;  2 
Ckron.  xxri,  1,  8,  8,  etc.  comp.  with  2  Kin^  it,  1,  6, 

(1)  Puwge)  wbere  the  correct  readinK  is  donbt- 
fnl;  2  Chron.  il,  2, 17  [18],  comp.  with  1  Kings  t,  SO 
fl«];  3  Chron.  Tiii,  10,  comp.  with  1  Kioga  ix,  23;  2 
fhion.  Tin,  18,  comp.  wElh  I  Kin..i  ix,  28,  elc.  (On 
the  nomerical  dlacr«pancie»,  aee  Rrinke,  Beilrage  vir 
EiUHmig  drt  all.  TrtlamiUrt,  I,  i.)  See  Xumbrh. 
In  Movera,  Kennkott,  and  Graml*rg,  others  nwy  be 
foond  which  are  Injudicioualy  lironght  brward  as  trulr 
at  rariance;  yel  2  Chron.  vili,  Ifl,  compared  with  1 
King*  ix,  28;  1  Chron.  xxl,  h.  comp.  wilb  S  Sam. 
xiir,  9,  wbera  the  numbers  of  Judah  are  different, 
and  othrt  places  that  might  be  quoted,  present  contni- 
djctians  whteh  eTince  that  the  text  is  corrupt.  It  la 
well  known,  although  the  eauae  haa  not  fnllv  hitherto 
been  ascertained,  that  the  text  of  the  books  of  Samnel, 

bI  lie  other  inspired  writings.  Jerome  {Pnrf.  ad 
Find.)  speski  of  the  Greek  text  of  Chron.  ai  being 
bopcleMly  confused  In  his  days,  and  Ba«lgns  (his  aa  a 
reasKi  why  he  made  B  new  traaalatinn  tn-m  the  He- 
brew. Many  of  the  names  and  woids  that  are  difler- 
tBtly  written  ahonld  be  referred  to  this  bead.  Some 
omisolaiu  and  aome  interpolations  also  belong  tn  It. 
But  ttie  principal  eontradlcthjiiB  relate  to  mmirrs. 
These  seem  to  hare  been  expresaed  in  Tarioue  waya; 
and  oopTists,  hanng  different  methods  of  marking 
thrm,  were  natnrally  exposed  to  errora.  Somrtlmes 
■nmbers  wen  designated  b;  IflfrTi,  occasionally  by 
apim,  and  again  Uiej  were  marlied  by  awrd*.     See 

(4.)  Passage*  emneonslj  regarded  as  contradicto- 
ry: Between  £  Chton,  xxviii,  20,  and  2  Kin^fs  xtI,  7- 
i,  there  i*  do  coDtridiction,  as  they  relate  to  different 
Uaga  fif  tke  war;  and  it  laqolle  possible  that  the  mer- 
cenarv  TIgUtb-idleser  from  an  ally  became  an  oppo- 
iMat;  a  fact  even  intimated  in  2  Kings  xvl,  18,  by 
Ahsi's  remora]  of  a  gallery,  which  might  afford  ac- 
ceaa  to  an  enemy.  Itetween  I  Chron.  xi,  28,  "An 
Egrptian,  a  man  of  great  stature,  five  cubits  high,  and 
in  the  Egyptlun^s  hand  was  a  spear  like  a  wesTer^s 
beam,"  and  2  Sam.  xxili,  21,  ''An  Egyptian,  a  goodly 
Bian,  and  the  Egyptian  had  a  spear  In  his  hand,"  there 
f>  no  contradiction ;  the  one  passage  being  more  spe- 
dAc,  bnt  still  in  accordance  with  and  Its  purport  im- 
plied in  (be  otiHr.  Tbe  Elgyptian's  nollcenble  appear. 
•ace  wu  his  statore,  with  which  also  his  spear  corre- 
sponded. 3  Chrm.  xxxIt,  8-T,  places  the  reformation 
ander  Juiah  In  tbe  twelfth  year  of  his  age,  while  2 
Kings  xxli.  3,  assigns  to  it  the  eighteenth  ;  the  former 
Rferring  only  to  the  lieginning  of  tbe  work,  while  the 
Mm  passage  poInU  to  some  great  progresa  in  it,  the 
notinKOat  of  idolatry,  as  is  required  by  2  Chron.  xxxv, 
19.  Many  otber  passages,  which  are  usually  adduced 
mderthiabead,  donoMielonatoit:  e.  g.  2  Chron.  ix, 
25,  Gonpand  wilb  1  Kings  It,  26;  2  Chron.  xxil,  2, 
with  I  Kings  Till,  !6;  )  Chron.  xxl,  1,  wiih  2  Sam. 
iiIt,  t;  1  ChroD.  xxl,  5,  with  2  Sam.  xxir,  9;   1 


.      CHRONICLES 

a.  xxi,  25,  with  2  Sam.  xxlr.  24;  2  Chron.  iHi, 
2,  with  1  Kings  xt,  10;  on  the  true  mode  pf  harmoni- 
xing  which  we  refer  to  Davidsfln's  Sacred  Utrmaioaiei, 
p.  544-554,  where  they  are  resolred.  A  large  class 
of  the  discrepancies  tn  question,  affecting  the  ages  and 
reigns  of  the  kings,  Is  due  simply  to  the  mode  of  reck- 
oning either  (a)  according  to  the  civil  as  distinct  tmta 

acred  year,  or  (b)  according  (o  dates  of  assoeia- 
tdon  wilb  the  reapectiTe  bthers  on  the  throne  {MM. 
Quart.  KrB.,  Oct.  1866,  p.  619  aq.,  where  all  these  are 
reconciled).     See  Chrosoloot. 

Many  less  Important  deviations  are  here  passed  OTer, 
as  being  referrible  to  the  arbitrary  choice  of  the  com- 

change  of  style,  etc.  Most  or  all  of  the  real  difficulties, 
with  respect  to  facts,  will  be  examined  under  the  seTersI 
articles  to  which  IheyreUte.  Manyof  theobacurities, 
aDd  not  a  few  dlscrrpanclo,  are  apparently  insoluble, 
owing  to  the  loss  of  the  original  data,  which  alone  could 
serve  to  explain  them.  Tbeseare  more  numerous  and 
formidable,  perhaps,  in  the  Chronicles  than  in  any  oth- 
er book  of  Scripture ;  yet  the  discrepancies,  even  were 
there  no  satisfactory  solution,  cannot  greatly  affect 
tbe  character  of  the  writer  of  the  Chronicles;  for  tbe 
probability  as  regards  correctness  will  Le  found  on  the 
part  of  the  later  writer,  who,  baring  tbe  earlier  works 
before  him,  would  not  nn necessarily.  In  matters  of  fact 
and  plain  numerical  statements,  where  differences  and 
contradictions  were  so  easily  disceroiblc,  vary  ftrom 
the  earlier  accoQnta  Ibvored  by  the  authority  arising 
from  age  and  prior  acceptance.  There  can  be  Doqoes- 
tlon,  moreover,  that  many  of  the  discrepancies  are  ow- 
ing Id  the  fanltof  copylsta,  while  Id  some  they  are  the 
result  of  the  different  riewB  and  designs  of  tbe  lespect- 
ive  writers,  or  the  brevity  of  their  statements.  In 
proof,  however,  of  the  accuracy  of  the  Chronicles,  the 
following  particulars  are  worthy  ot  consideration : 

a.  The  writer  is  exceedingly  definite  in  Ills  state- 
ments. Thus  the  time  when  it  occurred  to  David  to 
baild  the  Templo  of  the  Lord  is  indicated  (2  Sam.  vii, 
l),"It  came  to  pass  tohr*  pS)  the  king  sat  In  his 
boose,"  etc.,  but  more  definitely  stated  in  1  Cbron. 
xvii,  1  (nCRB),  "aa  aooii  oi  he  sat,"  etc.  (see  Heng- 
stenberg,  CkriMloL  i,  144,  Berlin,  1864) ;  whUe  the  ami*. 
slon  of  tbe  words,  "  and  the  Lord  had  given  him  rest 
round  about  from  all  his  enemies."  removes  tbe  chron- 
ological diinculty  in  that  statement  Of  his  aceunc}', 
again,  in  the  genealogical  notices,  tbe  following  ex- 
ample may  suffice.  In  1  Chnn.  Ii,  16,  mentian  is 
made  of  two  sisters  of  DaTld.  Abigail  and  Zeruiab,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  tbe  mother  of  Joali,  Ablshai,  and 
Asahel,  who  are  never  designated  after  their  hther, 
but  alwavs  after  their  more  illustrious  mother  (2  Sam. 
ii,  18 ;  xxi,  17,  etc.).  Amasa  Is  referred  to  as  a  blood 
relation  of  David  (2  Sam.  lix,  14);  according  to  2 
Sam.  xvii,  15,  Amasa  was  a  eon  of  Abigail,  and  she 
sister  of  Zeruiah,  the  mother  of  Joab;  but  the  daugh- 
ter of  Nahash,  not  ponitlvely  of  Jesse,  and  thus  per- 
haps only  the  half-sister  of  David,  See  Kababh. 
Therafore  it  is  that,  in  tbe  genealng3*  of  Jesse  (1  Clinm. 
ii,  13-17),  she  is  not  styled  hh  daughter,  but  only  rt- 
ferred  to  as  the  sister  of  David ;  a  distinction  which 
does  not  at  first  sight  strike  the  reader,  and  the  force 
of  which  could  not  indeed  be  learned  without  the  in- 
formation furnished  in  the  book  of  Samuel.  So  also 
2  rhmn.  vii,  7-10  explains  the  abbreviated  statement 
(1  Kings  Till,  65>.  and  the  otherwise  conCndictori'  ex- 
pression "the  eighth  day,"  verse  66 — a  proof  how 
manyof  tbe  discrepancies  arise  simply  from  the  brev- 
ity of  the  slatemenl. 

h.  The  scrupalouB  exactness  with  which  the  writer 
excerpts  from  the  original  documents  Is  vouched  for 
by  the  fact  of  his  sometimes  retaining  the  very  words, 
althoDgb  involving  expressions  no  longer  applicable 
to  his  own  [iroe— a  practice  which,  Ptrange  to  say,  has 
furnished  ground  to  assail  hit  accaracy.     Thus  tbe 


CHRONICLES  s 

Siinwuitas  are  >vd  to  poawu  the  Mita  of  the  Amal- 
ekituin  UountSeir.  dwelling  than  "unbi  tbig  day" 
(1  Chton.  Iv,  42,  43),  ■Itbough,  long  prior  to  Iha  com- 
potdtioD  of  the  hiMory,  they  bad  been  removed  from  all 
their  poeaeuious.  So  also,  in  tha  accDDiit  of  tha  re- 
moval of  the  ark  to  Solomon'a  Temple,  it  la  added, 
"and  tbersUli  untothia  day"  (^  t^'i'^D' v,  E>). 

e.  But  of  more  importance  is  the  indirect  coaftrma- 
tioQ  given  to  eererel  atatementa  in  the  Chronicles  l^y 
other  puaacea  of  Scriptora.  Thus  Hezekiah's  prepa- 
mtions  In  forti^ng  Jenualetn  vhen  threatened  by 
Sennacherib  —  his  itoppiDg  tbs  foanUins  and  "the 
brook  that  ran  thnmgh  the  midst  of  the  bind"  (S 
Cbron.  xxxli,  1-6),  are  fully  conllrmed  by  In.  zxii, 
S-11.  Again,  Psalm  xlviil,  IS,  etc.,  proliably  refers 
to  the  victory  of  Jeboshaphat  (2  Chron,  xx).  A  fup. 
ther  reference  to  this  victory  of  Jeboabaphat  is  found 
in  Joel  iv  [iii]i  the  prophetic  vision  resting  on  this 
history,  which  i«  tbns  the  foundation  of  the  divine 
judgment  on  tlie  enemies  of  the  theocracy.  (See 
llavemick,  Eiakitiaig,  II,  i,  216.)  In  the  reign  of 
Jeboram  the  Philistines  and  Arabians  invaded  Judub, 
plundered  the  royal  palace,  and  carried  away  the 
king's  stms  and  wives  (2  Chron.  xxi,  16, 17).  To  this 
incident  the  prophet  Joel  refers  (ch.  iv  [lii],  6,  6), 
where  the  Fbilistlnes  are  tbreutened  for  tbelr  plnnder- 
ing  of  the  Lord's  property  and  sale  of  the  Israelitish 
captives  i  the  ssme  also  in  Amos  I,  6.  The  Philistines 
aipdn,  in  the  time  of  Ahai,  invaded  the  south  of  Ju- 
dab,  and  took  several  important  cities  (2  Chron.  x^iviii, 
18).  With  this  agrees  the  prophecy  of  Isa.  liv,  28- 
Si,  which  again  finda  its  fallllment  in  2  Kings  xviii,  B. 

It  is  important  alao  lo  notice  how  the  Cbronicles 
form  a  commentaiy  on  various  passagea  of  the  other 
books,  and  evince  the  accuracy  of  anch  statements  as 
at  firat  sight  seem  to  contain  discrepancies.  Thoa,  la 
3  Sam,  vii,  5,  no  reason  ia  aseintned  why  David  abnuld 
not  baild  the  house  of  the  Lord:  *ad  in  1  Kings  v,  17 
[3],  ia  the  message  of  Solomon  to  Hiram,  an  external 
reason  only  is  assigned,  as  the  heathen  prince  could 
not  comprebend  the  deeper  one.  This,  however,  ia 
given  in  Darid'a  communicstlon  first  to  Solumon  (1 
Chnin.  xxil,  8),  and  afterwunlB  to  Isnel  in  assembly 
(1  Chron.  xxviit,  8).  The  addition,  "But  I  haie 
cboeen,  Jeruaalem,  that  my  name  might  be  there"  (2 
ChronJ  vl,  C,  comp.  with  1  Kings  viii,  16),  ia  excMid- 
ingly  important:  the  chmce  of  Jerusalem,  as  the  cen- 
tre of  the  theocracy,  waa  dependent  on  the  choice  of 
David  to  be  ruler  over  Israel— the  one  was  included 
in  the  other  (2  Sam.  vii).  The  tmlhrulness  of  the 
history  may  be  said  to  be  even  sttested  by  the  names 
of  the  eiilea  bom  eboitly  before  Ihe  restoration. 
from  their  eo  naturally  reflecling  the  hopes  which 
about  that  time  muat  have  been  stronglv  eiitenained. 
Thus  I  Chron.  iii,  19.  20:  Hanania'h  (Jfhoeak'i 
gract) ;  Berechiah  (JfkatmA'i  biaiing) ;  Hasadiah 
(Jthotah't  mercy) ;  and  Jushabhesed  (nvrn's  re- 
Mrv). 

Vlll.  EttgtHcal  Bt^ The  (Hrincipal  works  intro- 
ductory lo  these  books  specially  are :  Dahler,  De  lib. 
Faral^>(meiiin  muiotUali  (Argent.  1H19,  8vo);  Gram- 
berg,  Dit  Ciroml  HachihremgesehirAll.  ChimJeiir  (Hal- 
le. 182S,  8vo)  ;  Hovers,  Unltrt.  id),  d.  Cknmk  (Bonn, 
1834,  »vo);  Keil,  Vmack  ut.  d.  Chronik  (Deri.  ISilfl, 
8ve):  also  De  Wette,  Bitt.-krit.  Unltrt.  ub.  d.  Budvr 
d.  Chronik, in  his  Batr.  sur  Kritik  daA.T.\,  1-162 ; 
and  against  thla,  llerti's  Vm.  z.  Vertiirid.  d.  Chnmik 
(Allona.  1822,  8vo).  Compare  the  Eiilritrngm  of  De 
Wetle,  Eichhom,  Jihn,Havcmick,Keil,and  cspecUI- 
ly  BIcek  (1860) ;  alao  Davidson  in  Home's  Introdact. 
(new  ed.  ii,  673-688);  finally,  the  remarks  by  Gese- 
nius,  Gaek.  d.luir.  Spraeht  (Lpi.  1816).     Sec  I:(tbo- 


2  CIIRONOLOGY 

QaoMlioiiH  (0pp.  i,  pt.  1) :  Prooopins,  SdaUa  (in  Opp. 
viii.!);  MBurui.Coi>>mAitani((^.);  RaabI  and  Kim- 
(In  Buitorfli  £AKa  Bibr.  iv) ; 
If  (BasU,  1660,  4to) ;  Strigtl,  Cew- 
(Lipa.  1GS8, 1G91,  fol.)j  •Uvater,  Ciasssns- 
(ZUr.  1578;  Heidelberg,  1»99,  fol.);  Leonhart, 
uKmala  (Erf.  1608,  1614,  8vo);  Sernuioa.  Cms- 
menlaria  (Mogunt.  I60D-10,  2  vols.  foL)  i  Sanctina, 
Conmrntarii  (Antw.  1624;  l.yona,  1624,  fol.);  Bon- 
friie,  QnwnaKariuf  (Toniaei,  IMS,  S  vols,  fat.) ;  Jack- 
son, Afmalaliima  (Cambr.  1646,  2  vols.  4tn);  Brvk. 
Pan^rruii  Ckaldaiea  aim  hoUm  (Aug.  TInd.  1680, 
4to);  Wilkina,  Babbi  Joseph!  Pamplir.  CbaU.  (Can- 
Ub.  1717 ;  Amsterd.  I7ib.  4to) ;  Cam.  a  Idpide,  Lib. 
Para^  (in  bis  C'-mm-titaria);  Hicbaelis  and  Kam- 
bacb,  in  the  Amabiliima  ta  llagiogr.  lii,  24S  (HaL 
1720)  ;  •HoTsley.JVitfei  (in  the  BibL  Cn'l.  t);  Jeittelea, 
Dlinpi  (\'i6niia,  18CS,  fvo);  Weiwe,  C^S^n  (Pragiie. 
lead,  8vo);  K.1nigsfeldt,  Aumolatiomt  (bavn.  1839^ 
8vo) ;  •Berlhesu,  Di'  BAdier  dtr  Chnnik  rrUdrt  (Lp«. 
1854.  8vn,  being  Lief,  15  of  the  Eitg.  Handb. ;  alw  in 
English,  Edinburgh.  1857,  8vo);  Rabmcr,  Comar  -■ 
(Thorn,  1866,  8va,  vol,  i).     See  Commbntart. 


Cbronolosj.the  sc 


«  which  measum  time  by 


on  the  earth.  Accordingly,  chronology  may  lie  di- 
vided Into  two  kinds,  theoretical  or  technical,  and 
practical  or  ap^ied ;  in  other  words,  into  maliamti- 
cal  and  Utloriral.  The  former  is,  of  course,  tbe  meet 
trustworthy,  as  being  the  result  of  Hxed  laws;  while 
tbe  latter  la,  to  a  great  degree,  contingent  and  irreg- 
ular. In  this  article  we  have  to  do  only  witb  Bibli- 
cal dates  and  tbe  method  of  thoir  determination.    See 

I,  ZZmwwIs.— The  knowledge  of  tbe  Hebrews  in 
chronology  rested  alti^ather  on  appoarancat ;  not  a 
trace  of  anything  like  a  acientific  view  is  to  be  found 
in  their  literature.  The  books  of  the  Old  TeaUment 
recogniae  none  of  tbe  great  nraa  which  other  lutlofu 
have  employed.  Nor  is  it  until  tbe  lim  book  of  the 
Maccabeea  that  any  such  guide  is  found.  Instead  of 
these,  the  Hebrew  writers  usually  employ  more  limited 
and  local  or  national  epochs.  (See  below.)  Genealog- 
ical tables,  indeed. are  not  wanting,  but  they  are  of  lit- 
tle service  for  the  general  purposes  of  rhronology.  (See 
below.)  Formerly  great  exaetneea  waa  hoped  for  In 
tbe  dctermiaation  of  Hebrew  chronology.  Althongb 
the  materials  were  often  not  definite  enough  to  fix  a 
date  within  a  few  years,  it  was  neverthelers  expected 
that  the  very  day  could  be  ascertuned. 


■Mults,  ai 


nately  a 


general  feeling  of  distrust.     At  preaent  critics  ai 

er  prone  to  run  into  this  latter  extreme.     Tbe  tnth, 

judgment*.  Ihe  character  of  the  records  whence  we 
draw  our  information  forbids  ns  to  hope  for  a  perftct 
Bvatem.  The  Bible  does  not  give  a  complete  histoiy 
of  the  times  to  whidh  it  refers  i  in  its  historical  por- 
tions it  deals  with  apwial  and  detached  peHoda.  Tbe 
chronological  infomiution  ia,  therefore,  not  abaolutaly 
conlinuoua,  although  often,  with  the  evident  purpose 
of  forming  a  kind  of  connection  between  these  diBer- 
ent  portbns,  it  has  a  more  contiououa  character  than 
might  have  been  expected.  It  la  rather  historical 
than  strictly  chronolo^cal  in  its  character,  and  thus 
the  technical  part  of  the  aniijrct  dependa,  so  far  as  tbe 
Bible  is  concerned,  almost  wholly  upon  inference.    See 

HiSTORT. 

In  one  particular,  however,  great  can  has  usually 
lieen  exerd»ed  in  the  Hebreir  recorda,  namely,  the 
prevention  of  error  by  the  neglect  or  accumulatKin  of 
froctvmal  parit  of  a  j/ear  in  the  continuous  series  of 
or  reigna.     This  hai  beat  arr- 


gira)  by  adding  these  Into 


CHRONOLOGY       293       CHRONOLOGY 

bad  puir-t  in  the  cklendar,  so  that  tha  yean  m  si-  doubted  bars  to  iiKnify"  nights  and  duys."  Tbe  eom- 
vij*  to  be  accounted  "full"  untua  tpecKlad  >a  cur-  moa  word  for  da;  ai  dialin^uiabed  from  ni^ht  ia  alao 
Rat.  Navenbeleas.  in  connquencs  of  the  brief  and  used  for  ths  avU  day,  or  sbe  both  day  and  night  are 
Bmetuuea  double  line*  of  cm,  beginning  at  various  mentioned  to  avoid  vagueneu,  a>  in  the  csaa  of  Jo- 
KawDi  of  Um  year,  coDfoekm,  or  at  least  difficulty,  nab '>  "three  dayt  and  three  nighta"  (Jon,  li,  1  [A.T. 
iat  ofteD  crept  into  the  Matamenta,  which  ia  enhanced  1, 17]  ;  comp.  Matt,  xii,  K)).  The  civil  day  ma*  di- 
bytbe  fact  that  the  rnle  here  ataled  is  not  obierved  vided  Into  night  and  natural  day,  the  periods  of  dark* 
■ith  abaolnU  nnifOTmi^.  All  thla  la  eapeclally  lllut-  ueas  and  lii;bt  (tiea.  1,  &).  It  comoieuced  with  night, 
tntad  in  the  parallel  UMa  of  the  kings  of  Jdpah  and  which  itands  hnt  in  the  special  term  given  above, 
IsaiBi.  (q.  T.).  The  nighl,  V'V,  and  theiefore  the  civil  day,  ii  genetak 

L  Gmerali«u.-lt  ia  eommooly  auppoaed  that  the  i_  ^eld  to  haVe  begun  at  aunaet.  Ideler,  however, 
gmatogie.  given  ui  the  Wbla  are  invariably  contlnu-  ^^ae  admitting  thai  this  pdnt  of  time  was  that  of  the 
ous.  When,  however,  we  come  to  examme  them  commencement  of  the  civil  dav  among  all  other  na- 
doaely,  we  find  that  many  are  broken,  without  beintf  t,„„,  k„o„„  f^  a,  which  followed  a  lunar  reckoning, 
b  couaeqaence  leckntcaSs  defective  as  Hebrew  geneal-  „i,:g^t»  to  the  opinion  that  this  was  the  case  with  the 
ogiea.  A  notable  insUnceia  that  of  the  genealogy  of  j^„,_  He  argues  in  favor  of  the  boBinning  of  deep 
«r  Saviour  given  by  Matthew,  where  Joram  ia  mime-  „;  i,i^  reasoning  that,  for  instance,  in  the  ordaining  of 
diitaly  followed  by  Oius,  aa  if  his  son— Ahaaiah,  Jo-  t^e  Day  of  Atonement,  on  the  10th  of  the  7th  month, 
Bh,and  Amuiah  being  omitted  (Matt.  1,8).  That  jj  j,  „id"jntbe  ninth  [day]  of  the  month  at  even 
ihij  i.  not  an  accidental  omlasion  of  a  copylat  is  evi-  '  ft^Q,  ,„„  „„„  g^„_  ^^f  j,  celebrate  (literally,  rat) 
imttntB  the  apecificafaon  of  the  number  of  genera-  your  3abbath"(Loy.iiiii,82);  where,  if  the  civilday 
Oo»  from  AlTaham  W  David,  from  David  to  the  Bab-  ^^^^  ,t  sunset,  it  would  have  been  aaid  that  they 
jlooiah  Laptivity,  and  tram  the  Babylonish  Captivity  i  ^„„,j  co„,™,„„  He  observance  on  the  evening  of 
to  Cluiat,  In  each  caHi  fourteen  generations.  Proba-  the  lOtb  day,  or  merely  on  the  10th  day,  supposing  the 
Wy  IhHo  miaamg  name,  were  p«rpo«ly  \f«t>«  '  ^^  ..a^,„,  ..  (a-,j),o  mean  the  later  part  of  our 
mik*  the  number  for  the  intiirval  equal  to  thut  of  the       .  '  ,^    ' ''       ,    ,,  .    *T.      . 

other  luterrala.  such  an  omission  being  obvious  and  «"*""»"■  HecilM.aaprobably aupportragthiaview, 
sot  liatile  to  cause  error.  In  Eire's  genealogy  (Eira  the  axprestioD  B^Z';'?"  ;•!,  '■  between  the  two  even- 
vii,  !-!•}  there  ia  a  similar  omission,  which  in  so  famous  inga"  used  of  the  time  of  offering  the  passover  and  the 
a  line  <an  scarcely  be  attributed  to  the  carelessness  of  dally  evening  sacriflce  (Exod.  xii,  G;  Num.  Ix,  8; 
a  copyist.  There  are  also  examples  of  a  nun  b^lng  xxvlil,  4);  for  the  Pharisees,  whom  the  present  Jews 
callad  the  aon  of  a  remote  ancestor,  as  "Shebuel  tha  follow,  took  it  to  be  the  time  between  the  9th  and  llth 
mefaetsbonfGersbom],  the  son  of  Hoses"  (IChron.  hours  of  the  day,  or  our  3  and  6  P.M.,  although  tha 
Iivi,i4).  8o^  in  historical  narratives,  Jehu  Is  called  Samarltens  and  Kaiahea  supposed  it  to  be  the  time 
"Iha  aoo  of  Nimshi"  (I  Kinin  xlx,  16 ;  !  Kings  ix,  between  sunset  and  full  darknes^  partlcnlari;  oo  ao- 
9)1  iChron.  xiu,  7),  as  well  as  "the  son  of  Jehonha-  '  count  of  the  phrase  O^Cn  K^SS,  "when  the  snn  is 
phst  the  son  of  Nlrashi"  (1  Kings  ii,  2,  H).  Lal-an  „[[inir,"  used  in  a  parBllerpaSBa(|e  (Dent,  ivi,  6)  (see 
Bnlled"theBonofNahor"(Gon.xxis,5),fDrKrand-  Ba^JImth,  i.  ie2-iS().  Tbes«  passages  and  expres- 
™(iiYiii,2,6;  comp.  xxii,  30-23).  We  cannot,  ',(„„,  ^7,  however,  be  not  unreawnablv  held  to  sup- 
Hiwetoe,  venture  to  as«  the  Hebrew  genealo-ical  lists  p„„  the  common  opinion  that  the  civa'day  began  at 
lo  coopnu  Inurrals  of  time  except  where  we  can  .unset.  The  term  "between  the  two  eveningi"  can 
prove  e«^  deacent  lo  he  immediate,  and  where  the  ^rcely  be  supposed  to  have  originally  Indicated  n 
leaglh  of  each  generation  u  given.  See  Gbiiealouv.  long  period;  a  special  short  period,  though  scarcely  « 
Meier  temarka  that  Moaea  reckons  by  generation,,  point,  the  time  of  sunset,  is  shown  to  correspond  to  IL 
(ffaad«ic4,  1.  506) ;  but  this  ia  not  the  manner  of  This  is  a  natural  division  between  the  Uu  afternoon, 
Heredotna,  who  assumes  an  average  of  three  genera-  ,,|,en  the  sun  is  low,  and  tho  evening,  when  hia  light 
tuns  to  «  century  (11,142).  There  is  no  use  of  a  gen-  tw  not  whoUy  disappeared  —  the  two  evening  into 
eatwn  as  a  division  oftime  in  the  Pentateuch,  unless,  .tich  the  natural  eveninK  would  be  cut  by  the  com- 
lilh  some,  we  anpposa  that  I'l^,  a  "ganeratlou,"  in  mencement  of  the  civil  day,  if  it  began  at  sunseL 
dra.  IV,  IG,  IS  so  used ;  those,  however,  who  hold  There  is  no  difficulty  in  the  command  that  the  observ- 
Qui  opinion  make  it  an  Interval  of  a  hundred  years,  ance  of  so  solemn  a  day  as  that  of  Atonement  should 
■ince  it  would,  if  a  period  of  dme,  seem  to  be  the  fourth  commence  a  little  before  the  true  beginning  of  the 
part  ot  the  100  years  of  verse  IS;  most  probably,  how-  rivil  day,  that  due  preparatloD  might  be  made  for  the 
erer,  the  meaning  Is  that  some  of  the  fourth  genera-  sacri&cea.  In  Jndiea,  where  the  duraUon  of  twilight 
tim  should  come  forth  from  Bgj'pt.  See  Ge.iera-  ia  very  abort  at  all  time*,  the  most  nutural  division 
^■o'<-  would  be  at  aunset.    The  nalnral  "  day"  (Dl'<)  proba- 

2.  WrrnMU  "/Tt-M.  See  Time.  (1.)  ffoar.-The  Wy  was  held  to  commence  at  sunrise,  mominc-twl- 
h«ir  IS  supposed  to  be  mentioned  in  Daniel  (iii,  6, 15 ;  U,tht  being  included  in  the  last  watch  of  the  night,  ac- 
IV.  1«,30  [Engl.  13,33;  v,  6]),  but  in  no  one  of  these  cording  to  the  old  as  well  as  the  later  division ;  some, 
"Sts  is  a  definite  period  of  time  clearly  intended  by  however,  made  the  morning-watch  part  of  (he  day. 
Uu  Chald.  term  (n;i^.  {tr;;;^,  Etn;i^)  employed.  SeeDAV;  Niaiir.  Fournaturalperiods,amal1crthan 
Tit  Egyptians  divided  the  day  and  night  into  hours  I  ths  civil  dav.  are  mentioned.  These  are  S*-?,  even- 
'■"'"  *  t  least  B.C.  cir.  1200  (Lepeins,    ing,  and  n^a,  morning,  of  which  tiiere  is'fivquent 

1M.^       1.  :.  ....„, .  >_.    „^tioo  „5u„,e„„„jO-':nx,"tbetwolighte." 

b«r  fh«.  an  eariy  period.  T1.e  '■aun^UI  of  Ahax,'' ',  "  "■ongh  •'double  UgW^^^'  noon  and  nb-fen  nS::^!.  or 
■hatever  inatrument.  Axed  or  movable,  it  may  h^j  ;-'="3'  "  Wf  the  niabt,"  midnight.  No  one  of  these 
liwn,  implies  a  division  of  the  kind.  See  Diau  In  "i">  ■  people  not  given  to  astronomy  seems  to  indl- 
Ihe  S.  T.  we  llnd  the  same  nvstcm  as  the  modem,  the  cato  ■  point  of  time,  but  all  W  designate  peiiode,  even- 
boats  liting  reckoned  from  the  beglanlng  of  the  Jew-  ''"«  •"<!  morning  being,  however,  mnch  longer  than 
lih  night  and  day.     See  HouK.  i  noon    and  midnight.      The    night  waa  divided  Into 

(i.)  Dof.—fM  the  civil  day  of  H  hoars  we  And  In  !  watches  (niiBldK).  In  the  O.  T.  but  two  are  ez- 
•ae  plate  (Dan.  viii,  H)  tha  Mnn  ipls  3*^7,  ''even-  pressly  mention^],  and  we  have  to  Infkr  the  existence 
l>»w*aln«,-'  Sept.  yinfifil-'OOf  (also  In  2  Cor.  xi,  2.1,  '  "f  »  '^ird,  the  Ar-t  watoh  of  the  night.  (In  Lam.  11, 
A.V.  "a  night  and  a  day"),'  Whatever  maybe  ihe  19.  I^^I^CK  ^»->  of  course  refen  to,  without  abso- 
inpw  OMuIng  of  this  Hebrew  tenn,  it  cannot  b« .  lutely  d^gnating,  tbe  lint  watch.)   The  middle  watcb 


CHRONOLOGY  294  CHBONOLOGY 

(n3'"l3''^(1  n^battn)  occun  Id  Jndg.  Tli,  19,  where  ;  S«pt.  vtoitip^a,  from  ths  root  ti^n,  le  te  mm  ;  asd 
(he  caDnection  of  wittche*  with  military  affain  la  evi.  '  in  ipeikiiiK  of  the  first  dij  of  ■  moDth  Ihii  word  wit 
dent:  "  And  (iideon  and  tbs  hondred  men  that  [wen]  aometimeB  uied  with  the  addition  of  ■  number  for 
with  him  went  down  unto  the  extremity  of  the  Mmp  the  whole  ex|»«giiioa,  "  in  such  a  month,  on  the  lint 
■t  the  beginning  of  the  middle  watch  j  [und]  they  day,"a«  rwn  Dl'a  ....  ■'0""^Er!  dTria,"On  th* 
had  but  Mt  thB  watchmen  Bi-nrt'n,"  The  morning-  third  new-moon  ,  ",  .  ,  on  that  day"  (Exod,  xix,  1) : 
watch  OI?^n  n'n^SpK)  ii  mentioned  In  Eiod.  xir,  hence  the  word  came  to  •Igni^  month,  thoogh  then  it 
£4,  and  1  Sam.  xl,  11 ;  in  the  former  can,  in  the  ac-  waa  lomatimea  quaLGed  (0*^13;  O^^l}.  The  new-tnoon 
count  of  the  paus^e  of  the  Red  Sea;  In  the  latter,  in  wae  kept  u  a  Mcred  feativgl  (q.\.).  In  the  Tenta- 
thatofSanl'a  aurprias  of  the  Ammonitee  when  ha  re-  tench  and  Joehna,  Jodgea  and  Ruth,  we  And  but  one 
lieved  Jabeah-gUeod.  Some  Rabblna  hold  that  there  month  mentioned  by  a  apecial  nime,  the  rcM  beinir 
were  four  watchea  (Ideler,  BamdlnuA,  i,  4S6).     In  the   o,i|ed  .ccording  to  their  order.    The  month  with  a 

L^m""..'"^.^?'^  !t  'o  '°'"'*"""^'  "^i^J  '?"  apecUl  name  la  the  fir«.  which  ia  called  a-'SKn  chh 
probably  adopted  from  the  Ramans  aa  a  modiflcation     ,r^  ,  .     "  lu  i.  uuim  j  jm_i  ^u' 

of  the  old  ayatem.  All  four  occur  together  in  Mark  tf^  /"(i-  r«.  «u.».),  ■  the  month  ofean  of  com,"  or 
aiii,  85 :  if  i,  the  late  watch ;  aiaovviTiov,  midnight ;  ^™"'  ""  '''  ""  ■no""'  'n  '•>'=*'  tlie  *•"  of  own 
a\i<n-pof>wia,tbe  cock-crowing;  and  irowT,  the  early  h«"nie  fiill  or  rip*,  and  on  the  ICth  day  of  which,  the 
watch.    See  Watches  op  Nioiit.  Mcond  day  of  the  feast  of  unleavened  bmad,  ripe  eaia, 

(8.)  Wak  (rianj,  a  hebdomad).— The  Hebrew  week  ^''^^  "'"  *<*  ^  offered  (Lev.  ii,  14 ;  comp.  iiiii,  10, 
waa  a  period  of  seven  days,  ending  with  the  Sabbath;  "•")-  Thia  undoublad  derivation  showa  how  erro- 
therefore  it  could  not  have  been  a  division  of  the  '  ''*°"  ''  "*  ""  ""'  -*""  '="'"«»  ^™  ^^'  E«7I*ian 
month,  which  was  lunar,  without  intercalation.  But  i  ^"p^-  In  1  King"  three  other  name*  of  montha  oc- 
there  was  no  auch  inteicaiation,  since  the  Sabbath  was  cur,  Zif,  ^t,  or  1't.  the  second ;  Ethanim,  C':r"K.  tin 
to  be  eveiy  seventh  day;  its  name  ia  nsed  for  week,  seventh;  and  Bal,V>ia,  the  eighth.  Theae  na'tnes  ap- 
and  weeks  are  counted  on  withont  any  additional  day  I  pe„_  ^a  that  of  Ablb,  to  be  connected  with  the  pht- 
ordaya.  The  mention  together  of  Sabbaths  and  new  ;  nomena  ofa  tropical  year.  No  other  name*  are  found 
moooa  provea  nothing  but  that  the  two  ohserrances  in  any  book  prior  to  the  Cajdtivity.  but  in  the  book* 
were  similar,  the  one  closing  the  week,  the  other  com-  written  after  the  reWm  the  ieler  nomenclature  atiU  In 
mencing  the  month.  The  week,  whether  a  period  of  n„  app„ra.  Thla  ia  evidently  of  Babylonian  origin, 
•even  daya,  or  a  quarter  of  the  month,  was  of  common  „  the  Jews  themselves  affirm.  See  MoirrB. 
na.  in  '"'Uqni^-  The  Egypdan^  however.  ''^"Itt'-  (6.)  Kew  (nn;J).-It  ha.  been  auppoeed.  on  «>:onnt 
out  It  (with  Dion  Caasius,  xiivii,  19,  comp.  Lepelns,  '    ,\'  .  ,      -  'A.  •■         ».i.    m^j  .       . 

Orowi  d.  ^.  i,  181, 133),  dividlDK  their  month  of  80    "^  t*-?  ^T>^,    ^^w7  "!„  ' "  "^L 

.        ...     ".^       '....'.'  .  „.  mentioned. that  in  Nouh  a  Ume  tberawu  ■  i-rarnfMD 


time  there  was  a  j-ear  of  £6 
daya.     These  dates  may  indeed  be  explained  in  ai 


into  decades,  as 
w«k,therefo™,«nnothaveboenadoptedfrom  Egypt;  |  ""£?■      '°™  <"«■  ""Jo'Ji'f"  "*  ^^^ 
probably  both  it  and  the  Sabbath  Zre  uaed  «>d  ob^    ""l-"".  *!"'„»  ?"'  ''^.»^?  ^^-    T^f 
aerved  by  the  patriarchs.    See  Week;  Sabbath. 


by  which  the  time  ia  measared  in  the  account  of  the  |  n,e,nj  ,,ar(see  xi,  18),  cannot  l«  doubled 'to  be  «iuiv. 
PloDd  may  have  been  of  80  daya  each,  possibly  form- ;  alcnt  eaprcrriona  to  the  42  months  and  1!60  daya  of 
log  a  year  of  860  day^  for  the  lat,  2d,  7th,  and  10th  j  Rev.  (xi,  2,3;  xii,  G),  for  r60x31=JS60;  and  SOX 4t 
months  are  mentioned  (Gen.  viii,  13;  vii.ll;  viii,  14,  =17H).  We  have  also  tlie  testimony  of  ancient  writ- 
4, 5).  Ideler,  however,  contests  thia,  arguing  that  as  era  that  such  a  yenr  wks  known  to  some  nation*,  so 
the  water  Arst  began  to  sink  after  160  days  (and  then  that  it  is  probable  that  the  year  of  Noah  waa  of  thb 
had  been  16  cubits  above  all  high  monntains),  it  moat  length,  whatever  may  biive  been  that  of  the  months 
have  aunk  for  aome  days  ere  the  ark  could  have  rested  :  referred  to  by  Moaea  in  the  narrative  of  the  Flood  (q. 
on  Arant,  so  that  the  aecond  date  must  be  mire  than    v.). 

ISO  days  lator  than  the  flist  [Baailnch,  \,  69,  70,  47»«,  jha  characteristics  of  the  year  Inttitnled  at  the  Kx- 
479).  This  argument  depends  upon  the  meaning  of  ;  „dus  ran  be  clearly  determined,  though  we  cansot  atr- 
"  high  moonUins,"  and  upon  the  height  nf  those—  anlutcly  fix  those  of  any  aingle  year.  There  can  be 
"the  mountains  of  Ararat"  (vlii,  4),  on  which  the  erk  no  doubt  that  it  was  essentially  tropical,  aince  certain 
rested,  questiona  connected  with  that  of  the  univeraul-  observancea  connected  with  the  produce  of  the  land 
ity  of  the  Hood.     See  Dbldoe.     On  the  other  hand,    y^^e  fixed  to  particular  days.     It  is  equally  clear  that 

interval  to  five  months  of  80  days  each,  and  the  UBO  of  ,  moon.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  there  mitrt 
a  year  of8B0daya,in  prophetJc  paasagcs  ofbothTes-j  ha„  been  some  modo  of  adjnslment.  To  ascertaia 
tame^t^  are  of  no  slight  weight.  That  the  months  „|u,t  thia  was,  it  is  necessary-  flrH  to  decide  when  the 
fromthepvingofthe  l*w  until  the  time  of  the  Seo  I  yp„  commenced.  On  the  36th  day  of  the  month 
ond  Temple,  when  we  have  certain  knowledge  of  their  Abib,  as  abeadv  mentioned,  ripe  cam  of  com  were  to 
eharacUr,  were  always  lunar,  appears  from  the  com.  I  i,,  oBfered  as  li'r.t-fruita  of  the  harvest  (I*v.  ii,  14  ; 
mand  to  keep  now-moons,  and  from  the  unlikelihood  y^^xx\,  10, 11).  The  reaping  of  the  barley  commenced 
of  a  change  in  the  calendar.  Thes;  lunar  months  have  far.  harvest  (2  Sam.  xsi,  9),  the  wheat  folln  wing  (Ruth 
been  soppoKid  to  have  been  always  alternately  of  29  jj^  m',,  Joaephus  expressly  aays  that  (he  offering  waa 
and  80  days.  Their  averaK  length  would  of  course  '  Charley  (^b(.  lii,  10, S).  It  ia  therefore  necessarr  to 
be  a  lunation,  or  a  little  (14  )  above  29*  daya.  and  fi„d  when  the  bariev  1  ccrmes  ripe  in  Palestine.  Ac 
tberefore  tiiey  wooid  in  general  he  sllemntely  of  M  ,  coiding  to  the  obs^vation  of  traTcllere,  the  barley  is 
andBOdays;  built  iapoMibiethatoccasionally  months  ripe,  in  the  warmert  parts  of  the  conntrv,  hi  the  firxt 
might  occur  of  28  and  f\  days,  if,  as  ia  hii'hiy  proba.  days  of  April.  The  barley -harvest  th'erefcre  com. 
bio,  the  commencement  of  each  was  strictly  deter-  fences  aboot  half  a  month  after  the  vernal  eqainox. 
mined  by  obwaration ;  that  ob-ervation  was  employed  „  ,^^1  the  year  would  l*gln  at  about  that  troHcal 
for  this  purpose  ia  distinctly  aBlnned  in  the  Babytoni.  p^int  were  it  not  di.lded  into  lunar  montiis.  We  may 
an  TalranB  of  the  practice  of  the  time  at  which  it  waa  conclude  that  the  nearest  new  moon  about  or  after  the 
written,  when,  however,  a  month  was  nnt  allowed  to  equips,  but  not  moch  before,  waa  choH^  a.  the  ami. 
be  less  than  S9,  or  more  than  80  days  in  length.  The  mencement  of  the  year.  Ideler.  whom  we  bare  thtu 
firat  day  of  the  month  is  called  O^fl,  "  new  moon ;"  ,  Cir  followed  aa  to  this  year,  conclude*  that  the  i1^ 


CHRONOLOGY  21 

liv  moon  vbi  cboscn  throogh  obsemtloii  of  ths  fo^ 
wdoflBfl  of  the  lJwrLpv-crop>  in  the  wAFmer  dutrlcta 
of  the  isotxaUj  (BaMdUkeA,i,49li).  There  is,  however, 
thk  diffiGQll7,  that  the  differeot  tiinea  of  )Hirle}--hu- 

oontUnioi.  It  Momi,  therefore,  not  DDlibely  that  the 
Hebmn  uJctptHi  the  >aTBr  mekiia  of  determining  their 
VT-jew'a  d»y  by  obMrvatiuiu  of  heliuel  riaioga  or 
aimlUr  atellar  pheoomcna  known  to  murk  the  right 
tiiiH  befiHv  the  bsriey-harveat.  Certainly  Che  uncient 
EgTptiBUa  and  tbe  Anba  nude  nas  of  Boch  means. 
The  metbod  of  lotercalattoa  can  only  have  beeo  that 
which  obtsjned  after  tbe  Captivity— the  addition  of  a 
thirlaeDth  month,  nrhenever  tlie  twelfth  ended  Iso  long 
beten  tbe  aquinai  for  the  flrat-ft-Dits  of  the  harrest  to 
be  offered  in  the  middle  of  tbe  month  following,  and 
the  aimilar  oR^rings  at  the  timea  Appointed.  This 
netbod  would  be  in  accordance  with  the  penniaaion 
granted  to  postpane  the  celebration  of  tbe  I'uaaover  in 
the  caae  of  any  one  who  waa  either  legally  andean  or 
Jeameyiiig  at  a  distance,  for  a  whole  month,  to  the  11th 
dayof  the  eecond  month  (Nam.  ix,  9-13).  of  which  per- 
mkaiaa  we  find  Heukiah  to  have  availed  himaelf  for 
both  the  rsaaona  allowed,  bac«u«e  the  prieats  were  not 
laSeieDtly  aanctiAed  and  the  people  wen  not  collect- 
ed (!  Chnin.  xu,  1-8,  lb}.  The  later  Jewa  had  two 
ba^oingi  to  the  year,  or,  u  it  ia  commonly,  but  Mme- 
vbat  ioaccarately  aaid,  two  yean.  At  the  lime  of  the 
Second  Temple  theae  two  befcinninga  obtained,  the 
KTcnth  month  of  the  civil  Teckonin>c  being  Abib,  the 
dm  of  the  eacred.  Hence  it  haa  been  held  that  the 
iutitntlon  at  the  time  of  the  Eiodoe  waa  merely  a 
change  of  commencement,  and  not  the  introdaction  of 
a  new  year ;  and  alao  that  f^m  thia  time  there  were 
tka  two  beginniaga.  The  former  opinion  ia  at  preaent 
porely  hypothetical,  and  ha*  tieen  too  much  mixed  up 
wHh  tlie  latter,  tor  which,  on  the  contntj,  there  ia 
woie  evidence.     See  Ykab. 

(8.)  StateKi.—Tba  ancient  Hebrewi  do  not  appear 
to  have  divided  their  year  into  Hxed  aeaaona.  We  find 
menbon  of  the  natural  aeaaona,  y^S,  " summer,"  and 
V\y\  "winter,"  which  are  uted  for  tbe  whole  year  (In 
Pu.  IxxiT,  17j  Zech,  liv,  8;  and  perbspi  Gen.  vii), 
S).  The  former  of  these  properly  meana  the  time  of 
catting  fmits,  and  the  latter  that  of  gathering  fruits ; 
tbe  one  referring  to  the  early  fruit  teasou,  the  other 
to  the  late  one.     Their  troe  ligniUcationa  are,  there- 


in doubt,  however,  that  they  camo 
rrand  dlvlriona  of  the  year,  both 

a,  and  ham 


let.  There  cau 
to  ilgsily  the  ti 
frun  tbeir  nee  together  ■*  the 
tbe  mention  of  the  "  winter-houae"  (7)^nil  r^a)  and 
the"anmnier-bou»e"(y:5r;nia,Ami)a  111,16)?  The 
latter  evidence  ia  the  atrouger,  aince  the  winter  ia  tbe 
tioM  In  Paleatine  wlien  a  palace  or  bouse  of  diSerent 
eonitnietion  woald  be  needed  from  the  light  aunimer 
pavilion,  and  in  the  only  puaaage  beaidea  that  referred 
to  in  which  tbe  winter-bouse  ia  mentioned,  we  read 
that  Jehoiakim  "  aat  in  tbe  wInter-houae  in  the  ninth 
BMntb;"  that  ia,  almoat  at  mid-winter;  "and  [there 
•■a  ■  fire]  on  the  hearth  burning  befbre  him"  (Jer, 
xixvl.  33).  It  la  probable,  however,  that  "winter," 
"  *i'y\  when  uaad  without  ref^nce  to  the  year,  aa 
In  Job  iiis,  i,  has  its  original  algaification.  The 
phrua  oni  Ip,  "cold  and  beat,"  in  Gen.  viil,  22,  ia 
•till  mora  general,  and  cannot  he  held  to  indicate  more 
than  the  great  alternations  of  temperature,  which,  like 
tboae  of  day  and  night,  were  promised  not  to  cease 
(tdeler,  Stmditch,  i,  4M).  There  are  two  agrlcnllural 
■aaaooi  of  a  more  special  character  than  the  preceding 
In  tbdr  ordinary  use.  Theae  are  ;^t,  "aeed-time," 
Ukd  1-<X^,  "barvHt."  Idaler  makea  these  equal  to 
the  fongolna  aeaaona  when  dmllarly  osed  together  j 
bat  he  hu  not  proved  thia,  and  the  paasage  he  qnolea 
(Gml  L  c)  cannot  be  held  to  aflbrd  any  evideDce  of  the 


»  CHRONOLOGY 

kind,  unUl  some  othar  two  terms  in  it  are  provhlloba 
aUictly  correspondent.     See  Seabox. 

3.  Fttivalt  and  Holy  Zloyi.— Besides  the  Sabbaths 
and  new-moona,  there  were  four  great  festivals  and  a 
faat  in  tbe  ancient  Hebrew  year,  and  a  great  celebra- 
tion every  seventh  and  fiftieth  year.     See  Festival. 

(1.)  The  Feast  of  the  Paasover  (noD)  WM  property 
only  the  time  of  the  sacrifice  and  eating  of  the  paschal 
lamb,  that  is,  the  evening,  O^S^Sri  ■f-'S,  "between 
the  two  evenings"  (Lev.  ixiii,  S)— a  phrase  previous- 
ly considered — of  the  14th  day  of  the  first  month,  and 
the  night  following,  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread 
(nSSln  Hn)  commencing  on  tho  morning  of  tbo  IStli 
day  of  the  month,  and  lasting  seven  davs,  until  tho 
21at  inclusive.  The  Ifith  and  21st  days  of  the  month 
were  Sabbaths,  that  is,  holy  days.     See  Passoveb. 

(2.)  Tho  Feast  otWeeks(ni3Sl^  im,  or  Pentecost, 
was  kept  at  the  close  of  seven  week><,  counted  fh>m  tho 
day  incluslTo  following  the  16th  of  the  1st  month. 
Hence  ita  name  means  the  feast  of  seven  weeka,  aa  in- 
deed it  is  called  in  Tohit  (li/in  iwril  i^do/uiSMr.  il,  1). 
Aa  the  eara  of  barley  as  firMt-frnits  of  thu  harvest  we ru 
offered  on  the  16tb  day  of  the  1st  month,  ao  on  this 
day  thanlugl  ring  was  paid  for  the  bleaaing  of  the  har- 
vest, and  firat-trnita  i^  whB.it  offered  as  well  as  of 
faults;  hence  the  names  n-'X^ri  jn,  Feast  of  the  Har- 
vest, and  D-'^Wan  0^^  Day  of  the  First-froits.    See 

PKHTKCOST, 

(8.)  The  Feast  of  Trumpets,  n?1^nDl^(lit.iIoyo/ 
tmmpetjomuf).  "l*"  called  HSfl^Fl  '(itSl  linsg,  i. 
e.  "  a  great  festival  of  celebration  by  the  aonnd  of  tbe 
trumpet,"  was  the  1st  day  of  the  7th  month,  the  civil 
commencement  of  the  year.     See  TMUHrET. 

(4.)  The  Day  of  Atonement,  O^l&Sh  Dr,  was  tbe 
10th  day  of  the  Tth  month.  It  waa  a  Sabbath,  that  is, 
a  holy  day,  and  also  a  fast,  the  only  one  in  tlie  Hebrew 
year  before  tbe  Babylanish  Captivity.  Upon  this  day 
the  high-priest  nude  an  offering  of  atonement  for  tbe 
nation,  Thia  annual  solemn  rite  seems  more  appro- 
priste  to  the  commencement  than  to  tho  middle  of  the 
year;  and  tbe  time  of  its  celebration  thus  affords  some 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  theory  of  a  double  beginning. 
See  Atohkhkst  (Day  or). 

(a.)  The  Feast  of  Tabemaclea,  nissh  in,  waa  kept 
In  the  Ttb  month,  from  the  Ifith  Co  the  22d  days  Incln- 
sive.  Its  chiof  days  were  the  ilrst  and  last,  wbich  were 
Sabbaths.  Its  name  waa  taken  from  tbe  people  dwell- 
ing in  tabernacles,  to  commemorate  the  Exodas.  It 
was  otherwise  called  ^''OKti  jn,  i.  e.  "the  feast  of 
gathering,"  because  It  was  also  instituted  as  a  time  of 
thanksgiving  for  tbe  end  of  the  usthering  of  fruit  and 
of  the  vintage.     See  T*beiisaclk8  (Feabt  of). 

The  small  number  and  simplicity  of  these  primitive 
Hebrew  festivals  and  holy  days  is  cspecblly  worthy  of 
note.  It  is  also  obeervaljle  that  tbay  are  not  of  an  as- 
tronomical chancier;  and  that  whan  they  are  connpcl- 
ed  with  nature,  it  ia  as  directing  the  icratituda  of  the 
people  to  him  who.  In  rivin';  good  things,  leaves  not 
himself  without  witness.  In  later  times  many  holy 
days  were  added.  Of  these  the  most  worthy  of  remark 
are  the  Keast  of  Purim,  or  "Iiotr,"  commemorating  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  fVom  Hainan's  plot,  the  Fnast 
of  the  Dedication,  recording  the  cleansing  and  re-dert- 
icalion  of  the  Temple  Ijy  Judas  Haccahaus,  and  fusts 
on  the  anniTeTsariesofereatnatlanal  misfortunes  con- 
nected with  tbe  Baliylonish  Captivity.  Tbese  U»t 
were  dnubtleu  inMltoted  daring  that  period  (camp. 
Zech.  vii,  1-6).     See  Pobim  ;  DeDtCATioii. 

(B.)  Sabiab'eal  imd  Jubilee  Fean.  — The  sabba^cal 
year,  Fl^iaiyn  P id,  "the  fallow  year,"  or  possibly 
"year  of  remission,"  or  mnaip  alone,  also  called  a 
"aabhnth,"  and  a  "  great  sablMth."  waa  an  instltotlon 
of  strictly  tbe  same  chancier  aa  the  Sabbath— a  year 


CHRONOLOGY 
It  hi 


of  r«[.  like  tbe  dBj  of  n«t.  It  hu  dM  been  lofflclent- ' 
ly  noticed  that  aa  tbe  day  bae  B  tide  of  phyiiial  neoea- 1 
>ity  with  leferoncfl  to  man,  hi  Iha  jcbt  bu  a  >ide  of  i 
ph;tical  necesiitjr  witb  referenco  to  the  eaclb.  Ever)' 
terenth  year  appeara  M  he  •  very  saitaLle  time  for  the  ! 
recuTTente  of  a  fallow  year,  on  agricultural  principloa.  I 
Bcaidea  tba  rest  from  the  labon  of  the  field  and  vine- 1 

or  abeolute,  of  deliU  and  obligations  among  the  peo- 
ple. Tbe  aabliatical  year  aeema  to  have  commenced  | 
at  tbe  dril  beginning  of  the  year,  with  the  aeventh 
month.  Although  duubtleia  held  to  commence  with  I 
tbe  first  of  tbe  month,  ita  beginning  appears  to  have 
been  kept  at  tbe  Fesit  of  TaJMrnaclea  (Deat.  xxxi,  ' 
10),  while  tbat  of  the  jabllee  year  waa  kept  on  the  Doy 
of  Alonemeot.  Tbis  inatitution  scema  to  have  lieen 
greatly  neglected,  as  indeed  waa  propliesjed  by  Moaci, 
who  apeuka  of  the  deaolation  of  the  land  aa  an  enjitying 
the  aabbsths  which  had  not  been  kept  (Lev,  xivi,  34, 
3S,  43).  The  aeventy  yeare'  captivity  ia  aleo  rpoken 
ofin2Chron.  (isvi,  21)aaan  enjoj-ing  aabbath;  but 
thin  may  be  on  account  of  the  number  being  aabbati- 
cal,  BB  tan  timea  seven,  which,  indeed,  soema  lo  be  in- 
dicated ill  the  passage.  After  the  lapae  of  seven  sab- 
bftticsl  periods,  or  forty-nine  yesrs,  a  year  of  Jubilee 
waa  to  be  kept,  immediately  following  tbe  last  sabbat- 
ical year,  Tbis  waa  called  Vai'ri  P3D,  "tbe  year  of 
the  trumpet,"  or  33*1^  alone,  tbe  latter  word  meaning 
either  the  aoand  of  tbe  trumpet  or  tbe  inatrument  it- 
self, because  tbe  commeDcemeut  of  the  year  waa  an- 
noanced  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  by  sound  of  trum- 
pet. It  was  similar  to  the  sabbatical  year  in  ita  cbxr- 
acter,  although  doubtlesa  yet  more  important.  In  the 
jubilee  year  dBl>ta  were  to  be  remitted,  and  lands  were 
to  be  restorad  lu  tbeir  former  owners.  It  is  obvioua 
from  the  worda  of  the  law  (Lev.  xxv,  8-11)  that  this 
year  followed  every  sevenOi  sabbalical  year,  so  tliat 
the  opinion  that  it  was  always  idenUcal  with  a  aabliat- 
ical  year  la  nntenable.  There  is  a  further  question  as 
to  the  length  of  each  Jubilee  period,  if  we  may  use  tho 
term,  some  lialdinR  that  it  bad  a  duration  of  Hfty,  but 
others  of  forty-nino  years.  Tbe  lutler  opinion  does 
not  depend  upon  the  suppoaition  that  the  seventh  sab- 
batical year  was  tbe  Jubilee,  since  tbe  jubilee  might 
be  tbe  first  year  of  the  next  aeven  years  after.  Tbat 
Buch  was  the  caae  is  rendered  most  probable  by  the 
analog;  of  the  weekly  Sabbath,  and  the  cnatnm  of  the 
Jews  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  B.C.  i  altbaui;b 
it  mnat  be  noted  tbat,  accnrding  to  Ualmonides,  the 
Jnbilee  period  wss  of  Ulty  years,  tlte  fifty-fiist  year 
commencing  a  new  period,  and  that  the  »*me-  writer 
mentions  that  the  Jews  had  a  tradition  that  after  thu 
destruction  of  the  first  Temple  only  sabliatical  years, 
and  nojubilee  years,  were  observed  fldeler,  UnndbiuA, 
i,iKI8,504).  Tbatastimonvofjosephua  doea  not  seem 
to  us  at  all  conclunve,  although  Ideter  (I.  c.)  bnlda  it 
to  be  soj  fbr  bii  language  {ravra  Kivrljian^a  /liy  ia- 
nv  ."nj  rd  b-ovto,  ^b*.  iii,  12,  8)  cannot  be  held  to 
prove  absolulelythat  the  Jubilee  year  was  not  tbe  first 
year  of  a  aabliatical  period,  instead  of  standing  between 
two  SDch  periods. — It  is  important  to  ascertain  when 
the  first  sabbatical  year  ouyht  to  have  been  ki'pl; 
whether  the  sabbatical  and  juliilee  periods  seem  to 
bave  been  continuoita;  what  positive  record  there  is 
of  any  sabbaticnl  or  Jubilee  years  having  lieen  kept ; 
sind  what  indications  there  are  of  a  reckoning  by  such 
years  of  cither  kind,  1.  It  can  scarcely  be  contested 
tbat  tbe  first  sabliatical  year  to  he  kept  after  the  Is- 
raelites bad  entered  Canaan  would  be  about  the  four- 
teenth (Jennings,  JriciA  Anl'guiliri,  bk.  iii,  cap.  9). 
It  la  poasible  that  it  mixbt  bave  liren  somewhat  earlier 
or  later;  but  the  narrative  will  not  admii  of  much  lat- 
itude, 3.  It  is  clear  tbat  any  sabbatical  and  jnbilee 
years  kept  from  the  time  of  Joshua  until  tbe  destruc- 
tion of  the  first  Temple  would  bave  been  reckoned 
ftum  the  first  one,  but  it  may  be  questioned  if  any 


itofthe 


16  CHRONOLOGY 

kept  utter  the  retom  would  be  counted  in  tba  BUBa 
manner :  Ttoai  tbe  nature  of  the  Institations,  it  la  tattl- 
er to  Le  supposed  that  the  reckoning,  in  the  second 
case,  would  lie  IVom  tbe  first  caltiration  of  the  conatty 

do  not  enable  us  to  tat 
do  not  know  exactly  the 

first  cultivation  of  tbe  coontry.  Tbe  recorded  d 
of  sabbatical  years  would  make  that  next  after  the  r»- 
turu  to  commence  in  B.C.  628,  and  be  cnmmt  in  B.C. 
S37,  which  would  make  the  fitat  year  of  tbe  period 
B.C.  (>34~S,  which  would  not  improbably  be  the  fint 
year  of  cultivation  ;  but  in  tlie  case  of  so  short  ■  pe- 
riod this  cannot  be  regarded  aa  evidence  of  much 
weight.  S.  There  is  no  positive  record  of  any  inbilea 
year  having  been  kept  at  any  time.  The  datee'  of  tlirM 
sabbaticalyearshave,  however,  been  presened.  Tbess 
current  B.C.  163, 1S6,  and  ST,  and  therefore  cmd- 
ed  in  each  esse  about  three  months  earlier  than 
the  beginning  of  these  Julian  years  (Josephns,  Aut.  zli, 
9,G;  iUi,8,li  ziv,16,!;  XV,  1,  2;  IFur.i,!,  4;  ati 
1  Mace,  vi,  49,  68).  4.  There  are  some  chnnotogical 
IndlcatlouB  in  the  O.  T.  that  may  not  unresBonably  be 
supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  ubbatlcal  tystcm. 
Tbe  prophet  Eaokiel  dates  his  first  prophecy  of  tboe* 
in  the  book  "in  the  thirtieth  year,"  etc.,  "which  [w»i] 
the  fifth  year  of  king  Jebulachin's  captivity"  (i,  t); 
thus  appsrentiy  dating  in  the  former  case  ftvm  a  bet- 
ter known  era  than  that  of  Jeboiachin's  csptiviQr, 
which  he  employs  in  later  places,  without,  however, 
in  general  again  describing  it  TliiB  data  of  the  SOIh 
year  bos  been  variously  explained ;  some,  witb  Uabar, 
suppose  that  tbe  era  is  the  IBth  year  of  Josiah,  when 
the  book  of  the  law  was  found,  and  a  great  paaBovet 
celebrated  (see  Hlveniick,  ConmnKar  iter  Earh.  p. 
12,  IB).  This  year  of  Josiab  would  cerUiDly  be  the 
lirst  ot  tbe  reckoning,  and  might  be  used  as  a  kind  of 
reform  Btlon-ara,  not  unlike  the  sra  of  Simon  tbe  Msc- 
cabee.  Others  suppose  tbat  tbe  thirtieth  vear  of  tbe 
prophet's  life  is  meant,  Lut  this  seems  very  uultkcly. 
Uthers  again,  including  Scallger  {JDe  Enemdatkt 
Ttmporam,  p.  79,  SIS,  ed.  16)<S)  and  RosenmQller 
{Schol.  in  loc.),  bold  that  tbe  date  is  from  tbe  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  Nabopolassar.  There  la 
no  record  of  an  era  of  Nabopolauar ;  that  kicf;  had 
been  dead  aome  years ;  and  we  have  no  instance  in  the 
O.Test  of  the  use  of  a  foreign  ara.  The  evidence, 
therefore,  is  in  favor  of  Josiah's  16th  year,  B.C.  62S. 
There  seems  to  be  another  tefeience  to  this  data  In 
the  same  l«ok,  where  the  time  of  the  iniquity  of  Ju- 
dah  is  said  to  be  40  years ;  for  tbe  final  captivity  of 
Judab  (Jer.  iii,  SO)  was  In  the  41st  year  of  this  reck- 
oning. In  the  same  place  (Eiek.  iv,  5,  B)  the  time  of 
tbe  iniquity  of  Israel  is  said  to  ■«  390  years,  whidl 
sum,  added  to  tbe  data  of  tbe  csptivitv  of  this  [«jt  «f 
the  nation,  B.C.  720,  goes  back  to  B.C.  lUl.  This 
result  leads  to  the  indication  of  pofsible  Jobllee  datea; 
for  tbe  inUrval  between  B.C.  1111  and  B.C.  6S8-2  is 
488-9  years,  almost  exactly  ten  jubilee  periods;  and 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  seventy  weeks  of  the 
prophet  Dsni el  seem  to  indicate  tbe  use  of  such  a  great 
cycle.  It  remains  to  be  asked  whether  the  aocoonti 
of  Joaiah's  refonnaticMi  present  any  indications  of  ecle- 
btstions  connected  with  the  sabliatical  system.  The 
findingoftheliookofthcLawmight  seem  to  point  to 
ita  being  specially  required  for  some  public  servks. 
Such  a  service  was  tbe  great  resding  of  Ibe  Law  to  the 
whole  congregation  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  in  ev- 
ery sabbatical  year  (Deut.  xxxl.  10-13).  The  finding 
of  tbe  booh  was  certainly  followed  by  a  public  read- 
ing, apparently  in  the  first  month,  by  tbe  king  to  Ibe 
wlude  people  of  Judah  and  Jemeslem.  and  afterwards 
a  solemn  possover  waa  kept.  Of  tbe  latter  celebra- 
tion is  it  said  in  Kings,  "  Burely  there  was  not  boMen 
such  a  possover  &om  the  days  of  the  Judges  that  Judg- 
ed Israel,  nor  in  all  the  days  of  (he  kings  of  Israel,  not 
of  tbe  kings  of  Judah"  (2  Kings  sxiii,  3'J) )  and  la 


CHRONOLOGY  21 

Qiraaielc*,  "Ttum  wm  no  pcuover  liks  to  that  kept  j 
in  ItEBcl  fiwn  tbe  dsya  o(  Sumuel  tbe  pnipheC ;  nei-  ; 
tkar  did  all  the  kiagi  of  lanel  keep  anch  u  paaaover  aa 
iimah  kept"  (3  CliroD.  sxv,  18).  Tba  mention  of  I 
Samnal  ia  remaikabla,  aiuce  Id  hia  time  th*  earlier  lup- ' 
pfoad  itoM  (B.C.  lUI)  fiiUg.  It  ma?  be  olijMted  that  j 
the  puaorar  ia  Dowbere  connected  with  the  aabbatlca]  | 
nckoning;  but  these  paaaoTera  can  acarcely  have  been  I 
grwiar  in  aacriScea  than  at  leaat  ooe  in  Solomou'a 
raign,  nor  ia  It  like];  that  they  are  meutloDed  as  char- 
actcriied  bj  siBiter  aeal  Ihan  tuf  others  whatever,  i 
as  that  WB  an  almoat  driven  to  the  idea  of  aome  Tela-  i 
tioa  to  chronolog?.    See  Sabbaticai.  Yrae;  Jubi-  \ 

4.  jSrai.—Tbtn  are  iadicalioaa  of  nveral  hiator- 
kal  mrma  h«Ting  been  aaed  by  the  andent  Uebiewa, 
bnt  onr  intormation  Is  so  scant}-  that  we  are  geaerally 
asable  to  come  to  positive  concloaiona.  Some  of  tbese 
poaaible  craa  may  be  no  more  than  dataa  employed  by 
wrlten,  and  not  nstiotial  asna;  others,  however,  can 
seanely  have  been  used  in  this  (pecial  or  individual 
manner  from  their  referring  to  events  of  the  highest 
trnportance  to  the  whole  people.     See  Epoch. 

(1.)  The  Ezodua  is  need  as  an  lera  in  1  Kings  ri,  1, 
in  givini;  tbe  date  of  the  foundatiDn  of  Solomon' a  Tem- 
ple. Tbia  la  tbe  only  positive  iaatanee  of  the  occur- 
fsiee  ortbiaBTa,for  WB  cannot  agne  with  Ideler  that 
it  ia  eertainlv  employed  in  the  Peotaleacb.  lis  refers 
la  Eiod.  xlx,  1,  and  Nam.  xxxiii,  B8  (ffoniffrHci,  1, 
Uny.  Here,  aa  elsewhera  In  the  same  part  of  the  Bi- 
ble, the  beginning  of  the  Exodus-year — not,  of  courae, 
tbe  actual  data  of  tbe  Bxodui  (see  Rrgnat  gtart,  below) 
—  ia  used  aa  tba  point  whence  time  is  counledj  but 
daringthe  Interval  of  which  it  fermed  the  natural  com. 
neacemcDt  it  cannot  be  shown  to  be  an  ara,  tboogb 
it  may  have  bean,  any  mora  than  the  beginning  of  a 
■ovareif^'a  reign  is  ons.     See  Ekodk, 

(L)  The  foundation  of  Solomon's  Temple  la  conjec- 
tned  by  Ideler  Lo  have  been  an  nra.  The  passages 
to  which  be  refers  (1  Kings  ix,  10;  2  Cbron.  vlll,  1) 
menly  speak  of  occamaces  aubeequent  to  the  inter- 
val of  SO  yean  occupied  in  the  building  of  the  Temple 
and  the  king's  house,  both  being  distinctly  specified ; 
so  that  hi*  reading  ("Zwantig  Jabre,  oachdem  Salo- 
me daa  Haas  det  Herm  arbaute")  leaves  out  half  the 
■tatement,  and  so  makes  it  incorrect  (JIandb.  \.  c). 
It  u  elsewhere  aUted  that  the  bnllding  of  the  Temple 
oecBpled  seven  yeata  (1  Kings  vi,  37.  H8),  and  thst  of 
Solomon'*  house  thirteen  (vii,  I),  making  up  Lbs  inter- 
val of  twenty  years.     See  Tbhpli. 

(8l)  Tbe  «ra  once  used  by  Eiekiel,  and  commencing 
in  Joaiah's  18th  year,  we  have  diacDsaed  above.     See 

JOOIAH;    EZICKIEL. 

(1.)  The  BTB  of  Jehidachln'a  captivity  i*  oonstaotly 
■sad  by  Eaekiel.  The  earliest  dale  ia  the  5th  year  (1, 
i\  asd  tbe  latest  the  ^th  (xxlz,  17).  The  prophet 
geanally  ^it»  tbe  data  withoot  applying  any  dis- 
tlnOive  term  to  the  ara.  Hespeaka,  however.of'tbe 
fiftk  year  of  king  Jeboiachin's  captivity"  (i,  2),  and 
"tha  twelfth  year  of  our  captivity"  (xix'ili,  SI),  the 
latter  of  which  expreaaions  may  explain  bla  constant 
BBBof  tbe  sra.  The  same  Ara  ia  necessarily  employed, 
Ihaa^  not  aa  such,  where  the  advancement  nf  Jehol- 
acUn  in  tba  S7th  year  of  his  captivity  la  mentioned  (2 
Kings  XIV,  27 ;  Jer.  Ui,  81).  We  have  no  proof  that 
it  was  ti«ed  except  by  those  to  whose  captirity  it  re- 
teiMl.  It*  Ant  year  was  currant  lt.C.  MS,  commenc- 
ing la  the  spring  of  that  year.      See  JeroiachiH. 

(5.)  Tha  beginning  of  the  seventy  yeara'  captivity 
doea  not  appear  to  have  l>e«n  used  aa  an  nta  \  but  the  I 
daatmetion  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians  !•  occa- 
tknally  teferred  to  for  cbninologlcal  pBrpoaea  (Enk. 
xl,  I).    Sea  CAmvrrr.  I 

(S.)  Tb*  return  from  Babylon  duet  not  appear  to  be  ' 
*Bpki7*dB*  an  arai  it  ia,  however,  reckoned  from  in  j 
Bara  (til,  ],  8),  aa  is  the  Exodn*  in  tbe  Fentalanch. 

^^  11^.0.  ' 


>r  CHRONOLOGY 

(7.)  The  era  oftba  Selandda  ia  used  in  the  Brat  and 

second  books  of  Maccabees.     See  SELBDCua. 

(a.)  The  liberation  of  tbe  Jews  from  the  Syrian 
yoke  in  tba  first  year  of  Simon  the  Uaccabee  i*  staled 
to  luve  lieen  CDnunamorated  by  an  era  used  in  con- 
tracts and  agreements  (I  Mace,  xiii,  41).  I'he  years 
1,  2,  and  S  on  the  coins  ascribed  to  Simon  [see  MoH- 
II ;  Sheehi.]  are  probably  of  this  nra,  although  it  is 
related  that  the  right  of  coining  money  with  bis  o 


intilH 


it  lab 


than  its  beginning  (xr,  6\  tor  It  may  be  reBSonaU}- 
supposed  either  that  Antiochus  VII  confirmed  privi- 
leges before  grsnted  by  his  brother  Demetrius  II 
(comp.  XV,  6),  or  that  be  gave  bis  sanction  lo  money 
already  Issued  {Eacgei.  Brit..  8th  ed.,  s.  v.  Numismat- 
ics, p.  379, 860).     See  Maccabees. 

(9.)  Rtgmd  YtaTi.—Ry  tbe  Hebrews  regnal  yean 
appear  to  have  been  counted  from  tha  beginning  of 
the  year,  not  from  tbe  day  of  tbe  kiag'a  accesaion. 
Thua,  If  a  king  came  to  tha  throne  in  tbe  laat  month 
of  one  year,  rtigned  tbr  the  whole  of  tbe  next  year, 
and  died  in  tbe  ftrat  month  of  tbe  third  year,  wo  might 
have  dataa  in  Us  first,  second,  and  thiid  yeaia,  al- 
thongh  be  governed  Ibr  no  more  than  thirteen  or  foni^ 
teen  months.  Any  doles  in  the  year  of  his  acceasion 
befbre  that  event,  or  in  tbe  year  of  his  death  after  it, 
would  be  assigned  to  tbe  la*t  yejr  of  bis  predecessor 
and  the  first  of  his  successor.  Tbe  aame  principle 
would  apply  lo  reckoninir  ^  from  nraa  or  important 
events,  but  the  whole  stated  length*  of  reigns  or  Intir- 
vals  would  not  be  affected  by  it.     See  KiHO ;  Kno- 

II.  i)ata.— Tbe  btstorkal  part  of  Hebrew  chronolo- 
gy i*  not  less  difficult  than  tbe  technical.  Tbe  infoi^ 
matioD  In  tha  Bible  is  indeed  direct  ruther  than  infer- 
ential, although  there  ia  very  important  evidence  of 

tbe  Utter  kind ;  but  the  present  stAte  of  the  numbers 
makes  absolute  certainty  in  some  caaea  impossible. 
In  addition  lo  this  difficulty,  there  are  several  gap*  in 
tbe  series  of  amsller  numbers  which  we  have  no  means 
of  supplying  with  «xoctn ess.  ^\' hen,  therefore,  we  can 
cnmpare  seveTMl  of  tbese  smaller  numbera  with  a  lar- 
ger number,  or  with  independent  evidence,  we  are  fre- 
quently prevented  from  putting  a  conclusive  test  by  the 
deficiencies  in  the  first  series.  Lately  some  have  laid 
great  atreas  upon  tbe  frequent  occurrence  of  tbe  nnm- 
ber40,  alle)^ng  that  it  and  TO  are  vague  terms  equiva- 
lent to  "  many,"  so  that  "40  j-BBrs"  or  "70  year*" 
would  mean  no  more  than  "many  years."  Frindjiicit 
this  Idea  would  seem  reasonable,  but  on  a  further  ex- 
amination it  will  be  aeen  that  the  details  of  some  peri- 
od* of  40  years  are  given,  and  show  that  the  number  ia 
not  Indeflnile  where  it  would  at  first  eepedally  seem 
lo  be  so.  Tbua  the  40  yean  in  tbe  wlldemesa  can  be 
divided  into  three  peri<>d« :  1.  From  tbe  Exodus  to  the 
sending  out  of  tiie  rfiet  wsi  about  one  year  and  a 
quarter  (1  year,  l  +  i  [2?]  months,  Num.  ix,li  x,ll; 
comp.  ver.  29,  showing  it  was  this  year,  and  xiii,  SO, 
proving  that  the  search  ended  somewhAt  after  mid- 
summer) ;  2.  Tbe  time  of  search,  40  days  (Num.  xiii, 
25);  a  The  time  of  tbe  wandering  until  the  brook 
Zered  was  crossed,  88  yeara  (Deut.  ii,  14)— making  alto- 
gether almost  3^  years.  This  perfectly  accord*  with 
the  date  (yr.  40,  m,  II,  d.  I)  of  the  address  of  Moses 
after  tbe  conquest  of  Slhon  and  Og  (Deut.  i,  R,  4), 
which  was  anbeequent  to  the  crossing  of  the  brooli 
Zered.  So,  again,  David's  reign  of 40  yeaia  Isdivided 
Into  7  vears  B  montbi  in  Heliron,  and  38  in  Jerusalem 
(i  Sam.  ii,  11 :  V,  o :  1  Chron.  Ui,  4 ;  hot  1  Kings  U.  11, 
7  years,  omitting  tbe  montha,  and  Kt).  This,  tbere- 
forf",  cannot  be  an  indefinite  number,  as  soma  might 
conjecture  TrfTo  Its  following  Saui'a  iO  years,  and  pre- 
ceding Solomon's.     The  last  two  reigns,  again,  conld 

*lanc««  of  the  history.  Tbe  occurrence  of  some  round 
numbers,  tberefore,  does  not  warrant  our  supposing 
the  cunatant  use  of  vague  one*.     See  Kdxbeb. 


CHEONOLOGT  21 

Tbs  ittoinpt  to  "correct"  m  improve  tbe  Hebnw 
cbroDologj  by  i  ts*na  of  the  data  litely  deciphered 
from  tbe  Egj'pUan  and  Aeiyrlan  Inicrlptions  hu  been 
■  lavorils  method  of  Ut«,  aa  wu  in  preTiona  times  ■ 
*imilu  compBrieou  with  the  relica  of  tncient  records 
in  butbea  autbon.  But,  anrortanatel]',  these  state- 
menta  are  so  discrepant  wltb  one  another,  and  tbe  ra- 
sulta  vary  so  widely,  as  to  be  of  very  little  practlc«l 
valoe  for  such  a  purpose.  Tbe  hierogl/pbicil  data 
are  too  ft-iKtnentary  and  disconnected,  a«  well  as  too 
nncertsinly  translated  bitberto,  to  afford  any  definite 
cbronologicil  chain ;  and  the  cuneiform  legends  do  not 
rise  eo  early  as  tbe  disputed  part  of  Bililical  cbronolo- 
sy.     SeeEoTFT:  Assvbia.  | 

1.  froin  Adam  to  Abran'i  departure  out  of  Ilaraii. 
—All  tbe  numerical  data  in  tlie  Bit.le  for  the  chronol- 
og}-  of  tbis  interval  are  comprised  in  two  ^neulo^ticsl 
lists  In  Genesis,  tbe  firat  ttom  Adam  to  Noab  and  bis 
aona  (Gen.  v.  S  to  the  end),  and  tbe  aecoad  from  Shem 
to  Abram  (xi,  10-21),  and  in  certain  passagea  in  the 
lime  Iwok  (vii,  6,  II ;  viii,  IS ;  ix,  28, 29 ;  xl,  S2 ;  lil, 
4).  The  Mi.aor«tic  Helirew  teil,  the  Septnagint  Ver- 
aion,  snd  tbe  Samuitan  Pentateuch  greatly  differ,  aa 
may  be  aeen  by  the  fbUowing  table,  while  tbe  paiallel 


18  CHEONOLOGT 

canHS  whatever.  Aa  no  two  of  the  lists  correspoiid 
throughout,  snd  as  a  high  degree  of  antiquity  nndoobt- 
edly  belonga  to  them  all,  each  baa  bad  its  advocates  sa 
tbe  tme  oriKinal.  The  cardinal  importance  of  tbe  rab- 
Ject  demands  a  clear,  full,  and  Impartial  examination 
of  the  ar,0iments  that  bear  npon  their  anthority  sever- 
ally, as  well  as  npon  tbe  accuracy  of  pirtlcnlar  nam- 
bers.  Aa  a  preliminury,  it  muat  be  noted  that  tbe  vB- 
riations  are  the  reealt  of  dealgn,  not  accident,  as  is  ev- 
ident from  the  years  before  the  birth  of  a  son  and  th« 
residues  agreeing  in  their  sums  in  almost  all  cases  in 
the  antedilnvian  generations,  tbe  exceptions,  save  one 
(Ijimecb),  being  apparently  the  reanlt  of  neceaaity  thaf 
lives  abould  not  overlap  tbe  data  of  the  Flood  (comp. 
Clinton,  FaM  Mdln.  i,  286).  We  have  no  clew  to  the 
date  or  datca  of  the  alterations,  except  that  we  can 
trace  the  Sept.  form  to  the  lat  cenlnry  of  the  Cliriatiaii 
nra.  If  not  higher,  and  the  Heb.  to  the  Itb  centaTT-; 
if  tbe  Samar.  numbers  be  aa  old  as  tbe  text,  we  can 
aaaign  them  a  higher  antlqnity  than  what  is  known  ss 
to  the  Hell.  Tbe  little  acquaintance  moat  of  tbe  early 
Christian  writers  had  with  Hebrew  makes  it  impoasi- 
Lle  to  decide,  on  their  evidence,  that  the  variation  did 
not  eslat  when  they  wrote ;  the  tesUmony  of  Joiepbli* 


■ 

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1 

accounta  of  Josephua  (_Ati/.  i,  8,  S,  and  4,  9 ;  S,  .■> ;  T,  1) 
do  not  exactly  tally  with  any  of  them.  The  Latin 
Vulgate  strictly  conforms  to  the  Helirew.  1  be  prin- 
cipal vsriouB  readings  are  given  between  bracketa, 
and  the  nnmhers  which  are  c.miianl  from  alatements 
in  the  text  are  enclosed  in  a  parenthesis.  In  tbis  pe- 
riod there  are  a  number  of  aorlous  difficulticB. 

(1.)  The  number  of  generations  in  Cho  Sept.  Es  ono 
in  excess  of  the  Heb.  and  Samar.,  on  account  of  the 
"Second  Cainan,"  whom  tho  best  chronologera  are 
agreed  in  rejecting  as  spuriona.  He  la  found  else- 
where onlv  in  soma  copies  at  1  Chrnn.  i,  17,  and  in 
Lake  iii,  B6.  JosepboF,  Pbilo,  and  the  earlier  Chris- 
liin  writers  appear,  however,  to  have  known  nothing 
of  bim,  and  it  is  therefore  proliable  either  that  be  was 
firat  introduced  by  a  copi'iat  into  Che  Goepel  and  tbence 
into  the  SepL,  or  :;1*e  that  he  was  found  in  some  HSS. 
of  (be  .'*c|it.  and  thence  intredupod  intn  tbe  Gwpcl.  and 
■rterwardu  into  all  other  cnpiea  of  the  Sept.    See  Cai- 


(2.)  Tbe  remarkable  dixcrepanciea  In  near 
names  aa  to  the  respective  ogea  before  and 
birth  of  the  eldest  son,  while  the  totals  given 
!y  agree,  baa  nccaatoned  grealer  variety  In  tbe 
of  different  Biblical  chronologers  than  any  or 


-  all  tbe 


is  here  of  more  weight,  but  in  hia  pretent  tan  It  sbciwi 
I  rootradiction,  though  preponderating  in  favor  of  tbe 
'  Sept.  numbers.  A  comparison  of  the  lists  would  laid 
!  ua  to  suppose,  on  internal  evidence,  that  they  had  first 
I  two  forma,  and  that  the  third  version  of  Ibem  Mngina- 
ted  t^nm  these  two.  This  auppowl  later  version  nf 
the  Hats  would  aeem  to  he  the  Ssnur.,  which  certainly 
la  less  internally  conaletent,  on  the  anpposition  of  tbe 
original  correctness  of  the  numbers,  than  tbe  other 
two.  The  caaae  of  tbe  altenttons  Is  moM  uncertain. 
It  has  Indeed  been  conjectured  that  the  Jews  sbortCD- 
ed  the  chronol<^,  in  order  that  an  ancient  propbecv 
that  the  Heeslab  should  come  in  the  uxlb  mlDeoa^ 
of  ^e  world's  age  might  not  be  known  to  be  fulfilled 
In  tbe  advent  of  our  Lord.  Tbe  reason  may  be  nijfl. 
cient  in  itself,  but  it  does  not  rest  upon  aufflcient  evl- 
di^nee.  Il  is,  however,  worthy  of  remark,  that  In  tbe 
apostolic  age  there  were  hot  diacuasiona  respecting 
gsneabigiea  (TiL  Hi,  9),  which  would  »oem  to  Indicate 
that  great  importance  waa  attached  to  them,  perhaps 
also  that  tbe  differences,  or  some  difl^nce,  then  ex- 
isted. The  diflVrenl  proportions  of  tbe  (tenemtloni 
and  lives  in  tbe  St-pC.  and  Heb.  bave  been  aaaeitrd  to 
afford  an  ailment  in  favor  of  the  fomier.  At  a  later 
period,  however,  ibsn  we  f^nd  instances  of  longevity 


CHRONOLOGY 


e  long 


r  of  ths  I 


lily  of 


nn,  ii  foimd  in  the  1oa({  period  required  froio  Uw 
Flood  [Q  tbe  DispeiBion  uid  the  eitibliibmenl  of  king- 

ilu  pitriarcbiil  generutiaM  ihould  be  eicher  eiceptioii' 
tl  «r  repruent  periods.  Fur  the  former  of  tbeae  by- 
psthesei  ne  >h*II  «ee  there  i>  nme  ground  la  the  sim- 
iUr  me  of  certain  ({enenttonB,  juat  klluded  to.  from 
Abnbjm  downward).  Witb  reipect  to  probability  of 
lauztcy,  arising  from  the  state  of  the  text,  the  Heb, 
certiinly  has  the  advantage.  There  is  every  reiBoa 
to  tbiuk  that  the  Kabliios  have  been  scrupulous  in  the 
(itreuM  In  making  alterationa ;  the  Sept.,  oa  the  oth- 
er hand,  showa  signs  of  a  corelennen  that  VDUld  al- 
nioat  permit  chjinge,  and  we  have  the  probable  Inter- 
poUliaa  of  the  poat-diinvian  Caiiuut.  If,  however,  we 
Cfluidei  the  Samar.  tunn  of  the  lists  aa  sprung  tinm 
tbe  otbec  two,  the  Sept.  would  seem  to  be  earlier  than 
(he  Heb.,  since  it  ia  more  probable  that  the  antedila- 

eral  agreement  with  the  Heb.,  than  that  the  poat-dilu- 
Tian  would  have  been  lengthened  to  suit  the  Sept. ; 

of  jesra  having  been  deducted  th>m  the  earlier  genera- 
tiooi,  the  operalinn  waa  not  carried  on  with  the  later. 
It  ii  noticoable  thiil  the  tlaled  enma  in  the  post-diiu- 
Jua  genaratioaa  in  the  Samar.  generally  agree  with 
thacompatcd  aumaorthe  Heb.,  and  not  with  those  of 
tha  Sept.,  which  would  be  explained  by  the  theory  of 
anadiptitionoTone  of  these  two  to  the  other,  altboagb 
it  ■onld  not  give  oa  reason  (or  auppoting  either  form 
(0  be  the  earlier.  Tbe  general  presumption,  on  exter 
Bii  grounds,  would  certainly  l>e  in  f^vor  of  the  iicb., 
bMb  aa  being  unqnestioiubl}'  tbe  original  bom  which 
iIm  otben  (except  perhaps  tlie  Samsr.,  which,  singa- 
Isiiy  eaooKh,  is  the  lea.il  probable,  on  other  consider- 
atiom,  of  all)  are  known  to  have  been  tranaljted— and 
averdion  can  never  rise  higher  in  authority  than  its 
MHirce:  and  also  because  of  the  manifastiy  greater 
Hue  of  purity  in  which  tbta  text  has  been  trdnamitt«d 
lo  lu,  in  comparison  with  either  of  the  others.  See 
SurrtAoiMT;  Sahabi-t.im  Pbsiateuuei.  Tbe  text 
uf  Joaepbua  ia  too  corrupt  in  iu  numliers  to  be  at  all 
relied  upon,  as  may  be  seen  f^rom  the  slightest  coropari- 
lonafthesumsin  the  title  of  the  cbaptara  witb  tbe  de- 
tailed contents,  having  doabtleea  been  tampered  with 
bj  readers  who  need  only  the  Sept.  or  Vnlg.  versions. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  the  author  or  last 
rtdactOT  of  the  book  of  GeneeU  intended  that  the  nar- 
ntive  abould  be  connected  by  thia  continuous  series 
of  time-marks.  Jewish  and  Chriatiiui  cbronoiiraphera 
accepted  the  statemeata  unquestioned,  and  held  that 
lb*  aeries  of  years  of  the  world  thus  formed,  from  the 
creitton  ot  tbe  flrat  man  to  tbe  death  of  Joseph,  ac- 
RXded  with  the  truth  of  facta.  The  import  end  the 
sBtbority  of  the  numerical  statemenle  were  to  tiiem 
unimpisohable ;  the  only  question  was  that  which  re- 
lated to  their  genuine  form.  And  supposing  the  in- 
quirer to  have  decided  In  favor  of  tbe  (ireek  text,  even 
H  (here  are  diveraitiea  to  be  discureed,  for  tbe  Sept. 
hu  Tarions  readings  of  some  of  the  numbers  both  be- 
fon  and  after  the  Flood ;  in  particular,  while  most  of 
the  copies  have  a  second  Cainan  after  Arpbanad,  with 
)  descent  of  130  years,  this  addition  ia  ignored  by  otb- 
n  ropiea  and  liy  importunt  authorities  (see  Braame. 
Orde  SaeL  J  3II7,  and  note ;  Mill,  Cht  Oc  Dnant  ami 
Parmtogt  -fAf.  Sn'umT,  p.  14H  aq.).  The«e  consid- 
enticma  will  account  lor  tbe  tnortnous  discrepancy 
vhich  appear*  in  the  estimatea  formed  by  dilTbrent 
(troDoti^ta  of  the  number  of  years  contained  in  the 
book  of  Cenesia.  The  Hebrew  numben,  from  Adam 
to  Terah's  ;Oth  year,  make  IBM  p'«j  202  years ;  the 
Sept.,  with  iU  various  readings,  2-^42  or  SS'iS  pba  642, 
CI  Vm,  or  1072,  or  1172 ;  tbe  Sumritaii,  1307  pfw  M2. 


B  CHRONOLOGY 

This  laat,  however,  need  not  come  into  canaldvration, 
since  it  ia  well  understood  that  the  Samaritan  text, 
here  as  elsewhere,  is  merely  fabricated  from  the  Greek 
(Hengsunber^',  Aalh.  da  Fmi.  1,  S2  sq.);  and  tboea 
whotreat  it  asan  independent  authority  (e.g.  LepduB, 
Chr.Mj,  dfr  j£g.  p.  897  sq.)  only  show  themselves  ig- 
norant of  tbe  results  uf  criticism  on  this  subject.  Of 
course  the  Sept.,  in  one  or  more  of  its  ennmeratious, 
would  L«  followed  !>]'  those  early  inquirers  who  bad 
Bcceaa  to  that  text  only ;  the  earlioat  extant  eatimale, 
by  Demetrius,  an  Alexandrine  Jew  of  the  tliird  cen- 
tury' B.C.  (quoted  from  Alexander  Pulyhistor  by  £n- 
aebius,  Ptitp.  t^axg.  ix,  21, 12),  makes  tbe  interval 
from  Adam  to  the  birth  of  Abraham  22fi2  jAu  1072. 
JoaephuB  certainly  did  not  follow  the  Sept.;  bla  num- 
bers in  the  generations  before  and  after  the  Flood  have 
been  forced  into  conformity  with  the  Greek  by  a  later 
and  unskilful  hand,  which  betrays  itaeifby  leaving  its 
work  incomplete  (Browne,  Orda  Sad.  §  St»-32I).  As 
the  chronology  of  Dr.  Hales  (which  aome  still  accept 
as  ButhoriUtive)  profeaaea  to  ba  based  on  tbe  SepL, 
tectifled  by  tbe  aid  of  Joeephus,  It  oucht  to  be  known 
that  the  text  of  this  author,  besidea  hftving  been  pal- 
pably vitiated  in  thia  portion  of  it  (.^  ■(.  I,  3,  4 ;  6,6), 
swarma  with  gross  iuconaiateDcies,  caused,  it  would 
seem,  by  hia  adopting,  without  nSection,  atatementa 
belonging  to  diB^nt  chronological  eyatema  (aee  Nie- 
bahr,  Gndkiektt  Aam  k.  BitiitU,  p.  347  sq)-  Of  the 
Christian  writers  of  the  flrat  three  centuries  Origen 
alone  knew  Hebrew,  and  he  first  leaves  the  Sept.,  but 
only  in  part;  Jerome,  the  learned  Hebraist,  declares 
for  "tbe  Hebrew  verity,"  and  aa  hia  racenaion  uf  the 
old  iulic  version  forma  the  basis  of  the  Slitine  Vnl- 
gate,  which  a  canon  of  Trent  declares,  under  anathe- 
ma, to  be  canonical  and  inbllibie,  the  Hebrew  chro- 
nology is  virtually  perpetuated  in  the  chorchea  of  tbe 
Roman  obedience.  Tbe  Greek  Church  still  holds  by 
the  Sept.  Our  own  popular  Bible  chronology  (Uab- 
er'E>,  which  Bishop  Lloyd  attached  to  the  margin  of 
oar  Bibles)  follows  the  Hebrew.  During  the  last  cen- 
tury there  baa  been  a  disposition,  in  aome  of  our  own 
and  the  Continental  writera,  to  abandon  the  Hebrew 
for  the  Sept.,  chiefly  prompted  by  Che  wish  to  enlarge 
the  period  before  Abraham,  so  aa  to  allow  more  time 
for  the  growth  of  nationa  after  the  Flood,  and  (more 
recently)  to  facilitate  the  "  connection  of  aacred  and 
profane  chronology"  in  the  earliest  ages  of  mankind, 
especially  with  respect  to  Hanetho's  E^'ptlan  chro- 
nology. The  question  of  probability  and  inducement — 
to  enlace  on  the  part  of  the  Alexandrine  Jews  (comp. 
Bunaen,  yEg.  St.  v,  68),  to  contnct  on  the  part  of  the 
Haaoretea — ia  discuased  hi  Browne'a  Ordo  Stfdonim, 
§  30e  aq.;  and  Uie  artificial  proce.<aeB  by  which  the 
Sept.  numbers  are  formed  from  the  Hebrew,  and  not 
rice  veria,  have  been  exposed  by  the  aama  writer,  ib. 
§  BIB  »q.,  and  further  in  TIte  d/cb-i  nf  Egsptim  Chro- 
nologs,  §  72  (Arnold'a  Theological  Critic,  ii,  145  aq.). 
The  fundamental  importance  of  the  aubject  in  Biblical 
chronology  requires  a  more  exact  and  detailed  exam- 
ination than  we  And  in  tbe  Dictionaries  of  Smith  and 
Kitto,  from  which  the  preceding  in\'estigatioDS  are 
chiefly  taken,  as  are  also  portions  of  subsequent  die- 
cusaions  in  thia  article. 

(a.)  Oentrai  IttlmuU  Evidenrt.  —  U  is  a  noticeable 
bet  that  in  the  antediluvian  portion  the  Hi^b.  ia  the 
only  list  (unless  we  except  that  of  Josephus,  which  baa 
no  independent  value)  in  which  every  number  Is  cor- 
roborated by  the  corresponding  one  in  some  one  or 
other  of  the  rest;  while  in  the  post-dilvuian  line,  after 
the  exclusion  of  the  second  Cainan.  it  alands  almost 
alone ;  the  preponderance  of  evidence  ir\itn  thia  meth- 
od of  comparison  is  therefore  about  balanced.  Again, 
it  Is  a  most  anspicioaa  cireumstance  In  tbe  Samar.  that 
its  numbers,  where  there  ia  any  variation,  regularly 
leasen  the  period  prior  to  parentage,  aa  the  lineage  div 
scends,  by  removing  the  irregnUr  hundred  years  be- 
fore Um  Flood,  and  annexing  It  to  the  ages  below  that 


CHRONOLOGY       SOO       CHRONOLOGT 

f&iat ;  whQB  tlie  Sept.  ((od  Joiephna)  attain  a  ■imllar  I  are  tbe  yean  of  aaeb  of  the  others  tolallj  Dniappartcd 
oniibrmitr  by  adding  one  haudred  yean  to  tJie  defl-  by  oDe  aaother,  whers  tfaey  iiSer  from  thia,  under 
cieDtDumben  tbioagboat;  irhereaa  the  Heb.exhlblta  i  both  theae  Danias,  and  alao  ambamued  bv  vaHou 
DO  nicb  mark!  of  gradation,  but  pnaenta  a  natunl  Ir-  readinga  of  a  glaring  character,  but  a  comparison  of 
regularity  in  Ibla  respect,  although  the  nnmbers,  on  them  with  the  date  of  the  Deluge  shows  unmittakably 
tbe  whole,  decrease  ai  the  period  of  longevity  con-  I  that  they  were  alland  ao  as  to  pUca  the  demiH  of 
tiacta;  while,  on  the  otbar  hand.  If  either  of  the  other  I  these  two  patriarchs  "high  and  dry"  beyond  the  reagn 
UKs  be  utiuned  as  the  prototype,  no  poealbla  raaaon  I  of  this  event.  Tboae  who  have  aneeringly  rcmarktil 
can  be  asatgned  or  imagined  for  the  arbitrary  ealargft.  that,  according  to  the  Hebrew  chronolagy  of  Ctber, 
mcnt  or  diminatiun  here  and  there  of  a  particular  "  Methuselah  was  drowned  Id  Noah's  Flood  by  act  of 
nmnber.  The  briefer  schema  of  the  Ueli.  pust-diluri-  Britith  Parliament"  (which  sanctioned  that  prelatc't 
an  genealogy  Is  aluo  exactly  sustained  by  the  >am  S6T  scheme  >>y  aathorliioK  Its  insertion  in  the  margin  of 
(i.e.  the  birth  ofAbram  392  yean  from  the  Oetnge +76  the  English  Bible},  are  not  only  incorrect  In  that  par- 
yeara  to  his  dBpart|ire  from  Hsiao)  delinitety  given  ticnlar  (for  Metburelah  [q.  v.],  according  to  the  Heb. 
by  Joaaphns,  In  op|x»ItioD  to  bis  own  magnified  nnin-  numbers,  died  a  fnll  moDtih  before  the  Delnge  began), 
ben  in  detail,  although  the  weight  of  this  a^^ment  is  but  they  reuion  uncritically,  Inasmnch  as  so  palpable 
•fleeted  by  the  exiatence  of  vuious  readinge  of  that ;  an  objection  only  shows  the  honesty  of  the  Uaaoretk 
aggregate  In  his  text.  We  fnu>t  not  ouilt  to  observe  '  editon,  wba  allowed  It  to  remain  upon  the  fitee  of 
that  thoee  wlio  espouse  the  schedule  transmitted  liy  I  their  text,  when  they  might,  by  a  slight  allentioii,  ao 
the  SepL  and  Josephoi,  as  affording  the  longer  space  ■  quietly  have  oliviated  it.  The  ingenious  tinliers  of 
between  the  Creation  and  the  Deloge  for  the  extensive  the  Samsr.  and  Greek  cbronologiea,  on  tbe  contTary, 
propagatlaa  of  tbe  antediluvian  rsce.  and  also  after  iiave  careftally  attempted  to  remove  this  stumhling- 
the  Flood  for  the  dissemiiutioa  of  mankind  into  pow-  |  lilock  trom  the  way  of  their  version  by  a  violent  mod. 
erfut  nationa  in  tbe  earlieat  timet,  herein  only  del^t :  ideation  of  the  numben  in  question,  docking  affhctc, 
their  own  argamenti  fiir  it  ia  obvioua  that,  so  long  as  i  and  splicing  on  then,  to  suit  clrcamstances.  Yet, 
tbe  entin  length  of  each  patriarch's  life  remaina  un-  i  like  f^gers  nsusUy,  thay  hare,  after  all,  fallen  into 
changed,  by  whatever  amount  the  period  prior  to  mar-  confusion,  and  convicted  tbemselvea  by  their  own 
riage  is  augmented,  just  so  much  time  is  taken  (torn  traces;  the  Samar.  and  most  of  the  readiuga  of  the 
the  remainder  for  procreation :  the  earlier  tbe  age  of  Greek  copies  do  but  make  the  y«ar  of  tbe  death  of 
paternity,  the  greater  will  naturally  be  tbe  Increase  of  these  patriarchs  coincide  with  that  of  the  Flood,  while 
population  In  a  given  nnmlier  of  generations.  Tbe  tbe  Tery  susfddfms  hct  remains  that  the  liva  of  tbeee 
rapid  advance  in  adolescence  after  the  Delnge,  ao  two  alone  (beaides  that  of  Jared  tn  tbe  Samar.)  are 
marked  In  tbe  Heb.  numbers,  was  doubtless  providen-  abbreviated  not  only  In  compariaon  with  the  longer 
tlal  for  the  pnrpoae  of  replenisblng  tbe  earth  as  speed-  and  more  difficnlt  dates  of  the  other  lists,  but  sud- 
ily  as  possible  after  that  catastrophe.  denly,  aa  if  for  a  special  purpose,  between  Instances 

(A.)  InJimdital  D'tcrrpanitt.  —  In  addition  to  the  of  greater  longevity  Immediately  before  (exdnding 
post-dilnvian  Cunan  noticed  above,  tbe  following '.  Enoch,  who  waa  translated  alive)  and  Eftrr.  The 
names  appear  to  famish  decided  proof  of  tbe  superior  ;  Heb.  liat  can  alone  lie  defended  at  this  point  on  critical 
Imatworthineaa  of  the  Hab.  liat  (see  tbe  conclusive   gronnds. 

tnotise  of  Michoelis  on  this  sniiject,  translated  In  tbe  |  [4.]  Hie  general  agreement  in  givater  age  assigned 
Aiiirr.Bib.Il^ot.,ia  aer.,  vi,  114  sq. ;  also  some  judl-  tothepost-dilavianpatTiarchsby  tbe  Samar.  and  Greek 
eious  remarks  by  Dr.  Pond  in  the  MtA.  Qaan.  Aanmr,  '  lists  is  not  more  difficult  to  eiphiln  to  the  advantage 
July,  1867).  of  the  Heb.     If  the  former  be  the  original  form,  no 

[1.]  In  the  cases  of  Adam  and  Seth,  tbe  addition  of  reason  can  be  assigned  for  the  cbanee:  bnt  if  tbe  lat- 
lOU  yean  to  their  age  belbre  paternity  disturbs  tbe  av-  ter  be  assumed  ss  giving  the  genuine  numbers,  it  is 
erage  ratb  between  the  aeason  of  growth  and  tbe  total  easy  to  perceive  how  readily  they  may  have  been  ang- 
Ufe,  which  in  man,  aa  in  other  animals.  Is  a  well'eMab- '  mented  in  order  tn  swell  tlie  pritnitjre  mn  of  rrpopu. 
lisbed  proportion.  These  two  patriarchs  passed  nearly  .  lation  after  tbe  Flood  Into  a  nearer  conformity  with 
one  quarter  of  their  lives  childless,  although  thdr  tbe  extravagant  mythical  periods  of  early  heathen 
immediate  succeaaors  were  blessed  with  offiipring  when  histories.  With  the  Egyj^iana.  among  whom  tbe 
they  bad  advanced  but  about  one  tenth  to  one  twelfth  ,  Sept.  Is  known  tn  have  origlnaled,  the  Influmce  of 
in  life.  Was  the  command  to  "Increase  and  multiply  I  which  may  plainly  be  traced  in  the  present  accoant  of 
and  All  the  earth"  so  much  less  urgent  In  the  first  cen-  I  Josephus  (and  poaslbly,  throui^h  some  indirect  chan- 
toriee  of  the  world  than  aalwequently  P  In  the  num- j  nel ,  that  of  tbe  Samsr.  also),  this  temptation  wonid  be 
bers  asrigned  to  the  first  two  generations,  moreover,  peculiarly  strong.  The  internal  evidence  here,  how. 
the  various  readinga  found  in  the  text  of  Josephus  i  ever,  it  must  be  confessed,  Is  rather  in  favor  of  the 
nearly  destroy  the  support  which  it  gives  to  the  Sept.,  '  Samar.  numl>en,  corroliorated  as  they  are  throughout 
leaving  1^  balance  of  evidence  decidedly  in  favor  of  as  to  the  age  of  paternity  by  those  of  the  Rrpt.  and 
the  tallying  numbers  in  the  Heb.  and  Samar.;  and  in  (but  less  accurately)  Josephus;  and  we  miyht  even 
tbe  next  three  generations  there  la  at  least  an  equi-  lie  Inclined  to  adopt  tbem,  as  ccnslstent  in  (jrndatlon 
poise  between  tbe  authorities,  which  an  amyed  in  the  with  those  preferred  In  the  antediluvian  portion,  did 
same  manner.  ,  not  the  maniffft  want  of  authority  in  the  nnn-Hcl>rrw 

[!.]  TIio  Heb.  numbers  In  the  caseof  Jar«d  are  sua-  schemes  for  that  part  cast  a  strong  donljt  of  acrurtcy 
tained  by  all  the  other  lists  except  the  Samar.,  which  over  them  in  this  part  likewise.  This  sUFpicinn  h 
not  only  deducts  tbe  century  Itmn  hla  minority,  but  confirmed  by  the  want  of  harmony  between  the  Samar. 
also  Brtiltnuily  curtails  his  subsequent  yean  by  a  dif-  and  Sept  a*  to  the  post-diluvian  ages  after  palrmity, 
ferent  amount  (26  years),  evidently  in  order  to  force  the  latter  list  conforming  in  this  re>pect  quit*  closely 
the  total  life  Into  conformity  with  the  plan  of  gradual  to  the  Heb.  If  we  turn  to  the  evidence  of  ancient 
reduction  lielow  the  length  of  the  preceding  genera-  records  and  trodittnn,  we  And  the  namben  of  tbe  Sept. 
tion.  In  the  next  name,  tbat  of  Enoch,  tbe  Heb.  and  conflrmed  rather  than  |hose  of  the  Heb.  The  hL<tay 
Samar.  again  appear  in  unison  against  the  Sept.  and  and  civUiution  of  Egypt,  as  well  as  of  Assyria  and 
Josephus,  tbe  teatimnny  of  the  last  being  impahvd  by  Baliylonia,  reach  to  a  time  alioul  as  early  as  the  Heb. 
the  currnpt  state  of  his  numben  at  this  point.  date  of  the  Flood.    Moreover,  the  concurrent  evideDce 

[3.]  The  namben  given  under  Methuselah  and  La-  of  antiquity  carries  the  origin  of  Gentile  dvillmtioa 
mecb,  however,  moat  decisively  betray,  aecordlnfi  to  to  the  Noachlan  new.  On  the  acceptance,  tberefcn, 
the  settled  lawa  of  internal  criticism,  marks  of  Inten-  of  the  Heb.  nnmbers  wo  must  place  (as  wo  easily  may) 
tionat  corruption  in  all  but  the  Heb.  list.     Nut  only    the  dispenlon  of  nations  ^see  Eth^oi^mit]  very  aoon 


CHRONOLOGY  3 

■ftir  Om  Delng*.  ImporUnt  ud  la  tbU  approKiini- 
tioA  of  BKcrvd  with  pTofuie  chroDolot^r  u  affonled  liy 
tbacooudenblsaitrnuanaftbe  Bilillcul  period  ortha 
Jndftaa,  noUcsd  balow,  bcyotxt  tluit  fixed  bf  Uther. 

(S.)  Ad  imporunt  rectlflcatioii  of  the  lut  gsnera- 
Uoo  a  reqnired  in  all  ths  lists.  According  to  tbem,  it 
voald  appear  tbM  Tenh  wu  70  yeirt  old  at  Altrum'i 
birth.  "Terah  lived  •event}' jearg.kod  Ijegat  Abtam, 
KaboT,  and  Haran"  (Gen.  il,  ^.  It  ii  ifterwdTda 
uld  that  Tenh  vent  trom  Dr  of  the  Cluddees  to  Ha- 
nn,  Uld  died  then  at  the  age  of  206  Jean  [Samar. 
lU]  (xi,  31,  32);  (nd  tbc  departure  of  Abrun  from 
Haran  to  Canaui  1*  tb«n  narrated  (comp.  Acta  vli,  4), 
hia  age  bainK  stated  to  have  been  at  that  time  75 
jean  (xii,  1-6).  Usbar  theratbn  con}ectniEa  tbut  Te- 
nh  ma  130  yeui  oU  at  Abram'i  tdnh  (SOS -To  ^  ISO), 
and  sappoaM  the  latter  not  to  have  been  tbe  eldeet 
ana,  bat  mentianed  Bnt  on  acconat  of  hia  eminence, 
aa  ia  Sham  in  Mveral  places  (v,  82 ;  vi,  10;  vii,  18;  ix, 
tS ;  1, 1),  who  jet  appears  to  have  been  the  third  ton 
of  Noah,  and  cerUinlj  not  the  ddert  (x,  21).  To  this 
it  haa  bam  objected,  however,  that  it  seams  uarcel j 
jnbable  that  if  Abram  bad  been  bom  to  his  father  at 
tb*  ag«  of  190  Tears,  be  ihould  hare  a«ked  in  mNidtT, 
•■  Shall  [a  child]  bs  bom  unto  him  that  is  a  hundred 
jeara  old  ?  and  shall  Sarah,  that  ia  ninety  years  old, 
bear?"  (Gen.  zvii,  IT).  But  the  force  of  this  objec- 
tion ia  almost  entirely  obviated  when  it  is  considered 
that  Terah  had  previously  had  a  son,  vhereaa  Abra- 
ham at  tbe  time  of  hia  obaervation  waj  altogether 
childleaa.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  adopt  this  an-anse- 
meat,  than  to  make  an  arbitrary  change  in  tbe  nuio- 
ben,  aa  the  Samar.  apparently  haa  done. 

2.  From  Ahram'i  irpartun  out  ofHarOK  to  (As  £>- 
aim. — The  length  of  this  period  la  aUted  by  Pan!  aa 
430  veara  ftom  the  promise  (o  Abraham  to  the  ^vlng 
of  the  Law  (Gal.  lii,  17),  the  flrst  event  being  held  to 
ba  that  recorded  in  Gen.  xii,  1-fi.  The  same  nnmbar 
of  yc«ra  ia  Klven  In  Ezodua  (xii,  4r),  ii),  where  tbe 
Hab.  leada, "  Nov  the  aojanmiDg  of  the  cbildmD  of 
lanel  who  dwelt  in  Egypt  [was]  four  handred  and 
thir^  yean.  And  it  come  to  pass  at  the  end  of  the 
Smt  bundled  and  thirty  years,  even  the  self-same  day 
it  cam*  to  peso,  that  all  the  boeta  of  tb«  Lord  went  ont 
from  the  laind  of  Egypt."  Here  the  Sept.  and  Samar. 
add  after  "in  Egj-pt"  the  words  "and  in  Canaan," 
while  th«  Alexandrian  and  other  MSS.  of  the  fbrmar 
alao  add  after  "the  children  of  Israel"  the  words  "and 


01  CHRONOLOGY 

I  Bnt  tbe  queation.  Pram  what  point  of  time  are  tbcM 
years  reckoned?  has  been  variously  snswered,  and 
chronological  schemes  vary  accordingly.  Some,  aa 
tbe  Sept.,  Joaepbus,  the  Jewiah  Chronology,  and  most 

.  Christian  writen,  astign  the  period  to  the  entire  so- 
Joum  in  Canaan  and  Egypt,  beginning  either  with  the 
Call  of  Abraham  (tien.  xii),  or  the  Promise  (xv) ;  oth- 
en  date  it  from  tbe  close  of  the  period  during  which 

■HiB  Promises  were  made  (I'eriionius,  Schultgen); 
aome  (la  Bengel)  from  the  birth  of  Jacob;  while  nn- 

joum  in  Egj'pl,  reckoned  from  tbe  descent  of  Jacob 
and  tbe  patriarch*  into  that  country  (see  Knobel,  in 
loc  ;  Browne,  Ordo  Saii.  %  281- !88).  The  genealogy 
of  Moeea  is  inconaistent  with  ao  long  an  interval  aa 
iaOyean  between  Jacob'a  130th  and  Uoaes'  BOth  year  j 
for  we  loam  that  between  Levi  and  Moses  were  only 
two  deacenta — indeed,  liy  tbe  mother'a  aide  (Jocbelied, 
"daughter"  of  l^vi),  only  one ;  and  aa  the  sura  of  the 
lives  of  Levi,  Kobath.  and  Amnun  ia  137  +  133+137, 
it  followa  that  ftnm  tbe  Inrth  of  Levi  to  tho  birth  of 
Moaes  must  be  considerably  less  than  407  yean.  So 
alao  the  other  genealogies.  In  which  (with  one  excep- 
tion, and  that  only  apparent)  we  eonatantly  arrive  at 
contemporariea  of  Hoses  in  the  4th,  ^tb,  and  6tb  da- 
scent  trota  the  twelve  patriarchs  (Broone,  Orio  Stnt. 
%  284-288).  Hence  we  must  measure  thLi  interval  of 
430  year*  (Gal.  ill,  17)  from  the  call  of  Abraham,  in  his 
76th  year  (Gen.  xli,  4),  afUr  the  death  of  Torxh  (Acta 
ril,  4 ;  Gen.  xi,  SS),  to  the  Exodus. 

The  Damtive  aObrda  tbe  following  data,  whirh  wa 
place  under  two  periods — that  frem  Abnm's  leaving 
Haran  to  Jacob's  entering  Egypt,  and  that  trom  Ja- 
cob's entering  Egypt  to  tbe  Exodua. 


r  fathen 


It  SI 


both  these  odditiona  oa  glasses ;  if  tbey  am  excluded, 
tbe  paaaag*  appear*  to  make  tbe  duralioD  of  tbe  so- 
Joam  in  Egypt  430  yean,  but  this  la  not  an  abaolately 
certmin  conclusion.  The  "aqjoumin;;"  might  well  In- 
clnde  tho  period  after  the  ptomise  to  Abraham,  while 
that  patriarch  and  his  descendants  "  sojourned  in  the 
land  of  promise  as  [m]  a  strange  country"  (Heb.  zl, 
9),  for  it  b  not  poaitlvely  aald"the  aojoumlng  of  tbe 
children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,"  but  "who  dwelt  in 
Egypt. "  Aa  for  the  very  day  of  close  being  that  of 
CDDunencement,  it  mi/bt  refer  either  to  Abraham's  en- 
tiaace  or  to  the  time  of  tbe  promise.  A  third  passage 
is  the  divine  declaration  to  Abraham  of  the  future  his- 
tory of  bis  children  :  "  Know  of  a  surety  that  thy  aeed 
shall  b*  a  stranger  in  a  land  [that  is]  not  their's,  and 
shall  a«-ve  them ;  and  tbey  aball  afflict  tbem  four 
handred  yean ;  and  alao  that  nation,  whom 
tarre,  will  I  Judge ;  and  afterward  aball  tbe 
with  ffjvtX  aubatance"  (Qen.  xr,  13,  14 ;  comp.  Acts 
vii,  6, 7).  The  tonr  hundred  yean  cannot  be  held  to 
be  the  period  of  oppression  without  a  denial  of  Ihebia- 
lorical  character  of  the  narrative  of  that  time,  but  can 
only  be  anpposed  to  mean  the  time  frem  this  declara- 
tJoB  to  tb*  Exodna.  It  ia  also  noticeable  that  alter 
the  citatioD  given  aliove  tbe  events  of  tbe  whole  so- 
}oam  an  repeated,  showing  that  this  waa  the  period 
•pokea  o(;  and  perhaps,  therefore,  the  period  defined 
(xT,  15,16)  a*  "the  fourth  genention." 


(K.)  (1->  Ace  of  [.evl  on  M 
Reildueofhlillfe 
Opfirualin  sfler 
<fe.«l,l.«,I.q, 
Age  Df  Mens  a>  t 


IM 


These  data  make  up  at  leaatSST  or  866  yeara,  to  which 
aome  addition  must  be  made,  since  it  appean  that  all 
Joseph's  genention  died  before  the  oppression  com- 
menced, and  It  is  probable  that  it  had  begun  aome  time 
befora  the  birth  of  Moaes.  The  sum  we  thus  obtdu 
cannot  be  far  different  tn>m  430  yean,  a  period  fbr  the 
whole  s<^uni  that  theae  data  must  tboa  be  beld  to 


to  this  scheme;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  onlv  one  of 
them,  that  of  Joshua,  in  1  Chron.  (vii,  28,  2B,  86,  27), 
if  a  niccowioa.  can  be  reconciled  with  the  opinion  that 

I  dates  the  430  yean  fmm  Jacob's  cnterinR  into  Egypt. 

]  Another  important  historical  point  of  evidence  is  the 
Increaae  of  tbe  Ifraelitea  fmm  tbe  few  souls  «bo  went 

[  with  Jacob  into  En^pt,  and  Joseph  and  his  sons,  to  the 
alx  hundred  thoussnd  men  who  came  out  at  tlie  Exo- 
dua. At  the  former  date-  tbe  following  are  enumer- 
ated :  -'  beoldea  Jacob'a  sons'  wives."  Jacob,  bla  twelve 
aooa  and  one  daughter  (in),  hia  flfty^ne  grandsons 
and  one  granddaughter  (a3),  and  his  four  great-grand- 
Bona,  making,  with  the  patriarch  himself,  Kvrnty  aoula 
(Gen.  xht  8-S7).  Sea  Jacob.  The  genention  to 
which  children  would  be  bom  alioat  this  date  mav 
tboa  be  held  to  have  been  of  at  least  81  pain,  aince  all 


CHRONOLOGY       302       CHRONOLOGY 

■le  milei  ez«pt  one,  «bo  probably  nunied  a  codbiii.  deitb,  and  he  diad  Dear  tbs  cIom  of  Stol'i  reign  (1 
Thi>  computation  takes  noBMOQiit  of  polj-gflmy,  which  Sam,  xxv,!;  xxviil,  8).  If  he  ven  !0  yemn  «U  at 
was  certainly  pruttiaed  at  the  time  by  the  Helirewe.  the  (brmer  dale,  and  jud/ed  Ibr  IS  jfn  after  tbe  rie- 
Tbia  tint  (^Deration  muat,  except  there  were  at  the  tory  at  Miapeh,  hit  would  bare  been  near  6S  femra  old 
time  other  female  grandchildren  of  Jacob  beaidea  the  (91  +  20  +  12+32=84)  at  bis  death,  which  appears  to 
ODe  mentioned  (comp.  Gen.  X I vi,  7\  have  taken  forei)^  have  been  a  lunij  period  of  life  atttut  time.  We  thita 
wives,  and  it  is  Teasaaable  to  tuppoK  the  Fame  to  have  arrlTe  at  tbe  following  numbers  for  the  variiMis  por- 
been  constantly  done  aflerwarda,  thou;jh  probably  in  '  tions  of  this  period: 
a  less  degree.     We  cannot,  therefore,  found  oor  olcu- |  Vhr.  v«n. 

Ution  solely  on  these  51  p»ir»,  but  niui't  allow  for  DO-    w.nd.riiy  lo  tho  1  ewn.  *i    Fifth  PerrKarfe. IS 

lygamy  and  foreign  marriages.     These  «imiMion,  li^  ■  i^XVeg^'di,;-::::::::  ?!    iXS^.'^lX'^i^^"::    ? 

ing  made,  and  the  etpeciul  Lleasing  which  attended    first  Servitude 8    KUo'i  Jurtguhlp 10 

the  people  lionie  in  mind,  the  interval  of  about  215    (KhoW.  Judm*Wp «i    Abdoo'i  JudBablp 8 

vm™  dnnn  nnl  swm  Ion  ■hnrt  fipr  thp  inrrrjuv  —On     "^^^  Sfrvilude IS    Slllh  Serrlludc 40 

years  does  not  seem  too  »hmt  fur  the  maease  -On    „^„^.,  j„j      ,,,    ^^^„^_         i-.ra™-.  Judnalilp SO 

tbe  whole,  we  have  no  hesitation  m  accepting  the  480       Ing  >haiupir-.) M    KlPt  Jni]i«hVTrV «! 

years  as  tbe  length  of  the  intarrai  from  Abram's  leav-    Third  Serrltude M    Sennlh  BRrliode. sn 

ing  Haran  to  the  Exudna.  ^""'h'ii^i'''' *!    P«iid'i  Judgertilp IS 

B. Frxm /Ae  toA,  w  (fe F.^aiim "/Sot™*"*  uZz-T^^l,r '■'■'■'■■' *«  dV^'. X.".:'.'.:::::;."  * 

Teinpfa. —Then  Is  but  one  passage  Itoui  which  we  ob-    Ablmelech-s  Ki^lgn i    tolonoD-i  flni  }-«>■ a 

twn  the  length  of  this  period  as  a  whole  ((wWalther,    TcO*'.  J  ii<lge.hl(L 1.1  tou, 77; 

inltaumgarten'sSominftiHswi,  !T48,ii,S18-lB8).    n  )»  |  ■i'i'''J"i««'>P 1* 

that  in  which  tbe  Foundation  of  the  Temple  is  dated  j  Two  independent  large  DDmbers  seem  tocooflriD  this 
in  the  480th  (Ueb.),  or  440th  (Sept.)  reor  after  the  result.  One  Isin  PedI's  addresa  atAntioch  of  Piaidia, 
£xodus,  in  tbe  4th  year  Sd  month  uf  Sulomoo's  reign  '  where,  after  rpeuklng  of  tbe  KxodDS  and  the  40  yeirs 
(1  Kings  vi,  I).  This  snm  we  have  first  to  compare  1  in  (he  deoert,  he  adds;  "And  when  he  had  dotn^ed 
with  the  deUiled  numbers.  The^e  are  as  follooe  ;  !  reien  nations  in  the  land  of  Chanaan,  he  divided  their 
(a.)  From  the  Exodus  to  the  death  of  Mase^  40  years.  '  land  nnio  them  I7  Int.  And  ufler  that  he  gave  [unto 
(b.)  Leadership  of  Joshua,  7+x  years,  (c.)  Interval  .  them]  Judges  about  the  rpace  of  four  hundred  aod  Kfty 
between  Joshua's  death  and  the  first  Servitude,  g  years,  until  Scmuel  the  f ropheL  And  aftcnrard  thev 
years,  (if.)  Servitudes  and  rule  of  Judges  until  Eli's  ^  desired  a  king"  (Acts  liii,  IB,  SO,  !1).  Thia  interval 
death,  430  years,  (e.)  Period  from  Eli's  death  to  '  of  4S0  years  msvbe  variously  explained — as  commene- 
Saul's  accession,  SO  +  i  yeara,  (/.)  RauVs  reign,  40  ;  ing  with  Othniel's  deliverancb  und  ending  vrith  EU> 
years,  (g.')  l>avid's  reign,  40  years.  (*.)  Solomon's  death,  a  period  which  the  numbers  of  the  earlier  Looks 
Tel):n  to  Foondation  of  Temple,  3  years.  Sum,  5^0+  of  the  Bible,  if  sdded  together,  make  442  year*;  or  oa 
x+jr+i  years.  It  Is  porsible  to  obtain  approxlma-  commencing  with  the  I'lrst  Servitude,  8  year*  moTe, 
tively  the  length  of  tbe  three  wanting  number;.  (1.)  whiih  would  be  exactly  4W  years;  or  with  Joehna's 
.losbna'a  age  at  the  Exodus  was  at  leatt  SO  years  death,  which  would  ralfe  these  numbers  ly  aloat  IS 
(Num.  xiv,  39,30),  and  at  his  death,  110;  therefore  yeorsj  or  again,  it  may  be  held  to  end  at  Saul's  acccs- 
the  utmoatlengthorhis  rule  must  bell0-(20  +  40)=  rlon,  which  would  raise  tbe  numbers  given  respective- 
60  years.  'The  dnration  of  Joshua's  government  is  ly  by  sbont  B!  yean.  However  esplsined,  this  sum 
limited  by  the  circumstance  that  Cnleb's  lot  was  ap-  of  460  years  rapports  the  authority  of  the  detailed  num- 
portioned  to  him  in  Iho  7lh  year  of  the  occupation,  and  liers  as  forming  an  essentially  correct  measure  of  the 
therefore  of  .[oshua's  rule,  when  he  wus  85  lears  old,  '  pericd  1  and  tbe  precise  coincidence  with  one  of  Ihe 
and  that  he  conquered  tlie  lot  after  Joehua's  death,  j  foregoing  modes  of  compulation  seems  to  show  Ibat  ft 
Caleb  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  lieen  a  verv  old  man  .  was  that  which  Paul  adopted.  The  other  large  anm- 
sn  taking  iiia  portion,  and  it  is  unliliely  that  he  would  ,  1«r  occurs  in  Jepbtbah's  message  to  the  king  of  (be 
have  waited  lung  before  attacking  the  heathen  who  I  Children  of  Amman,  where  the  period  during  which 
held  it,  to  eiiy  nothing  of  the  portion  being  his  claimed  !  Israel  had  held  the  land  of  tbs  Amoritea  from  the  firrt 
reward  for  not  having  feared  the  Anaklm  who  dwelt  ]  conqnert  either  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  servitude 
there,  a  reward  promised  him  of  the  Lord  by  Jloses  :  from  which  they  were  about  to  be  fteed,  or  np  to  Ihe 
and  claimed  of  Joshua,  who  alone  of  his  fellow-s|des  .  very  time.  Is  given  as  800  yean  (Judg.  xi,  ;6).  The 
had  shown  the  same  faith  and  courage  (Num.  xiv,  24 ;  I  above  detailed  RBmbeni,  including  the  nnceitain  pe- 
Deut.  i,36;  Josh.  xiv.  6  ad  Jin. ;  xv,  13-19;  Judg.  i,  nods,  would  make  these  intervals  respectively  344  and 
B-I5,  2U).  The  least  length  of  Joshua's  rule  would  Iw  BG2  years.  Heir,  therefore,  there  appears  to  be  an 
about  10  years.  Joacphus  {At.  i ,  1. 2!i)  Axes  it  mid-  '.  agreement,  although  not  positive,  since  Ihe  meaning 
way  between  these  limits,  or  et  lb  ivars,  which  may  might  be  either  three  centuries,  aa  s  vague  sum,  or 
be  adopted  aa  tha  probable  length.  (3.)  The  interval  about  BOO  yeara.  So  far  as  the  evidence  of  the  nnm. 
between  Joshua's  death  and  the  First  Servitude  is  lim-  bers  goes,  we  must  decide  in  hvor  of  the  longer  inter- 
ited  by  the  history  of  Othniel.  After  Joshua  there  is  '  v«l,  tram  tbe  Exudus  to  Che  building  of  the  first  Tem- 
the  ^me  of  the  elders  who  overlived  him,  then  a  peri-  pie,  In  preference  to  Ihe  period  of  480  or  440  yean. 
od  of  disobedience  and  idolatrj',  a  servitude  of  8  years,  |  The  evidence  of  the  genealogies  iias  been  held  by 
deliverance  by  Othniel  tbe  ran  of  Kenix,  the  nephew  '  some  tn  sustain  a  different  cnncinsion.  These  War,  as 
of  Caleb,  and  rest  for  40  years,  until  Othniel's  death,  they  now  stand,  would,  if  of  continuous  generations, 
He  was  already  a  warrior  when  Caleb  conquered  liis  be  decidedly  in  favor  of  an  interval  of  aliout  800, 40'. 
lot ;  he  lived  to  deliver  Israel  from  the  Mesnpolamian  or  even  CM  years,  some  leing  much  shorter  than  otb- 
oppressor,  and  died  at  tbe  end  of  the  subsequent  40  '  era.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  reduce  tbem  to  con- 
years  of  rest.  Supposing  Othniel  to  have  been  SO  sistency  with  each  other  without  arbitrarily  sltering 
yearacddat  the  time  orhisArBtexploiti>,andnOreBTB  some,  and  the  resoit,  with  those  who  have  fuilowed 
at  his  death,  then  II0-(30  +  18-t-8-|-4U)-24  years  i  them  as  the  safest  guide^  has  been  the  adoption  of  Ihe 
would  remain  for  tha  interval  In  qoestion.  Josephus  '  shortest  of  the  numben  just  given,  about  EOO  years, 
(ilo/.  vi,  b,  4)  reasonably  Bxea  it  nt  18  years,  which  The  evidence  of  the  genealogies  may  therefore  le  crn- 
cannot  be  br  from  correct.  (3.)  Thr-  residue  of  Sam. !  sidered  as  probably  leading  to  tbe  rejection  of  all  nn- 
uel'a  judgeship  after  the  SO  years  fitnn  Eli's  death.  '  merlcal  statements,  but  as  perhap*  leas  inconsisteDt 
ending  with  the  solemn  bat  and  victory  at  Miipeh,  with  that  of  4B0  or  440  years  tban  with  tbe  rest, 
can  scarcely  have  much  exceeded  2il  years ;  Josephus  I  The  statement  in  1  Kings  vi,  I,  Is  accepted  by  Hil. 
(^nf.  vi,  13,  5)  assigns  It  a  length  of  12  years.  Sam-  lei,  the  suUiorof  the  modem  Jewish  cfaronDlofT',  who 
uel  must  have  been  still  young  at  the  time  of  Eli's    makes  tha  480  years  one  of  tbe  elements  for  the  con- 


CHRONOLOGY  3C 

■tmctioti  or  bi*  Hunduis  sn ;  !i;  Usher  lIso,  !i}'  Pe-  ' 
UTiu,  who,  hoTSTer,  iaU»  the  period  frcim  tlie  Eijode,  I 
uid  by  nuay  olhtra.  In  mora  mcent  limef,  Hengeten- 
bs^  {Aatintit  du  Fmtaltudit,  il,  2a  m).),  Hormiian 
(ia  tb*  «(»£«  K.  KrUikai,  1838),  Thsnliu  (On  1  Kingt 
Ti,l>,TI>li((7Ar«<W.  ifM^.  7*.),  GahrinKer  (^akr  ifH 
I  AObeki  .Ert\  Klebubr  (Cat*.  .iMtiri  u.  /Iai.)i  up- 
bold  ths  aUIament  u  biACnriCBl.  But  tbau|{b  this 
mugrt,  I17  bridging  over  tbe  intsrrd  frnm  MogeB  lo 
Solomni.  eaables  tbe  cbruDolo,;ut,  when  he  hai  forai- 
■d  bii  mDndane  eerie*  down  to  the  Exode,  lo  ueiKii 
tbe  Tear  ammo  mmdi  at  4  Solomon  and  so  of  1  David, 
or,  hiring  traced  tbe  reckonintf  B.C.  up  lo  1  SolomoD, 
to  gire  Ibe  ye«r  B.C.  of  the  Esode,  tha  whole  tract  of 
time  occupied  by  the  Judges  ia  still  1ao!e  at  either  end, 
and  needi  much  managemeat  10  define  lie  bearings. 
For  Ibe  items  actusllr  enumerated,  being  (even  If  tbe 
estin  40  jeare  at  Eli  and  tho  SO  vears  of  the  Ark  >I 
Kii>Ih-Jearim  be  iacluded  in  the  390  of  the  Judgee) 
47+890+48=480,  ao  room  ii  leK  for  Joshua  and  the 
si  and  Saul.      Accordingly,  the 


whou 


tdton 


tSyea»i  tbe 


some  of  th( 
imponry,  and  othera,  which  it  \i 
lie  to  exalt  above  the  rink  of  lngeniout 
lot  tbe  number  480  Is,  in  fact,  open  tc 
grave  lOtpicion.  Tbe  Sept.  bu  instead  of  it  440.  Jo- 
•cpbni  tikee  no  notice  of  either,  and  on  various  occa- 
rioiu  makes  the  intcTTBl  G9S,  61!,  iiui 
early  Chiislian  cfaronogiapbers  also  i| 
Br*— tbm  Theophil.  Antioch.  reckons  498  to  1  David  j 
Clem.  Alex,  to  1  Saul,  490;  Afrlcanuii,  677  years. 
Paul's  enumendon,  in  Acta  liU,  16-^31,  ebio  proves  at 
least  this,  that  Jews  in  bis  time  reckoned  tbe  interval 
m  a  way  which  is  Incoivsistent  with  the  statement  in 
1  Kings  vl,  1.  He  gives  from  the  Exode  ~ti>  I  David 
40+4M+4O=S30i  therefore  lo 4  Salomon,  678  years. 
Paul's  tsrra  of  450  yenrs  is  evidently  tbe  interval  from 
the  Fint  Serrllode  to  the  end  of  tboH  *0  yean  of  the 
AA,  I  Sam.  vU.  2  (compoeed  of  3BO+JO  +  20).  Clin- 
ton  {Fatti  HrU.  i,  312)  dates  the  4&0  (him  the  parti- 
tion  of  lands  (47th  after  Exode),  osnwm  20  years  for 
Jubna  and  the  elders,  and  another  term  of  12  years 
betwnn  tbe  20  yean  of  tbe  Ark  (1  Sam.  rEi,  2)  and  the 
40  yean  which  he  give*  entire  to  Saul,  thus  making 
the  snm  612  years.  It  remains  only  to  sUte  that  tbe 
text  in  1  Kings  vi,  I,  cannot  be  impugned  on  strict- 
ly cjiticml  grounds,  excepting  the  various  reading  in 
th«  Sept. ;  the  other  versions  and  tbe  Heb.  MSS.  are 
ULiibrm  in  tiieir  testimony:  ttut  date,  therefore,  must 
be  sommarily  tvjectsd  as  an  early  interpolation,  as  ia 
done  by  most  modem  ciironoiogers.  For  a  further  ex- 
uninatioD  of  tha  period  in  question,  see  Judobs.  For 
the  rains  of  Ecvptian  dates  of  the  Exode,  see  below. 
(Sm  also  in  the  Stud.  a.  KritOmt.  IBS3,  iv.) 

4.  Frvm  tke  Fvvtdaliim  of  Salamon't  TenpU  le  ia 
OtfriHtioa.— We  have  now  reached  a  period  in  which 
the  differences  of  cbronologers  are  no  longer  to  be 
maaaand  tiy  centuries,  bat  by  tone  of  yean  and  even 
dngle  yean,  and  towards  the  close  of  which  limost  per- 
fect Bccnracy  is  altainatde.  The  most  importinl  num- 
bers in  the  Bible  are  here  generally  stated  more  than 
once,  and  several  means  are  sffnrded  by  which  their 
sccoracy  can  be  tested.  Tbe  principnl  uf  these  teits 
snthe  statement  of  kings' ages  at  their  accessions,  tbe 
donbte  dating  of  the  accessions  of  kings  of  Judah  in  the 
nigiu  of  kings  of  Israel  and  tbe  converse,  and  the  doa- 
ble reckoning  by  the  years  of  kings  of  Jadah  and  of 
KebtKbidneuar.  Of  Ibem  tests  the  most  riluable  Is 
the  secoiid,  which  extends  throoxb  tbe  greater  part  of 
the  period  nnder  consideration,  and  pt« vents  our  mak- 
ing any  very  serious  error  in  computing  its  length. 
The  notices  of  kings  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  conten: 
rary  with  Hebrew  sovereigns  during  tb'is  period, 
■Iso  irf  importance,  and  are  likely  lo  be  more  so,  when, 
'e  may  expect,  tha  chronological  places  of  all  these 
^  mtm  nearly  detenriaed.    All  ne- 


3  CHRONOLOGY 

mUt,  therefore,  tending  lo  fix  the  chronologies  of^yp*. 

and  Assyria,  as  well  as  of  Babylonia,  in  these  times,  are 
of  great  value,  from  ttieir  bearing  on  Hebrew  chronol- 
ogy. At  present  the  most  important  of  encb  records  is 
Ptiiiemy's  Canon,  from  which  no  sound  chronologer 
will  vjnture  to  deviate.  In  tbe  Bibiicsi  sUlements  the 
numtier  and  importance  of  inconiislencles  has  nsually 
tieen  much  exaggerated,  since  several  supposed  dlaa- 
greements  depend  upon  the  non-recognition  of  the 
mode  of  reckoning  regnal  years  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  year,  and  not  from  tbe  day  of  the  king's 
accession;  still  a  few  difficaltica  cannot  be  resolved 
without  the  supposition  that  numbers  have  been  alter- 
ed by  copyists.  Many  of  the  dates  are  reckuited  from 
a  Joint  accession  of  several  of  tbe  kings  witii  their  re- 
spective fathers,  and  ■  few  arc  even  posthumous.  Two 
interregna  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  have  generally 
lieen  supposed,  and  none  othera  are  necessary ;  name- 
ly, one  of  II  years,  between  Jeroboam  II  snd  Zacha- 
riah,  and  tbe  other  of  8  years,  between  Pekah  and 
Hosbca.  Tbe  former  supposition  mi^ht  seem  to  re- 
ceive some  support  bom  the  words  of  the  prophet  Ho- 
se«(x,  8,  7,  and  perhaps  16),  which,  however,  may  only 
imply  0  lax  government,  and  the  great  power  of  the  \ 
Israelite  princes  and  captains,  as  an  absolute  anarchy. 
The  following  Ubie  exhibits  the  length  of  this  period 
as  thus  adjusted,  accoRiing  lo  tlic  doable  Uno  of  liings; 
for  tbe  details  of  the  chronology,  s      ' 


JF);  J  IT 


.i(Kis. 


OF). 


Yith  ..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

It 

1 

TIbol 

Onirl(ik«w>.... 

J 

JehTtT^.-. 

-55 

t\ 

Aavrlm  CajMvUii..  W 


ipo-; 


The  groessnra  total  ofthe  regnal  years  of  Judah,  to 
the  vear  ofthe  Auyrian  CspUvity,  is  SGO,  as  the  num- 
hera'standin  thetext;  of  the  Ton  Tribes,  248;  but,  as 
they  may  be  corrected  by  synchronal  data,  only  257 
and  988  years  respectively.  This  deficit  of  19  years 
has  been  by  most  cbronoiogists  taken  to  imply  that  the 
two  gaps  in  the  Israelite  saccession,  which  sre  brought 
to  light  bv  the  synchronisms,  were  intervals  of  anar- 
chy, filled  up  (as  above)  by  Interragns— one  of  11  years, 
between  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II.  in  27  Uiiiab,  and 
the  accession  of  Zscbariah,  in  88  Uisiab ;  the  other, 
of  8  years,  between  the  death  of  Fekab,  in  4  Ahai,  and 
the  accession  of  Hoshea,  in  the  121h  of  the  same  reign. 
But  liter  wrilera  prefer  lo  liqnidste  the  reckoning  by 
assnmln^an  error  in  the  regnal  years  of  Jeroboam  II 
and  Pekah.     Thus  Ewold,  making  tha  diffgrcnce  21 


CHRONOLOGY  8C 

yam,  giru  theM  king*  58  and  tS  jtan  rapectlTel;, 
Initnd  of 41  Ukd  SO  {Gfdi.  da  V'olia  Itr.  iil,  1,  p.  361- 

818) ;  Theniai  (Die  BB.  dtr  KBtiigt.  p.  S48),  by  a  more 
facile  amendation,  laakei  Ibe  uuinben  51  and  SO  (Xl 
for  MS,  and  ^  for  =)  j  J.  V.  Gnrnpuh  (Zcilreol.  d.  Aot.  K. 
J«qn-.).tboDgbr8dadiigtbB  total  amount  to  211  j'ean, 
givu  Pekah  29  jcan  and  nlaina  tha  41  of  Jcnboam ; 
Lcpaiug  (Cknuct.  itr  jSg-)  mikea  tbc  reiena  hi  and 
W;  and  Buiuen,<£^iS'p(au^M{|<,  bk.lv,  p.  881,896,402) 
make)  Jeroboam  roiKn  61  yaara,  and  rehUni  for  Pekab 
hli  20  jean.  Movera  (Die  PhdrUiier.  ii,  1, 163),  by  a 
peculiar  method  of  tTBatmenl,  reduces  the  reignt  of  Is- 
rael to  233ypftre,  and  brin^  tbe  reigns  of  Judah  into 
conformity  with  this  lum  by  making  Jehoram  co-re- 
gent with  Jeboehipbat  4  yrtn,  Uiiiah  with  AmHiiab 
12,  and  Jotbam  vitb  Uiiiab  11  yean.  How  atbilra- 
Ty,  and  therefore  nnJnstifiabU,  such  reduction  of  num- 
ber! ]»,  muat  be  evident  to  evaiy  critical  eye.  Tha 
■upposltion  of  co-regenciea  it  only  sllonabli 


appan 


1  In  X 

hey  Buffered  U. 


>f  the 


kingi'  yean,  but 
tnrb  the  length  of  reigni,  aa  gii 
•acb  name  in  Its  alphabetical  place  in  this  CyclnpK- 
'  dia.  (See  WoltT,  in  tbe  Thml.  Stiul.  u.  Kril.  lHb«<,  iv). 
6.  Prom  llu  Datmctian  o/Solomtm'i  Tmipk  lolkeRt- 
lurn/mm  Baiytm.— The  determination  of  the  length 
of  thia  period  depend*  upon  the  dale  of  tbe  return  to 
Palestine.  The  decree  of  Cyrus  leading  to  that  event 
waa  made  In  tbe  Srst  yeer  of  ilia  reign  (Eira  i,  1  ),vbich, 
if  it  date  from  hla  L-onqaeat  of  Babylon  (q.  r.).  aa  de- 
termined by  Ptolemy'i  Canon,  would  be  B.C.  &8S ;  but 
tbe  decree  in  question  appean  to  date  ttma  bli  perron- 
al  anpertedure  of  "  Darlua  tbe  Mede"  (q.  v.)  at  Babi-. 
bm,  B.C.  Ssa,  vhen  tha  edict  wu  evidently  iuoed. 
See  Ctrdb.  Othen  date  the  decree  from  the  earlier 
point,  and  anppose  that  to  great 


uch  timi 


allow  t< 


a«  not  too  longon  interval  for  ita  complete  accoRiplish- 
ment  alter  tbe  promulgatiaa  of  the  decreo- 

Anottaer  method  of  arrivinif  at  tbe  time  in  question 
li  by  meana  of  fiibig  the  termination  □[  the  so-called 
"70 years' captivity,"  Twonumber»,held  by  ioma  to 
b*  identlcaJ,  moat  here  be  considered.  One  la  the  pe- 
riod of  70  }-eari,  during  which  the  granny  of  Babylon 
over  Palestine  and  the  Eait  generally  was  to  last, 
prophesied  by  Jeremiah  (tKv),  and  the  other,  the  TO 
yean  of  the  dty'i  overdraw  and  attar  depopulation 
(SChrDn.ixzvl,21;  DBn.]i[,2).  Thocommenoement 
of  tbe  former  period  ia  plainly  tbe  Irt  year  of  Nebu- 
cbadneuar  (s*  vicero\'),  and  4th  (according  to  Dan.  i, 
1,  the  Bd  complete)  year  of  Jeboiakim  (Jer.  xxt,  1), 
B.C.  606,  when  the  snccesaes  of  the  king  of  Babylon  le- 
gan  (xlvl,  2),  and  Ibe  miseriea  of  JeruNilpm  (xxv,  22); 
Utd  ita  conclusion  will  be  the  fall  of  Babylon  (ver.  26). 
Tbe  Gimoni  TO  years  of  captivity  would  seem  U>  l<e  the 
■ame  period  as  this,  since  it  waa  to  terminate  with  tbe 
return  of  the  captivea  (Jer.  xxlx,  10).  Tl>e  second  pe- 
riod of  TO  vean  dates  from  the  burning  of  the  Temple, 
lata  in  B.C.  5B8  (Eaek.  il,  1),  and  terminates  with  its 
complete  recooatmction,  some  time  in  B.C.  S17  (Etra 
v],ln).  The  twopassagea  in  Zecharith,  which  J-peak  nf 
aucb  an  interval  aa  one  of  desolation  (i,  1^),  and  daring 
which  faata  connected  with  the  captivity  had  been  kept 
(vii.  5\  are  quite  leconcllaUe  with  this  explanation. 
These  two  passages  are  of  the  2d  and  4tb  yean  of  Da- 
rius Hystaspis,  in  wbose  filh  year  the  Temple  was  fin- 


NflneharlHiur  (ivlduel 


4  CHRONOLOGY 

OTTMCr^Idue) • 

^* .xhMuenu,''  or  l>mlmet.....,..,..,    S 

^  Anaxerxet,"  or  ."menUa 0 

»  Darius"  I.  a.  Kriuspla  (bi«lllldue . . .  ^ 

Ttmpit  rrimU TO 

6.  From  this  pirint  downward,  the  oirinddetiee  wJtb 
Grecian  and  Roman  annals  bacomea  so  clear,  to  iIm 
Junction  with  the  Christian  era,  that  tbcre  can  be  bo 
doubt  respecting  the  cbronology  as  a  whole.  Theprc^ 
phetlc  period  of  Daniel's  '■  Seventy  Weeks"  (q,  v.)  coT- 
en  this  period,  and  accurately  akelcbea  the  outline  of 
Jewish  hiatory.  Ibe  details  will  be  consldertd  UDdor 
the  special  heads  to  whicb  Ihey  1>eloag,  e.  g.  DamEi. ; 
Ezra;  Nehkhiah  i  UAtcABEcs:  J  esdb  ;  Acra,  ate. 
III.  Sj/ntluvmmi  mill  Prnfaitt  Atutali. — There  are 
a  number  of  leading  dates  which  may  Le  regarded  >a 
more  or  less  acttled  hv  a  comparison' of  the  fiH'egalD| 
Biblical  statements  with  those  found  in  dsrsiokl,  Jn- 
daw-ecclesissticsl,  and  monumental  history. 

I.  TV  Drlagt.—The  Flood,  according  t»  the  tangiM 
ing  adjustments,  would  end  near  the  cloM  of  B.C. 
2615,  and  would  have  begun  near  tbe  close  of  B.C. 
2C1S.  It  is  most  reasonable  to  suppoae  the  Koadiiaii 
colonlsia  to  have  begun  to  spread  not  long  after  tbe 
Flood  I  scriptural  intimations,  as  commonly  interpret- 
ed, assign  their  dissemination  to  tbe  beginning  of  tbe 
second  century  after  that  event.  If  the  Division  at 
Peleg'a  hirtb  be  really  the  isme  at  the  Dispersion  (q. 
T,)  after  the  bniiding  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  thb  np- 
posed  interval  would  not  necessarily  have  to  lielengtb- 
ened,  fbr  Ibe  textof  the  account  of  the  bailding  of  the 
Tower  does  not  abrolntely  prove  that  all  Koab's  de- 
scendants were  concenied  In  It,  and  therefore  soma 
may  have  previously  taken  their  departta«  ftom  tbe 
primeval  setllcment.  See  Pelbo.  The  chronnlogy 
of  Egypt,  derived  from  the  mouumenta  and  Hanetbo,  ia 
held  by  tome  to  indicate  for  the  foundation  of  its  firat 
kingdom  a  much  tariirr  period  than  would  be  consif^ 
ent  with  this  scheme  of  approximative  Biblical  dates  t 
butolher  and  more  careful  authors  Ereitly  reduce  tfleab 
computations  (see  J.  C.  K.  Hofm»nn„(fi(jptMole  n./tr. 
Z-Hrrrlaamg,  Kftrdl.  1847,  8vo).  The  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  have  not  been  preved,  on  satisfaclorj 
groonds,  to  have  reckoned  back  to  so  remote  a  time  aa 
tbe  E^yptiana;  but  the  evidence  of  their  monnmenta, 
and  the  fragmenia  of  their  bbtotypmerred  byancleirt 
writers,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Egyptians,  cannot  well  be 
reconciled  with  the  short  Interval  preferred  by  Usber. 
The  most  cautions  calculations,  I  ased  upon  independ- 
ent historical  ei-idence,  points  to  no  earlier  period  than 
the  middle  of  tbe  2Mh  ctntuiy  B.C.  aa  tba  time  of  tba 
foundation  of  kingdoms,  sithongb  the  chronology  of 
Egypt  reaches  to  about  tbla  period  (Osbum,  ifoKBana- 
(of  Hilt.  "/Eggpl,  p.  6S4,  concludes  that  Uenes  fo«iBd> 
ed  the  Egyptian  empire  at  Memphis  in  B.C.  2419), 
while  that  of  Babylon  and  other  states  doe*  not  gT«at> 
ly  fall  abort  of  the  same  antiquity,  although  the  AaaiT. 
Ian  empire  was  much  later  (Layard.Bfd^  twrf  .Vm- 
fvtk,  p.  681,  dates,  according  to  the  latest  CDnclnalona 
from  the  inscriptions,  the  rrign  of  the  first  Klnevha 
king.  Derceto,  from  B.C.  IJfiO).     See  NoAH. 

!.  Tkt  E^odut. — Arguments  founded  on  indrpcnil- 
ent  evidence  alford  collateral  means  ofdecidini.'  wbirh 
Is  the  most  probable  computation  fhim  BiLlical  evi- 
dence of  tbe  date  of  this  event.  A  comparison  of  the 
Hebrew  calendar  with  the  Egyptian  has  led  a  late 
writer  (Poole,  /lent  ^.gyptiata,  p.  217)  to  the  follow- 
ing resnlt:  Tbe  civil  commencement  of  the  Hebt«w 
year  was  tba  new-moon  nearest  to  the  autumnal  eqai- 
D03 ;  and  at  the  approximative  date  of  the  Exodus  ok 
lalned  by  the  reckoning  given  abova,  we  End  that  tba 
E)rj-ptian  vague  year  commenced  at  or  abonl  thai 
point  of  time.  Thia  approximative  date,  fherefora, 
falla  about  the  time  at  which  the  vague  year  and  tb* 
Hebrew  year,  as  dated  trom  tbe  autumnal  equinox, 
nearly  or  exactly  colndded  In  their  cnmmencemeDla. 
It  may  reasonably  be  snpposad  that  the  Israditea  in 


CHRONOLOGY  3( 

the  tiow  of  the  oppmdon  hkd  made  ma  of  tbe  vagne 
ytut  mt  Um  common  jeti  of  the  country,  which,  in- 
dtad,  is  rmdeMd  iU^tbly  proliable  bj  the  circanutancc 
that  ttiey  had  to  a  eontlderable  extent  end  in  no  rery 
priTBte  manner  adopted  Egyptian  raliglous  cuatoma 
(Joah.  xziv,  14 ;  Euk.  sx,  7,  S).  the  celebratione  pre- 
eeribed  by  which  were  kept  accordini;  lo  thle  year. 
When,  thetelbre,  tbe  ftetivele  of  the  Law  rendered  ■ 
year  virtually  tiotdcal  neeeeHry,  at  tbe  kind  ehber  re- 
ttored  or  inetitnted  at  tbe  Exodus,  it  aeemi  moit  prob- 
aUe  that  tbe  cDTraot  TBgne  year  was  Saed  nnder  Ho- 
eea.  If  ihia  euppoiition  he  correct,  we  shcmld  expect 
ID  find  that  tbe  14th  day  of  Abib,  on  wbieb  fell  the 
rsll-nxHKi  of  the  PanOTer  of  the  Exodna,  cornwpoDdM 
to  the  I4tb  day  of  ■  Phamenoth,  in  *  nfpieyear  com- 
mntcing  about  the  autamnal  equinox.  It  bat  been 
aicartuned  bj-  compatadon  that  a  full  moon  fell  on 
Um  14th  day  of  Phamenotli,  on  Tbunday,  April  Slat, 
Id  tbe  year  B.C.  1662.  A  f^ll  moon  would  nut  Oil  on 
the  aame  day  of  the  ra|[nB  year  at  a  shorter  intarval 
than  tS  yeaii  before  or  after  tbia  date,  while  tbe  triple 
coincidence  of  the  new  moon,  va^e  year,  and  aatam- 
nai  eqninox  ntnld  not  recur  in  teas  than  IfiOO  vagne 
T«an  (tMCfdapaiL  Brit.,  fib.  ed.,  a.  v.  Egypt,  p.  468). 
Tbe  djte  thne  obtained  la  but  four  yeara  earlier  than 
Halea'a,  and  the  interral  from  it  to  that  of  tbe  Found- 
atlou  of  Solomon's  Temple,  ac.  1010,  would  be  »!  j 
Jem,  or  only  six  yeare  in  exteaa  of  that  pieTiausly  ' 
obtalood  trtna  the  nunHrical  atatemeuts  in  the  Bihle. ; 
Thie  coincidence  la  at  leset  renurkable,  altbnngb  tbe 
Waal  of  exact  eomapondence  In  the  dates  detracts 
cooaiderably  from  the  fores  of  the  argument  tnaed 
span  this  compariaoo.     See  Exode. 

Setting  aside  Ueber'e  preference  for  the  4S0ysara  of 
1  Kin^a  tI,  1,  aa  reeling  upon  evidence  for  leas  etrong 
than  the  longer  computation,  we  nia*t  mention  the 
principal  reasons  urged  by  Buneen  and  Lepsiua  in  sup- 
port of  the  Bal>biniealdate(aeeBnn>en,  A*i'bMrib,  l,p. 
ccxL  ccziit,  ccxxiil  aq. ;  Lepeins,  Ckniiol.  der  /Sgifpttr, 
i,tH  aq.).  The  reckoning  by  the  genealogies,  upon 
whkb  tbia  date  reata,  we  have  already  abnwn  to  be  un~ 
nfe.  Several  points  of  historical  sviilence  are,  how. 
ever,  bnmght  forward  by  theae  writers  »a  lending  to 
orconHnning  thia  date.  Of  theae  Che  mint  important 
it  the  rappoaed  account  of  the  Exodna  given  by  Ma- 
Detho,  tbe  Egyptian  hialotlan.  placing  the  event  at 
ahont  tbe  same  time  aa  the  Rabbinical  dute.  This 
Batrative.  however,  is,  on  tbe  testimony  of  Juaephua 
iApioiL,  i,  14 ;  fix  it,  etc.),  who  haa  preaarvcd  it  to  na, 
wbolty  devoid  of  authority,  being,  according  to  Mane- 
tbe'a  awn  (bowing,  a  record  of  uncertain  antiquity, 
and  of  an  nnknown  writer,  and  not  put  of  the  E  lyp- 
tian  annala.  An  indication  of  date  bai  abo  been  aup- 
pMed  in  tbe  mention  tbat  Ibe  name  of  one  of  the  treee- 
ura^citiee  built  for  Pharaoh  by  the  Isnelilea  dnrlnn 
(be  of^iression  waa  Raamws  (Exod.  i,  11),  probably 
the  same  pbue  as  the  Raniesee  elsewhere  mentioned, 
the  chief  town  of  a  tract  eo  called.  See  Rakeses. 
This  name  ia  the  same  aa  that  of  certain  nell-known 
kinge  of  Egypt  of  tbe  period  lo  Khicb  by  tliis  scheme 
Iho  Exodna  would  be  referred.  If  tbe  alory  given  by 
HaiMtbo  be  founded  on  a  Inie  tradition,  the  great  op- 
paaaor  would  have  been  Rameaes  II,  aecond  king  of 
the  19th  dynaaty,  whose  reign  is  variouaiy  auigned  to 
tbe  14th  and  13th  centuries  B.C.  It  is  further  urged 
that  tbe  flrU  king  Rameeea  of  the  Egyptian  monn- 
menti  and  Uanetbo'a  lists  la  the  grandfather  of  this 
king,  Hamcees  I,  who  was  tbe  last  sovereign  of  the 
IBth  dynaity,  and  reigned  at  the  ulmortal«ul  60  yeara 
befon  bis  gniudson.  tt  must,  however,  be  observed, 
that  thei*  la  great  reason  Ibr  taking  the  lower  datea 
of  both  kings,  which  would  make  tbe  reign  of  the  Kc- 
md  after  the  Babbinlal  dale  of  tbe  Erodn-,  end  Ihol 
In  tbb  case  both  Uanetbo'a  lUtement  niuat  l-e  of 
toone  fM  aside,  ai  placing  the  Exodne  In  the  reign  of 
thf*  king's  eon,  and  the  order  of  tbe  Diblicd 
tt*e  most  be  ' 


15  CHRONOLOGY 

abonld  not  fall  belbre  tbe  acceaalon  of  Ramesei  I.  Tbe 
argument  that  there  wa*  no  king  Rameaea  before  Ra- 
meaes I  is  obvionaly  weak  as  a  negative  one,  more  e^ 
pecially  aa  tbe  names  of  veiy  many  kinge  of  Egypt, 
particularly  thoae  of  the  period  to  which  we  as^gn  the 
Exodus,  are  wanUng.  It  loses  almoat  all  its  force 
when  we  find  that  >  eon  of  Aabmes,  Amoeb,  tbe  head 
of  the  ISth  dynaaty,  variously  aui)inad  In  the  ITth 
and  ICth  centuries  B.C.,  bore  the  name  of  Rameew^ 
which  neme,  from  Us  meaning  (tos  ofRa,  or  Ibe  aun, 
the  t  od  of  HeUopulis,  one  of  the  eight  Ijreat  gods  of 
E>-?pt),  would  almoat  neceaaarily  be  s  not  very  uncom- 
mon one,  and  Uaamsee  might  therefore  have  been 
named  from  an  earlier  Idng  or  prince  bearing  the 
name  long  before  Bametee  I.  Tbe  history  of  Ej.'ypt 
preaeuts  great  difficulties  to  Ibe  reception  of  tbe  the. 
ory  logetbar  with  tbe  Biblical  narrative,  difficulties  so 
great  tbat  we  think  they  could  only  b«  removed  by 
aliandoning  a  belief  In  the  hiatorlcal  character  of  that 
narrative  1  if  ao,  it  la  obviously  futile  to  found  an  ar> 
gument  upon  a  minute  p<nnt.  the  occurrence  of  *  (In- 
gle name.  Tbe  bietorical  dilScvttiea  on  the  Hcbre* 
side.  In  Ibe  period  after  the  Exodns,  an  on  Ibis  view 
not  less  serlouSi  and  have  Induced  Bunsen  lo  antedate 
MoKs'a  war  beyond  Jordan,  end  to  comprrsa  Joabna'e 
rule  into  the  40  yeara  in  the  wildemeaa  {Bibdatrt,  p. 
ccxxvlii  >q.X*nd  ao,  we  venture  to  tbink,to  forfeit  hie 
right  lo  reason  on  the  detilla  of  the  namtive  relating 
to  the  earlier  period.  Thia  compression  arises  from 
tbe  want  of  apace  Ibr  tbe  J  udgea.  The  chronology  of 
events  ao  obtained  ia  alao  open  to  the  abjection  lironght 
(gainst  tbe  longer  schemes,  that  the  Israelites  conid 
not  have  been  In  Palestine  durin^c  the  campalgna  in 
the  Eaat  of  the  Pharatdia  of  tbe  18Ch.  19tb,  and  SOtb 
dynaatiee,  ^nce  it  does  not  aeem  passible  to  throw 
tfaose  of  Rameaea  III  eariier  than  Bunsen'a  date  of 
the  be^nning  of  the  cnnqnest  of  weatem  Paleatine  by 
tbeHebrewa(eeetb<Dukeof  N'ortbunil>erIand'apapU 
in  Wllkinaon'a  Anc.  E^pl.  i,  71-91).  There  does  not, 
tberefbre,  appear  to  be  any  good  reason  for  abandon- 
ing the  deflnile  atatemeuts  of  the  Hebrew  records  In 
favor  of  the  yet  crude  and  conflicting  constructions  of 
syncbronel  dulea  tram  the  Egyptian  monnment*  (sea 
Kenrick'a  Eggpl  widrr  (te  Pkaraoh,,  vol.  ii).  8m 
EarpT. 

a  ReMoam  and  Stukijl.— The  Biblical  eridenca 
for  tbla  synchronlam  is  aa  foUowa:  Hehoboam  came 
to  the  throne  in  B.C.  978.  Tbe  invaaion  of  Shishak 
took  place  In  his  fifth  year,  or  B.C.  969.  Shishak  was 
already  on  the  throne  when  Jeroboam  flediofatm  from 
Solomon  (1  Kings  li,  40).  Thia  event  happened  dur. 
Ing  the  Liuilding  of  Uillo,  etc.,  when  Jeroboam  was 
head  of  the  workmen  of  the  house  of  Joseph  (1  Kinge 
xi.  27).  The  building  of  Hlllo  and  repairing  of  tbe 
breaches  of  the  city  of  David  wai  afler  the  bailding 
of  the  house  of  Pharaob'a  daughter,  that  was  con. 
structed  about  tbe  same  time  aa  Snlomon's  bnnse,  Uw 
completion  of  which  ]r  dated  in  his  24lh  vear  (1  Klnga 
vi,l,87,  aS;  vii,  1;  2Cbron.viii,l,whe're  3  +  20=10 
+  13).  Tbi(  building  is  recordnluftrr  Ibe  occurrencee 
of  that  year  of  Solomon,  for  Pbaiaob's  daughter  re- 
mained in  Jerusalem  until  the  king  had  ended  build- 
ing hla  own  houee,  and  tbe  Temple,  and  tbe  wall  of 
Jerusalem  round  about  (1  Kings  li),  1),  and  Mlllo  wae 
hnilt  after  the  removal  of  the  queen  (ii,  84) ;  Ihere. 
forv.  as  JerolKiam  wae  concerned  in  tbia  building  uf 
Millo  and  repairing  the  breaches,  and  wis  met  "at 
that  time"  (xi,  29)  by  Ahijab,  and  in  consequence  bad 
to  flee  trom  the  country,  the  !4th  or  2Gth  year  it  tbe 
esiliest  pcasible  date.  Thus  Shishak  appears  to  have 
come  to  the  throne  at  moat  !1  or  !2  years  (40—28  [or 
Z4]  +  4)  before  fats  expedition  against  Rehoboam.  An 
inscription  at  the  quarries  of  Silailia,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
recotde  tbe  cutting  of  atope  In  the  21st  year  of  She- 
shook  I,  or  Sbitbak,  tor  constructkina  in  tbe  chief 
temple  of  Thebes,  where  we  now  And  a  nc»rd  of  hla 
conquest  of  Jtidab  (ChampolUon,  LMru,  p.  190,  ISl). 


CHRONOLOGY                  806  CHRONOLOGY 

On    th»u   gmonds  ire   nmT  pUec   th<   ■cccMlon    of  atnnban,  »  by  Browoe  (^Orde  Swetomm,  $  4fS  h|.), 

Shiabakat  B.C.  cir.  990.     The  evidmct  of  Uineiho'i  Dnndif  (Smm  Aufrianm  Inmpont  emndnfa,  p.  41 

liiU,  eompuciJ  with  thr  innnurDrnlB,  would  pUr*  thU  aq. :  retnicted,  bowevar,  in  bit  UUr  work,  Trie-  da 

event  witbin  «  few  ytan  of  Ihia  d«te,  f.ir  Ihey  do  not  kit.  Gticmn  ant  dtr  E<Ui\g'.  der  Amyr.  /iM-*r.  p.«, 

allow  ua  to  put  it  mucb  before  or  after  EC  1000,  an  78),  and  in  Cbe  woik  Juit  uitod  of  the  younger  Kie- 

■ppnacb  to  comctneH  whicb  at  Ihia  period  ia  very  buhr.     On  the  otber  hand,  Lepdns  IK/^agt-Hiuk  dr 

valuable.     See  SiiiEtiiAH  ■^9n>'^)i  Hoven  {Die  P]ii  iiier.  ii,  1,  IfiS  aq.  [.Iimb 

i.  .'aaali  nnd  Pharaoh  lfti*o.—T}a  death  of  Joaiah  n^uownla  A.  v.  Gul«cbinid,  Rktia.  Mii^  1867,  thinka 

can  Iw  clautj'  ibown  on  Biblical  evidena  to  hava  nnaoew(rable]),ScheDchEer(rA*/>>.  ^(i£oiHafar).and 

Liken  place  in  tbe  21jt  year  before  that  in  which  the  J.  v.  Gampacb  (_Alyriu  dtr  iat.-aafr.  Cttci.  p.  'jH  iq.} 

Temple  waa  deAtmyed— that  la.  In  the  Jewlth  year  contend  for  the  reduced  numbrra.     See  Tirhakau. 

fW>m  the  aprinrf  of  B.C.  609  to  the  fprinit  of  608.  TbeTiibakah  inqueitiun  lanndoubtedly  theTarko^ 

Necho'a  firat  year  ia  proved  by  the  Apia  Ubleta  to  Tar..ko«  of  Uanetho's  S6Ili  dynaily.  in  which,  accord- 

have  been  the  Ejjyptian  vagne  yrar,  either  Jannarj-,  jng  to  tbe  nDCorrected  numhm,  bin  trign  begina  ITHJ 

H.C,  609-8,  or  prubal.ly  B.C.  610-09.     1  he  expedition  (AfHcanua),  163  or  188  (Euaeb,  in  Gr.).  186,  IB7.  or  193 

in  nppoaing  whicb  Jwdah  fell  (2  King*  zxiii,  29)  can-  (Euaeb.  Atnien.)  bttore  Caml  yM^  B.C.  626 ;  tbe  e«. 

not  reasonably  be  dated  earlier  than  Necho'a  aecond  tremea,  tberefbra,  are  B.C.  695  and  718  for  bla  epoch. 

yHi',B.C.609  8Dr«n8-T.     Sea  Nbcho.  But  wa  sre  not  dependent  on  the  I'aia  for  the  time  of 

6.  JfioiaMm  and  A>iBr*o*w«ur.— In  Jet.  xiv,  1.  thU  king  TaJiarbi.     Tbe  chronology  of  tbe  26th  dy- 

tbe  Arat  yeM  of  Nebuchadneiiat  coincider,  wholly  or  naaty  bad  already  been  partially  cleared  op  bv  ftmer- 

in  part,  with4  Jcbmukimi  2  King*  iiiv,  12,  the  ep-  ary  Inaoiptiona  (now  in  the  mueenma  of  Florence  and 

ocb  of  Jeconiah'e  ciptivity  and  of  Zedekiub'a  reign  Leyden),  which,  by  recording  that  the  decesMd,  bora 

Ilea  In  B  Nebuchadnewar;  ibid.  i:£v,  8,  (he  llth  of  on  ■  given  day,  month,  and  yearofNekoIl,  lived  a« 

ZedeUah.  the  6th  month.  10th  day,  Ilea  In  19  Kebu-  many  yean,  months,  and  davs,  and  died  in  a  gtm 

chadneiur;  and  Jcr.  lii,  31,  Iha  87th  of  Jaconiah,  ye,r.  month,  and  dav  of  Amofis,  enabled  ni  to  me»»- 

12th   month,  26th   dity,  lies  "  hi  the  year  that  Evil-  ure  the  precise  nunil»r  of  yean  («)from  the  epoch  of 

morudach  l>egan   lo   rei^-n."      From  tbeae  aynchmn-  theone  kinglDtheepochofthsrther(B6ckh.J/aairfbs 

Uma  it  followa  demonatraUy  that,  In  thla  reckoniuK,  p.  729  sq.) ;  and  now  it  ia  placed  beyond  fkinlier  qtua- 

NebHchadneiiarha«45  years  of  reign,  two  yeara  more  tlon  by  Mariette'a  diacoven- of  a  number  of  inscrip- 

than  are  aaaigncd  lo  him  in  the  Aatronomical  Canon,  tiona,  in  each  of  which  the  birth,  death,  day  of  fnncrd, 

where  bla  reign  of  43  years  begins  M..  Nab.  144  =  B.C.  and  age  of  an  Apia  are  recorded  in  jo(t  the  aame  way 

601;  consequently,  that  bia  reign  in  the  Jewish  reck-  (we  Mariette's  own  account,  Saurign,ma,l  nrlaSi 

oning  beara  date  from  Iha  vear  B.C.  606  (Browne,  '  Apii,  Irourn  ilatii  Iri  nmtarait  du  St-opiuwi BaOi- 

(MtoSfflc/.  §151-171,488).      Hence  It  reaulU  that  the  (ia /(reAm/,  *  f-4(*«.. /■mufni*,  Oct.,  ie.i6;  and  tbe 

year  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  and  deatruction  of  the  Mlrction  ftom  IheM  by  Lepaius,  On  Ikt  £2ri  OyuaHf, 

Tample  is  B.C.  688.      Thnce  cbronologista  who,  nnt  translated  by  W.  Belt,  1868).      There  renuine  tmli  a 

having  carefully  enough  collated  and  discnaaed  the  slightdoubtaalothefpochoframbywa;  wbctherw'ilh 

teatimonies,  accept  unquestioned  the  year  B.C.  604  as  the  canon  this  is  to  be  referred  to  B.C.  626  (the  nsul 

HmflrstyeatofNebuchBdneiEarwhichcoincideiwith  d^t«),  or  with  D«  Kongi  to  627.  for  which  Vcn  Gum- 

4  Jehoiakim,  place  the  cataslrophe  two  years  later,  B.  p,cJ, ,]»  contends,  or  528,  with  Dr.  Hincks  (On  tkrAp 

C.  686.     With  this  Utiludo  for  diffarance  of  views,  the  ,/,*,  26«  Di/nala),  or  e»en  5l9  (B6<kh.  MmteAo,  p. 

ayncbroniam  1  Nebuchadne»«r=4  JehoUkini  =  B.C.  7:9^^.),     i|,„  main  reanlt  te,  that  Prametlk  1  l*(!»n 

60«  or  604,  has  long  been  generally  taken  by  chronol-  („  „;^  ,gs  ^„„  ^f,„  jh,  ,poch  of  CitbI  v^f^  there. 

oglata  aa  the  connecting  link  between  aacied  and  pro.  n,„  B.C.66afor  atmnsttbreeveara  earlier).'    Knw  Ma- 

fkne  annala,  the  hrmmut  n  7110  of  the  aacending  reck-  rielte(No.  2ai7)  record*  that  an  Apis  bom  IfiTabtrka, 

oning.      See  Nkbcchaiinezzab.  rtied  20  Pfametik  1,  12th  month.  JOth  dav  ;  ita  age  b 

6.  Ilfift«.h;  .VywcAmwrnf—In  2  Kings  xvul,  18 ;  „„,  gi„n,      J^,  yjj  ^pia  waa  not  nsnally  allowed  to 

III.  9.  it  appear-  that  Sennachenb,  king  of  Assyria,  u^j  ^,^  than  25  veals,  though  some  of  the  inscrlp- 

■nd  Tirbakah,  kin«  of  Ethiopia,  were  l.oth  conlem-  Hon,  „„^  ,„  a^e'cf  20  veair,  on  this,  aa  an  extreme 

porarj-  with  Heiekiah,  and  at  the  14th  year  of  his  ,uppo,iti(,n,  the  Interval  from  1  Taharka  to  1  Psametik 

reign.     Now,  in  the  recently-recovered  AmienUn  ver-  ,i„  ,„  ,t  „^  g^  yearT,and  the  highest  possible  epoch 

aion  of  Eoaebiue'a  Chnmkit,  w*  have  it  on  the  au-  f^,  Tlrhakah  (B.C.  B9T).     This  result,  in  ilwlf  ii  not 

thority  of  Beroans  (quoted  from  Polyliislor)  that  from  necessarilv  oppoaed  to  the  Biblical  date  for  14  Heie- 

Sennacberib  to  Nebuchadneiaar  were  88  years  (tho  j^^f,.   f^  j„  ,),«  narrative  itself,  while  a  "Pharaoh, 

names  and  number*  are  given,  and  agree  with  the  kingof  Egypt,"  ia  menlioned.  xviii,  23,  thla  Tirbakah 

expre««l  sum);  tbia  account  placea  the  acceasbn  of  j,  ,„,|jj  u^jpg  „,  Ethiopia,"  and  he  seems  to  appear 

Sennacherib  at  B.C.  B92,  which  ia  20  year,  hrter  than  ^  {,„  ,«™,  ,,  ,„  anexperted  enemv  of  Stnnaehnib 

the  lowest  date  that  the  Biblical  nomber*  will  aUow  (N]ei,uhr,  m  mp.  p,  72  aq.  178.  458).'    He  may  have 

for  H  Hexekiah.     Accordingly.  Niebnhr  {Kt.  huer  ■.  reigned  In  Ethiopia  long  before  be  became  king  of 

phi'ol.  afin/tm,i.  209)  propoaed  to  atrike  out  that  ^^,.pt.  thoogh,  on  the  other  hand,  it  ia  clear  that  thia 

number  of  yeara  from  the  6S  assigned  lo  Manaweb  ;  oniinally  Ethiopian  dynasty  waa  contemporaneooa  In 

then  the  Interval  to  4  Jehoiakim  =  1  Nebuchadneaxar,  ,(,  f„^^^  ^^  .ju,  0,^  jctt  ,  g^y  dynasty  of  Lower 

would  be  I5  +  86  +  2-h3I+8=86.     Since   Niebnhr  a  Egypt,  and  probably  in  ila  upper  part  with  tbe  preced- 

time  an  imporunt  Aseynan  monument  of  the  time  of  ,     ■  g^j     ay„„ty  „  Lep,i„  „,fc„  it.     The  real  dif. 

Sennacherib,  interpreted  by  Rawlinaon  and  Hincks,  "*              -         ■  '       .,...,,.        .,-,_, 

infonn.  us^t  Z  invasion  of  Jnd«i,  which  in  tb^  «'"^V-  '»"■"»'•'■  """•'*'  '"  «"•■ »"-'  '»>«  "  «»  (!<'0> 

1 00k  of  Kings  is  said  lo  have  been  in  the  14th  of  Ilea-  king  of  Egypt."  whose  allianco  against  AssyrU  waa 

ekiah,  look  pUce  In  Sennacberib'a  third  year.     Hence  Knight  by  lloshea  in  his  6th  or  6th  year  (2  King*  ivii, 

the  intrrvul  lo  4  Jehoiakim  beromea  86  rears.     Of  il-  4),  can  be  no  other  than  one  of  the  two  prMieceaaon  of 

•elf  thia  di*a  not  prove   much,  and  Ewald,  Hi.  i'SI;  Tirbakah,  Sebek  I  or  Ii,  to  Ihe  fir^l  of  whom  Manetba 

Theniu",  p.41<f;  Bunten,  Iv,  398.  retain  the  Biblical  giYe«8(T.r.  IS),  to  the  other  14  yearn  of  reign,    Tbif, 

number,  Miuch  b]~<  mt  rmiiiger  Niebuhr  (6'«c*.  At-  atthe«arliett,lhe  former  would  begin  foreign  B.C.TS:^ 

tati  H.  B-Mi.  p.  09-1051  learnedly  iipbiilda  againat  hia  which  ix  at  least  one  year  too  low  for  the  Biblical  date, 

father's  objeciiiin".      Willi  ihe  aasisunce.  100,  of  the  Aa  a  conieclural  ivrnedy  for  Ihia  "desperate  state  of 

Canon,  and  of  the  extract  from  Abyilenui'e  account  tbingr," VonKiebuhr,p.469,*uggestathatlbe60yean 

of  the  same  limea,  it  ia  not  difflcult  to  bring  (be  stale-  of  the  26th  dynasty  were  posribly  not  continuoDi;  bil- 

menlB  or  Deroaua  into  onifunniiy  with  the  Biblical  ing  Ihia,  either  so  error  moat  ba  aaanir.ad  in  the  eaoixi 


CHRONOLOGY       307       CHRONOLOGY 

tween  its  SSth  and  iU  ISSd  year,  both  of  '  legends  are  consUntly  obliged  to  mike  in  tbeir  own 
irhlch  ire  MtronomlciUy  »tteetwl,  or  clae  Ibe  reign  of  computed  results,  in  waiting  until  they  have  arrived 
ICuaiMh  tnutt  be  reduced.  On  the  vrhole,  it  aeemt  at  tame  aettled  and  coaiiitent  chroncjogy  before  we 
but  CO  wait  for  further  light  froin  the  monuments.  At  I  adopt  It  aa  the  basis  for  rectifying  the  eatablished  point* 
pn»Dl  these  atteK  the  iSth  ysar  of  Sebek  II,  but  gi™  of  Scriptural  histor)-.  See  Skn^iachebib. 
no  datai  of  his  predecessor;  Che  genealujijiciit  cennec-  |  In  connection  with  this  discussion,  a  passage  of 
tJDB  of  the  two  and  of  Taharka  is  unknown  ;  of  Boc-  Demetrius  Jodiens  hu  been  deemed  impoctaiit  (Von 
cborig,  tbe  only  occnpant  of  the  preceding  dynasty,  no  |  Qunipach,  ul  nrp.  p.  90, 180).  He  seems  to  have  pnt 
Bunoineat  has  been  discorered,  and  l>ut  scanty  and  forth  a  chrDDologlcal  account  of  the  Biblical  history, 
prtcarions  traces  of  the  Tanlteklngsof  the  23ddyDa»ty,  |  bom  which  EasaUiuf,  Prrrp.  Ev.  li,  £1,  29,  givca— 
tiK  Isat  of  whom,  Zet,  may  even  be  the  Scthos  whom  quuting  It  from  Poly  histor— what  relates  to  tLio  p..- 
Nemdotns,  ii.  141,  makes  the  hero  of  the  DiiraculouB  ,  triarcbs  and  Mo«ea  ;  another  pawage,  preserved  lij 
dtftat  of  Sennacherib's  army.  Indeed,  laa.  xix,  ! ;  Clem.  Alex,  Strom.  1,  §  141,  is  a  sammary  of  tlie  pe- 
ixx,  *,  both  foem  to  imply'  that  Zoan  (Tanls)  was  riod  elapsed  from  tho  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  to 
e  of  the  Pharaoh  of  l.ower    his  own  limes.    Its  auljetance  is  as  follows     " 


nacberib's  invasioa  of  Jndah  to  the  last  deportation 
from  Jernsalem  by  Nelinchadneaiar,  ISK  years  S 
months ;  ttom  the  captivitr  of  the  Ten  TrilAes  to  Ptol- 
emy IV  (Philopalor),  47S  jean  9  months  (so  we  mutt 
read  for  678);  from  KebuchaJneiiar's  deportation  from 
Jernsalem,  BBS  yaara  S  months.  As  the  epocb  of  Ptol- 
'V  In  the  Csnon  is  B.C.  333  (!4th  October),  this 
rorNebuchadne»ar's"bst  deportation"  RC. 680 


Egypt.     Hen  is  ample  scope  (br  conjecture,  ai 

fct  diRoreris*,  which  may  supersede  all  neceTCity  fo 

tonjectnre.     See  So. 

The  mention  of  "  Herodach-Batadan,  son  of  Bala-    < 
dan.  king  of  Babylon."  apparently  In  o: 
let  14  Heukiah  (2  Kin|;s  xx,  IS),  forms  yet  another   . 
synchronism  In  this  rei;^.      For  Sennacherib's   in- 
scription records  his  defeat  of  this  Babylonian  king 

la  his  Srst  year;  a  Harudakh - Baldan  appears  in  !  (Julv);  for  Sennachorib'*  invuioi 
Polyhlstor's  extract  from  Berosus  as  king  in  Babylon  |  and  for  the  captivity  of  Samaria,  B.C.  G9S  (Jan.).  Bnt 
early  in  Sennacherib's  reign,  hot  vith  circnmstances  j  unless  we  are  prrinred  to  set  aside  the  Astronomical 
whirh  make  H  extremely  difficult  to  make  out  the  '  Canon,  at  least  its  dates  for  Nebuchadneiiar  and  Evil- 
identity  of  the  thfve  persons  with  each  other,  and  with  ,  inerodach.thecaptlvitynnder  Nebnchadnezcar,  wheth- 
elQier  the  JfonU  Empad,  who  in  the  Canon  reigns  in  i  er  it  be  that  In  his  19th  year  (11th  Zedektah),  or '■  the 
BabylonfromTll  toTU9.  ortheMeseslifunf'iortUB  ljst,"lnhbi!Sdyear,Jer.  lil,  SO,  cannot  f>ll  so  low  as 
•im:  docanunt,  fiom  89!  to  688.  See  Hkrodach-  I  B.C.  HO.  That  the  final  deportation  is  meant  is  plain 
BitADAH.  Here  it  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  that  |  fromtheeita«tcorrB?pondeaceofthesum  with  the  Blb- 
T*i.mat\s(Trmu.ofR.'ftlIruhAcadfms,  vol.  xxil,  Ileal  itrms—Heieklah,  16 j  Manasseli,  65;  Amon,  S; 
K<X  retaining  the  66  yean  of  Msnasseh,  proposes  to  Josiuh,  SI ;  JehDi.ikim,  S;  Kebuchadactur,  ii~lZ9 
soivs  the  diflcnlty  by  placing  Sennacherib's  invasion  years.  The  S  months  over  are  perhaps  derived  from 
ofJudaa  in  Heae'kiah'a  3btb  instead  of  his  14 th  year,  the  SofJehoahaz  and  S  of  Jeconiah.  M.  v.  KEebuhr, 
•t  the  date  701  B.C. ;  Heiaklah's  illnats  remains  at  u(  tup.  p.  102  sq.,  seta  himself  to  solve  the  difficnlly ; 
Its  earlier  date.  Bnnsen,  tacitly  adapting  this  con-  but  the  whole  mntter  may  easily  be  explulned  by  an 
■traction,  makee  3  Sennacherib  &1I  in  34  Ueieklah,  error  in  Ibe  ordinal  of  the  Ptolemy  referred  to.  Set 
ladlmagine*  that  ttia  Invasion  which  terminated  dis-  the  goal  at  Ptolemy  III  (Euergetei-)  =  B.C.  217.  Oct. ; 
awroBsly  to  the  Assyrian  kin;;  was  a  second,  in  H"ze-  then  we  have  for  the  captivity  of  tho  Ten  Tribes, 
klih-9  18th  year,  on  which  latter  occasion  it  was  that  720  (Jan.) ;  for  Sennacherib  in  Judna.  71S  (Jan.)  ;  for 
llrhakah  cam*  to  (he  relief  of  Jernsalem  {lEg.  St.  h.  the  deportation  in  !S  Nebuchadneiur,  686  (July)  ; 
n,  p.  606).  Ratainlng  for  this  Elgyptian  king  an  op- 1  and  consequently  589  for  the  destruction  of  the  Tem- 
och  B.C.  711,  which  is  plainly  disproved  l>y  the  Apis  pie— very  nearly  In  accordance  with  the  date  for  the 
hucriptian*  (sse  above),  ha  makes  it  possible  fur  So=  \  last,  assigned  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  B.C.  G88, 
Scvtk  II  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Hoshea.  It  Strom,  i,  g  127.  In  fact,  the  chrnnologlcsl  statements 
asst  be  owned  that  the  received  chmnolo({y  of  Hcie-  in  this  portion  of  the  Stromaln  swarm  with  nnmerical 
kkh's  reign  is  lieset  with  diflicalties  on  tliE!  side  both  \  errors,  and  a  careless  acrllie  might  easily  misread  TE- 
ofBgypt  and  of  Asayria  and  Babylon.  But  ft'om  nei- ■  TAI'TOV  for  TOlTPITOr.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is 
tber  have  we  as  yet  all  the  facts  we  nerd,  and  the  a  great  misUko  to  sup|HMe  that  Uemetrins  or  any  oth- 
(klkrand  clearer  Information  which  is  confidently  ex-  ierJew,  of  his  or  later  time*,  can  he  competent  to  rule 
pecttd  from  the  cuneiform  [nscrlptlona,  in  particnlar,  {  a  question  of  this  kind  for  as.  He  may  have  been,  ■■ 
will  probably  make  much  bright  thjt  is  now  dark,  j  M.  v.  Kiobnhr  thinks,  "  a  sensible  writer"  (though  oth- 
CoIoufI  Rawlinson  indeed  regards  it  as  "  now  gener-  era,  judging  from  the  fragments  preserved  by  Eusebl- 
ally  idmittBd  that  there  were  two  invaslnm  of  Pales-  :  ns,  may  fairly  think  otherwise) ;  that  '■  ha  may  have 
dw  daring  the  reign  of  Hezeklah  ;  the  first  in  B.C.  I  handed  down  pood  materials"  is  jnst  possible;  theprob- 
701,  when  Sennacherib  overran  the  connlrj-  and  ex-  I  abilitj-  is  that  he  gives  us  the  results  of  his  own  inqni- 
acted  a  heavy  tribute,  aa  stated  in  the  Inscriptions  and  I  ries,  confined  In  the  te^t  of  the  aacred  l>ooks.  except 
3  Kings  xvlii,  lS-16,  and  the  second  some  thirteen  or  that  he  gathered  from  the  Astronomical  Csnon  the  year 
horteen  yeara  later,  which  ended  in  the  discomliture  j  corresponding  In  2!)  Nebuchadneiiar,  the  lact  recorded 
of  the  Auyriana"(£«>l«i..4(AraTt>«,Augast  22,186s,  In  the  aacred  Inoks.  Sec  Hezkkiaii. 
p.  117  t).  But  the  learned  antiquarian  has  ignored  7.  An  argument  tending  to  lower  the  whole  time  of 
thefact  that  the  same  inscriptions  do  not  speak  of  two  the  kings,  and  the  elate  oftlie  building  of  Solomon's 
iansions,  sod  the  Bible  expressly  Identities  those  here  Temple,  has  r>een  deduced  from  some  ancient  data  of 
Bstttnedaa  distinct.  Indeed,  the  paper  in  which  thla  Tyrijn  chronology-.  Josepbus  (r...lji.i,  17)  announces 
ud  ether  wholesale  changes  of  the  Biblical  numbers  that  the  building  of  the  Temple  lies  143  yeoirs  8  mouths 
•re  advocated  contains  in  itaelf  abundant  evidence  of  I  before  the  founding  of  Carthage;  he  gives  this  on  the 
the  preearkiui  elements  upon  which  the  whole  ays-  authority  of  Henander  of  Ephesus,  meaning  his  own 
tan  of  raoHtttTncted  Assyrian  chronology,  as  drawn  ,  summation  of  that  author's  enumeration  of  reigns  pro- 
fRNn  tb«  moonmenta,  ia  based ;  and  «e  feel  only  the  fessedly  copied  from  public  monuments.  In  proof,  he 
note  conflrmed  by  its  perusal  In  the  belief  that  we  ■  quotes  the  renal  nnmbers  of  the  kings  fVom  Hirom. 
eannotiafclv  correct  the  deflnll*  and  consecutive  dates  the  friend  of  Solomon,  to  Pygmalion  Inclusive,  eleven 
«f  the  BiUkal  accounts  by  means  of  such  vague  and  in  all,  making  a  sum  (not  however  expressed)  of  177 
iocohermt  data.  At  least  the  attempt  Is  yet  evident-  N-eara  8  months.  He  adds,  from  his  author,  "It  waa 
ly  prematqre,  aiMl  we  are  justified,  by  the  change)  '  in  the  aevenlh  year  of  Pygmalion  that  Eilsa  fled  from 
■Uchthe^dedpherars  and  collatert  of  tho  cuneiform  I  Tyre,  ond  foundsd   CaJlhigo  in   Libya;"  nui  ftom 


CHRONOLOGY  3 

iimflf,  "TlM  mm  of  jun  from  the  nlgn  (epocb)  of 
Hirom  to  the  fuondiiiK  of  Cartha;^  ia  15G  yean  8 
mnntha ;  and  lince  it  wa«  In  I!  Ilirom  that  the  Tem- 
ple was  built,  the  time  from  thence  to  the  founding  of 
Carthage  ia  148  j-eora  8  montba."  (Ibe  interval,  ■> 
the  nambera  atand  In  the  text,  ii.  In  (iict,  177  jean  S 
moutha,  mituu  13  of  Hirom  and  40  of  PfBmalion,  i.  c 
ool;  1!G  yt»n  8  month) :  ttdoes  not  cooccm  oa  ben 
to  consider  how  the  miaaing  18  j'ean  may  be  reatored ; 
the  numbei,  143  yeare  8  months,  given  twice  by  Joae-  j 
phna,  is  not  affected  by  enon  that  may  have  crept  | 
into  the  detaib.)  Kow  the  fuDUdiU);  of  Carthage  ia 
placed  by  TImcua  (Dion.  llal.  I,  74)  S8  jtut  btton  I 
01.  1,  I.  8.  B.C.  81*  13;  by  Tragus  (JnaOn.  iviil,  6)  , 
7!  years  before  the  building  of  Kome,  i.  e.  B.C.  835.  I 
NUbuhr  (the  father),  accepting  the  date  B.C.  8I-1-13 
■s  indlaputable,  deducee  for  the  building  of  SoloniOD'a  [ 
'I'emple  the  year  B.C.  9A7-Ge  {Lrel.  en  Aue.  Hitl.  \\\  , 
169) ;  Uovere  {D'e  rhdmuiir,  li,  1, 140  aq),  prefeirinK  '■ 
the  other,  geta  the  data  B.C.  969.  Ag^n,  Jnaephua  ' 
X^ii<.Ttii,8,l),afterat.itingthat  II  Hirom  ill  Solomon, 
and  the  year  of  the  building  of  the  Temple,  adda  (|>rub- 
ablv  ttota  Henander)  tlut  the  year  in  queatiun  was 
240  yoan  from  the  building  of  (New)  Tyre.  It  doea 
not  appear  that  be  found  the  11  or  12  Ulrom  ex- 
preaaed  by  Henander  or  Diua  aa  aniwaring  to  tlw  4 
Solomon.  Probably  he  obtained  the  aynchroniam 
tima  hia  own  Inveatigation  of  the  varioni  placea  In  S 
Samuel,  I  Kinga,  and  1  Chroniclea,  where  Hiram  ia ' 
mentioned  ;  but  the  number  140  ia  probaLly  Tyrian. 
Now  Trogns  (Juatin,  xviil,  3)  etatea  that  Tyre  was 
founded  by  the  Sidoniana  in  the  year  befbre  the  full 
ofTmy.  Among  the  nnmeroua  ancient  date*  aaaigned 
to  that  ereut,  one  u  B.C.  ISOS  (Ephonu,  followed  tr 
the  Parian  Chron.  and  other  authoritioi  But  B.C. 
1209— 340^  96!>,  pntciaely  the  year  which  rnulted 
ftom  the  former  argument.  Such  ia  the  twofold  prmif 
given  by  Hoven,  acce|itcd  by  J.  t.  Gumpach  and  oth- 
ers, and  highly  applauded  by  A.  7.  Gutachmid  (in  the  ' 
JIAm.  Jfaacan,  1BG7>  On  the  other  band,tt  ahonld 
be  cunaidered— 1.  That  between  the  flijiht  of  F.llaa,  in 
Pygmaliun's  aeventh  year,  which  ia  the  goal  of  theiw 
143-4  years,  and  the  founding  of  the  city,  (hire  cer- 
tainly occurred  a  train  of  events  (the  settleiuent  in 
Byraa  =  fioira*,  and  the  growth  around  it  of  the  Ma- 
gstia  — .Ifa'Ani,  which  eventually  became  the  New- 
Town,  JCarMoniM  —  Carthage)  which  impliei  ■  con. 
siderabla  tract  of  time ;  and,  1.  That  as  the  ancient 
dulea  of  the  fall  of  Troy  vary  oFcr  a  range  of  about 
180  ye«ra,TimKUS  placing  it  at  1333,  Herodotos  at 
1370,  Eratoithenee  at  1183,  Are^ua,  1144,  beridea  in- 
termediate dalaa  (Htiller,  Fragmenia  ChronoL  §  17), 
the  3-10  years  may  be  so  meaenred  a>  to  fall  near 
enough  to  the  time  given  to  4  Solomon  by  the  neual 
chronology.  It  has  genefally  been  received  hitlierto 
that  the  .£ra  of  Tyre  datea  from  dr.  B.C.  1360,  and 
there  aeema  to  be  no  sufficient  reaaon  to  the  contrary 
(Bunsen,  It,  380  sq.).  The  concnrrence  of  tbe  two 
linea  of  argument  in  the  year  B.C.  969  is  one  of  those 
coiiKidencea  which  an  ao  perpetually  occoning  In 
cbronological  combinations  that  the  practiaed  inquirer 
at  Isat  pays  little  heed  to  them.  In  fact.  It  may  only 
imply  that  Justin's  author  got  fhnn  Menander  the  dale 
BS4  Tyre  =  7  Pygmalion,  mistakenly,  as  by  Joaephus, 
IdentiHed  with  1  Carthage ;  and  having  also  obbiined 
from  the  aame  or  aome  other  aource  the  year  equiva- 
lent to  1  Tyre,  would  ao  arrive  at  his  datum  far  1  Car- 
thage, or,  riet  vrrtn,  from  the  latter  would  rise  to  the 
former.  And,  after  all,  when  we  Inquire  what  ia  the 
worth  of  Joaephoa  as  a  leporter,  and,  supposing 


IS  CHRONOLOGY 

clear  coDtomporary  monumental  evidcne*  (mvh  aa 
Hariette's  Apia  ncorda);  and  if  the  entire  Hebm* 
Ule  of  yean  from  4  Solomm  to  11  Zedtkiah  la  to  be 
nuterialiy  lowered  on  the  scale  of  the  aerita  B.C.,  this 
can  onlv  tie  done  by  proving  some  capital  enor  in  tha 
AstrunJmlcal  Canon.     See  Tibb. 

8.  In  bet,  an  attempt  haa  lately  been  made  In  tUa 
direction,  which,  If  sncoesaful,  mutt  set  our  Biblical 
chronology  adrift  from  its  old  Lsarings.  It  la  ron- 
tended  by  Mr,  Bosanquet  <Ant<jia««fM»/&]cndinirf 
Pru/am  Ckrottoioga,  Lond.  IBfiS)  that  a  lower  dale  than 
G04-60G  B.C.  for  the  accMsion  of  Mebuchad—isaj  Is 
imperaCivrly  demanded  by  the  bistorieal  cOBiiactiDe 
I  of  that  event  with  the  femotu  "  Eclipse  of  Tbaira ;" 
I  which,  according  to  Herndotna  (i,  74, 108),  occnrrlng 
I  during  a  pitched  battie  between  the  Uedos  and  Ly4- 


whstis 


I,  the 


e  to  the  clai 

of  the  Biblical  chronology  of  tbe  kings  of  Judsh  anc 
Israel.  Furnished,  as  this  is,  by  an  annaliitic  arriri 
Incomparably  more  full  and  eitaci  Chan  any  protani 
Rcords  of  tbe  same  times  which  have  come  to  us  a' 
second  hand,  it  ia  not  to  be  impeaclied  by  any  bu' 


riages,  between  Cyaxarea  and  Uatyattea,  after  whick, 
as  Herodotus  seems  to  imply,  the  (brmer  turned  hi* 
arms  against  Aaeyria,  and,in  conjunction  witii  Lalij- 
nctus  (the  Nabopolaasar  of  Ben  sus  and  the  Canon), 
look  and  destroyed  Nineveh,  'i  he  datea  aaaigned  I17 
the  ancients  to  that  eclipse  lie  beCween  OL48  and  Mt. 
Kepler,  Scaliger,  and  Sir  laaac  Newton  made  it  B.C. 
6861  Bally  (/Wtpi.Troiif.,  1811)  and  01tmanDa($.fr. 
Ser  BrrKn.  Akad.  1812  IS)  fbnnd  it  80th  Sept.  B.C. 
CIO,  which  date  was  accepted  by  Ideler,  Saint-Uartin, 

been  announced  by  Ur.  Airy  {PUIai.  Hog.  IltSS)  and 
Mr.  Hiiid(il'bwniH,Aug.  18e7),as  tbe  rwnlt  of  cal- 
culation with  Hanrea'a  Improved  tablea.  that  in  tlM 
eclipse  of  610  the  moon's  shadow  traversed  no  part  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  that  the  only  suitable  one  is  that  of 
llfxh  May,  B.C.  68fi,  which  would  be  total  in  Ionia, 
l.ydia,  Lyda,  Pamphylia,  and  part  of  Cillcia.  It  ha^ 
indeed,  been  contended  by  Hr.  Adams  that  the  tablea 
need  a  farther  correction,  tbe  effect  of  which  (as  Ur, 
Airy  remurLed,  ^rjleMoiaii,Oct.  »&9)  would  1«  such  aa 
to  render  the  eclipse  of  586  inapplicable  to  tbe  record- 
royal  no  longer  entertains  any  doubts  on  this  poiat, 
having  quite  recently  (see /ifitni.  Sept.  1861)  exprets- 
ed  hia  "  unaltered  conviction  that  [he  Ubiea  of  HaD- 
aen  give  the  date  of  tbe  great  rolar  eclipee,  which  trrw 
minatcd  the  I.ydian  war,  as  the  most  reliable  records 
of  antiquity  placed  it,  in  the  year  &86  B.C."  Indeed, 
however  the  aatronomical  qneation  may  ultimately  be 
decided,  it  woiJd  appear,  from  all  tliat  hi  krwwn  of  tb* 
life  of  Thales,  that  he  coold  hardly  have  predicted  am 
ectipHi  In  lonui  so  early  aa  B.a  610  (KMb.Craok.  mt- 
i««r  •  brHdiaHditduH  nUotnjAie,  ii,  »8).  Bat  thu  the 
"Eclipse  of  Thales"  occurred  at  ihe  conjunctnre  indi- 
cated by  Herodotus  rests  only  on  hit  testimony,  and 
iu  tbia  he  might  easily  be  mistaken.  Eitbar  he  may 
have  confounded  with  the  eclipae  predicted  by  ThalM 
an  earlier  one  occurring  during  the  war  of  Cvsxarss 
andHalyattee—possDily  thatof61»,rDr  no  locality  ia 
mentioned,  and  there  ia  nothing  to  forbid  our  seeUug 
the  baltlt-lield  in  some  suitable  sHuation  (e^  g.  wilh 
Niebnhr,  p.  608,  in  Atropalene,  or  with  Von  Unmpai^ 
Zeilrtclimg  da-  Bab.  K.  Auyr.  p,  34,  in  Armenia); 
or,  he  msy  have  assigned  to  that  earlier  war  what 
really  lock  place  dniing  a  later  war  of  Ihe  Ifedes  and 
Lydians  under  Aityaga  and  Halyaltea.  Tbe  latter 
supposition  is  nnt  without  support  of  ancient  autbon. 
Ciceio  (de  IHrinat.  1,  SO),  l^om  (onie  lo»t  authoritj, 
places  the  eclipse,  wllbont  date  or  mention  of  the  war, 
under  Astyages.  Pliny  (,B.  N.  ii,  S),  giving  the  data 
OI.48.4  =  B.C.aB6,aays,  alto  without  mention  of  the 
war,  that  the  ecli;«e  occurred  in  the  reiini  of  Halyattea 
(thia  lasted,  in  the  uaual  chronolog;!-,  ^m  B.C.  630  la 
663).  Solinus  <c  IS,  16)  aesiLns  01.  49.1  aa  date  of 
eclipse  and  battle,  but  (c.  30)  he  speaks  of  the  war  aa 
between  Halyattes  and  AatjTigea.  Fnrai  EndcmDt,  a 
much  earlier  anthnr,  Clrnent  of  Alexandria  (AnM.  I, 
14,  Se.'>)  gives  the  date  of  the  ecUpM '•  aboot  OL  W." 
with  tbe  addition  that  it  was  tiw  time  of  tha  war  I* 


CmtONOLOGT  31 

ti>«ai  Cnum  and  HklyatM— in  which  Eadnniu, 
If  BUT*  than  lb*  data  b«  bb,  nMrelj'  npeita  Herodo- 
bB;  bat  th<  addition  Is  ullkely  to  be  Clflmant't  own. 
Tha  Edtpaa  of  Thalsa,  therefiira,  b  by  no  maani  ao 
«ardiBiil  ID  araitf  u  hu  baan  uaiunad ;  and  to  nphold 
tba  looaa  ■tatemant  of  Harodotna,  Id  connection  vrltb  I 
tba  eariler  data  B.C.  610^  ia  ai  precarioiu  a  proeeedinic ' 
ai  ta  the  attempt  to  nrge  h  with  tha  loirar,  and,  in  all 
pmbaUlitr,  aothentic  data,  B.C.  Mt,  to  ttaa  anbvaraion 
oftba  T«ceivad  cbroaalog;.  Mr.  Boaanqoat,  howevar, 
bold!  that  ttom  tba  tattimDnj  of  this  ecllpae  Ihere  ii 
»  eacaps ;  and  lapportlng  li;  tliii  tba  argumeata  de- 
•cjibed  nnder  the  above  baads,  tO((B[h<r  with  otban 
derired  fmn  nav  comblnatloiK,  badoai  not  bailtats  to 
iBtfipose  "  26  yean  of  ScythUn  rule  in  Babylon"  lie- 
tm«n  Nabopt^asaar  and  Nabncbadnaizar,  Chareby  low- 
aring  tha  epoch  of  the  latter  from  B.C.  604  to  GTS.  | 
Tba  effect  of  thii  ia  to  brin^  (he  deitrDClloa  of  the 
Temple  to  B.C.fiCO;  Sennacherib'*  3d  and  Uaiekiah'a 
11th  year  to  6tl9 :  and  the  4th  of  Salomoo  (o  969  or 
990.  Of  coorae  thla  in* olvea  Iha  necetalty  of  exten- 
rira  changes  In  tha  hiitory  and  chronolo^  of  the  low- 
«  portion  of  tha  6th  Mntuty  B.C.  Thus  Cyras  la 
made  into  two  persons  of  the  nsme ;  the  first,  liegln- 
alog  te  reit^n  in  Persia  B.C.  666,  succeeded  by  Cam- 
Hthi  as  licemy  53&  (which  Is  made  the  Isl  year  of 
Enl-merodacb),  and  aa  king,  B.C.  620,  togetbor  with 
a  aecoDd  Cyras  aa  Joint-king  of  Uedl.i  In  IB  Cam- 
tiyaea^B.C.  &2B.  The  length  of  nd^  oflbisCyma 
II  is  not  aaaigned  :  ha  dhuppiara  brim  Ur.  B.'a  table, 
lagetbei  wHh  Cjmbj-aes,  who,  with  Smetdis  between, 
it  follaw«d  at  bl6  by  DjHna  Hystaspts  aa  king,  which 
Djrioa  had  beeoma  Ticeror  tn  Bribylun  and  Media  in 
B.C.  5!1.  It  should  be  ramarkad  that  thla  "  readjust- 
nenf  of  the  climnnlo^y  la  proposed  with  ■  view  to  a 
hlOlnMntofDanieli  l^pbecy  of  the  Seventy  Weeks 
iCirBmal.  of  Hi  Tima  »/  DaM.  Ktn.  ckJ  N.liemiili, 
lU8}-'iiaRMly,  the  predicted  seventy  yt±n  of  (taanla- 
tien  reach  ftnm  tha  dastmction  of  the  Temple.  B.C. 
m  to  B.C.  490 1  the  date  of  Dinlel's  prophecy  in  the 
llrst  BiliylaaUn  year  of  Djrlns  Hvatsppia,  then  "61 
yean  old"  (Dan.  tI,  1),  is  made  BC.  4SS,  whence  to 
the  hirth  of  Christ,  which  lbs  author  places  (wrongly) 
(a  fl,C  S,  are  the  eeventy  times  seven  yoare  forotuld ; 
alto  thia  year  493  is  Itself  the  gnal  of  an  eariler  period 
eflM  yeaia,  reckonnl  from  B.C.  9SA,  Mr.  B.'a  data  of 
tba dedlCBtloQ  ofSolo.nnn*8  Temple.  So  axtenaiTe  a 
Tftuhioniag  of  the  histoiy  will  hardly  be  aceepted  on 
the  stnmgth  of  the  alleged  proofs,  especially  aa  the 
I*npbaey  of  Daniel  in  qnestion  is  Itaalf  susceptible  of 
■  better  ehntnologiol  solnUon.  This  view  was  bold- 
ly foOowed  ont,  In  ignorance  or  teora  of  all  {ientite 
rhTODology,  by  the  framers  of  the  Jewlih  Mundane 
M,n.  Asauming  that  a  pvrlod  of  490  years  matt  reach 
Item  the  datnictton  of  the  ArsI  Templa  to  that  of  the 
ae«Hid,  which  latter  they  act  at  A.D.  69  (a  year  too 
auly),  they  obtdned  for  19  Nebnibadnemr  -  11 
ZedekUh,  the  year  B.C.  i'H  (which.  In  profane  chro- 
■elogy,  liea  In  the  reign  of  Dsrioa  Notbns).  On  like 
grDBHU  Llgbtfoot  doea  not  hesitate  to  place  tha  first 
year  of  Cyme  490  years  liefora  the  Passion,  for  which 
Ui  date  it  A.D.  SS.  "  From  this  year  [B.C.  468]  to 
tba  death  of  Christ  are  490  rears ,-  and  there  ta  no 
taose,  becasae  of  donbtful  records  amon ;  the  hea- 
then, to  make  a  doubt  of  the  Axedneas  of  the  time. 
whk'h  an  aiiitel  of  the  l.nrd  hnd  recorded  wHb  to  much 
exactneas"  (Harmony  of  llu  Old  Trfommt.  in  Wort*. 
i.  nt).  A  late  no  I-  writer  (Duke  of  Manchester, 
DrntlandkiiTautt,  ItMS),  with  the  like  end  in  view, 
identlflaa  tba  Darlns  of  Ezra.  Hagj^i.  end  Zechariah. 
and  ef  Dan.  vlii,  I  (made  different  fmrn  him  of  vi,  1).  I 
wHh  Darlna  Notbua ;  and,  in  older  to  this  result,  sets  t 
hfansrir  to  show  that  the  fbonder  of  tbe  Penlan  mon- 1 
arcby,  whom  the  Oreeks  call  Cyrat,  is  in  (krt  Ne)in-I 
ehndnenar  I  (Ibe  KabopaUssar  of  tbe  Canon),  for  the 
"IVMana"  and  tba  "Chaldaans"  are  tha  tame  peo- 
ple;  hia  too  CambyaaB  la  the  Nebnchadaeiaar  of  the  I 


9  CHRONOLOGY 

Bible,  destroyer  of  tbe  Temple ;  Belthaaiur  b  the  last 
king  of  the  Cyras  dynasty  at  Baliylon;  his  conquer- 
or, "  Darius  the  Mode,"  Dan,  vi,  1,  is  Darius  Hystas. 
|ria ;  and  the  Biblical  Koretli,  tbe  restorer  of  the 
Jews  (and  Cyrus  of  Xenophon,  altogether  different 
from  him  of  Herodotna  and  Ctasijs),  it  a  tatrep,  or 
feudatory  of  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes.  Strange  to  say, 
tbia  wild  speculation,  with  its  portentous  con.^lomera- 
tkn  of  teetimonies,  sacred  and  profane,  ancient  and 
mudera,  genuine  and  epuriout  (eoaspicuaus  among 
these  the  "  Philo"  and  "  Uegastbenes"  of  the  impu- 
dent forger  Annlot  of  Viterbo),  haa  not  only  been 
gnvely  listened  to  by  schobrs  of  Oennany,  but  haa 
found  among  them  lealoua  advocacy  and  furtherance 
(Elirardinther«eo'.5fHi<nB.A:ni;iteii,lS47i  Metcke, 
(^vs  der  Urimder  da  Ptn.  Siidta  uar  nickt  der  Se- 
\frtMrdtrJiiJemKiiiltnidtrZtrwUir>rJenuaitmt,iMi). 
'  See  Skv-e:cty  Wekkb.  It  shoul.l,  however,  be  re- 
marked, that  the  Identincatluu  of  Em's  Darius  with 
D.  Nothua  baa  commended  itaelf  (rtill  with  a  view  to 
Daniel's  prophecy)  to  more  than  one  eminent  writer. 
I'ropOkSd  by  Scaliger,  it  b  advocated  by  tba  late  Dr. 
Mill  (in  hit  Trtatin  on  lite  DticeiU  and  Partatagt  nf 
our  Siaiour.  1H42,  p.  168).     See  Darius. 

9.  Apoerypkai  Book*  of  tie  O'.d  TttLmnL  ~  (I.) 
The  Book  of  T<AU  (q.  v.)  cmtalni  an  outline  of  Aatyr- 
ian  history  (from  the  deportation  of  the  Ten  Tribet  to 
tbe  bll  of  Nineveh),  to  which  (be  moral  fiction  it  at- 
tached (Browne,  Urdu  Had.  p.  VA,  note;  Kiebuhr, 
CescA.  AmuTt.  p.  100,  note ;  oomp.  Fritiache,  Dot  BtuJt 
TM,  1863,  p.  14  aq.  1  Ewald,  Gaek.  det  V.  Jtr.  iv,  233 
tq).  To  treat  It  aa  a  narrative  of  facts,  and  apply  it 
to  pnrpoaes  of  chronological  pmof,  aa  aome,  even  re- 
cent, writers  have  done  (e.  g.  Von  Gnmpccb,  Baigl. 
Zeitr.  p.  138),  is  quite  to  mbtaks  iU  character. -<2.) 
Aa  regards  the  Book  of  Judith  (q.  v.),  it  ia  aurpriaing 
that  any  one  conversant  with  hbtoiy  and  criticism 
should  &ii  to  see  that  thia  It  not  a  record  of  focta,  bnt 
a  religious,  quaai-prophetjcal  allegory  (_Ordo  Bad.  p, 
666,  note ;  FritiBche,  D<u  B.  Jadilh.  p.  128  sq. ;  Ewald, 
GfKk.  det  V.  lirael,  iv.  541.  See  also  Uavets  in  the 
Bonn.  Ztifdu-./iir  taAol.  Tkeeiyie,  IBSfi,  p.  47).  Nle. 
buhr,  acknowledging  this  (a.  j.  p.  212-!»6),  nevertba- 
bss  finds  in  its  dales,  accinding  to  the  IaL  version,  a 
background  of  historical  tmth  with  reference  to  the 
times  of  Nehuchadneziar.  V.  Gumpach  (u.  t.  p.  161 
sq.)  maintains  its  historical  character,  and  applies  it  (0 
bb  own  parpoee*  with  axtraordlnary  confldence  (sea 
aba  Scholi,  EtU.  M  <li>  heU.  SArifim,  1845).— (3.)  In 
the  books  of  Maecabea  (q.  v.)  the  years  are  rt^olarly 
counted,  nnder  tbe  name  irq  ti'k  BnoiXiioc  ruv  'EX< 
X^vwv,  meaning  the  lera  of  the  Seleucidn,  beginning 
in  the  antumn  of  B.C.  312;  except  that  in  the  Artt 
book  the  epoch  is  made  1  Nitan  of  that  y»r,  while  In 
tbe  second  book  it  b  1  Tisri  of  the  followiag  year,  B. 
C.  311, 1,  e.  eighteen  months  Istar.  This,  which  haa 
been  safScienlly  proved  by  earlier  writers  (see  Ideler, 
Bdb.  der  Clinmol.  i,  &3I  sq.  i  Onio  Sad.  %  440-4-J).  it 
cnnleited  ou  inadequate  grounds  by  Von  Gumpach 
(Zx-n  dknmol.  AUtaudl.  18M). 

IV.  Seie-TettameHt  Cknmologg.—titt  Goapela  and 
Acts  of  the  Apoetlea  have  (wiUi  one  exc^i^n,  Luke 
iii,  1)  no  express  dotes  j  in  the  absence  of  these,  com- 
binstlons,  more  or  lese  probable,  are  all  that  the  chro- 
nologift  hat  to  gn  by. 

1.  For  the  Nativity  (q.  T.),  the  citerior  limit  is  fur. 
nished  by  the  death  of  Hrrod  (Mstt.  il,  1,  IS;  Lnka  I, 
5),  tbe  year  of  which  event,  as  it  la  nowhere  named 
by  JosephuB  or  any  other  extant  hittorisn,  has  to  be 
determined  by  various  circnmstancas.  These  are  tbe 
mention  of  an  eclipse  of  (he  moon  not  long  befora  it 
{Ami.  xvil,  e,  4  fin.),  which,  by  caleaiation,  can  only 
have  been  that  of  March  Ig-IB,  B.C.  4;  tbe  length  of 
Hetod't  reign,  together  with  the  recorded  data  of  ita 
commencement  {Ami.  xvil,  8, 1 ;  comp.  xlv,  14,  5 ;  16, 
4),  and  of  that  of  hit  tone— Arcbelana  {Ant.  zvii,  18, 
S;  comp.  IFur,  11,  7,  B),  tbe  contolar  year  of  whoee  de- 


CHRONOLOGY  310  CHRONOLOGT 

pofil  It  giren  b7  Dion  Cu>.  Iv. ;  Htiod  Pbilip  <  )Far,  [  earlier  thiB  A.  D.  28,  in  which  yeu  Ibe  l&Ui  dT  Tilw- 
xTlii,  4,  6,  leDgth  of  nign  and  ye»i  of  duUi) ;  Tor  i  rim  iiegan,  and  it  hia  nivcr  been  propoMd  by  inqul- 
Herod  Aatipu,  JouphDt  (Ant.  xvlii,  7,  2)  icivtt  tlie  :  nn  of  any  note  to  pUce  it  Utur  tbuD  A.D.  S8.  1  ba 
date  or  depiwal,  bot  not  length  at  reign ;  thit,  hovever,  |  ■■iTOiiomicul  element  of  the  qnsition— namely,  Uial 
is  knowQ  from  coiiu  (Eckbal,  Doet.  Xum.  iji,  48U)  to  Ip  the  year  of  tho  Paulon  the  UCh  of  Ntwn  fell  on  a 
bavB  reached  hii  43d  year.  All  these  indicatimu  |  Frldsy — if  it  be  riHorauety  applied,  1.  e.  according  to  • 
point  to  B.C.  4,  not  long  barore  the  Pai»ver,  aa  Hie  deflnita  nile  of  Jewish  usage  and  the  molla  of  atrict 
time  of  Herod's  death.  Sea  Herod.  Those  who  lunar  calculation,  indicataa  ooiy  one  of  the  aijt  year* 
wonld  impu^  this  concloiion  urge  other,  dUcrepant '  mentioned,  vii.  A.D.  19,  ia  which  34  Kisan  was  IBth 
sUtementg  in  Joaephna,  or  call  in  question  either  the  March  and  Friday.  If  a  cettain  l.xity  aa  to  the  nils 
factof  the  eclipse  or  Its  calcalsted  dil«,  or  contend  thB,t  be  allowed,  the  14lh  Kisan  may  piunliV  have  fallen  on 
the  death  of  Herod  could  n..t  have  tdken  pUce  so  soon  ^  Bd  April,  Friday,  la  A.D.  SB.  But  1^  in  complUnca 
after  it.  Tlie  iaducemeot  ia  that  our  Lord's  age  msy  '  with  tbs  apparent  import  of  the  first  Ibree  Gospela. 
not  exceed  thirty  yean  althe  time  of  his  baptism,  1.  e.  \  without  explanation  from  the  foorth,  it  is  contended 
at  the  esiUest  in  the  lath  year  of  Tiberius,  for  if  this  '  that  Ibe  Cnicifixion  took  place  on  the  day  after  the 
note  of  time  la  to  be  taken  strictly,  the  earlieet  date  for  '  Pussover,  the  year  niay  have  been  A.D.  8U,  in  which 
the  Nativity  sboold  be  the  year  B.C.  ».     The  yttO'  be-  |  the  lath  Nisan  fell  on  Friday,  Ttb  April,  or  A.D.  8S,  in 


vliich  it  wsB  (in  strictness)  Friday,  Bd  April.  Lastly, 
if  it  l.e  maintained  that  the  Jewish  Pasaover-day  wai 
regnlaled,  not  by  actual  observatioD  of  the  moon's 
phases,  bat  by  cycles  more  or  less  butty,  any  yaar 
whatever  of  the  series  miy  ba  available  in  one  tbtm  or 
other  of  the  hypolbeil!.     See  Pabiover. 

AncinU  tfttimimy,  if  that  is  to  hsve  woght  in  this 
question  on  the  supposition  that  the  year  was  known, 
either  by  tradition  or  by  access  to  public  records  (tha 
Acta  f^'lali,  to  which  the  sncienla  ao  confidently  ap- 
peal}, certainly  deaignntas  the  Passover  of  the  year  £), 
con.  dwbat  G'eraM'S,  the  IGth  proper  ]-ear  of  'Tibniua. 
In  the  Wextem  Church  tfae  consent  to  this  year  ia  all 
but  gpneruli  in  tbe  Kaatem,  the  same  jrear  is  either 
named  or  implied  In  tbe  two  eariieit  extant  teatimo- 
i,  21,  §101-118;  seeJ 


ing  aupiiosed  to  be  known,  it  is  attempted 
male  to  the  dag  by  calculating  the  order  of  the  sacer- 
dotal cycle,  and  linding  at  what  lima  in  the  given 
year  "  the  course  of  Abij.ifa"  (Lake  i,  6)  entered  upon 
office.  The  starting-point  for  tbe  neckoning  is  far- 
nished  by  a  Jewbb  tradition  (J/utnn,  iii,  298,  8<,  and 
it  is  assumed  that  Ihe  conception  of  John  the  Baptist 
ensued  at  tbe  expiration  of  Zecbariah's  week  of  ser- 

33-26,  36;  but  in  the  Church  calendars  six  months)! 

Hers  it  should  be  obeerved  that  we  have  no  reason  to 

suppose  tbe  ancients  to  have  been  in  possession  of  the 

true  dale,  either  j'ear  or  day.    Having  ascertained,  as 

they  supposed,  the  year  and  day  of  the  Bsplisni,  they 

counted  liack  30  years  to  tbe  Notivity  (see  a  paper  by 

R.  Browne,  on  a.  Cleraaa  Alar,  ni  I^.-T.  Cknimbgf  in  ,  .  ... 

the  Joumal  of  Clatiical  and  Sacred  FliUoiyf,  U54, 1,    of  Ctiiu.  and  Sacr.  Piilal.  u.  t.)  and  Julius  A 

SS7eq.).     Abo,  it  would  be  well  that  all  such  consid-    bee  Jebub. 

erations  as  the  "fltnesi  of  things"  prescrlliing  a  par-  I      6.  In  tbe  Aiti,  tbe  mention  of  lAi  dead  of  UeroJ 

ticalar  year,  or  day  of  the  year,  for  this  or  any  other    A-pippa  (xil,  i3),  interpoied  between  an  arrival  of 

event  of  sacred  history,  should  bo  banished  from  chrun-    Paul  at  Jerusalem  and  his  return  thence  to  Antioch 

ological  inveati^ttioDs.    See  Jbritii.  (xi,  SOj  xU,  ;&),  would  yield  ■  lirm  reating-point  for 

2.  Luke's  date,  ■' 15/4  q/TiitWas"  (iii,  1),  interpret- I  that  portion  ofthenarrsUve,  Til.  Easter,  A.D.  M  (Jo. 
ed  by  the  rule  of  the  imperial  annals  (and  also  of  the  '  sephu^  Aat.  xviii,  S,  3;  comp.  xix,  6, 1 ;  IFor,  ii,  11, 
canon),  would  denote  tbe  year  beginninji;  August  A.D.  I  6),  could  we  be  certnin  that  the  death  of  Agrippa  tork 
26,  and  ending  In  the  same  month  of  A.U.  39.  Be-  place  soon  after,  or  even  In  the  same  year  with  the 
tbrred  to  tbe  current  consular  year,  it  might  mean  Eaater  mentioned  lii,  S,  4.  (Tbe  time  of  Agrippa's 
either  A.D.  SB  or  20.  Taken  in' the  Jewish  sense,  it .  death  b  determinable  with  high  probability  to  the  he- 
might  he  the  year  beginninu-  either  1  Nisan  or  1  Tisri  j  ginning  of  August  of  that  year.)  But  as  it  i>  possible 
A.D.  28,  or  evsnITisriA.D.  27.  The  hypothesis  of  that  the  writer,  after  his  nsrrative  of  ths  acts  of  this 
a  dating  of  tbe  years  of  Tiberiua  from  an  epoch  eariier  king,  thought  fit  to  finish  off  all  that  be  bad  lo  say 
by  three  years  than  the  death  of  Augustus  bap,  bow-  I  about  him  before  going  on  with  the  ntrrative  about 
evar,  been  generally  adopted  fkvm  the  16th  century  '  Paul  and  Bsmubas,  it  may  lie  that  their  misiion  to  Je- 
downward,  and  Is  demanded  (see  Strong's  Gr.  Harma-  ^  rus-ilem.and  return, after  the  martyrdom  of  James  and 
■jr,  p.  342  sq.)  by  the  age  of  Jesus  at  his  l«plism  (30  deliverance  of  Peter,  took  place  before  Ibe  year  44.  It 
years),  added  to  the  lennth  of  his  ministry  (3  years),  as  might  even  he  inferred  from  xi,  26(qiii  iiivm  ivi 
compared  with  the  dale  of  the  Cruciflxion  (see  below),  KAovJioi'),  that  the  prophecy  of  Agubus  wsi  delivered 
In  A.D.  11,  Tiberius  appesrs  lo  have  snsumed  Ihe  gov-  |  before,  or  quite  in  tbe  beginning  of  A.D.  41,  as  the 
emmentof  the  provinces,  and  from  this  time  his  reign  i  famine  is  known  to  have  prevailed  st  Home  during 
would  naturally  be  reckoned  by  the  Jews  (see  J  arris,  |  the  first  two  years  of  Claudius  (A.D.  41,  42;  Dion 
Iiitrod.  p.  229  sq.).  This  wouid  give  Luke's  dule  of  I  Cass.  Ix,  11),  liut  lliat  it  appeara  not  to  have  been  felt 
John's  mission  B.C.  27.      See  Tibxrids.  j  in  Judsa  till  after  the  death  of  Agrippa,  in  the  procu- 

S.  The  note  of  time  (John  ii,  1(1)  connected  with  the  ratorship  of  Cuspius  Fadus  and  Tiberius  Alexander  (A. 
Piinffmrof>fi-rteB(iy(um  points,  if  the  "forty  and  six  D.  16-47;  Jusephns,  .In*,  xx,  2,  6;  6,2),  Conclusive 
years"  are  reckoned  from  Hemd'sannonncenKnt  of  bis  j  reasons  for  of  signing  this  second  visit  of  Paul  to  Jeru- 
puTpnse  in  his  eighteenth  rear  {Ant.  xv,  II,  1)  to  A.D.  Saliin  lo  the  year  44  most  be  songbt  elsewhere.  (See 
27;  iffnHnlheactualcammencement,aaeralllhema-  Lebmann.inlhe^tfud.  u.  A'r^.lSoti,  ii.)  SeeAaniPP*. 
terials  were  provided,  it  may  denote  either  A.D.  2»,  or  |  6.  In  Gal.  i,  2,  Paul  spoaks  of  two  visits  to  Jerusa- 
29,  orSO,  according  to  the  length  of  time  suppoeed  to  lem,  the  one  (i,  IH)  "aft^r  three  ;  ears"  (vis.  from  his 
be  spent  In  preparation.  But  here,  again,  besides  dis-  conversion),  the  other  (ii,  1)  "  fourteen  years  after- 
crepant  statements  in  Josepbus  as  to  the  epoch  of  1  ward"  (^cd  ^irnrfoirnpui' iriii).  1  be  first  of  these  is 
Herod's  reign,  it  chances  that  tbe  earlier  account  of  |  evidently  that  of  Acts  ix,  26;  that  the  other  must  he 
the  same  proceeilings  ( l\'or,  I,  21, 1)  dates  this  under-  Ihe  second  of  those  mentioned  in  the  Ada,  vis,  that  of 
taking  of  Herod  in  hi«jyVsiniA  vear.  It  does  indeed  si.  xii,  has  l>een  undenitood  I  y  many,  and  probably 
admit  of  proof,  even  from  the  context,  that  the  IBUl  would  have  lieen  by  all,  could  it  ha\e  been  made  to 
year  is  too  earlyj  hut  it  may,  plausibly  enough,  lie  Fquare  with  their  chronology.  Tbe  argument,  Ik- 
urged  by  thosa  who  wish  to  do  so,  that,  if  Josepbus  is  '  stricted  from  Irrelrvanl  issues,  lies  In  a  very  narrow 
wrong  in  the  one  statement,  he  is  Just  ss  likely  not  to  compass.  To  make  good  his  assertion  (1, 11  sq.)  thst 
be  right  in  the  other.     See  'Temfi-e.  |  he  rec«ved  not  bis  gospel  and  commission  f^m  PrfT, 

4.  The  Cmeijixion  (q.  v.)  certainly  cannot  he  placed    or  any  other  man,  but  direct  from  Cbrist  himself,  the 


CHRONOLOGY  311  CHRONOLOGY 

■pitlla  bagliu  to  «nanMnitatb  oettuionion  arkiehaSme  '  v.  >.  p.  49.  On  this  ■apporithiD  tbe  eonveraion  rol^I 
^latami  foutrtiid  mM  ike  oUur  apoilla  at  Jtnui-  be  uai)^«d  to  A.D.  87,  tbe  flnt  visit  to  A.D.  40,  the 
frd.  Now,  If  the  viiit  G*J.  ii,  l,be  not  that  of  Acti  Homd  to  A.D.  44.  With  tbis  would  accerd  the  noteof 
li,  li,  it  mut  be  Ut<r  (no  one  viibei  to  pal  it  oarli-  time  2  Cor.  xii,  2,  ucording  to  the  aiKun(  date  of  that 
tt);  bM.  if  Ki,  then  it  would  Kein  be  hu  not  enumer-  epittle,  vii.  A.D.  64,tbMyeir  being  14  years  after  tbe 
audotf  the  accadDDi  oa  which  b«  u«  tbe  other  apoa.  date  »  auiKDBd  to  the  flret  visit  and  the  trance  (Acta 
tk«.  It  B  hudly  aatietactory  (conip.  Heyer  ew  Gal.  xvii,  IT).  But  there  !■  no  need  at  this  conjectoral 
p.4I)teall«««(vitbWie«eler,<?*nMoJ:(fetapoit.  2a(-  emendation,  for  the  vision  oF  2  Cor.  lii,  2  (whicb  is 
i^'f,  p.  1KI)  that  tbe  apostle,  not  vritiDg  a  history,  diatinKUished  from  that  of  Acta  »ii,  17,  by  the  tact 
i>  tt*  tmund  to  recite  all  hia  riaita  to  Jeruaaleni,  or  that  the  apostle  waa  forbidden  to  dltulge  the  revela- 
|wiih  twild,  Grtak.  ri,  60)  that  ha  la  concerned  to  tion«  oT  the  former,  whoreaa  be  relates  what  was  said 
eoaraiTate  only  thoae  visits  wbicb  he  made  fbr  the  tu  him  in  the  latter)  may  nuturally  have  happened 
parpoKofconrerrin^rwjthtbeapoatles.  Hisintantion  during  the  tan  yean  which  he  apent  in  hla  native 
ia  rliiBly  to  aUte  that  he  had  no  intervening  opporLn.  ncighUorbood  (Gal.  i,  21 ;  camp.  2  Cor.  xii,  24,  26). 
■icy  of  cmuwItinKthem.  Accordingly,  Scbleiennich.  7.  Tbe  mention  of  Gallia  (xvlii,  l;i)  would  furnitbl 
•r  lE-mUil.  Um  X.  T.  p.  569),  Neander  (i^ffaiu. «.  Lrit.  note  of  time,  were  the  date  of  hia  pniconauLite  in 
1.  U«  of  the  4th  ed.),  De  WetU  (ATonw.  in  loc.>,  Heyer  ;  Achala  dd  record.  We  can  only  conjecture  that  it  was 
(a.  4.  p.  47),  find  the  conclnslon  inevitable  that  Luke  through  the  Interest  of  his  brother  Seneca,  who,  die- 
was  nisuiformed  in  saying  that  Paul  went  up  to  Jem- '  graced  and  in  exile  from  41  to  48,  thereafter  atuod  in 
■alcm  aa  related  in  Ada  xl,  SO,  becanae  tbe  apostle  the  higbest  favor  with  Clindiua  and  Agrippina,  that 
him nlf  declares  that  between  his  flrst  viait,  which  can  Gallia  was  presently  made  consul  (snlfect)  end  then 
be  ao  other  than  that  of  ix,  26,  and  tbe  other,  which  !  procooaulof  Achaia(Plia. /A  AT.  xxxi,BS;  compSenee. 
can  only  have  been  that  to  the  ooancii,  as  related  in  '  Ep.  106).  So  the  date  would  be  not  earlier  than  49, 
AMs  XV,  there  was  none  intermediate.  Bat,  in  &ct,  and  not  much  later.  See  Gai-lio. 
tbs  drcomttancee  of  the  visit.  Gal.  ii,  1,  an  perfectly  '.  8.  Tbe  decree  of  Clandins  for  the  expublon  ot  all 
eapalible  with  those  of  Acts  xi,  xii,  the  only  diffi-  '  Jews  from  Rome  (xviii,  2)  is  mentioned  by  Suetonius 
caky  bwng  that  which  it  aappoaed  to  lie  in  tbe  chro-  in  a  well-ltnown  passage  (Claud.  25).  but  neither  dated 
nili^;  nor,  on  tbe  other  hand,  ia  tbe  diacrepaney  Qor  pUced  in  any  dlacovanible  older  of  time  (Dion 
between  Gal.  ii,  1  >q.,  and  Acta  zv,  aoch  that  it  is  dif-  Caas.  Ix,  6,  reljtea  to  merely  restrictive  measnrea  tak- 
tnh  ID  see  bow  they  can  relate  In  the  same  lict,  al-  en  or  contemplated  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign).  If, 
thMgb  tbe  incongraiCy  in  tlie  latter  case  has  been  aa  is  likely,  it  farmed  pari  ot  a  inneral  measaro  for  the 
dfcnad  by  Bjur  (PmUut,  p.  IJOaq.)  aa  gmatasta  fiir-  expulsion  of  tile  "tuOalo^ra"  (Cialdai,  tuat/mialiei, 
aak  an  argnment  in  anpport  of  liis  poaltian  that  the  attrolagi),  its  date  may  be  aa  late  as  A.D.  62,  in  which 
Bosk  of  Acts  I*  the  work,  not  of  a  companion  of  Paul,  year  a  severe  statute  of  this  nature  was  enacted  ("  De 
lialif  tome  mach  later  band  (in  the  second  centnrv).  niatbematicis  Italia  pelleadit  factum  SO.  atrox  et  irrl- 
ViHcIer,  to  evade  this  conclusion,  gives  up  the  as-  tum,"TBcit.'lBa.xii,62).  But Zonaraa (p. 97!, ed. Bel- 
i^Md  identity  otGal.  ii,  1,  with  Acts  xv,  and  labors  mar), in  the  aommiry  compiled  from  Dion  Caas,, placca 
U  dMiw  that  it  was  the  visit  of  xviii,  2i,  a  hypotheaia  an  eipnlaion  of  the  aatrolt^ra  from  Italy  immedlate- 
■kich  needs  do  diacoaeion.  nnleaa  we  are  prepared  to  ly  after  the  elevation  of  Agrippina,  A.D.  4S,  and  beftne 
uy  that  tbe  apostle  waa  not  even  preaent  al  tbe  conn-  the  arrival  of  Caractacoa  at  Bonip,  A.D.  60;  and  In 
dl,  Acta  IV  -,  for  that  a  conncil  was  held  is  not  denied,  Tacitus  (u.  t.  22)  we  find  Agrippina,  just  after  bet  mar- 
ncD  by  tboee  who  contend  that  the  account  given  of  riage,  accaaing  her  rival  Lollia  of  dealings  with  Chal' 
is  ia  tbe  Acts  i>  not  authentic ;  and,  if  Paul  was  pros-  daeans  and  Magi.  It  la  not  likely  that  any  general  se- 
set  at  it,  it  is  imposaible  to  explain  his  psasjng  It  by  vere  measure  against  the  Jews  would  be  taken  while 
in  aknce,  aa  if  it  had  no  bearing  upon  the  point  which  tlie  youn^r  Agrippa,  a  special  favorite  of  Claudioa, 
hriiooocemed  toiubetinliate.  The  time  of  Acts  xii  waa  atill  at  Rome,  as  ho  certainly  was  to  tbe  cad  of  48, 
Mag  defined  to  A.D.  44,  a  term  ori7  years,  the  sum  when  he  succseded  bis  uncle  Herod  at  king  of  C  balds 
aftbeSBodthe  14,  supposed  tobe  consecutive,  wODid  (Josepbos,  .4>X.  xx,  6,  2;  7,1;  iror,  ii,  14,  4,  where 
l!«l  toA.D.  27,  which  cannot  possibly  be  the  year  of  far  iwraicautjicaroi' we  roost  re^  frvtaiaif.).  Thein- 
Pid's  amvendon  ;  and,  if  both  terms  are  auppoeed  to  surrectlonarf  movementa  in  Jndna  early  In  A.D.  49 
bs  dated  from  tbe  aama  epoch,  it  would  follow  that  the  may  have  been  connected  with  the  decree  aa  cause  or 
OBvmioo  took  ;Jace  A.D.  SO.  a  date  still  too  early  effe'ct  (^Aol.  xx,  6,  8,  4).  Ail  these  indications  pobit 
Iw  Iboee  who  assign  the  Craciflxian  to  that  or  to  a  to  the  year  49,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  that  ia  the  year 
iitirycar.  But  it  is  not  too  early  if  the  year  of  tbe  named  by  Oroaius  (Hut.  vii,  6,  "ninth  year  of  Clan 
Paeon  be  A.D.  29;  and  it  is  in  exact  accordance  witb  dlua"),  from  tome  lost  source  of  intelligence  ("ut  Jo. 
Ut  matt  ancient  tndjlions  recorded  by  ecclasiastical  sephua  tradit,"  he  says;  but  that  ia  a  miatoke).  See 
niten,  according  to  which  tbe  martyrdom  of  Stephen    Ci..tuniDB. 

i»k  |dtoa  within  a  year  after  the  Ascension,  and  .  9.  The  year  of  tbe  rrmU  of  Felix  and  appointment 
Pdl'a  GOBTcniea,  which  clearly  waa  not  much  later, '  of  Featusas  bla  ■accetsor(Actsixiv,2T)  is  not  on  rec- 
D  Ike  yaar  after  the  Ascension,  L  e.  In  tbia  year  SO  ord,  and  the  arrival  of  Paul  al  Bomt,  in  the  i>pring  of 
iBnwne.  Onto  Sad.  %  lOJ).  On  tbe  other  hand,  this  tbe  following  year,  has  l>een  assigned  to  every  one  of 
•Iri*  ot  Paul-e  convenion  ia  equally  com pitible  with  the  yean,  from  A.D.  66  Co  63  inclusive.  The  earl ieat 
Oi:  nrftimee  of  the  second  visit  in  qu.-ation  to  Acta  is  that  given  by  the  ancienti.  and  is  advocated  by 
'-v,wliieb  took  place  A.D.  47;  tbe  reckoning  of  the  Brawde.  in  Ord  ■  Sadoram,  S  lOS  sq.  But  one  princi- 
'I  'i  yean  of  GoL  i  being  Id  that  case  canttnuous  pal  argument  there  used  is  not  tenable.  From  the 
'ns  tbe  cunvenlon  in  A.D.  SO.  On  either  view,  statement  of  Jo>ephuB(/l<><.  xx,8, 9),  that  Felix,  on  hia 
h^evTO',  there  b  clearly  an  error  In  the  ordinary  chro-  return  to  Rome,  escaped  condemnation  upon  the  chargea 
ulo?,  widch  brings  down  the  convenion  to  A.D.  S4,  '  laid  againat  him  before  Nero  chiefly  through  the  Infln- 
tad  yai  datea  the  visit  of  Acta  xl  in  A.D.  44,  and  that  ence  of  his  brother  Psilaa,  whose  consideration  witb 
rf  Afti  XT  In  A.D.  4^;  a  system  which  them  ia  other  that  empei-or  was  "juat then  atita  highest"  (fir'rXurrii  il^ 
aad  tadafndent  reason  to  suspect  (see  if^lk.  Quart.  I  t>,ti  rid  ri^>7t  t'^wv  jciimv),  combined  with  the  fact, 
B<*m>.  illy,  1850,  p.  600).  See  Paul.  The  chrono-  related  by  Tacitaa  (/I  m.  xUl.  14,  IS),  of  Pallas's  re. 
l°gi(al  McDlty,  which  would  preaent  itself  aa  soon  aa  j  moral  From  his  ofBce  at  the  head  of  tlie/iarua  thattly 
'^  nciiat  date  of  tbe  Poaalon  was  abandoned  for  a  before  the  death  of  Britannicus,  who  had  nearly  com- 
ntn  yen,  kas  indnced  tbe  oonjeclare,  Beemin.'ly  aa  I  pleted  hia  14tb  ye«r,  and  wilb  the  latter  part  of  the 
■•rty  as  the  Cirtm.  Pjtei.  p.  1S6,  ed.  Hono,  that  for  I  statement  in  Sneton.  (CT-wJ.  27),  that  Britannicna  was 
11  ahoald  be  read  4  (^)A'  il'  for  AJ"IA');  aeeUever!  bom  ''vigetima  imperii  di?  inqua  secnnda  eonaulatn'' 


CHRONOLOGY  31 

(=A.D.4I).  Browne  Inferred  that  dm  long  bohte  Feb., 
A.D.  56,  Pallu  had  oeaied  to  be  at  the  height  of  imperial 
(liTDr  i  conaequenll;  the  recall  of  Felix  could  not  be 
planed  later  than  the  mmunt  of  A.D.  6b.  This  miut 
be  rejected ;  for  Tac[tiu  (■.  i.  lb)  evidently  plicea  the 
death  of  BritHnnieuB  tarig  in  frfi,  the  event*  of  which 
jear  begin  at  cb.  xl  and  end  withch.xxv;  therefore  the 
former  part  of  Suetonius' s  aUtement  ia  alone  true — 
that  Britannicus  *>«  bom  on  tha  10th  day  of  the  i«iicn 
of  Claadioa,  -ISth  Feb.,  A.D.  41.  Dion  Caaiiua,  In- 
deed, mention*  the  birth  ander  the  eecond  year  (Ix.  10). 
but  not  QDtil  be  hai  expreaaly  retamed  to  the  former 
Tear  (r^i  rporipy  irii).  Hence  it  la  dear  that  If  the 
dale  of  PalWsloas  of  office  U  decbtve  for  the  date  of 
hii  brother's  recall,  thla  must  have  occortBd,  at  latest, 
in  51,  before  the  death  of  CUudius  (IBth  Oct.  of  that 
year),  and  no  part  of  Che  proeuratorship  of  Felix  would 
have  been  under  Nero;  a  reault  totally  incompatible 
with  the  DBiTBtiTe  of  Joaephus  (AiH.  xi,  S;  IVar,  11, 
18).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  hard  to  s*y  at  what  con- 
juncture in  Nero's  time  Pallas  conld  be  said  to  have 
been  held  thus  at  hii  hi^eit  esliDiBtioo.  At  the  Tory 
begiiuiinit  of  Che  reign  iC  Is  noted  of  him  that  hii  arro- 
gance had  excited  Che  emperor's  disgust  (Tacit.  Ami. 
xtli,  S);  within  a  month  or  two  he  ia  removed  from  the 
JIkiu:  slxnt  a  year  later,  when  impeached,  together 
with  Bnrms,  his  reputation  (oi  insolence  stood  in  the 
way  of  U*  acquittal  (Tacit,  h.  i.  23)  ;  as  the  ally  of 
Ap^ppinahe  was  an  object  more  of  fear  than  of  favor  j 
and  his  great  wealth  caused  his  removal  by  death,  A. 
D.  03,  as  his  longeTity  seemed  to  preclude  the  hope  of 
the  emperor's  otherwise  possessing  it  (_Ami.  xiv,  66}. 
This  aSbrd)  Strang  reason  to  suspect  Chat  in  this  nut- 
ter of  Pallaa's  inauonca,  exercised  on  behalf  of  his 
brother,  Joseph  us  was  misinfbnned.  Of  very  material 
clrcnoisCances  relative  to  Felix  he  certainly  was  igno- 
rant, unless  we  are  to  aoppoee  thut  Tacitni,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  had  no  documentary  warrant  for  the  ■nay  cir. 
cumitantial  account  which  be  gives  under  the  roar  b'i 
iAm.  xil,  64);  how  Felix  bad  then  l:een  sometime  gov. 
emor of  Judna  ("jam  piidemJndKalmpositui"),  hold- 
ing a  divided  command  with  Cumanus,  the  latter  being 
over  the  GalilMans,  while  Felix  was  over  the  Samari- 
tans ("  ot  huic  Galilteornro  na^  Felici  Samariue  pa- 
rsrenC").  He  may  have  mIsCaken  the  nature  of  thla 
divided  role;  In  fact,  there  la  reason  to  believe  that 
Felix  held  a  military  command,  as  Snetonius  relates 
(Claud.  SS:  "Felicem  tegionibus  eC  alls  provinciKque 
Judnn  imposuit"),  and  Victor  (In  the  EpUomt.  p.  361 ; 
"  Felicem  legionibns  Judna  pmfeciC").  Of  Chat  asso- 
ciated goremment,  and  of  Felix's  equal  share  in  the 
wronijs  of  which  Cnmanua  was  accused.  Joseph os  isig- 
noranl ;  l>ut  what  he  aaya  of  Pallas  and  Felix  is  far  more 
suitable  Co  that  earlier  conjuncture,  as  described  by 
Tuitug,  than  to  the  later  occaaion  to  which  he  refers  it. 
At  that  time,  via.  when  CumanuB  waa  depwed,  "  Felix 
would  certainly  have  suffered  for  the  wrongs  done  by 
him  to  the  Jews  but  tnt  the  intercession  of  his  lirother 
Palbl^  whom  the  emperor  [Claudius]  at  that  very  time 
held  in  the  bigbesC  consideration;"  for  that  Palina  juat 
then  had  reached  the  pinnacle  of  hia  commanding  in- 
fluence, TadtuB  shows  in  the  preceding  recital  of  the 
poblic  honon  decreed  to  him.  and  by  him  recorded  as 
the  crowning  glory  of  his  life  in  hie  own  epitaph  (Plin. 
^.  Til,  20;  vlii,  8).  Even  in  the  account  Josephaa 
gives  of  that  earlier  conjuncture  (in  which  he  speaks 
onlyof  Cumanuaand  the  flnal  hearing  liefore  Claud inr, 
AM.  XX,  6,  a),  lie  mentinna  the  "  very  great  exertions 
made  by  the  empenir's/renfTiiea  and  friends  for  Cu- 
manns  and  Che  Samaritaiu,"  The  absence  of  daCea, 
of  which  Josephua  ia  not  tpsring  when  he  has  Ihem, 
of  iCself  implies  Chat  hia  materials  for  the  account  nf 
Felix  were  scanty  ;  and  the  way  in  which  liurrua  Is  in- 
troduced, after  the  passage  relMingto  riilUs(^n(.  xx, 
8, 9),  strengthens  the  suspicion  raised  liy  the  conflict- 
ing account  in  Tadtus,  that  the  Jewish  hiatorian  in  this 
paragraph  is  mixing  op,  with  his  recital  of  what  took 


2  CHBONOLOGT 

pUce  on  the  recall  of  Palix,  occur  micea  of  as  auto 
time.  Certainly  the  accompanying  nctiea  (_miia-j^ 
yoi;),  "  he  waa  the  tutor  of  Nsro,"  is  more  appoaila  ts 
that  earlier  conjunctore  in  the  time  of  ClaiidiBa  (A.D. 
6S),  when  Nero  was  bar«1y  fouitaen  yean  old.  It 
li^t  Btill,  in  some  senae,  be  notable  as  the  ground  if 
lurms's  influence  in  the  beginning  of  Nero'a  reign, 
ben  he  and  Senses  are  spoken  of  having  charge  of 
Cbe  imperial  youth  ("rectorea  imperatori*  juventJt," 
~  *  ..Jm.  xiii,i);  bat  the  description  Is  very  strange 
referred  to  the  year  SI,  the  laat  of  Bnms's  life, 
espedall;  aa  thia  Is  not  the  fint  mention  of  him.  ii«« 
Fbliz. 

in.  The  ar^ment  for  the  year  61,  as  the  date  of 
Paul's  arrival  at  Rome,  ia  thus  put  by  Winder  (film. 
Molayie  daApott.  Zatallert,  p.  66  sq.).  The  lurratire 
of  Joeephns  (Xirf.  xx.  8  ;  War,  li,  IS),  from  Ncio's  ac- 
cession (IStb  Oct.,  A.D.  54)  to  the  defeat  of  the  "Egyp- 
tian,"  implies  at  least  two  years ;  this  impoMor,  elaim- 
ing  to  be  another  Hoses,  would  of  courae  make  his  ap- 
pearance  at  the  Paaaovar,  1.  e.  at  the  esHieat,  that  of 
A.D.  fi7.  That  this  must  have  been  at  least  a  yMTle- 
fore  Paul's  arrest  is  implied  in  the  Ctibune'a  exprcanen, 
"  before  thne  days"  (Ada  xii,  88) ;  ttwrefore  the  ear- 
liest posMbie  dale' for  this  arrest  is  A.D.  68,  PentecotI: 
the  "  two  years"  of  ixiv ,  27,  gives  A.D.  60  aa  the  eor- 
Uat  patiibk  dote  for  the  arrival  of  Festus,  and  lbs 
spring  of  61  for  the  apoalte's  arrival  at  Rome.  The 
laiat  pOBible  it  given  by  the  liberty  allowed  Paul  (Acts 
xiviii,  81),  for  the  Nenmian  persecution  began  July. 
A.D,  64.  The  extreme  date  hence  resnlting  ts  limit- 
ed by  further  conslderatiODa.  Pallas  and  Burrua  wen 
living  and  influential  men  at  the  time  when  Felix  wsi 
recalled ;  but  Pallas  died  in  the  latter  half,  and  Boms 
in  tha  Arst  or  second  month  of  A.U.  62 ;  conseqimlly 
FelixarrivedineiatUteet.  But  Paul  wudeiiveredlo 
the  one  prefect  of  the  pnelorian  guards,  r^  arpaiowi- 
li'PXV-  "'"'  """t  Cheretbre  be  Burma,  before  and  after 
whom  there  ware  (wo.  Aa  Bnrms  died  Jan.  or  Feb., 
and  Psnl  arrived  May  or  June,  the  year  conld  not  be 
G2,  and  the  latcsC  possible  dale  would  t.e  A.D.  61.  Lat- 
est possible  and  earliest  possible  thus  coinciding,  the 
date,  Wieseler  thinks,  ia  demonstrated.  To  this  il  is 
objected,  and  jnsCly,  that  r^  nTpoieintiipxv  of  neces- 
sity meana  no  mora  than  the  prefect  concerned  (Mey- 
er, Konm.  in  Apattdgetcli,  p.  19;  Lange,  Apou.  Zeit. 
ii,  0).  In  favor  of  the  later  date  (A.D.  diX  it  ia  nrfied 
that  on  the  hairing  Itefore  Nero  of  the  complaiuts  rela- 
tive to  Agrippa'a  building  overlooking  the  Temple  (Jo- 
sephua,/l<K.  xx,  S,  10, 11;  iCar,  ii,14, 1),theJewiDb- 
tained  a  iavorable  judgment  through  the  influence  of 
Popptea,  "  Nero's  wife."  But  Poppssa  was  mairied 
May,  62,  and  undoubtedly  Festus's  succeasor,  All'inna, 
was  at  Jernsalem  In  the  Feast  of  Tsbenucles  of  the 
same  year  (Josephus,  War,  vl,  6,  3).  Hence  it  la  ar- 
gued tlut  nuleSB  Joeephus's  cxprpaaion,  "at  that 
time"  (coro  ruf  xaii>ir  rovTov.Anl.  xx.  8, 11).  is  tak- 
en with  undue  latitude,  Kestus  cannot  have  entered 
upon  the  province  earlier  than  A.D.  61  (Meyer,  «.  *.). 
Ewald  {Getch.  vi,  44)  also  nrk'ea  the  anXvr^.  "  no 
man  forbidding  him,"  of  Act*  xxviii,jt>i.,  for  this  year 

perial  rescript,  rescinding  the  Jewish  ifopiility,  obtshi- 
ed  by  the  Greeks  of  Ciesarea  througli  the  inflwDM 
□r  Burma  (Josephua,  AnI.  xx.  8-9),  ia  spoken  of  » 
something  recent  in  the  l>eginning  of  the  rebeltioa 
(spring  of  A.D.  6G);  indeed  (in  ITiir,  ii.  14. 4),  it  Beema 
an  if  the  rescript  had  but  juat  then  reached  Cnaana, 
F.wsld  Burmiaes  that  the  death  of  Festus  and  of  Burms 
may  have  retarded  Che  process.  But  the  fiict  may  be 
(IS  was  suugested  alnve)  that  Josephua  In  thatpaatage 
has  confused  some  exercise  of  Burma's  influence  in  b»- 
halfof  Che  Cesaresn  Greeks,  in  the  time  nrClaDdiBS,M 
early  in  Che  time  of  Kero.  with  the  much  later  nutter  of 
the  rescript,  which  would  offldally  pass  through  Bnr- 
rua'ahandsas  secretary  for  Che  East  (riifiv  r^  iri  rwv 
EKXiiriKiiu  iriBTiiXwv  xtTrioTii'/iivoc),  and  the  opera- 


CHRONOLOGY  313  CHRONOLOGY 

tioDaf  which  may  luve  bean  deU}'adthroDglithain6ii-  apoatle'i  death,  but  that  he  «a*  set  at  Ubert}',  and  sof- 
taa  of  Poppma  (vrho  died  Aug.,  A.D.  6S).    That  Fop-    fered  mattyrdDin  mider  Naio  at  a  later  time,  appein 

DtaCiaDed,  nuy  be  menly  euphemlitic  anticipatiDu ;  the  te>timonie«  in  Browne's  Orda  Sad.  §  130).  In- 
[hb  ■DiuaD  ("  din  petlex,  et  adulter!  Neronlt,  mox  mo-  deed,  In  no  other  way  ia  it  possiblo  lo  find  a  place  for 
riti  poteos,"  Tacit.  Ann.  xit,  GO)  may  Iiiltb  befriended  the  three  pastoral  epi£tle§,  and  especially  to  accoluit 
[he  Jaws  in  the  fonDer  cspoclly  (at  any  lime  after  A.  for  statementa  in  the  Second  Kpiatte  to  Timothy  (q.  v.). 
h,  SB,  Am  .  xili,  15).  In  fact,  the  marriage  could  nut  Wieseler'a  forced  espLimitiana  have  BBtlBlied  and  can 
kiietakeu  place  at  the  time  wheD  she  it  uid  to  hivs  laiiafy  no  one.  (See  alao  Laage,  Apoilot.  Zabillar,  ii, 
lidtd  them,  unleu  it  be  pouible  to  ciovd  the  luliBe-  386  sq.,  and  Hulher,  in  Meyer's  Kril.  txrg.  Komm.  p. 
^jpentocenrrennaof  JoKphos  (.AtU.  xz,  8, 11  and  9, 1)  3a  »q.  Meyer  himself,  ^iHeiir.  Einleil,  p.  13  sq., 
iaio  the  space  of  three  or  four  months  (Browne,  Oriio  owns  that  the  three  paitoral  eiiiBtleii  "  atand  or  fall 
itfdLp.  \isy,  Korean  any  certun  infeience  be  drawn  together,"  and  tbat,  if  they  be  genuine,  the  coDclueioa 
ftixn  ttie  narrative  in  Josephus  (,Li/e,  3)  of  cert-in  is  Inevitable;  which  hetumsintoanarKDinenta^iiiDst 
[rieiti  whom  Felix  lud  sent  to  be  tned  at  Itume,  and  their  genuineness.)  But  if,  uftcr  hia  rrleose,  the  apos- 
bc  whom  Joacphiu,  after  his  own  26th  year,  which  tie  visited  not  only  Spain  (aa  £natd  admitB.  O'fii  h.  vi, 
wn  complete  A.U.  61,  waa  enabled,  through  the  good  6S1,  on  the  nnquestionabie  testimony  ofClemens  Rom. 
cdees  of  "Csut's  wife,"  Poppssa,  to  obtain  their  lib-  c.  6).  but  Greece  and  Asia,  aa  is  clear  fnm  the  Epis- 
crtv.  The  men  had  been  prisoners  three  years  at  leaat,  ties  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  scant  room  is  left  fur  these 
md,  lor  aught  that  appears,  may  have  been  so  seven  movements  between  the  late  dates  awigoed,  with  al- 
ar eight  years  or  more.  That  they  were  obscure  and  most  one  consent,  by  recent  German  writers,  to  the 
iosignillcant  pjrwns  is  evident  It^om  the  fact  that  Is-  '  close  of  the  lirst  linpriEonroent  (A.D.  6S  and  64),  and 
mael  and  Helltia«i  whom  the  "devout"  Poppaa,  two  the  year  6&or  GG,  which  the  anclenta  give  as  tbe  date 
jtaii  before,  had  graciously  detained  at  her  court,  ap-  '  of  Paul's  martyrdom.  So  far,  therefore,  it  is  more 
ptar  to  have  made  no  intercession  (or  their  release,  protiable  that  the  fir^t  imprisonment  ended  in  one  of 
See  Nero.  ,  the  years  68-60.  Another  consideration  point*  the 
Bnt  Wieseier  (p.  99),  after  Anger  (Z)e  femp.  in  Art.  same  way :  when  Poppna's  influence  waa  established 
Af.  rMom,  p.  1U6),  has  an  ar,;umant  to  which  both  (A.D.  &8-I15),  which,  after  she  became  a  proselyte  or 
lUtch  high  importance,  derived  from  the  notice  of  a  Uioaiiiiit  (i.  e.  at  least  aa  early  as  61),  was  freely  used 
Sunday  (Acts  xx,  7),  the  twelfth  day  after  leavln  ^  in  favor  of  the  Jews,  it  would  certainly  have  been  in- 
Philippi,  which  departuro  was  "after  the  days  of  Aiy-  yoked  against  the  apostle  by  his  enemies  (comp.  Ew- 
ma"  (15-31  Nisan).  and,  indeed,  very  soon  after,  for  old,  vi,  621);  and,  even  if  he  escaped  with  life,  his  con. 
tbe  apostle  "hasted,  if  It  were  possible,  to  reach  Jeru-  finement  would  not  have  been  of  the  mild  character 
nlem  forthe  Pentecost"  (verse  16) ;  and  of  the  43  days  described  in  the  concluding  verse  of  the  Acts,  more  es- 
vhieh  be  had  before  blm  from  22  Tfiaan  to  tbe  Any  of  pecially  as  hia  "  bonds  in  Christ  were  manifest  in  all 
PealecDst,  the  days  speciHed  or  implied  In  the  narrative  the  palace"  (prstorium),  (Phil,  i,  IS),  and  among  bis 

ru(comp.  Chrysost.  in  Acl.  Bon.  iciv,  2),  leaving  but  I  We  miy  add  that  if  the  Narcissus  (q,  v.)of  Bumane 
ti^bt  days  for  the  stjy  there  (r/fiipo^  irXiiouc,  iii,  |  xvi,  11,  was  the  celebrated  freedman  of  Claudius,  the 
lOJiadtheiuumey  to  Jeruaalem.  Wieaeler  concludes  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (q.  v.),  written  shortly  before 
tlul  the  departure  from  Fhilippi  was  on  the  !3d  Ni- 1  the  apostle's  last  visit  to  Jerasalem,  cannot  be  placed 
no,  which,  being  twelve  days  before  the  Sunday  at '  so  late  as  A.D.  58  or  59,  for  Narcissus  died  very  soon 
IViw,  would  be  Wednesday,  consequently  the  lath  after  Neni's  accession  (Tacit.  .Jr*.  xiii,  I).  See  Padl. 
.Niasn  fisll  on  ■  Tuesday.  According  to  his  method  V.  Auu&t.— The  following  table  exhibits  at  one 
of  Jewbh  nlendar  reckoning,  from  A.D,  56  to  59  in-  view  the  Julian  or  calendar  years  of  the  most  impor- 
cluive,  the  only  year  in  which  IGth  Nisim  would  fall  tunt  Biblical  evente  from  the  Creation,  and  also  the 
on  a  Tuesday  would  be  31,  which  is  bis  djte  for  Paul's  Vulgar  or  Christian  .£ra,  according  to  the  preceding 
■irival  at  Jerusalem.  Were  it  worth  while,  the  argu-  '  investigations  (for  a  complete  and  self- verify  log  tab- 
msBt  might  be  claimad  for  the  year  fi5  (the  date  ss-  ulur  coaetroction  of  sll  the  Scriptural  dates,  with  tbeir 
Hgncd  by  the  ancient'),  in  which  year  the  day  of  true  adjustment  to  each  other  and  the  demands  of  history, 
TuU  niaan~16  Nisan  was  1st  April  and  Tuesday.  |  and  the  authoritv  upon  which  it  restji,  see  the  Meih. 
Bit,  in  bet,  it  proves  nothing ;  the  chun  is  no  stron-  Quart.  Reeita,  October,  1856,  p.  601-63"),  In  cases 
ger  tlion  its  weakest  link,  and  a  single  "  perhaps"  in  I  where  it  Is  uncertain  whether  an  event  occurred  in 
the  reckoning  is  enough  to  invalidate  the  whole  con-  the  latter  part  of  one  Julian  year  or  in  the  beginning 
caltoation.      See  Passover.  I  of  the  next,  the  earlier  number  is  set  down,  and  haa  a 

On  the  whole,  it  seems  that,  If  not  in  the  Acts  (q.  I  star  prefixed.  In  the  centuries  adjacent  to  tbe  birth 
T.),  then  neither  in  the  history  of  the  times  from  other  i  of  Christ,  many  events  affecting  Palestine  are  inserted 
sources,  have  we  the  means  of  seltiing  this  part  of  the  from  the  Apociyphs,  Josephus,  snd  other  sources,  in 
chrooology  with  absolute  certainty.  Josephus  in  par^  addition  to  those  properly  Biblical, 
ticoiar,  from  whom  are  derived  the  combinations  w~ ' 
rtreot  German  writen  deem  so  unanswerable,  is 
mIM  i,  til.  p.n  .r  tb.  blm,,  (.Htm  pmb.1,1,     .»,,  „„,„„!.,  „ 

ft-jBi  his  own  resources  and  tbe  inaccurate  recollec-      -  ■ 

lions  of  his  boyhood)  by  the  Inflnitely  higher  author- 
ity of  Tacitiu,  who  drew  hi*  Information  from  the  pub- 
Uc  records.  Only,  in  whatever  degree  It  is  probable 
iKit  Paul's  first  residence  at  Corinth  commenced  A.D. 
ii(i^  alnve).  In  the  aame  It  is  probable  that  the  arrest 
St  Jerualem  belongs  to  the  year  56,  six  years  being  siif- 
llelent,  as  neariy  all  inquirers  are  agreed,  for  the  int*r- 
msdlateoecumnce*.  Then,if  thearrivalat  Rome  tiMik 
(ilaee,  as  the  ancients  say,  in  tbe  second  year  of  Nero, 
it  will  be  Becesaary  (with  Pitlsvius)  to  refer  the  "  two 

Tears"  (iuria,  xxl*,  !;)  lo  the  term  of  Felix's  (sole)    -imieTe.itiTth'arilBpheth. 
pioenratership.     See  Cobinteiiahb  (EplKrt.Ea  rn).      I  '"*^'l^*  RIIJ'h'rfT'^i^ 

That  the  two  yws- imprisonment,  with  which  the      jSilMlflllSulrfMe^lah. 
Bsmliva  in  the  Acts  ends,  did  not  tenuinata  in  tbe  I  {        iBegUmlac  of  the  FlooA 


Gooi^lc 


CHRONOLOGY 


lion  br  £«)l 


'otthel* 


i>  FuDllr  to  KgTpL 


vJiiMn,' 


CHRONOLOGY 


n«ruE»  of  itaTid 

MOlUhtEc 

ti«ond  Bpuring 

f  S«lil  br  D«rM. 

KeoUnn  of  IM 

Id  u  Ztklig. 

Accwlon  of  [)• 

Id  ■!  S>ul'.  Dtalh. 

vldo.«-Jlll>*TW» 

U.feuof.h.l'U 

l-:ipuL>l«i  of  Ihe 

Je1>^b./bT  DrrU. 

Bl«3  lOlO  FoundlDE  of  BDlomoii-i  Temple 
sun  IMIS  Dsdlotloo  of  I^OIOIOOD'I  TEmpIc 
&K0  «IB  AcuBloo  or  Bcbobiam. 

SMS  ein  Apwtur  of  Rchobixin. 
Sint    MlllDVukworjudih  br  Bhlfhik. 
■SSn   eMiAR«Btaa(^AI4<liaTtrJiidati. 
B»0'  ROB  AfCMlunaf  AHorarJudih. 
Stti.  N>1  AeniHl«i  id  Nad»b  <i<er  I-rnfiL 


S.  »iS  Inlanutionil 


tr  Oniri  of  lirwsL 


Kl  of  JohOBb^phst  DT 


mloD  of  Jelwruu  II 


STT  AccflflBioii  of  j(4i0KHb  I- oTBr  JadalL 

M3,l!lrthDf  Amulah. 

ssfi|Aca»loii  of  Jc1>o>h(i  I.  oT>r  Iind. 

9:<I  AcMHlin  of  Anuilih  orgr  Jndih. 

S9S  AppnlntDMiilDf  Jaraboam  IL  u  VieerDT. 

Rt4  Dlrth  of  I  iiMi. 

sns  Acroal.ii  of  L  iiUh  OTtrJndih. 

me  Uinhof  Jothim. 

189  Dulh  of  jBrolouD  n.,  followal  br  a  Intimf 

tATlhqilAkF  mnd  LapTMr  of  ViilAh. 
lAppdptmflDlof  Jolhun  u  VLf«ror> 

AcchIoo  of  ShaJlun  orsr  Irrwl. 
T69  Aonulonof  MeniLhaQiorer  ImeL 
ISO  AHflBioD  of  l^kihiiih  o<w  IiruL 

TM,  Aueiwlon  of  JMhmii  orer  Judi'h. 
lAppulnunaDlof  AhuuTloeror. 

T43,SubJugDUaiiof  lbs  Ammonlua  br  Jothun. 

ISIIroth  of  I'ekAb.  faUD*ed  by  in  InMrnfim  Id 


8441;   Ii4  Siaoond  Reroll  of  llo»h«  from 
SteO:  T!3  Sietn  of  Sunurln  br  ^hulmmaH 
94lkS    T:!l)  AHrrUn  OptlvllT. 
84A^    T15(;apUiT«4tfAlhdodbr  Barton. 


LMrrian.  br  -liriiDkii 


UfilnhofJetHUdc 


lahcTcrJudab.  I 


CHRONOLOGY 


CHRONOLOGY 


•..Bl'  <]9BlnliarZBdckl>h. 
*xa7  tH  lUnh  of  Jcbsfuhln. 
UM.  (WSliDghter  of  J«Uh  by  fhunah-Necbo. 

AnoaliBDf  JebcLikiiiiiiTu'Judiih. 
IMT:  MtlnTulon  ('iludah  bf  NebuihrndQeBiu  m  Vlcenj. 

I         DepoTUIhnorDulal 
atTo   tna  1>ra>ni  of  NelweliiidBeuiir  InlerpniMi  bj  DulsL 
ia;9   SaslAMMliincif  JeholiuliJiiovgrJnilKli. 

I        IFlm  iiHDenl  HaiKirtktlim  by  lbs  ItebTlanlmiu. 
AkwIod  of  Z(»Mil>h  unr  Jd  bh. 
>K4   n«|.-l  KC  of  Jenunieni  bjttb*  Babjisaliiu. 
ns&   Ha  DeMncilao  of  Jeniulm  bf.lhe  BibrkmliiH. 

BS^I    Mi  Third  gowial  IXimruiloiibT  the  BabrLilBiu. 
Kl{   Ml  KelHM  ff  Jaholuhin  bf  Kvjl.MerodKli. 
rOS    SSntikpturaotBlliTlDIlliT'-Dirtui  tba  UMlr.'' 

Wn,  SHDRmsfO>r<l<rartfiiiRMurD«flhBjB-M. 


MM    fT4  PM«  ^TlmmsD  kgalnv 


tVginplng  of  ltanle|-i 


ntl;  4MliuiOMarUuO.-T.C 


■mr  I.  (UgS  c 
u  L  jHUh  HI 


HI  ,Piol«BT  (lJEl>  u«Id 
I'lfKlauu-  Jnlih  Hlgh-nrtwi. 
tU  PilnllM  Ok  Smiui  nf  Wiir  be 
V>»  Mkduwi  Jewlih  Irieh-prlnL 


High-prtvL 

lll«I'^«tlH 

ID  EtTfi,  Bbd  ayil*. 


I»,The  l{cTP>>u»  ™«  nion  oeenpr  Pilenlu 

OdIh  III.  J><rl>ta  Hlth.prleu. 
19«  Anllochiu  (giln  hIiw  Fulmiiu. 
lis  l^1s>ll»  llullf  Mdad  la  KsTpl. 
II*  ntteaXiM  DOC*  man  ■  STrtan  ITdOdh. 

Ilalkidanii  uttviiiita  la  plumler  the  JcalnU  Tempi*. 
n»,JsMiD  punbuH  Uh  Jairlib  Hbtb-prioilbsad, 
m  JHrbh  lllgh-prlathood  emfkntil  m  Hruelnit-  (OdIu). 
IIA  ABiiochu  KpiphutM  plnndn-i  tbr  Jntnh  T*mi>l«, 
Uf  The  Bxrivo  Oswnl  ApoUonlaA  b«lF}:H  JeruHLeru  mid 
■nppUnu  the  Wonblp  of  Jabovih,  but  !•  ol  teigtii 

I    natolHl  br  MilwUibu. 
W  Jadu  Mvalau*  raita  th*  HitIuix. 
l«l<Jnl<h  TMnpli  Scrrlcn  naewed,  !tHh  Rkleo. 

Ul  AlHimu  r»iii.uurf  u  JewUh  lllgh-prf^  ""■ 

m  Jiouhu  MkH  Uie  Field  igilnn  Uemelriiti. 
l«l  jMHthu  (uf>  oTsr  to  I  >enMrlu>. 

144  Tbfl  Je«i  lyiMd  from  Firvin  TrlbutiL 
141  Slu 


*l>  Herod  (tin  OnU]  (ppolnted  King  by  Ihe  Romiint. 
IT  Herod  tsk«  Jenunlem  by  Btorni, 
JABuet  I*  BtbylDBlaii)  J(wl>h  Kliili-pTWt. 


I  Btflaatas  •*  Ihe  Talgur  Chrinlun  iGn. 
«  Ai^dHB  buUlwd  la  Oonl. 
iCoponliM  ProcDTalov  «f  JudBL 


SS  Uhriit  bipIUed  by  John. 
3e  Pontliu  PIlue  Pncunlor  of  J 
IS  John  the  Biptlil  bebeidail. 
pUikmofUirtit 
lyrdcuDT  Stephen. 
Tenloi  oT  PiuL 


(.MliguU  Rddub  l^upeni 
TiienphUni-  (bmhnDrJnn 
Hen>a  AnUpM  b«i>l)hed  lo 


in<i>)  JtTtili  Ulgh-prtert. 


n)  Jewlih  UIgb-prleM. 


Usnt'C 


irMJeirlahHIgh-prU'il. 

Df  ABeoiul  Jeirl.h  IIIgli-prktL 


ih  tllgb-pi 
Mulyrdom  of  JaiMe. 
Dnlta  at  Hend  Agripp*  I. 
.i^^u^at  Fkdu  Pncuritornf  Jiidieii. 
4T,Tlberiai  AlexendH  FraFuntornf  JndnL 
48  JiMpb  raoD  of  Kami)  luecMded  Id  the  Jewlib  BUb- 
pneHbood  by  AunUe  leoD  of  NebedieuaX 

'Keml  Agrtpp*  H.-'Klo^-  of  TmehonitU, ets. 


Iihmael  (hh  of  Fahll  Jeiriih  Uigh-pIlM. 
M  PaDl'i  FIM  Arrlnl  In  Roma, 
ti  Honyrdnm  of  Janw  (the  Lea). 

lAlMBqr '  '-■— 

Uowph 


M  Jewbh  Ulgb. prist. 

MrorJudH 

'  I  :wtlufi  UbIIiih  bnlegei  JeniHlem. 


a,  VltoUlui.  em 
1.  dstroyi  Jen 


»r.]  Into  Jnd 


TI.  CoainmriiiM  ami  Uttrature.—Tbt  diaUoM  of 
the  Creation  bom  the  Cbrintian  era,  vhieh  hu  been 
■tated  with  about  110  variaCiooa,  It  given  in  the  In- 
dian Chroaology,  u  computed  liy  Geo^,  at  (il74 
yean;  In  the  Babylonian,  by  Bailly,  U  6ia8i  in  the 
ChineH,  by  Bailly,  at  6157 1  in  the  S«ptuaKint,  by 
AbulforMrius,  at  &508;  while  Jewish  writers  bnng  it 
down  below  Ihe  nrnipaUdon  of  Capellua,  lunielT, 
4000.  and  one,  Rabbi  Lipnun,  to  so  contracted  a  in'm 

I.  The  chronoingy  ot  the  English  Bible  waa  rego. 
Uted  by  the  viewg  of  Usher  (AnaaUt  Vet.  r(  Kov.  Ttl. 
tint  ed,  roi.  Lond.  1860, 1G54),  who  followsd,  in  gen- 
eral, the  anlhorlty  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Other  ehro- 
Dologen  liare  put  UieniHlvea  under  the  tcuidancc  of 
Ihe  Sepluaglnt  and  Joaephna,  maintaining  that  the 
modem  Hebrew  text  haa  been  greatly  Tltlatad  In  the 
whole  department  of  chronology,  and  more  eapaclally 
in  the  genealogical  tahlei  which  reapecl  the  aotadilo- 
vian  patrjarcha,  aa  well  aa  the  teo  generatloD*  Imme- 
diately after  the  Flood.  The  examinalion  aboTi  doe* 
not  >nitBin  Ihii  conctodon.  Yet  the  ahortened  aeheme, 
adopted  by  Uahar  ftom  the  Haaoritc  Jewa,  ia  recenl  In 
ita  prevalence  among  Chrlatiatia  whan  compaivd  with 
coinprehendva  cbronoIogyoftheSeptaagint. 


I  the 


CHKONOLOOy       316       CHRONOLOGY 

Tbia  But  vu  med  before  Ibe  wlr«nt  of  our  Lord,  and.  |  scbool.  It  accept!  the  Biblical  nombsn,  bat  roakca 
Iwing  fblloired  by  the  Greek  futben  of  tbe  Churcb,  I  the  tnoM  u-bitmy  convctloiu.  For  tiie  chite  of  tlM 
wu  genenllj  current,  tUl.  In  the  eighth  century,  ■ '  Exodu>  It  bu  virtunlly  been  accepted  by  Buiuan, 
dupositicn  to  exchange  it  far  the  Rabbiaical  meUiod  <  Lepeiua,  and  Lord  A.  Uervey.  The  ayitem  of  Bdd- 
of  reckuning  waa  fint  nuinifeal«d  by  the  venerable  ten  ire  mar  regard  ai  conititaling  a  ftiurtfa  daa*  of 
Bede.  Raman  Catholic  authora,  however,  have  u>a-  ^  itaelf,  baaed  upon  theories  not  o^y  independent  of, 
■lly  adopted  the  latter,  from  the  inflneace  of  the  Latin  but  Ttpugnant  to  tbe  Bible.  For  the  time  beftnra  the 
Vul|{Bte.  which  strictly  fbUovra  the  Hebrew  numbere. '  £xndui  he  dlacarda  all  Biblical  chroDDlogical  data, 
Isaac  Voaaius,  in  his  treatise  Dt  Vtra  jEtalt  Atuiidi '  and  reasoDs  altogether,  aa  it  ^ipear*  to  ua,  on  phllo- 
(Hag.  1659, 4lo),  was  the  fint  of  any  note  who  fDrsooli  logical  coniidBiatiuca. 
tbe  Hebrew  dates.      Peirun,  ■     ■  ■ 


liHT    1 


da  r™«  rilablit  <i  it/mi&s  'amtn  la  Ju'/i  «  fc«  MB- 1  I  Kl 

vtaax  ChroHalaguta  (AmaL  1687,  18mo),  produced  a,  ttooofAdun       \iiit 

great  loipreeaion  In  favor  of  the  lengthened  period  ad-  ]    n^JJa"  "*"''' —    ~°; 
vocated  by  Teesiui.      It  wu  not,  however,  till  the  j    A bnm 'lean*  Hans!    1  « 

middle  of  the  last  century  that  Jackaon  produced  bia      tlxoiltii has 

great  work,  the  aronoiosi^A,uif«iHa  (Loud.  1702  j    ^."^'^^  %1Zf^,   ^'^ 

a  vola.  *lo).     He  advocated  the  longer  chronology  of  !  L __±_J 

the  SeptUAgint.  In  the  beginning  of  tbe  present  cen- j  In  the  postrdiluvian  period  Hales  reject*  the  Sacmd 
tury  Dr.  Hales  pobliahed  tbe  first  volume  of  a  labori- 1  Calnan,  and  reckons  Terah's  age  at  Abram'a  Urtb  IM 
oos  work  entitled  A  JVnc  Analjftii  of  CAramlogif,  an  '  Instead  of  TO  years ;  Jackaon  accepts  the  Second  Cal- 
ondertahing  which  nltimately  extended  to  four  vol- 1  nan,  and  does  not  make  any  change  in  the  second  case; 
umes.  chiefly  In  confirmation  and  illuatmtlDa  of  tbe  Usher  and  Petavius  follow  the  Heb.,  but  the  fonneT 
CDUclusioas  of  Jackson,  llr.  Faber,  in  his  work  on  [  alters  the  generation  of  Terab,  while  tbe  Utter  does 
pagan  idoLitry,  offers  some  judidoos  obeervationa  on  net.  Bunsen  requires  "  (or  the  Noachlan  period  abont 
the  chronology  of  ancient  history,  treailiug  generally  ten  millenia  before  our  era,  and  for  the  beginning  of 
In  the  footstep  of  Hale*.  The  Or^insj  of  Sir  Wil-  our  race  another  tan  tbousaud  years,  or  veBy  little 
liam  Drommond  proceeds  also  on  the  ground  supplied  more"  (Oattinei,  ii,  12).  These  conclusions  neceaai- 
by  tbe  Sepluagint  chronology.  A  detailed  statement  I  Ute  the  abandonment  of  ail  belief  in  the  historical 
of  grounds  for  admitting  the  authority  of  the  Septus- '  character  of  tbe  Biblical  account  of  the  time*  before 
^tln  preference  to  that  of  the  original  Hebrew  may;  Alirabam.  Tbe  writer  does  indeed  speak  of  "(sets 
be  found  in  a  preliininsry  dissertation  pielixed  to  the  and  traditions ;"  his  bets,  however,  u  (kr  aa  we  can 
first  volume  of  Dr.  Michael  Russell's  CanMrliim  ^Sa- ,  perceive,  are  the  results  of  a  theory  of  language,  and 
end  and  Pm/ant  Hi^oni,  from  Ikt  Dtolk  !•/  J<'tkaa  lo  \  tredltkm  Is,  from  its  nature,  no  guide  in  chniDolopy. 
the  DecUmt  of  Ae  Kivgdomt  of  lirad  and  ./udoA  (Lond.  It  is.  however,  certain  that  no  Shemitic  scholar  baa  ac- 
J83T,  3  vols.  Svo).  I  cepted  Bunaen's  theory.     Far  the  time  fnioi  the  Ex- 

2.  Upon  the  daU  wg  have  conaidered  above,  three  odua  to  the  Foundation  of  Solomon's  Temple,  Usber 
principal  systems  of  Biblical  Chronology  have  been  alone  takes  the  480  years;  tbe  rest  adopt  longer  pe- 
founded,  which  msy  be  termed  the  Lonii  SyatPm,  the  riodf,  according  to  their  eiplanations  of  the  other 
Short,  and  tbe  Ral>binlcal.  All.  or  almost  all,  have  numbers  of  this  interval ;  but  Bunsen  calcuUtei  by 
erred  on  the  side  of  clalmmg  for  their  result*  a  greater  '  generations.  The  period  of  the  king*,  from  tbe  foond- 
acinraoy  than  the  nature  of  the  evidence  u[>on  which  \  ation  of  Solomon's  Temple,  is  very  nearly  the  same  In 
they  reated  rendered  possible.  Another  failing  of  \  the  computalioas  of  Jackion,  Usher,  and  Tetaviaa: 
these  chronologen  is  a  tendency  to  accept,  thraoi:h  a  I  Halea  lengthens  it  by  supposing  an  Inlerregnmn  of  II 
kind  of  fiilse  analogy,  long  or  short  numhera  and  coin- 1  yean  after  the  death  of  Amaiiah ;  Batisrn  shmteDS  ii 
putations  tbr  intervals,  rather  according  as  they  have  by  reducing  the  reign  of  Manasseh  from  55  to  46  yeaia. 
adopted  the  long  or  tbe  short  reckoning  of  [be  patri-  \  The  former  theory  is  improbable  and  uncritical ;  tbe 
■rchsl  genealogiea  Ihsn  on  a  consideraticin  of  spMial  latter  Is  merely  the  result  of  a  supposed  necessity, 
evidence.  It  ii  as  though  they  were  resolved  to  make  i  S.  The  l>est  authorities  on  chronology  in  general  are 
the  sum  OS  great  or  as  small  as  possihle.  The  Rab-  Ideler'i  thorough  Uaadbuck  d,  mtali.  M.  frclnuri.  Chro. 
bins  have  m  their  chronology  afforded  the  strongest  nologie  (Berl.  1^25,  2  vob.)  and  Bimdlmrli  d.  CkramoL 
example  of  Ibis  error,  having  so  shortened  the  inter-  (Beri.  ICSl),  The  methods  snd  results  of  these  work* 
Tals  as  even  egregionaly  to  throw  out  the  datea  of  tbe  n  ost  pertinent  lo  Bjlilical  chronology  are  also  poianed 
time  of  the  Persian  rule.  The  German  school  is  here  in  tbe  first  port  of  Browne's  excellent  Orio  Strdormm 
an  exception,  for  it  has  gonerslly  fljlen  into  an  oppo-  (l.ond.lSW).  Comp.M«tris,C*rono/.  ia  otf.  j.  jEpocJlHi 
site  extreme,  and  required  a  far  greater  time  than  uny  (Wien,  1»J4).  Jarvis's  liUrod.  to  lie  BitloiJi  if  ilu 
derivable  from  the  Biblical  numbers  for  the  earUer  CiKirch  (K.  Y.  and  Load.  IMS)  is  a  fundanientiil  in- 
agea,  while  taking  the  Rabbinical  dale  of  the  Exodus,  vestigstion  of  ancient  Bras  with  referenie  lo  the  Chris- 
snd  so  has  put  two  portions  of  its  cbronulouy  in  vjo-  tian,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  evidence  there  irirrn 
Imt  contrast.  We  do  not  lay  much  stress  upon  the  \  of  an  error  in  the  Roman  annals  Ijetween  B.C.  46  and 
qunioDS  of  the  early  Christian  writers,  or  even  Jnse-  A.D.  360,  in  consequence  of  which  the  author  carrir* 
phos :  their  method  was  uncritical,  and  they  accepted  every  event  between  these  pi^ts  one  year  farther 
the  numbers  best  known  to  them  witboat  any  feeling  hack.  A  synopsis  of  the  argument  Is  given  in  Strong's 
of  doobt,  :  Warm,  and  Eipoi.  of  lie  Gotpde  (N.  T.  If  62),  Ap- 

The  chief  advocate*  of  tbe  Long  Cbronolngy  are  pend.  1. 
Jackson,  Holes,  and  Oes  Vignolea.  They  take  the  One  of  the  eariieat  Cbriatlan  aystematic  cbronolo- 
Sept.  for  tbe  patriarchal  genentiona,  and  adopt  the  gies  is  the  FenliMbtiim  of  Julius  Africanos  (in  the  3d 
long  Interval  from  the  Exodus  to  tbe  Foundation  of  cent.),  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  remain.  Au- 
Solomou'a  Temple.  Tbe  Short  Chronology  baa  bad  a  other  ia  the  Chrot^am  of  Ensebius  ('Ith  cent.),  of  the 
multitude  of  illoatrious  supporters,  owing  to  its  hav-  Latin  translation  of  which  liy  .Terome  an  edition  with 
ing  been  from  Jerome's  time  the  recognif^  system  of  notes  was  published  by  Soalit'er  in  1C66 ;  and  tha 
the  West,  Usher  may  be  cnnaidered  as  its  most  able  Armenian  version  has  since  been  discovered  and  pab- 
advocate.  He  follows  the  He)>rew  in  the  pstriarohal  lished,witha  I.atintnnslstinn,at  Venlce,lR18.  Then 
generation!!,  and  takes  tbe  4><0  years  from  Uie  Exndos  la  also  a  famous  Spanish  commentary  upon  this  cbron- 
to  the  Foundation  of  Solomon's  Temple.  The  Rab-  tele  by  Alfonso  FoaUto  (Salamanca,  1608,  b  v«ls.  fal.). 
Unical  Chronology  baa  Utely  come  bilo  much  notice  The  ChrmieaK  Patrhale  (ed,  Dnfreane,  Par.  IW9,  fol., 
troat   it*   partial   reception,  chiefly  by   the  German    and  by  IHndorf,  Bono,  I83S)  i*  a  BycoDtlne  work  bt< 


CHRONOLOGY,  CHRISTIAN      317      CHRONOLOGY,  CHRISTIAN 

no^  npon  Iha  buu  of  the  Euter  regtirsl.  Tfaeta  '  ■bly  of  in  aarller  origJD,  for  the  name  tialio  (itrami'), 
ii  iUd  the  Jeiruh  Chtomton  nuindi  tnajui  ft  mimu,  or  i  by  which  tliey  were  Kenenll;  dealgnited  at  the  time 
Stta-  Olam  pVis  ItD,  In  Hebrsw,  Amswrd.  1711,  ■  of  TertoUtan,  occur,  in  the  PomIot  ilerma  (lib.  B,  iimil. 
ttai  Id  Utin,  with  .  commenUrv,  by  J.  Mever.  Am.    ?'"  ^^u-^J.  "  «  d*?  »'  rejmoin,-,  U  flm  mentioned 

«rLl«9,  «o),  the  former  part  of  which  i>  reputed  to  I  !?  "^f  P"'"  1^  w  ^'^''- "?"  f"^  *"  "th™ 

*       "        ,    ^      ^  t>i^  inA      L-i     .L    k  ^^       tion  aeems  to  nuch  back  uf  the  apoBtolic  aee.     Theee 

h.™  1^  -mp^d  .U,ul  A.D.  IM,  .M.  lb.  UtUr   ,j„„  ^„,„„  ,.j.  „„  ^,.a7,i.  ,^8.  Ch.„b, 

a  or  mtre  ncent "™-  _  I  ftj-^  marta,  fteia  itxia  or  porotrtw,  and  rfiei  domini- 

11.  t.ai,d«,..  .t tl»""^."  ■.■.».■  .ttbr.!..!^   ^  ^,' i,iii.,  «,d  by  lE  Gn.k.  .„p„t.  ,.,.- 

r^  ,^  TT£^,  '^JT'"™"  ,<r",-  '•»».  M-  ■  ,"-  ^,i  ,  „  L.Zn4  W-  Tb.  .m™i  ««»« 
lu»l.  Led.  159S :  aim  G.nevL  1629).  Anotb.r  m- I  ,'!,.''.„  ,  f,fc.J,.i  j  _  „■  t -.„ir  „ 
5  .  ■  1  -.1  .  .  .L  .  .  ¥1  i>  .  ■  (I.  ,  for  th.  nun..  oflbB  Malbin^l.Ts  »™  Bg."!  T.tblb.n 
"^"i'Si  ¥  "^  ^.  .m;  7  , '°;  !^  ■  ••'  Cl.m.bl.  Tb.  n.™.,  I.  i«  lb.  Snt «.  malion 
u.).  D.  i).»n..  rmj«r»n  (Pu.]«S7  !,.!..  f.l.)     ^  „,„„  „,  ^j,;,     .j,,,  ,,  „^  ,^„j  ,„ 

U.  .b^d,™.!,  ««.««,,-,  r..^^.,  CP«.  I«10,    .„jJl.v.  .m  Ms^W  by  tb"  lilb.  ,l.b  lb. 

..         m       •       If      .  .™,.    I        ...-^  ^    »  ..r„,  tBo/*ein.  tmiJ  IhAil  CAnmoMwur,  Berlin,  1886)  a  Brat 

Cd^Cl™«»(I»nd.l6J!,  Lj..lS,t,  Frell.H%);  ...a,,^  i,  T««.11l..7Xi..b.l.n;  tb.  A,  ^U 

K.TO;  IWI,»  <U«,d.  1,^):   Bbi,r,  Ci™^„  (j..^.  ,  „j  jj„  j^„i  ,5.,^    ,.   b,  j.,a„ 

^rS<^.   °1   ^^™  'i,  '='"."«Si,''«'»  JUrtvr;  ib.  n,..tl™„  ™0  *».W  ,i,.>.  <S.»d..)  .bd 

2rS;<?^  ;i^';.?i,T'  ^?'  f'T,"  S  ■  ■*•  """—  ''i^  (wrf.»d.,).  ..d  j„bj,>i 
,'jir"'i"""""S'  '■'"'J:.r''%  ?^'  'tt'-  (■""•fl  w..".  sSi  i«b.,  ..y  .f  d..iB..£,  tb. 

rfdnw^ma  (H.in.  1774);  Btngel,  Ordo  Irmpornn       ,..  u    '    1.    .h     j  „     .  .k    — ^v  n^  -.,   '^%.nil 

(iiTsS,.  1770);  B.b,i,„»riM.*  cCj,^  :,S.TX?;™c«Li„r.  IbStAiSr 

■    /■        i-tdT\     rt       .     .r     ^  .1         #     ,     --y^,  aimgayi  ny  Ibe  nrat  lette™  oitne  Blpnabet,  A  to  U. 

™  i  .biidrb.  D.,1  I.ffl)  t  ™^»'»~'.,  J.  «ll.  .„.„.,i™  .,  tb.  d«tb  .bd  tb.  ™.m«i.;  t 

™>'  2"i  ^?U  *^''°*"''  ^i"™;-/?'* ,<'■'•  Cbn.t  otb,.  ..tly  t.  b.  »l.bn,tnl  .itb  ■p.ci.l  «>l.iii. 

S' .  A^      T^-  ■""?.£'■■."""■„*,'■"■.  ■«•■    Tb.  til.  Ob  wbLb  lb.  f.™.,  oFtb™  «,.!. 

ir     1  ,a.,'      ■      1.      i<      nt       i    -     f         ,n  T.nwru.  .bould  b.  coTbbtobior.tm  .v.o  bocam.  th. 

ic«i    ti\.i,  n.,i.  .^B^lt  i-CZHi  IT     J  ,i«ii  occB8iooofonoofth.KTWtMtMc1wiartiMlcootrov.r- 

Hli  fe^^i™*?!     rf-Ji^^  ^''  '  •■••  "'  ■'"  •«1"«  C»""'.  Ob.  pony,  iblcb  clalmBd 

5Cl2r?S''  T  <i^>   ,  "■:,'  • "~;'"'-  p..i,  i..i.ti.g  tbu  it  .bo.id  i7,.i.b„t.d .» tf;  ..- 

OlniHfcs9o//>aa.  (Load.  1848);  alto  <4  upr.  rauf /M.      .' ,  ,*    ,,,,_ ,.    ,,,      „,,. .    j,„  „, 

a™iis™»«'.j(i"ib.j..i.»5oi^7i«.,Lood.  z Ts b '  ,1, V, T  ?  J^lh.^;ji  ~»; 

lua       ?afl        \      ^         A.    ti        J  *><         p        ,--*    *  the  JeWLFn  month   of  Niaan),  ana  the  other  party, 

!?■,  •■   S  "■■'  •  ,?""h    "^  'a™*^  (Of-  .bicb  .,,..1.4  to  tb.  olbor  ajootlo.  a.  tb.i,  .SJu 

S:       mZl'i"'  ?i~  ",  ;      ^"S:  "'r  «■^  ■*»«  ■'•  c.l.b»tioo  ooft.  .n.l,.«T  da.  .1 

IM  S«™i  ^  Fnf^BM,  o/tl.^  ITorfd  I7,™,«-  ,.    ,„„_  ^      „■  '  K.„b..  of  A.bi  Moo,  tb.  f.n... 


«»a™/u.  .>../>»,«„  t/„„Z.ii¥.- t  ,  i-k™!.    «itb  tb.  J.wiah  CaLodai  or  a  apMUl  cal.ulalioD  of 


ri_  .1      »■_.'  ir  ]       .■■-  >     <    7    ■         .  WHO  10.  J.WUO  I.B1.00aT  Or  B  BpWOBl  CBIGUM 

w(bitb.  CdOiw.  ifoo.  dn- IPraaeuci.  1.  ahro.);  ,k     r-u  ■  „       p„,„      rir  ,h.  i  ^,  .1„.     .i,     „...» 

li«,iB;,Z..P™b«iu.<i.,r.l.0,i,-..(Ha1.18IS)  •'•.Cb";«">  E'"";    "'''•,;,"'  •'"»•."•  ""' 

H.p«.;b.  iEi.1.  *,  di.  lit.  m™..  (31 1.11);  Do.,-;  "',r  or  m™i™  .Ld  r™^ ,» ,^1 :  J  ..1; 

-1?    ,p     '  e-  p-  _a    p      pb      .*  a.     1  „   .  atatue  of  Hippoiytaa,  ana  computed  to  the  flrrt  year 

rS%'EJ:r..S;li.f2.tb'?^,,<ft;'  oflbo.n,p.iiAl.„.d.rS.,.rw(A.D.!!!).   lt«x« 

k*     TjlSi'/'l^^SS^I!?    <.^  k.l;?i;  lb.  1Kb  of  MBTcb  a.  tho  Urn.  of  lb.  «loiooi,  i.  ar. 
Parker,  Cimmohaw  (Lond.  I80D) ;  Kiioherath,  Bi&ludie  I  ".       .    ,,       .   ,        „    _p  7^  1         j  j 

(lp~l,i  rMr^.*  iJMAl-  i»win  F,,^  o„™-  n„„rf  ranwed  according  to  the  Piiteen  yeara"  cjxle,  and  de- 

Srr^ir^  »i    A  ^    ■  ■^rV   ?f^-,'    V  termin..-  the  Eatter  Sunday.  «^corfing  to  the  Udn 

m>h  8h.n.«dU  «'^<^*™^,(N;7-  "ff  ^Xr  rule,  that,  whenever  the  Ea.ter  Sunday,  fall  nf«n  Sat- 

<ar».Ll*^,(H.idelb.l86!).     See  Vri-OAR  ^HA.  Tl^^'' ^' If,,         ,  f^         llh.^    ^ 

'     *  '  bat  opon  the  (econd  next  Sunday.     In  the  Eaftem 

CHRONOLOGY,  Christi*!* — Thoflrtt  Chrirtianii,  chorche.  .pedal  calculation,  wi^  made  by  Dlonygln. 

iilheirdHlrelation.,  used  the  civi]  chronnlofcyofthe  of  Alexandria,   AnatoHu.   of   Ijiodicea,  and  other.. 

teontriH  they  Ured  in.     The  eccle.ia.t)cal  ctironolo.  Gradually  the  Alexandrine  Eoatar  Canon,  the  aothor- 

ty  of  the  early  Church  waa  limited  to  the  UM  of  the  .hip  of  which  i.  ascribed  liy  Jerome  and  Bede  to  Euae- 

Jewiihwoek,  which  began  with  a  workJiayand  cloixd  Wu».  dislodged  all  others,  andobtalned  general  DMge  In 

with  the  Sabbath,  and  in  which  the  Mveral  day.  were  Uie  Church.      II  appointed  forlbo  celebratinn  of  EaMer 

not  named,  but  counted.     Gradually  the  day  of  re«t  the  Sunday  following  the  day  of  the  fpU  moon  which 

n.  changed  bom  the  last  day  of  the  week  to  the  f\nt,  '  falls  nn  or  come,  next  after  the  equinox.     The  blib- 

ud  the  other  day.  of  the  week  came  to  have  a  .pei-ial  op^  by  padchal  letter.,  infonned  the  chuirhe.  of  the 

tcdeiiaatioal  name.     Both  tbew  change,  proceeded  proper  time  of  Eaater  In  every  year.     A  third,  which 

hm  tha  commemoratfon  of  the  day  of  the  snAaring  i.  mentioned  by  Tertnllian,  tried  to  fix  the  14lh  day 

ind  tha  returrectlon  of  Jen.  Chri.t— Sunday  being  of  the  month  of  Nlwn,  in  the  death-year  of  Chrkt  (the 

the  day  of  tha  reanirection,  Friday  the  day  of  the  cru-  25th  of  March),  aa  the  lnitno*able  anniverwry  of  the 

dliica.  and  Wedneaday  the  day  of  the  trial.     The  ,  death,  and  the  16th  day  of  Nhan  aa  the  annivemry 

Iwolattar,  aa  day.  of  mourning  and  fhating.  am  men-  of  the  re«urtMtion  of  Cbrlat.    See  Eabtui. 
llMHd  by  Tertnllian  (_A  jepn.  c.  !>  and  by  Clement       Conatantine  the  Great,  In  SSI,  ordered  a  civil  obaerT' 

of  Alixandib  (Atom.  tII,  13,  g  76) ;  bat  they  ate  [nb-  '  ance  of  Sunday  by  prohiUtlng  all  McnUr  bnraKBlv 


CHRONOLOGY,  CHRISTIAN      318 


CHRYSOLITE 


tni  tnnsfemd  tha  pagan  tftmd'iia  nf  the  old  Ra- 
mant  to  Sunday.  A  Romjn  Calenilar,  coin;Hleci  in 
the  middle  of  the  foutlh  ceotur)',  divjdfa  Ihe  whoU 
year,  from  the  Jet  of  Jinuir}',  accurdiDg  to  fi'undina 
■nd  weeks,  b)'  placing  in  paiallel  colnmns  the  eight 
Nundinal  letters  A-ll,  and  tbe  nven  week  letten  A-G. 
The  entire  nupprenion  of  the  NnndiDn  !•  thongbt  to 
b«»  been  effected  bj  lbs  SDnday  laws  of  Theodotiiii 
the  Greet. 

Bot  while  the  week  aapplinted  the  f-'uitdina,  Ihe 
Christian  appellation  of  the  week-duyi  gave  way  grad- 
ually,  at  le.ist  in  the  Weetern  HHintileB,  to  the  pagan 
planetary  names.  The  change  waa,  however,  not  ef- 
Acted  without  coneideraljle  resistance,  rhilastrini 
(ahoat  387)  coants  the  ase  of  the  planetary  names  for 
weekrflays  among  the  hereiiea.  Ambrose  and  Greg- 
ory of  Toun  (died  6!M)  censure  the  use  of  the  name 
Sunday  (dia  moIu).  A  bishop  of  Iceland,  in  111)7,  sup- 
presaed  the  planetary  namei  ind  sabstituted  for  them 
numbers.  Ilie  Spaniard  Campanella  made  an  at- 
tempt to  introduce,  in  the  place  of  pagan  names  of  the 
week-days,  the  names  cfT  the  aeven  sacramenta,  and  in 
place  of  the  usual  names  of  months  tliiise  of  the  twelve 
apostles.  In  the  Eastern  chuTcbea  tbe  planetarj'  names 
never  came  into  general  use.  The  Slavl,  Lithuanians, 
and  Finns  count  the  days  of  the  week,  calling  Monday 
the  flrst  day  (after  the  Sabbath). 

The  months  of  the  Christians  (except  among 
CopU  and  Abyui^ia^^  who  stilt  use  the  old  Alei 
drine  months)  are  still  than  of  the  Julian  Caleni 
The  names  of  the  Roman  months  have  also  in  n 
Christian  countries  come  Into  general  nee.      In  the 
Byiantine  empire,  tbe  Syro-Wacedonlan  names  of  tb 
months  maintained  tiicmwlves  l.y  the  side  of  tbe  K( 
man  nntil  late  in  tbe  Middle  Ages,  and  amung  tb 
Germanic  and  Slavic  nations  eflbrta  were  made  to  ii 
tniduce  native  names,  but  the  Roman  nnmra  always 
prevailed.     The  Armenian,  Syrian,  Coptic,  and  Abya- 
alnian  Cliristians  still  use  the  national  names  of  monr' 
excluslTely.    The  "  Society  of  Friends"  (Quakerf.) 
Ject  both  the  pUneury  names  of  days  and  the  Rom 
tiamea  of  months,  and  simply  count  loth  (as  "first 
day.''  instead  of  Sunday,  and  "Arat  month,"  instead 
of  Januar]')- 

U'ith  the  namea  of  the  Roman  monthi  also  the  Ro- 
man way  of  dating  was  extensively  used.     In  the 
Latin  Church  it  remained  in  use  until  tbe  establish- 
ment of  the  modem  ianguagea  (in  Germany  until  the 
14th  century).     Isolated  instances  of  the  present 
of  counting  tbe  days  are  found  in  a  fragment 
Gothic  Calendar  in  the  4th  century;  in  an  Ai 
Saxon  Cslendar  of  the  lOih  century ;  in  the  works  of 
Pope  Gregory  the  (irest  (594-fi04),  and  elsewhere. 
The  designation  of  the  daya  of  tbe  months  liy  the 
names  of  saints  came  into  use  early  In  Ihe  Middle 
Agea.     In  the  Byzantine  Church  the  Roman  way  of 
datins  seenis  to  have  been  supplanted  in  the  Tth 
tury  by  tbe  present  way  of  counting  the  diyi.     In 
Asia,  the  Roman  way  of  dating  was  used  only  by  way 
of  compariscin  with  the  national  method. 

The  beginning  of  the  year  in  tlie  Christian  coun- 
triea  haa  remained,  as  it  was  died  in  the  Julian  Calen- 
dar, on  the  1st  of  JannaT}'.  Dtonysius  E.ii.'nui'.  in 
order  to  give  the  lieginning  of  tjie  year  a  Christian 
character,  called  itthe  "day  orcircnmcijiion"(nK'i  rir- 
eninc  nova).  Several  attempts  were  made  to  rnbiiti- 
tnte  ftir  the  1st  of  January  another  beginning  of  tbe 
year.  relaUng  to  some  prominent  event  in  the  histori* 
of  Christianity.  Thus  several  pepea  began  to  use  for 
that  purpose  the  first  day  of  March,  probably  on  tbe 
ground  that  March  was  the  upual  month  of  the  Pass- 
over, and  Venice  used  in  its  public  documents  (his  day 
nntil  Che  downfall  of  the  republic.  Another  Roman 
new-year's  day  was  the  26th  of  March  (the  fr-tivsl  of 
the  Annundation).  and  this  was  used  in  Pin  and 
Florence  until  1749.  But  tbe  mnrt  common  was 
Christmia  (a  A'alndiW  ftmni).  which  was  even  cali- 


dilia  curia  Komama.  It  was  not  until  Pop* 
XII  (16U1)  that  tbia  habit  was  altogetbcr 
alundoned.  In  Germany,  the  calendarlnm  of  Chaiin- 
has  the  Ist  of  January;  the  Z5th  of  March  waa 
in  fluent  use  untU  the  lllb  centuiy,  itben  it  gave 
way  to  Christmas,  which  maintained  itself  until  tfas 
peace  of  Westphalia.  France,  under  the  Kerovingiana, 
used  tbe  1st  ofMarch;  nndet  the  CarloTi^gisnB,Chr{a(- 
;  under  the  Cspetingians,  until  the  lElh  century, 
Eaater;  the  Utter  waa  alio  for  a  long  time  in  use  in 
'lulland  and  in  Cologne.  Spain  and  Portugal  long 
laed  tbo  !5th  of  March,  and  from  the  14th  to  the  16th 
lentuiy,  Christmas.  The  Anglo-Saxons,  acconling 
0  Bede.  be,{an  tbe  year  on  Christmas ;  but  gtmdiully 
hree  different  years  were  distinguished — the  bistcv- 
cal,  legal  or  civil,  and  ecclesiaatlcal.  The  bpginning 
of  the  Bret  haa  lonti  been  on  the  1st  of  January  ;  that 
ofthe  second  was  the  Sfich  of  Decem1«r  until  the  I8th 
centDT,  afler  that  the  S6th  of  March  until  1T6!.  when 
It  was  fixed  at  the  lat  of  January.  In  (be  Bycan- 
tine  eni;dre  the  l!t  of  JanQary  was  in  tbe  Gth  century 
supplanted  bj-  the  1st  of  September  ((he  epoch  of  the 
Indlctions),  which  the  Rnaaians  abandoned  fur  the  Id 
of  January  in  1700.  and  tbe  kingdom  of  Greece  in 
1631.  The  Chaidnana  have  adopted  the  let  of  Srp- 
tember,  while  the  Neslorians  and  Jacubitcs  stick  to  the 
1st  ofTlahri.  The  Copts  and  Abyssinians  still  Ldber* 
totbelstofThoth. 

Of  a  special  church  year  there  ere  no  tracca  until 
the  time  of  ConsUntlne  the  Great.  Its  beginning 
seems  at  first  to  have  been  made  with  Ihe  sun-moDth 
corresponding  lo  the  Jewish  Klsan.  Ihoa  Ihe  Apos- 
tolic ConetitutionB  designate  Decemliei  as  the  ninth, 
January  aa  the  tenth,  and  "  Xanthkns"  (which  is  nru- 
allv  identified  with  Nisan)  as  the  Hnt  mnnlh.  Epl- 
phanius  follows  the  same  calcuUtion  ;  and  Victoriuf, 
Dionyaius,  and  Bcda  »pei.k  of  tbe  F.aster  monib  aa  the 
first.  The  epoch  nf  the  flrst  Sunday  of  Advent  ori.- 
inated  with  tbe  Keetorians,  and  is  flnl  found  in  llie 
Rripimtoriale  of  Gregori'  the  Great,  but  seenie  to  have 
been  general  in  Ihe  Lalin  churches  as  early  aa  the  Ith 
century.  The  Greek  Church  has  retained  the  l»t  of 
September  as  the  beginning  of  Ihe  church  year.  Sre 
Herzog,  Rrfd-EacsllnjMiilie  s,  T.  Zritr<dnnivg  (wliirh 
we  have  chiefly  fotkiwed  in  the  al:Dve  article).  See 
alao^BAj  Chcbch-tearj  Cvclb. 

Chryaargjtniin  (jtpwwipyi^i'),  a  tax  on  trade 
and  commerce  under  (he  later  Romaa  emperorF,  so 
called  becauar  jiaid  in  gold  and  silver;  and  also  irib^ 
turn  bittralt,  becaUFO  paid  once  in  every  five  yeara  (Aw- 
tram).  Even  Ihe  pooreFt  trndrrmen  were  not  eaempt 
tnm  it;  and  it  was  called  an  intolerable  tax  (^'(h>c 
rifliipi|ro(,  Ubanins,  Oral.  14,  cont  Ftonnt.).  Yet 
ConslantiuB  Aeed  the  lower  clergy,  who  gained  their 
bread  by  trade  or  labor,  from  this  tax ;  and  later  em- 
perors confirmed  the  eiemption.-~BinghaiD,  Orig.  tie- 
fla.  bk.  V,  ch.  ili,  S  C. 

Cbiyn'oUta  (xpiviXiBm,  goldei  ilant),  Ihe  pre- 
douB  Stone  which  garnished  Che  seventh  foundatirn 
of  the  New  Jerusalem  in  John's  vision  (Rev.  xxt,  W); 
according  to  Scbleusuer,  a  gem  of  golden  bne,  or, 
rather,  of  yellow  slroaked  with  green  and  white  (see 
Plin.  xxxvii,  9,  42;  Isidor.  Origg.  xvi,  H).  It  was 
called  by  some  cluytrip/iyUiaa  (xpvoi'ifvWor,  Efuphsn. 

lo^lgems  of  a  golden  or  yellow  color,  but  it  prot>ably 
designated  particularly  the  lapat  of  the  moderns  (we, 
however,  Beilermsnn,  Urim  tl  Thmimivi,  p.  62).  In 
the  Sept.  the  word  Is  employed  for  C^19"^P,  tartJtuk', 
the  "ber}*l"  of  our  version  (Exod.  xiTiii,  !0;  Eitk. 
X,  9).     See  Bertl;  TnPAC. 

n'hst  is  Dsually  tenned  chrysolite  la  a  cryatalliiM 
precious  atone  of  tbe  quartz  kind,  of  a  glossy  fractuir. 
In  chemical  composition  It  la  a  forriArras  ri/ieatt  a/ 
maffHoia.  Tbe  prevailing  color  is  yellowish -giren, 
and  piatachio-green  of  every  variety  and  d^ree  of 


CHRYSOLOGUS  319  CHRYSOSTOM 

ih>d«,  but  alwayi  villi  a  yellow  sad  gold  laMre.  I  shortly  Rfter  he  broke  with  the  vorld,  ind  rtBolved  to 

That  ire  two  particiiUr  ipeciwi  of  chrj-nolita :  one,  devote  hliDMlf  exclnaivelj  to  religion.  After  the 
ciQed  tbc  OrienUl  chiyaolile,  of  b  pieUchio-gieen, .  ubuI  couth  of  catscheticiil  inrtruction,  be  ww  bap- 
truupuent,  and,  when  held  ap  to  ths  U|{bt  in  certain  ,  (ized  bj  bl«bap  Meletlun,  of  Antioch.  His  first  im- 
ponltioiui,  often  wHb  a  cberry-red  shade ;  the  other  is  pulse  after  bis  convtraioD  was  to  embrace  the  monas- 
the  grumloos  cbryaollle,  of  different  shades  of  yellow-  tic  life,  which,  since  Sl.Anthonj  of  EtO'P^i  the  patri- 
tth-green  color,  half  traDspanuit  and  nearly  pellucid  arch  of  monks,  hud  set  tbe  example,  and  SDch  men  la 
(Me  the  Ptamf  CyA^udto,  a.  v.).     See  Gem.  i  Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great,  the  two  Gregoriea,  Am- 

dtrnolOsna,  PCTHoi,  archbishop  of  BsTenna, '  l'™e.  Jerome,  and  Augustine  had  given  it  the  aanc- 
ni  bom  at  ImoU  about  400,  and  was  consecrated  tion  of  their  great  authority,  c«ried  aw.y  many  of  tie 
anhUsbop  about  «S.  He  was  noted  for  strictness  of  I  noblest  and  most  earnest  youths  of  the  Church,  as  a 
discipline,  and  especiaUy  for  eloqaence,  from  which  his  I  "^^  -^  "f"  >"«  adapted  to  secure  peraonsl  Iwlinesa 
■smame  was  derived.  Eutyches  sought  to  Bain  the  ""d  aalvation.  and  lo  benefit  the  world  by  presenting 
eloqaence  and  repuUtion  of  Chryaologus  for  his  p«tT,  to  it,  in  bold  contrast  to  iM  perishing  vanities,  the 
but  the  latter  not  oely  repelled  him,  but  atrenuonaly  '^"'"7  »'"'  P<"™'  "^  *!«""■!  «lW*n»l  ""d  true  baroi- 
oiposed  his  doctrine.  He  died  at  Imola,  accordlna  to  '  "«"  *"  "8  unbroken  communion  with  God.  Anthu- 
oue  aecooiit,  Dec.  2, 460 ;  according  to  another,  in  458. !  "^  however,  defeated  his  design  for  a  season.  She 
A  number  of  5ermau  (176)  are  preserved,  of  which  t™k  him  by  the  hand,  led  him  to  her  room,  and  by  tbe 
tbe  first  edition,  by  Vincentios,  appeared  in  15S1;  an-  I*'"  "'■ere  she  had  given  him  birth,  xhe  remonstrated 
Kber  at  Venice.  1750,  fol.     One  of  the  best  editions  '  "'"'  him  in  teare  and  tender  en>T...i"  -"t  >•>  f"™k» 


ii  Srrmimt*,  rtSSii  oi 


D  obedieot  mid,  ho  yielded  lo  her  wiihea ; 


trans  uccni  inni,  so  caiieci  as  rvsemoiin,^  in  i^oior  me      . .       .       __, ,       i.  .      i.    i,;..    »         '     i  i 
II       *.!.    1     1.  ,  ■>  _i.i.      I.  ^   ,  1    aidored  worthier,  bat  who  hitterlv  comiuaiQet 

joke  of  the  leek  lirpoooi'),  with  Kolden  spots  (rpuflii)    ...  r.^  .         j  .    j  i   ii  j 

™t  b.  Mam  fnMi.  H,  i.im.  ,^..^1.  It  >,  Pll.y  ■  <""""''''  .,         "j-  "  "•!■ ' 

...;.     .*  .  ..        .^.  .  .."  ^       ..-'  I  tisednnm  nnre  motives,  and  AS  a  means  to  affc 


i;6S,fol.).    ThHeuidthefewletteraofbiHthat    and  although  be,  after  her  death,  spent 

rtmam  are  collected  in  a  complete  edition  in  Mi«no's    monastic  retreat,  and  retained  ascetic  h . 

Patra'ogin  (1946,  imp.  8vd).— Migne.  D%et.  de  Biogra.  ;  the  patriarchal  throne,  yet  the  greater  part  of  his  life 

Bli'a,li^4».       '       "^         '         ^  '        |was  devoted  to  the  active  service  of  the  Church  In 

_. 1 ,  _    ,  _    .-      J  .    n      '  some  of  hermostlnfluential  positions.    Ilecommenced 

i.i  wJlf.^VTlf  .  .T;  ?.  S  '°""''*""°  ..d.,  M.1..1U.,  .nd  .o.ld  ».»  b.,.  b«.  ymMM 
^i5         ,  '  ■"""';"*"  t™'™  •*?"•  ■'«"•"- ;  »  .  LUbop*,  b.t  h.  .,.d,d  tt.  .teilloci  b;  .  .on  of 

m.,I.Mnt  g.m  «>  alM  ..  n»«,bltoi  lb  ..lo,  tb.  '  ,  '  ^i^„.j  ^  „,. 

joiee  Of  the  leek  lirpoooi').  With  Kolden  spots  (rpuflii)    ...  r.^  .         j.jiii  j.         j 

'  ..    •  ;  ''..':  '       .^'', .    ^.'   docentioD.     Chrvsostom   deftmded   his   conduct,   and 

or  economy 
it  may  be  prao- 

Si-,  l«.  lo  ™.»bllbi  5;.  tapid^lb  (M  B»b..   «"""~.b-»J  ■PP«11;«  »  P..I, -bo  booomo  .  J™ 

rth tb.  .loo.  »o.  «,  »ll«l, ilTtb.  .p,l.  „ l«k.  ;"' "' ""■■"••  ■;,''l* "°J ~ J-PP-n i"  "•  B  JK 
Ii«b  ..ri«y  .f  wl.,  0.  ..nr,ulll.»l  ,u.Tt.  (to»   '"  ""^  ■blv.n.l  y  .nl.rl«.i«l  .n,..,,   b.  b_lb.o 

5ra,,db/.j»,T..).-b«b..»it..;i«t,i.id.  i!'',""!'?"."?:;''!!,  d     t      t 

.<f  „:,kli  >hi.  .7™  .>\._u..>  I.  »™„j  I  •  e>  Pl»'"  vindicates  falsehood,  and  expreasly  recommends 
or  nickel :  this  alone  at  present  Is  lotinn  only  in  aiie-    ..  .       .      .  .  i_  i    .    .«.    *!     i.         ,  .i_     _e  «_ 

.-.    !,_.  u.  w:.  .  /  !_.- .-- en        .  1  It  to  physicians  as  ■  help  to  the  healing  or  the  siclr, 

BIS;  bat  Mr.  King  lAmimu  iiBjnt.  p.  59.  note)  savs        i  ^        ,       ^     _,  ,    ^.^  i    ,T^    n      n  .» 

thai  the  troo  chry^^etinU.  found  in  aitique  "*^  "'■"  ^" '^,«  ^^^f^'  ^]^  ^^  ^^^ 
Egyptian  jewel^  «t  alternately  with  Wts  of  Upis-  I"'  ^'/  '*"  "f^"  J,"^'  '"''.'°  '^'"  ^^"^  "^ 
bioU       See  Gbh  racity  is  so  rare  In  the  Oriental  churches.     This  occur- 

,    ■  ..--'.„  ,         ,  ,  rence  was  the  occasion  of  Cbrysostom's  famous  trea- 

In  G™.  li,ia,the  Sept  renders  the  word  DHa,  tL„  on  the  priesthood  (FTipi  i(pi.Hn>w,C,  0«Sa«nforio, 
ifc'ion.,  by  chryaoprase  (\i&oc  «  wpdoivot),  but  they  ubri  vTi,  which,  notwithstanding  the  serious  defect  al- 
weie  probably  different  gems.     See  Bertl.  luded  to,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  works  on  the  duties 

Chiysostom,  St.,  bom  847  at  Antlach,  died  in  and  responsibilities  of  the  holy  ministry,  and  has  been 
nils  407.  His  proper  name  was  JoHN.  but  since  the  often  separately  edited  (by  Erasmus,  Cave,  Bengel, 
seventh  century  be  is  better  known  as  Chrtsobtok  etc.)  and  translated  into  modem  langtugee  (into  Eng- 
(VtiiTDin-ofiDc).  the  goldeu-moutbed  pulpit  orator  of  lish  by  Hollier,1740;  Bancs,  1759 ;  Hason,l82G(PhiIa, 
the  Greek  Church.  Like  Gregory  of  Naiianten,  and  I3mo);  Marsh,  1844,  and  B.  Harris  Cowper,lB6<r). 
Augustine,  ha  hail  a  most  excellent  Christian  mother,  I  After  the  death  of  his  mother  Chrvsostom  fled  from 
Antfaosa.  who,  liy  her  eitemplary  virtue  and  piety,  '  the  seductions  and  tumults  of  city  life  to  the  monastic 
ennmanded  even  tbe  admiration  of  the  heathen,  [t  solitudeof  themnnntainsnear  Antioch.andthcrespent 
was  with  ruference  to  her  that  Libanius,  the  most  dis-  six  happy  years  in  the  study  of  the  Bible,  in  sacred 
tingniahed  rhetorician  and  literary  representative  of  msditationandpniyer,underthe  guidanceortheleam- 
heathenism  at  the  cloae  of  the  fourth  century,  felt  ed  abbot  Diodorns  (afterwards  bishop  of  Tarsus,  f  394), 
rnnstrained  to  exclaim,  "Ah,  gods  of  Greece!  what  and  incommnnion  withsncblike-mlndedyouDgmenas 
mmderfu]  women  there  are  among  the  Christians  V  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  the  celebrated  father  of  Anti- 
Anthuaa  waa  married  to  a  prominent  military  officer  ochian(Nestorisn)theology (t4!9),  Honasticism was 
at  Antioch,  but  became  a  widow  In  her  twentieth  year,  to  him  a  profitable  school  of  experience  and  self-gov. 
sad  coDtinaed  In  tbat  stale,  devoting  heraelf  exclu-  eniment;  because  he  embraced  this  mode  of  life  from 
lively  to  religion  and  the  education  of  her  children,  the  purest  motives,  and  brought  into  It  intellect  and 
She  planted  the  seeds  of  early  piety  In  the  soul  of  colli vjtion  enough  to  mike  the  seclusion  available  for 
Cbrysoatom,  althou^ih,  like  Gregory  Naiionzen,  Au- 1  moral  and  spiritual  growth.  He  thus  describes  the 
gnitine,  and  other  eons  of  Christian  mothers,  be  was  lifa  of  his  brethren  on  the  mountain  solitude  near  An- 
Dot  taiptiud  till  mature  age.  She  gave  him.  at  the  tioch;  "Before  tbe  rising  of  the  sun  they  rise,  hale  and 
■ame  time,  the  benefit  of  the  );est  intellectual  colture  sober,  sing  as  with  one  mouth  hymns  to  the  praise  of 
of  the  age  hi  the  school  of  Libanias,who  esteemed  him  God.  then  bow  the  knee  in  prayer  under  the  direction 
hb  best  scholar,  and  desired  him  to  become  hit  sue-  '  of  the  abbot,  read  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  go  to  their 
nnor  as  proTessor  of  rhetoric  or  foiensic  eloquence. '  labors ;  pray  again  at  nine,  twelve,  and  three  o'clock ; 
Chtyrostom  entered  the  career  of  a  rhetorician,  but '  after  a  good  day's  work,  enjoy  ■  simple  meal  otbread 


CHUYSOSTOJI 


■nd  Bait,  perliipa  vith  oil,  and  ■omitimea  with  pnliet  | 
eingitluiDktgiTing  iiymn,  andUytfainiBelveioii  tbeir 

one  dies  they  my, '  He  is  perfactod ;'  and  they  all  pray  I 
God  fur  (like  end,  that  they  also  may  some  to  the  eter- 
nal Sabbath-rest  and  to  the  Tielon  of  Cbrisl."  ! 

In  this  period  he  composed  his  earliest  wTitinf!»  in 
praise  of  monaaticiam  and  celibacj',  and  his  two  loDg 
letters  to  the  fiUen  Theodore  (snlweqaenllr  Ijiahop  of 
Mopsuestia),  who  had  ngretled  his  monaatic  vow  and 
resolved  (o  msrry.  Cbrysaetom  remrded  this  Fmall 
affair,  from  the  ascetic  stand-point  of  bis  sige,  as  almost 
equal  to  »a  apostasy  from  Cbristiaaity,  and  plied  all 
hb  oratorical  arta  of  sad  aj'inpathy,  tender  entreaty, 
Utter  reproach,  and  terrible  wanting  lo  reclaim  bis 
friend  to  what  he  thought  the  surett  and  safest  sray  to 

By  excessive  self-niortilication  Cbrysostom  Duder- 
ndDed  bis  health,  and  returned  about  S80  lo  Antioch. 
There  he  waa  ordained  deacon  by  Ueleliu!'  (who  died 
in  381),  and  presbyter  liy  Flavian  in  386.  By  bis  elo- 
quence  and  his  pure  and  earnest  chsracler  be  soon  uc- 
qnired  great  reputation  and  the  love  of  the  whole 
church.  Daring  tbs  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  his 
Ubore  in  Antioch  he  wrote  the  Kroaler  psrt  of  bis  Hom- 
ilies and  Commentsrie*,  his  work  on  the  Priesthood,  a 
consolatory  epistle  to  the  despondent  Stagiri us,  and  an 
■dniooition  to  a  young  widow  on  the  gtoiy  of  vidow- 
faoodandthadutyof  continningin  tt.  He  disepprived 
Mcoad  marriage,  not  as  sinful  or  illegal,  but  as  incon- 
sistent with  sn  ideal  conception  of  marriage  and  a  high 
onler  of  piety. 

CbiySDstom  wis  chosen,  wilhaat  his  own  agency, 
patriarch  of  Const  antinopls.  At  this  post  ha  labored 
several  years  with  happy  effect.  By  talent  and  cul- 
ture he  was  peculiarly  litted  (o  labor  in  a  great  metro[^ 
olia.  He  bapydly  avoided  the  temptotion  of  Merarcb- 
Ical  pride  and  worldly  conformity.  In  ttie  midst  of 
the  splendors  of  New  Rome  he  continued  his  ascetic 
habits,  and  applied  all  his  income  to  the  sick  and  tha 
poor.  He  preached  an  earnest,  practical  Christianity, 
Inaisted  on  church  discipline,  and  boldly  attacked  the 
vices  of  his  age,  and  the  hollow,  worldly,  and  hypocrit- 
ical religion  of  the  imperial  court. 

But  bis  unsparing  sermons  aroused  the  anger  of  the 
empress  Eudoxia,  a  yoong  and  beautiful  women,  who 
despised  her  husband  and  indulged  her  passions.  Bis 
rising  fame,  moreover,  oxdlcd  tha  envy  of  the  amlii- 
tioos  patriarch,  Thcophilus  of  Alexandria,  who  could 
not  tolerate  a  successful  rival  in  Constantinople.  An 
act  of  Christian  love  toward  the  porsecnled  Origenlstic 
monks  of  Egypt  involved  him  En  the  Origenistic  con- 
tnreniy,  which  raged  at  that  time  with  great  violence 
in  Egypt  and  StHa.  and  at  last  tha  united  inSuence  of 
Tbeophiins  and'  Eudoiia  overthrew  bim.  Persecution 
and  suffering  were  to  test  his  character  and  to  throw 
around  his  memory  the  halo  of  martyrdom  for  the 
cause  of  purity  and  charity.  Thsnphilus  first  sent  the 
aged  Epipiuoins,  so  well  lEUOwn  for  his  orthodox  zeal 
nod  bis  hatred  of  the  arch-heretic  Origen,  to  Con- 
stantinople, as  a  tool  of  his  hierarchicsl  plans,  in  tlie 
bope  that  he  would  destroy  the  thnusand-lieaded  hydra 
ift  heresy,  and  ruin  Chrysnstom  for  his  apparent 


0  CHRYSOSTOM 

risy."  He  died  on  board  the  ship  on  his  retam  loCv- 
prus  (403).  Theophilns  now  proceeded  to  ConsUnd- 
nople  in  person,  and  at  once  appeared  as  accnaer  and 
judge  of  Chryeoatom.  He  well  knew  how  to  nee  the 
dissatisfaction  of  the  clergy,  of  tlie  empress  Eudoxia, 
and  of  the  court,  with  Chrysostoni,  on  aci»Dnt  of  bis 
moral  severjtj'  and  bia  bold  denunciations.  In  Cbry- 
sustom'a  own  diocese,  on  an  estate,  "at  the  oah"  (sy- 
nodus  sd  quercum).  In  Chaicedon,  he  held  a  secret 
council  of  thirty-sis  bifhops  against  Chryaostom,  and 
there  procured,  npon  false  chir,ceB  of  immorality,  ud- 
churchly  conduct,  and  high  treason,  his  depoeitioD  and 
banishmeDt  in  103.  Among  tbe  twenty-nine  charges 
were  these:  that  Chrysoslom  called  tbe  aaint  Epiph^ 
nius  a  fool  and  demon ;  that  he  wrote  a  1«ak  full  of 
abuse  of  the  clergy  (  that  he  received  visits  from  fe- 
males without  witnesaea ;  that  he  bathed  alone  and  ate 

Chryaostom  was  recalled,  indeed,  in  thm  days,  in 
consequence  of  on  earthquake  and  the  dissatisfaclion 
of  the  people,  but  was  again  condemned  by  a  council 
in  404,  and  banished  from  the  court,  l:ecsuBe,  incensed 
by  tha  erection  of  a  silver  statue  of  Eudoxia  close  to 
the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  and  by  the  theatrical  pcrTurm- 

Justenaggeratinn,  opened  a  sermon,  on  Markvi,  IT  sq., 
in  commemoration  of  John  the  Baptitt,  wilh  the  person- 
al allusion,  "Again  ilerodias  rages,  again  she  rsvea. 
again  shs  dances,  and  again  she  demands  tbe  head  of 
John  [Chrysoslom's  own  name]  upon  a  charger"  (Soc- 
rates, lli.1.  Erd.  vi,  c.  38).  From  his  exile  in  Cncu- 
,  SUB  and  ArabissuB  he  corresponded  wilh  all  parte  of  the 
Christian  world,  look  lively  intereft  in  the  miptions  in 
Persia  and  Scytbia,  and  appealed  to  a  general  council. 
But  even  the  powerful  intercession  of  pope  InnoccDt  I 
and  tbe  sympathy  of  the  people  at  Constantinople  were 
of  no  Bvi  I  il  against  tbe  wratb  of  Ihe  cnun  andlbe  envy 

1  of  a  rival  patriarch.  Tbe  enemies  ofChrysoalom  pro- 
cured from  Arcadius  an  order  for  bis  transportation  to 
tlie  remiiie  desert  of  Pitvus,     On  the  way  thilher  he 

I  di«l  St  Comana  in  Pon(u^  Sepl.  14, 407,  in  the  siilicth 

I  year  of  bis  age,  praiaingGod  for  everything,  even  for 
his  nnmerited  persecations.      His  IsFt  words  were; 

I  A''£a  T^iiviravTiuvfnKiv.  They  expreps  tbe  motto 
of  his  life  and  work. 

I  Chrysoslom  was  venerated  by  tlie  people  as  a  saint ; 
and  thirty  years  after  bis  death,  bvrrder  of  TbeodasiuB 
II  (438),  his  bones  were  brought  back  in  taiumpb  to 
Constantinople,  and  deposited  in  the  imperia!  tomb  in 
the  Church  of  the  Apostles.  The  emperor  himself  met 
the  remains  at  Chslcedon.  felt  down  before  the  coffin, 
and  in  the  nameof  his  guilty  parents,  Arcadius  and  Eu- 
dosia,  implored  the  forgiveness  of  the  liuly  man.  Tbe 
age  could  not,  indeed,  urdetstsnd  and  appreciate  the 
Imld  spirit  of  Origen,  bu'.  was  slill  aceessil.ie  to  the  nai^ 
row  piety  of  Epiphaniu*  and  tbe  noble  virtues  of  Chry- 

John  Chryaostom  is  the  grerteet  commentator  and 
preacher  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  reveres  bim 
above  all  fathers.  Be  left  a  fpotlesa  name  behind 
bim.  As  a  divine,  ho  was  eminently  siiuod,  moderate. 
profound  and  origins!  than  Atbana- 


■h  it.     Cbry 


.r  Augustine,  but  ( 


obothai 


xegete 


ochian  school  of  theolo^  and  as  a  pi 
no  sympathy  with  the  philosophical  speculations  and 
allegorical  fancies  of  Orlgen,  but  he  knew  bow  to  ap- 
preciate tbe  merits  of  this  great  man,  and  was  prompt- 
ed bv  a  sense  of  justice  and  ChrisUan  lore  to  intercede 
In  behalf  of  the  Ori^nistic  monks,  whom  Theophilns 
bad  nnmercifully  expelled  from  E^A'pt,  and  he  showed 
them  kindness  when  they  arrived  at  Constantinople, 
althou'^b  he  did  not  admit  them  to  the  holy  commu- 
nion till  their  innocence  should  be  publicly  estatilisb- 
ed.  Epiphanios  himself  found  that  injustice  had  been 
done  to  those  monks,  and  left  Constantinople  with  the 
words,  "Ilsive  to  you  tbe  city,  tbe  palace,  and  hypoc- 


a  pupil  of  the  Anti- '  and  sermouizer.      He  is  the  best  representi 

Antiochian  school  as  distinct  flom  that  of  Alexandria. 
Ha  avoided  the  errors  into  which  bia  friend  Tbeodora 
of  Mopsuestia,  and  his  successor,  the  unhappy  Nesloii- 
us,  of  the  same  school,  fell  soon  afterwards.  Neander 
comparea  him  lo  Spener,  the  practical  reformer  of  lbs 
Lutheran  Church  in  the  17th  century.  Villcmain 
claims  for  him  "the  union  of  all  the  nralorirsl  stlri- 
butes,  the  natural,  the  paUieCic,  and  tbe  grand,  which 
have  made  St.  John  Chrysostom  the  createst  orator  of 
the  primmve  Church,  and  the  most  diatingufshed  in- 
I  terpreterofthal  remarkable  epoch."  Carl  Hase  aayt 
'  of  bim  that  "he  complemented  the  sober  cleaioees  of 
the  Antiocbian  e.icgesis  and  the  rhetorical  arts  of  IJ- 


CHETSOSTOM  321  CHUB 

kMhM  with  tha  deplh  of  hii  mrm  CbriitUn  hurt,  I  ottic  Kai  Avloi  Kai  maa  ij  'Apafiia),  and  the  childrao 
ai  tbU  he  orriwl  ont  In  hii  own  life,  u  fu  u  iiior-  of  tbe  Uud  of  tht  covenant  shall  &1i  by  the  iword 
til  nun  c«a  do  it,  tba  idea]  of  tbe  prieMhood  which.  In  |  with  them"  (i.  e.  do  donlit  the  Egyptians ;  see  ver.  4). 
TontUli]  anthnaium,  be  once  deicribed"  (CAurcA  Jiit- 1  The  flnt  tbrse  of  tbaw  namea  or  daaignaliana  an  of 
twj, }  ICU).  Miednsr  cbaracteriies  bim  thus:  "In  African  paoplrs,  unleu  (but  tbia  ii  improbable)  the 
Um  we  Sad  a  moat  complete  mutual  interpcnatration  Shemile  Lud  bo  intended  by  tbe  tbiid  (see,  however, 
oTtbeonticalandpractJcal  theolog}-,  aa  wellai  of  the  !  iivii,  10;  xxxviil,6;  Iia.  Ixvt,  19 ;  Jar.  xlvi,  9) ;  the 
dogmatial  and  ettaiciil  elemenla,  exhibited  mainly  in  fourth  ia  ofa  people  on  tbe  Egyptian  frontier  i  uidthe 
the  fnaion  ofthe  eiegeticat  and  bomiletica].  Hence  '  aistb  probably  applies  to  tba  remnant  of  the  Jewi  who 
hii  exegeeis  wu  guarded  against  barreo  pbilology  and  had  fled  into  Egypt  (comp.  Dan.  li,  S8, 30,  32,  espe- 
dogma,  and  hiapulpitdiscoursewaa  free  from  doctrinal  cially  the  last,  where  the  corenant  la  Dot  qualified  aa 
ahatraetion  BDil  empty  rbeluric.  The  introduction  of  "holy"),  which  was  prophesied  to  perish  for  the  most 
the  knowledge  of  Christianity  from  the  suurcea  into  .  part  by  tbe  sword  and  otherwise  in  that  country  (Jcr. 
tha  practical  life  of  the  people  left  him  little  time  for  I  xtii,  IG,  17,  22;  xliv,  12,  IB,  11,27,  28).  This  fifth 
tba  derelapment  of  special  dogmai"  (fiaekidUe  d.  ckr.  name  ia  therefore  that  of  ■  conotry  or  people  in  alU- 
Kirtht,  1S46,  p.  823).  once  with  Egypt,  and  probalily  of  Northern  Africa,  at 

We  hare  front  ChryaaBImn  over  six  hnndred  boml-  |  of  the  lands  near  Egypt  to  tbeaouth.  Soma  have  pro- 
liea,  delivered  at  Antioch  and  Coostantinople,  by  dt  |  poaed  to  recoKniso  Chub  in  the  Dames  of  various  Al^i- 
the  moot  valuable  of  hia  writings.  They  are  conaacu-  ,  can  piaces—Coia  (Ku/iij),  ■  port  on  the  Indian  Ocean 
tire  aipoeitory- sermons  on  Genesis,  the  Psalms,  and  .  (Ptol.  iv,  7,  §  10) ;  CftfAii  (.VufJaror  X«,3Je),  in  Man- 
nwstoftha  books  ofthe  New  TeiUment.  They  con-  '  ritania  (iv,  2,  §  9)  ;  aad  {7ui»n  (Kiu/Jiof  or  Ku<j?i[;i>), 
tain  his  exegesix,  and  bence  are  so  often  quoted  by  in  the  Mareotic  nome  in  Egypt  (iv,  S) — conj^cturoa 
modem  commentators,  especially  the  homilies  on  the  which  are  of  no  value  except  as  showing  the  existence 
E|Mstles  of  Paul.  Besides  tbem  he  wrote  diacoanws  on  |  of  similar  names  where  wo  might  expect  tbia  to  have 
special  occasions,  among  which  the  twenty-oao  bomi-  bad  its  place.  Bocbart  strangely  regards  it  as  tbe 
lies  OD  tbe  Statutes,  occasioned  by  a  rebellioa  at  Anti-  city  PaUttrfa,  In  ManDaiica  (Sirabo,  ivii,  83S) ;  while 
och  hi  387,  are  the  most  celebrated.  The  other  works  i  Havemick  seeks  it  in  the  people  called  Kvfa  on  the 
of  Chiysoalom  are  bis  youthful  treatise  on  the  priest-  Egyptian  monuments  (Wilkinson,  i,  S79  sq.),  0th- 
bood  already  alluded  to;  a  number  of  doctrinal  and  ,  era,  however,  tbiak  the  present  Meb.  text  corrupt  in 
moral  essays  in  defence  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  in  this  word.  II  has  beoa  therefore  proposed  to  read  A'ai 
commendatian  of  celibacy  and  the  nobler  forms  of  (343)lbrJVi(ita,os  the  Arab.  vers,  has  "the  peoplotho 
monastic  life;  and  two  hundred  aod  forty-two  letter!.,  j  A-oo6(A,- whence  it  might  be  supposed  that  at  least 
Doarly  all  written  during  bis  exile  between  403  and  ^       -  .     -        .■"....  T    ..  . 

tfn.     The  most  important  ofthe  letters 

dnaaed  to  tbe  Boman  bishop  Innocent  I,  wilu  uh  iv  i  „   .    .  _  .„.._..  .     . 

piT,  and  scvenl«n  long  letters  to  bis  friend  Olympiss.  ■  ^-  *^;?V-  ^°  ?""'>■  /he  Arab,  vers  ijs  howcyo^ 
;  ^us  widow  and  deaconess.  They  all  breathe  a  D^  \  ^  "7  ■^«''  ^.'''^^^  "■"  "  ^Tr""  ^^^f}^' "'  ^^ 
hie  Christian  spirit,  not  desiring  to  bo  recalled  from  V"**  '"'  'PP  y'.''e  the  word  Ant  (w  JToai,  .ts  Egyp- 
sxile,  convinced  that  there  is  but  one  misfortuno_do-  ^n  proniic'tion  ;  see  Bunsen,  .^.  81,0. .  ^  to 
pariure  ftom  the  path  of  piety  and  virtue,  and  lilled  I  ^''^- "  "i?"„^'  A-bS^  (No./Jn.,  Sirabo,  xvd  /BB, 
ITith  ^riial  WendThip,  faiEhfnl  care  for  .11  tbe  inter-  i  «>»'  ''•  \  ^'  P"""  '"■^'  f'^^:^^.'-  ?■  *««>• "" 
.M.  of  the  Cbnrcb,  and  a  calm  a.td  cbeerftil  looking  ■  «"">»"«'  ""^.W  "y  -rhom  from  Strabo  s  t,mc  to  onr  own 
torwarf  to  the  glories  of  heaven.  The  so-called  Lit.  I  'J'  ^3  t'"'  Egyptian  Inscnption.  included  in  Kccsh  or 
arw  of  Chry»>tom,  which  is  still  in  mgaUr  ose  in  ^'"^  ™'  ^' f  "'V  "'e^ube  however,  "".v  not  in 
the  Gr«h  and  Ru.si«.  ch«rcbe^  bean  tl^  unmistak- 1  "»«  P™I**f»  d»y»  "»"  l»«n  setUed_>n  any  part  of  the 
able  marka  of  a  later  age.  lemtory  which  has  taken  from  them  jta  name^   Anoth- 

Ziferacre.-The  best  edition  of  the  works  of  Chry-  '  "  «"'l«^"uro  (refwrded  as  quite  equal  in  probabUtty  by 
M>Nom  in  the  originJ  Greek,  with  a  Utin  transUtion,  !  G'"""'-  ""■  'f-  ^.-If^^.^^"  ','^"*^'^  ""."J; 
is  tbe  Benedictine,  prepared  by  Bernard  d«  Montr-u- ,  "'" 'Spr<'l»"^(fi<S^j7^<'''-Jr"'^.P-l*9).'«"™"r.t'* 
con, drat  pnlillibed  in  Paris  1T1S-173S,  in  13  fol.  vol".;  '?''')•  The  Lufrim, doubtless  the  Hizraite LcAottn  of 
tcprintfld  In  Venice  17M-'ll;  in  Parii  (Ganme),  1834-  Gen.  x,  llj  1  Chron.  i,  11,  are  moDtioned  as  serving 
»;  andinMigne'B/>afroi5ta,i8i9-'60.  The  Homi-  with  Cusbim  in  tho  army  of  Shisbalt  (2  Chron.  xii,  S, 
lies  have  been  often  translated  into  French,  German,  3),  and  in  that  of  Zerah  (ivi,  8  \  camp,  xiv,  0),  wlia 
EDglUh,and  other  lanKnages  (English  translation  in  ,  was  moat  probably  also  a  king  of  Egypt,  and  certainly 
the  Oxford  library  ofthe  Fathers,  1842-'S3) ;  ao  also'  tbe  leadir  of  an  Egyptian  army.  SeeCiaH;  Zkrau. 
bisyonthfol  workonlbe  Priesthood  (see  above).  On  '  Xuhum  speaks  of  them  as  helpers  of  Thel>es,  together 
the'Ufeand  character  ofCbrysostom  see  especlallvtho  with  Pot  (Phnl),  while  Cush  and  "Efyft  were  her 
rua  in  vol.  xiil  of  the  Optra,  p.  91-178 ;  Tillemont,  I  strength  (iii,  8,  9) ;  and  Daniel  mentiona  the  LnUni 
ilfmaim,  vol.  iJ,  p.  1-403 ;  Stilling,  ,lcta  Sanclonim  and  Cusbim  aa  submitting  to  or  courting  a  conqoeror 
for  Sept- M;  Na«ider,  iJer  Afii.  Oirysoitoinuf  (Berlin,  '  of  Egypt  (xi,  43).  The  Lu bim  might  thorefope  well 
Un,  3d  ed.  1848,  in  2  vols,  (the  Rrst  volume  translated  occur  among  the  nations  suffering  in  the  (all  of  Efiypt. 
by  sapleton.  Loud.  ISS8) ;  VillenuiiD,  TabUim  de  filo-  There  is,  however,  this  objection,  that  we  have  no  io- 
iwna  ekriliame  an  IV-  niett  (Par.  1849,  p.  154-217):  I  stacce  ofthe  supposed  form  Zjd  Iq  the  sing.,  tbe  nona 
Ferthe9,Zj/«n/Cir|'iaMm(l)o>ton,18&t,12mo)i  Abbi  being  always  given  in  tbe  plural  — Lunis  (q.  v.); 
Kocbet,  Birtoirt  Je  St  Jran  CkrytoiUme  (Par.  186S).  I  hence  Hiti'ig  has  himself  since  rejected  tbis  view 
Cmp.atsoSchaff'sOliiryrAffistor^,  l8ae,vol.  lii.p.  702  (A'srsj*/.  fieyft.  ffdS.  mffHciie^lnloc.).  Tbe  Sag- 
•q.  and  933  aq.  (from  which  a  port  ofthe  above  sketch  I  geslion  of  Hiivernick,thatthe  name  Chub  is  to  be  con- 
h*)  been  taken).  ,  nected  with  Kufa,  which  occurs  on  the  Egyptian  mon- 

Chub  [pron.  C^]  r-'.,  Hot.  K^,  deriv.  nnce.  I  J\'?t;';:,rfr«^|^te™7:3?S»^dt^-^^ 
^:  Sept  iw«">'dy  A./J,r|r,  but  transposes ;  Vulg.  ^f  „otice  were  it  nofihat  it  Involve,  the  «,mewb-tvi<^ 
CW,),  a  word  oeeutTing  only  once  aa  the  name  of  a  ,,„j  p„po,itio„  that  a  people,  of  whom  we  onlv  know 
p«ple  In  alluince  with  Egypt  m  the  time  of  Nobu-  .^.^  J^herwere  tbe  aHieTof  the  Egyptians,  sbonld  b. 
chadneuat  (Eaak.  xxi,  5) ;  "  Cush,  and  Phut,  and  '  irtentifled  with  a  people  of  whom  we  only  know  that 
Lud,  and  all  the  mingled  people  (3^7).  and  Chob  (her  were  the  conquered  enemies  of  the  Egyptianat 
fSept.  nipnii  ml  Kp^ic  cat  \vio\  iai  Aijlutc  'H'  though  It  is  certainly  posaible  that  they  who  were  at 
Toinj  oi  ^rifuicm  iw'  abruv  v,  r,  Ai'fluic  (at  U^l'  I  an  early  period  foaa,  m»  at  a  later  [wriod  hav»  b* 
1I.-U 


CHITBB 

eoma   iIUm.     WoRtajr  of  noliee  alio   Ii  tba   mi^ 
Kcaiion    at  FUnt,  who   nji,  "It   U   poaribla   "' 
it  ia  to  tie  connecMd  wilh  Cvia,  tbe  exiitiag  i 
of  an  Etbiopiin   port,  and  which,  perhaps,  wu 
nwrly  lbs   name  ot  a  diatrict"  (^Htbrta  llamdbook 


.».)■ 

Chubb,  Thomas,  an  Engltfh  Ddtt,  wa>  boni  at 
Eait  Hambam,  a  village  near  Sallibury,  in  1679.  Hia 
Cither  dying,  left  his  bmily  poor,  and  Chubb  waa  ap- 
prenticed to  a  glover  in  IGW.  At  tbia  trade,  and  that 
ot  lulloK-ebandler,  bo  supported  hiouelf,  and  at  the 
■una  tiniB  cultivated  his  uncommon  natural  ability  by 
diligent  study.  Ha  diad  at  Saliabury,  Feb.  3,  1718. 
Hia  iirst  work,  which  appeared  in  1715,  was  entitled 
lie  SupTtmaiy  oflkt  fothtr  aueritd  C8vo),  nnd  de- 
nied tbe  divinity  of  Christ.  It  was  followed  by  a 
aeries  of  publicationa,  in  which  his  skepticism  was 
more  and  mora  fully  dcTcloped.  Among  them  are  In- 
qmritt  concemiiig  Uterty  nfCoatcitnce  and  Bin  (Lonil. 
1717,  8vo);  and  a  great  number  of  tracts  on  author- 
ity, human  nature,  miracleo,  etc.  Ha  w&a  largely 
involved  in  controversy  with  Warbnrton,  Stebbing, 
Fleming,  and  others.  liis  paethumoaa  tiaets  were 
pnbllBhcd  in  2  vols.  Bvo,  1718 ;  and  were  answered  by 
Fleming,  in  Trve  Drum  lAe  Baiii  pf  ChrMianilg ;  or, 
Obienalioa  on  CkiAb't  petOoBnau*  Worki;  and  by  Lc- 
UxiUVitu:  <■/ Driilieal  Wriltn,  vol.  i).  "Chnhhwus 
a  working  man,  endowed  with  slrong  native  sense, 
who  manifested  the  same  inclination  to  meddle  with 
tbo  deep  subject  of  religion  which  afterwards  mariied 
the  character  of  Thomas  T^no  and  others,  who  influ- 
enced tbe  lower  otders  later  In  tbo  century.  In  hia 
general  view  of  religion,  Chubb  denied  all  particular 
providence,  and,  by  necessary  conseqnence,  the  utility 
of  prayer,  save  fcr  ita  subjective  value  ai  having  a  re- 
flex benefit  on  tba  human  heart.  Ho  was  andccided 
aa  to  tbe  fact  of  the  existence  of  a  revelation,  but 
seemed  to  allow  its  poasibilily.  He  examined  the 
three  great  forma  of  religion  which  profsaaed  to  depend 
Dponapositlvo  revelation,  Judaism,  Mohammedaniam, 
and  Cliristianity.  Tbe  claims  of  tbo  first  ha  wholly 
rejected,  on  grounds  similar  to  those  oxplaiued  by 
Uorgan,  us  incompatiblo  with  the  morsl  character  of 
God.  In  reference  to  the  second  he  anticipated  tbo 
modem  opinions  on  Hobammeilaniam  by  asserting 
that  ita  victory  waa  impossible  if  it  bad  not  contained 
trnlh  which  tbe  human  spirit  needed.  In  examining 
the  tlilid  he  attacked,  liko  Morgan,  tbo  evidence  of 
miiaclos  and  prophecy,  anil  oaacrted  tbo  ncccaaity  of 
moral  right  and  wrong  aa  the  ground  of  tbe  Interpre- 
tation of  Scripture"  (Farrar,  Criliral  Iliilory  if  y-rtt 
ri««(j*i,p.l42).  TheroisafullaccountofChubl),with 
tbe  opinions  of  various  writera  concerning  him,  in  the 
BiograpMa  Britaimica,  iii,  6ZI-B33. 

Chtm [pron. Ckm]  (Hob.K'im.'i^S.deriv.uneertain; 
Sept.  JtX(o-i!f,Vulg.  ChtaC),  a  Syrian  city  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Tibhath,  as  one  ot  tbe  "  cities  of  Ha- 
dareier,"  from  which  David  procured  brass  for  build- 
ing the  Temple  (I  Chron.  xviii,  8).  In  tbe  parallel  pas- 
sage (S  Sam.  viii,  8)  theae  two  cities  are  called  respect- 
ively Beloh  and  Bebothai.  It  is  perhaps  the  same 
with  tbe  Conaa  mentioned  in  the  /fin.  Aalonim  as  sit- 
uated between  Laodicea  and  Baalbek.  Tbe  rendering 
of  tbe  Sept.  aeems  to  Imply  that  instead  of  "from 
Chun"  ("lap)  It  had  read  Berod  nil3,  q-  d.  1123, 1 
1.  a.  *^>in3,  rioiee) ;  but  Josephns  supports  tbe  present  i 
Hab.textCM«x"".''»'-'^i^S,0-     See  IlEnoTlt.vil. 

CllDTCh.  I.  The  Kord  durch.—l.  The  oricin  ofj 
tbe  wold  is  oncertain.  In  (he  Cermanie  and  Slavo 
nic  languages  it  ia  fonnd  aa  follows ;  Anglo-Saxon,  | 
eyrica,  circ,  cj/ric ;  Englieb,  cAurci  {  Scottish,  tiri  ; 
German.  i:ircA«;  lAw-German,  kartti  FriiUn, 'tierlfej 
or  iBurtr ;  Danish,  lyric,'  Swedish.  lyrfai;  Bohemi- 
an, rgrttv  ;  Polish,  etrUar;  Russian,  ttrtoju.  The 
Aillawiug  derivations  have  been  aasigned  to  tbe  word : 


!2  CHURCH 

(1)  Heb.  nj^p  and  K^^ ;  C»)  TeoKnk,  Wm*.  t* 
rfli;  (S>  Celtic,  cjrret  or  eylci,  tyrrbi  or  ryldmi  (4} 
Latin,  atria;  Greek,  n'omniv  (cAs  LonTM  kaite,  f^m 
jctpiof.  Lord).  The  preponderance  of  opinion  ia  in  &■ 
vor  of  the  last  derivation  (Gieseler,  EoL  Hitl.  {  1; 
Hooker,  £cW.  PoL  v,  13  \  Pearson,  On  At  Creed,  OxC 
1S20,  i,  504  J  and,  the  principal  anthority,  JacobEon, 
KirtluMrecltHitkt  Vertutke,  Kuniiisb.  I88S,  8vo).  On 
the  other  hand,  Meyrick,  in  Smith's  Didiimary  of  the 
Jtible  (iii,  Appendix,  p.  ci),  argnea  at  length  against 
this  derivation  chiefly  on  the  ground  (1)  that  the 
Greek  missionaries,  who  are  suppoed  to  hare  rairied 
the  Word  among  the  Nortbem  tribes,  used  irr\t}aitr, 
not  rvptatdvi  and  that  Ulphiias  uses  aikHitjt  (Rom. 
xvi,  !3et  ai.);  (-J)  that  the  Roman  Church  (and  the  Ro- 
manic iangnagea  after  it)  adopted  the  Greek  word  tr- 
jciiioia,  not  rupiarJif,  from  ita  Greek  teacben.  Hli 
conclusion,  after  dropping  the  first  drrivatiDn,  ia  that 
"iliadiScnlttosayKhst  is  to  Iw  eDbctituted.  There 
was  proLahiy  some  word  which,  in  the  language  frr.m 
which  the  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  are  descended,  desig- 
old  heathen  pieces  of  religious  assembly,  and 


i,  havii 


in  diffen 


alcets,  was  adopted  by  the  Christian  mission 
was  probably  connected  with  the  L^tin  a'mu,  nrewAri^ 
and  with  the  Greek  jcucXoc,  poaaibly  also  wilb  the 
■\Velsb  (jfc*,  rjr^  eyvMe,  or  coer.  Lipsios,  who  waa 
tbe  lltst  to  reject  the  received  tradition,  was  probal'ly 
right  in  his  suggestion,  '  Credo  et  a  cireo  Kirck  nos- 
trum esse,  quia  vcterum  tempi*  instarCird  rotanda' 
iEfia.  ad  Btlgai,  Cent.  iii.  Ep.  44)." 

3.  ff.  T.  vta  iftketcord  Chttrck Tbo  Greek  wort  Sc 

iXijo/a  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt,  ivi,  18 ;  xviii,  17 ; 
1  Cor.  X,  32 ;  Eph.  i,  Sf),  corresponding  to  the  Helirew 
Vn^,  rn?,  »rv^-a,  n  from  niXiiv,  to  coll  {t\f,mc,  a 
calling;  i.-Xt(roi,  colled),  and  ia  rendered  by  our  word 
church.  The  meaning  of  the  word  would  thua  seem  to 
be,  in  the  N.  T.,  the  whole  company  of  God's  elect, 
tbose  whom  he  lias  called  to  be  bis  people  under  the 
new  diipensation,  aa  ho  did  the  Israetites  under  tbe 
old.  Snch  ia  the  aigniflcation  in  one  ot  the  two  in- 
aUnces  in  which  Christ  uses  the  word  in  the  Gospels : 
"Upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  ctmrdi"  (Matt,  xvi, 
18).  The  other  (Halt,  xviii,  17)  refers  to  tbe  single 
congregation.  Instead  of  ixKKiitiia,  Christ  generallv 
used  the  terms  "kingdom  of  God,"  "kingd<»n  of 
heaven,"  or  simpiv  "kingdom."  or  thy  kingdom,  or 
the  Son  ofMan's  kingdom  (John  Iii,  B  J  Matt,  vi,  S2; 
a.  iv,  £8,  etc.  i  ib.  XX,  SI ;  ii.  xiii,  41 ;  xvi.  38).  Tbe 
word  "  church"  is  first  applied  by  SI.  Luke  to  tbe  com- 
pany of  original  disciples  at  Jerusalem  on  tbe  day  of 
Pcnlecoat  (Acta  ii,  47),  and  ia  afterwards  applied  (In 
the  Acta,  Epistles,  and  Apocalypse)  to,  1. 1  he  whole 
Christian  body  or  society,  aa  tbe  aanctiBed  of  God  (Eph. 
V,  !7);  2.  The  whole  number  of  those  who  profesa  tha 
Christian  religion  under  pastors,  etc.  (1  Cor.  xii,  18);  3. 
Particular  socletiea  of  Christiana  In  particular  cities  or 
provinces,  0.  g.  the  cbarch  in  Jerusalem  (Act»  viii,  I); 

4.  Beligioua  assemblicB  of  these  aocietiee  and  the  places 
in  which  they  mat,  e.  g.  (Horn,  xvi,  6),  "Greet  the 
church  that  is  in  their  house,"  etc.  (1  Cor.  rX,  18;  xiv, 
19,28).     ■ 

3.  Cmunon  atet  of  tSt  itord  CburL— 1.  The  most 

denote  tlic  bodv  of  the  ocknowlediced  foliowera  of 
lis  visible  body.  S.  It  ia  also  used  to  de- 
not]  tbe  community  of  true  believers,  whether  known 
to  lie  such  or  not.  8.  It  is  used  os  "church  militant" 
and  "  church  triumphant"  to  distinguish  between  !«• 
lievcrs  yet  on  earth,  and  still  contending  witb  opp<4i- 
tlon,  and  l«liever8  already  glorified  in  heaven.  4.  It 
is  Dsed  to  designate  the  house  of  Christian  wnnliip. 

5.  Any  particular  denomination  of  CfatistiaD  people,  aa 
the  Lutheran,  or  tho  Protestant  Eplacqial,  or  Itelhod- 
iit  Episcopal  Church.  G.  A  particular  eonKregation  of 
any  one  denomination  of  Christians.    T.  The  roligiona 


CHURCH  8 

«tiM)ihiiwDt  of  taj  puticulu-  nation  or  govamineM, 
wtbaChntch  of  Enf^Und.  8.  Thi  nun  of  tha  viriouB 
CliiiiUui  denomiiutkin*  <a  a  counti7,  u  tbo  Church 
Id  AsKrica.  Tbete  an  the  ordiaar}'  utea  of  Iho  word, 
ud  it  ii  importanl,  in  order  to  a  right  andantaitding 
of  ita  lone  is  any  cue,  toknowinvbichof  Iheiaaenui 
it  ii  mplojed.  Hocb  confuiioii  might  In  avoided  if 
diapotuiti  would  alwafi  clearlj'  atite  in  which  of  all 
thmo  eqailly  admiidbia  senaea  they  dh  the  word. 

II.  Idia  aftkt  Cikrci.— The  Christian  rell^on  (anb. 
jKtinU  conaidered)  li  a  divine  life  (rrougbt  In  ttaa 
taiA  af  tfao  believer  in  Jeaoi  bj  the  Holy  Ghoat, 
*lK[*by  the  man  ii  united  thnnigh  Chriat  unto  God, 
valk^i  baton  bini  in  holineaa,  and  Qnally  diea  in  bla 
fiTur,  and  is  received  into  bis  eternal  glory.  The 
p3soiial  relation  liea  wholly  between  the  individual 
and  Gud.  But  the  inatinct  of  thii  new  life  ia  to  piop- 
a:;ate  itself  hy  diffusion,  and  fur  this  diffusion  it  mnat 
have  organization.  Tbia  or,taDlution  la  fonad  in  the 
Church,  whose  function  it  \i  to  maice  univeraai  the  re- 
ligion of  the  individual.  Horeover,  the  indiridual  be- 
ItCTcr.  for  the  nooriihment  of  hia  own  spiritual  life, 
seeks  communion  with  other  believers;  and  thla  com- 
mnnion  is  furnished  by  the  Church.  "  The  Christian 
Church  li  a  nligious-maral  aociety,  connected  togeth- 
er by  a  common  faith  in  Christ,  and  which  seeks  to 
repTesenE  in  Its  united  life  the  kingdom  of  God  an- 
noancad  by  Chriat"  (Oieaeler,  Eocl.  Ill*,  vol.  f,  §  1). 
"ChriitianiEy  conCiins,  on  the  one  hand,  a  divine  phi- 
lauphy,  which  we  may  call  its  rallgion,  and  a  divino 
poli^,  which  la  its  Church"  (Araold,  MitoA  tporki, 
K.  Y.  p.  11).  Tha  Church  is  the  particular  form  or 
eifmsaioa  of  the  klD)(ilam  of  God,  the  institution 
tbnagh  whose  agancy  this  apiritnal  and  etemaJ  king- 
tan  ia  Id  be  made  aff^ve  aman^  men. 

Bat,  although  there  ara  elemiUts  of  truth  in  the 
•Utementa  alieady  made,  it  ii  farther  tms  that  the 
Chorch,  ander  the  dispenaition  of  the  Spirit,  is  tha 
BKfaiarjr  form  or  body  of  Christianity  in  th«  world. 
Hat  that  the  Church  u  Chriatlinity,  an}~  more  than 
Ihe  body  of  min  is  hU  lifo.  The  object  of  Chrta- 
tianitf  ii  the  redemption  of  mankind ;  and  the  Churcli 
b  the  divinely  canatltnted  means  of  the  onliniry 
application  of  raitemption  to  individuals  of  mankind. 
U  ia  therefore  something  altogether  more  and  hi^lu 

•pringing,  like  any  merely  human  society,  ftoni  tho 
csmnwn  wint«  and  aj'mpathias  of  thou  who  unite  to 
ferm  it.  It  is  "the  kingdom  and  the  royal  dwollin-- 
placa  of  Christ*'  upon  tbe  earth  (ileander).  It  ha.i, 
tbenfure,  a  life  of  its  own,  of  wliich  Chriat  is  tho 
loant,  Imtepeudent  of  the  ordinary  life  of  tbe  order  of 
ulnre.  Christ,  indeed,  is  tbs  central  Kurce  of  life  for 
buih  kingdoms  (the  kingdom  of  nature,  and  the  kin^- 
ima  of  grace),  but  the  mode  of  his  vivifying  opera- 
lioD  is  very  difl^rent  in  tbe  one  from  what  It  ia  in  the 
Whar.  But  the  Bomanist  view  (and  so  tha  Greek  anil 
High  AnilioD)  assumes  that  tbe  Church  la  a  form  of 
organic  life  impoaed  npoD  the  Christian  society  in  a 
mt  of  ootwanl  way.  Tbe  Pixitealant  doctrine,  on 
Uie  other  hand.  Is,  that  the  Cborcta  is  the  divinely  in- 
apired  organic  growth  of  the  Christian  life  j  not,  there- 
f(*e,  a  merely  human  society,  bnt  the  society  of  the 
hilhful,  constituted  by  the  Divine  Spirit.  The  Ro- 
manist view  nukes  the  outward,  form  of  the  Church 
Hientiil,  and  regards  the  internal  nature  as  derivs- 
tiv«;  the  ProtesEant  view  regards  the  internal  life  as 
lbs  Msence,  and  tho  outward  and  vialbie  form  as  de- 
rintive,  but  both  as  divinely  inspired  and  constituted 
(Jolm  x,18;  Hatt.xvi.18;  xviil,  15-18). 

1.  Tki  aeriptun  /deo.— In  the  N.  T.  the  Church  de- 
Mtaa  "  that  one  mystical  body  of  wUcb  Christ  Is  the 
KJe  besd,  and  in  the  nnity  of  which  all  saints,  wbeth- 
•I  in  heaven,  or  on  esrth,  or  elsewhere,  are  necessarily 
isclodod  as  constituent  psH*,''  For  this  Church 
Christ  gave  himself  (Eph.  v,  23).  This  Church,  chosen 
In  him  bsfbn  the  fonndsition  of  tho  world  t£pb.  i.  i ; 


13  CHURCH 

1  Peter  I,  2),  he  nourtabetb  and  cherlsheth  si  his  owt 
flesh  (Eph.  v,  39,  SO).  The  Church  is  called  the  House, 
the  City,  the  Temple  of  God.  To  whom  coming— ye 
are  built  up  a  spiritual  house,  ■  holy  temple  (1  Peter 
ii,  i,  6).  This  spiritual  temple  is  composed  of  all  God's 
people,  and  is  his  dwelling-place  (1  Cor.  iii,  17;  2  Cor. 
vi,16;  Rav.ui,8;  xiU,U,]6).  The  Church  ia  uni- 
Rirmly  represented  In  the  N.  T.  as  the  company  of  the 
laved;  and  they  are  apoken  of  aa  the  body  of  Chriat 
(1  Cor.  lii,  27),  as  one  body  (Eph.  ill.  G ;  iv,  4 ;  1  Cor. 
xii,  13,  SO).  Uf  this  body  Christ  ia  the  Saviour  (Eph. 
V,  2S).  They  are  also  his  bride  (Eph,  t,  81,  38;  Rev. 
3xi,  9,  10),  and  his  fulness  (Eph.  I,  S3).  They  arc 
termed  also  the  light  of  tho  world  (Ualt.  v,  14),  and 
the  salt  of  the  earth  (Matt,  v,  13),  aS  Indicating  tho 
Church  to  bo  the  troe  source  of  spiritual  illumination 
and  the  Instrument  of  salvBtion  (o  tho  world.  For  tha 
work  which  tbe  Church  ia  to  accomplish  for  Christ  by 
teaching,  disciplining,  comfurtins,  etc.,  it  must  neces- 
sarily be  visible,  though  ail  its  uiombera  may  not  al- 

2.  TIM  Crttilt  and  DoffmaHe  DrfiMam—Xbt  Apos- 
tles'Creed  asya,  I  believe  "in  theUulyCatbolicChurch, 
the  communion  of  sainta,"  to  which  tbe  Niceno  Crccil 
adds  apostollcily.  Tbe  Catechism  in  use  In  Iho  Greek 
Church  givea  tiie  following  definition ;  "  The  Church  ia 
a  dIvluely-inatiCuted  commuulty  of  men,  united  by  the 
orthodoi  faith,  tbe  law  of  God,  the  hieran^hy,  and  tho 
sacraments"  (^Fui!  Cateckitm  of  Hit  OrHiodax,  Caiholie, 
EoMUn  ChuTdi,  Moscow,  1839).  In  speaking  of  tho 
unity  ofthe  Church,  Plalon  says:  "From  this  unity  of 
the  Church  all  those  hive  separated  who  either  do  not 
receive  the  divine  word  at  all,  or  mix  with  it  tbeir 
own  abeord  opinions"  (see  B3>tialuea  Sacra,  xxl,  8ST). 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  (Cafsc*i>n  of  Tnta.)  laya, 
"The  Church  ia  one,  becanae,  as  the  apostle  says,  there 
is  '  one  faith,  one  Lord,  one  baptism ;'  but  more  espe- 
cially becsuso  It  has  one  invisible  Ruler,  Christ,  anil 
one  visible,  vii.,  tbe  occnpant  for  tbe  time  being  of 
the  chair  of  SL  Peter  at  Rome."  ....  "TheCburch 
is  holy,  lint,  because  it  la  dedicated  to  God ;  secondly, 
because  the  Church,  coosiating  of  good  and  evil  mixed 
together.  Is  united  to  Christ,  the  source  ofallholinetsi 
thirdly,  because  to  the  Church  alone  has  been  com- 
mitted the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  through 
which,  as  efficient  instruments  of  divine  grace,  God 
makes  us  holy;  so  that  whoever  Is  truly  sanctified 
must  be  found  within  tbe  pale  of  the  Church.  The 
Church  Is  catholic  or  nniverasi  because  it  is  diffused 
lughout  tho  world,  embracinR  within  its  psle  men 
of  all  nations  and  conditions,  and  also  livcauae  It  com- 
prehends sll  who  have  believed  from  the  beginning, 
and  all  who  shall  believe  henceforward  to  tbe  end  of 
time.  The  Church  is  termed  apostolic.  Loth  becauM 
it  derives  its  doctrines  from  the  apostles,  whereby  It 
is  enabled  to  convict  heretics  of  error,  and  because  It 
li  governed  by  an  spostnlic  ministry,  which  is  the  or- 
gan of  tbe  Spirit  of  God"  (CaUdutm,  Cone.  Tiid.  c.  x, 
S  1).  Bcllarmlne  defines  the  Church  thus:  "It  Is  a 
society  of  men  united  by  a  profession  of  the  same 
Chriatlan  laitb,  and  a  participation  ofthe  same  sacra- 
ments, under  the  government  of  lawful  pastors,  aad 
especially  of  the  one  vicar  of  Christ  upon  earlh,  the 
Roman  pontlir."  Tbe  Lutheran  Church  defines  the 
Church  to  be  "  a  coogregation  of  aaints,  in  which  the 
Gospel  is  purely  preached  and  the  sacraments  are 
rightiy  administered"  {Cmf,itan  a/Augibiitg,  sec.  vii). 
"  The  anm  of  what  we  here  profeas  to  believo  is  there- 
Ibte  this:  1  believe  that  there  is  upon  earth  a  certain 
commnnlly  of  saints,  composed  solely  of  holy  persons, 
under  one  Head,  collected  together  by  the  Spirit;  of 
one  £sith  and  one  mind,  endowed  with  manifold  gifts, 
bnt  miited  In  love,  and  without  sects  or  divisions"  (Lv 
ther's  Largtr  Caltchim^  The  Reformed  Confessions ; 
— The  Church  of  England :  "  A  congregation  of  foitb- 
fnl  men.  In  which  the  pure  woid  of  God  is  preached, 
and  the  sacraments  bs  dolr  administered  accorffing  to 


CHXJRCH  i 

Chrift'i  Didinuicfl  id  all  thom  tfainRS  that  an  of  nacea- 
sity  requisite  to  the  same"  (art.  iLi).— The  same  dell, 
nicinn  is  given  by  the  tiethodiet  Epitcopal  Cbnrch. 
—"The  Church  is  a  comni unity  of  believers  or  laints, 
gathered  out  of  the  world;  whose  distinction  it  ii 
to  know  tod  to  worship,  tbroueb  the  Word  and  li) 
the  Spirit,  the  true  God  In  Christ  our  Saviour,  and  lij 
f<iilli  to  partieipale  in  oil  the  blouings  ^ely  given  tt 
ux  Ihrough  Christ.  Those  are  atl  citizens  of  one  pol- 
ity, subjects  of  the  same  Lord  under  the  same  law?, 
and  recipients  of  the  same  spiritiml  blessings"  (fe(- 
vl'c  CimffMmm,  lo6fi).— "The  Catholic  ChJrch  is  the 
community  of  all  true  believers,  vi».,  those  who  hope 
In  Christ  slane  for  salvation,  and  are  sonctilled  by  his 
Spirit.  It  is  not  attached  to  any  one  plnce  or  limited 
to  iiartlcnlar  persons,  the  members  of  it  being  dis- 
persed tbroughouC  the  world"  {Bdg.  Cimfaiim,  sec.  27, 
23)— The  Scotch  Confession  ICimf.  Seat.  art.  nvi)  de- 
fines the  Chorcb  "to  be  a  society  of  the  elect  of  bU 
ages  and  countries,  both  Jaws  and  Gentiles ;  this  is  the 
cathoUc  or  universal  Church.  Those  who  are  mem- 
bers of  it  worship  God  in  Christ,  and  enjoy  fellowship 
with  him  through  the  Spirit.  TMi  Church  U  invuible, 
known  on^  to  God,  mho  oUhk  knoiei  uiho  are  hit,  and 
comprehends  both  the  departed  in  the  Lord  and  the 
elect  upon  earth." — The  Confes^n  of  Polish  church- 
es :  "  There  are  particular  churches  and  the  Church 
universal.  The  true  universal  Church  is  the  com- 
munity of  alt  believers  dispersed  tlirougbout  the  world, 
who  are  and  who  remain  one  catholic  Church  so  long 
as  they  are  united  by  subjection  to  one  Head,  Christ, 
by  tbe  indwelling  of  one  spirit  and  the  profession  of 
the  same  foith ;  and  this  tliough  they  be  not  associa- 
ted in  one  common  exleinnl  politj',  but,  as  regards 
external  fellowship  and  ecclesiasUcal  regimen,  be  not 
In  communion  with  each  other." — "A  true  particular 
Chureb  is  dietingnishcd  from  a  falce  one  by  the  pro- 
fession of  the  true  fUtb,  the  unmutilated  administni- 
tions  of  the  sacraments,  and  the  exercise  of  disdpllne" 
[Declariaio  Thonaiauuj. — Dr.  Garhart,  speaking  for 
the  German  Reformed  Church  of  America  in  its  later 
form  of  thought,  under  tbe  influence  of  the  so-called 
Uercersburg  theology,  says;  "The  Christian  Church 
Is  a  divine-humsn  constitution  in  time  and  space: 
divine  as  to  its  ultimate  graund  and  interior  life,  and 

miracnlons  working  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  dsy  of 
Pentecost,  who  is  sent  by  Christ  as  tbe  bearer  of  his 
Incamato  lifb  end  salvation,  in  order  to  continue  and 
develop  tbls  life  and  salvation,  according  to  tbe  law  of 
tbe  Spirit,  in  its  membership  down  to  tbe  end  of  time 
nnintermptedly.  As  sneb.  It  is  not  a  collection  of 
unite,  but  an  objective  organism  that  has  a  principle, 
a  unity,  a  law,  organs,  and  resources  of  power  and 
grace,  which  are  in  it  and  its  own  absolutely"  (SiWi- 
olhtca  Smra,  ISGS,  p.  63,  M.  See  also  Dr.  Kevin,  In 
ilrrctr^rg  Rnitv),  vol.  ii  [articles  on  "Hodgo  on 
Ephesians"];  vol.z  ["Thoughts  on  tho Church,"  two 
articles]). 

Such  Is  the  notion  of  tbe  Charch  as  presented  in  tbe 
great  leading  symbols  of  the  principal  churches  and 
By  their  representative  men.  The  subject  Is  ono  beset 
with  difficaltice,  because  of  the  failure  alwnys  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  visible  and  invisible  Church, 
and  because  every  denomination,  tn  order  to  render 
Itself  powerful  and  practicsl.  must  assume  the  form 
of  a  Church,  and  is  consequently  driven  to  deline  the 
Church  to  suit  its  own  position  and  histcry.  The 
distinction  between  the  visible  and  Invisible  Chnrch 
was  recognised  by  Augustine ;  in  his  controversy 
witb  the  Donatists,  who  held  that  to  predicate  catho- 
licity of  tbe  Cburcb  it  was  necessary  it  should  have  sub- 
jective purity  in  Its  members,  and  that,  so  soon  as  it 
allowed  corrupt  and  unworthy  meml>ers.  it  ceases  to 
be  catholic,  he  maintained,  "  Many,  by  partaliing  of 
the  sacrament,  are  ailh  the  Chnrch,  and  yet  are  not  in 
tbe  Church."    Further:  "  Those  who  appear  to  be  the 


t  CHURCH 

Church,  and  to  contradict  Christ,  thetefbre  do  not  Iw 
lung  to  that  Church  which  is  called  the  body  sf 
Christ"  (see  Neander,  Chrittiaa  Doffmat,  ii,  395).  ThU 
there  is  one  visible  Chnrch  all  these  ConfcHiona  con- 
cede; but  whether  or  not  tbero  be  a  visible  Cburch 
on  earth  entitled  to  be  called  the  true  Cbnrch,  and  Ibe 
only  true  Church,  is  the  questioa  at  lisua  between 
Romanists  and  Protestanta.  Certainly,  ■>  If  «e  judp^ 
of  the  various  churches  into  which  Cbristendom  L>  di- 
vided by  their  conforming  in  all  respects  by  the  |itin- 
cipies  and  requirements  of  the  Gospels,  we  cannot  al- 
low that  any  one  of  Uiem  is  the  perfect  represenlatii>D 
of  that  ideal  stale  at  which  they  all  aim ;  nor,  on  t)iF 
other  hand,  can  we  entirely  deny  the  name  of  a  (  hri^ 
tian  Church  to  any  one  which  profeasea  to  ba  built  on 
the  Gospel  of  Christ.  They  have  all  so  much  in  com- 
mon in  this  religious  faith  and  life,  and  so  mncb  whicli 
distinguishes  them  fh>m  all  other  leligioua  societies. 
as  to  justify  us  in  considering  them  as  one  wbolr.  and 
calling  them,  in  a  wide  sense.  The  Christian  Church" 
(Gicseler,  Chureh  Biilory,  vol.  i,  §  1). 

8.  Aods,  Failh,  nnrf  AllT^ula  of  tin  Church.— (1.) 
The  nol»  of  the  Church  are  tbe  sicns  by  which  ihi.-  vis- 
ible Chnrch  is  distinguished,  and  differ  accordiDg  to 
the  views  which  are  held  in  the  definition  of  tbe  Chnrcb. 
(a)  Tbe  Roman  Catechism  states  them  to  be  unitv. 
sanctity,  cathollcitv,  and  apostolicity  (Cot.  Omc.  Trid. 
p.  80,  HI).  Bellarmine  assigns,  in  addition  to  tfaew, 
antiquilj-,  uninterrupted  duration,  amplitude,  agrre- 
ment  in  doctrine  with  the  primitive  Chnrch,  aanc- 
tity  of  doctrine,  efficacy  of  the  doctrine,  the  glory  of 
miracles,  the  light  of  prophecy,  the  confession  of  ad- 
versaries, the  unhappy  end  of  the  Church's  enemies, 
and  temporal  feiiclti'  (BiUarmmt'i  Nola  of  lite  Clatrck 
eramined  and  rtfultd  by  aaintni  EagHih  /^isusea.  Loud. 
1»10).  Tbe  "  unhappy  end  of  the  Church's  enenilBs" 
and  "temporal  prosperity"  are  rejected  by  Toumely, 
Bailty,  and  generally  by  modem  Boniisb  theologiant 
(see  Palmer,  On  the  CItunA,  I,  27).  (»)  Tbe  Church 
of  England  baa  no  authoritative  declarutioo  tnyond  its 
lixth  article— the  preaching  of  the  pure  word  of  God 
and  tba  due  administration  of  the  sacraments,  etc.; 
but  the  proper  adminlslntion  of  the  sacraments  by 
miniiten  regnlirl}-  authorized  has  led  to  a  difference 
of  opinion  In  determining  tbeae  notes,  which  has  be- 
come a  wide  divergency,  the  one  side  adhering  to  a 
free  interpretation,  in  common  with  all  Protestants, 
and  the  o^cr  approaching  to  the  stricter  Rotoan  Cath- 
olic view.  The  strict  so-called,  chutchly  interpreta- 
tion begins  with  the  inclusion  of  apostolicity  (Palmer), 
and  extends  to  truth  of  doctrine,  use  of  means  (as  well 

change  of  doctrine,  lawful  succession  without  change 
of  doctrine,  and  universality  In  tbe  iucccbih  ten». 
i.  c.  the  prevalence  of  the  Chnrch  successiveiv  in  all 
nations  (Dr.  Field).  This  tendency  towards  Bomait- 
izing  views  has  culminated  in  what  is,  for  convenience, 
termed  tbe  High-Church,  or  Sacramcnlarian  party, 
some  of  whom  openly  advocate  a  union  of  the  Cburcb 
of  England  with  the  Church  of  Rome  and  the  Grcvk 
Cburch,  in  order  to  realize  Iheir  note  of  the  viiilJe 
ity  of  the  Chnrcb.  "It  is  wortiiy  of  remark,"  rays 
ton,  "that  every  theory  of  the  Church,  whether  it 
profess  to  be  Romanist  or  not,  which  teaches  ttul  tba 
me  being  thereoflies  in  its  visible  chancteristic, 
idnpts  instinctively  the  Romish  notes,  and  rejects  the 
>rotBstant."  (c)ThediBlinctively  "Protestant  note*" 
-the  preaching  of  the  pure  word  of  God  and  the  right 
administration  of  the  sacraments — are  applicable  not  to 
the  mystical  body  of  Christ,  but  to  the  visible  Church, 
or,  rather,  to  churches  or  congregations  of  belieiew, 
"The  Protestant  says,  in  genomi,  tbe  chnrch  (or  a 
part  of  it)  is  there  where  tbe  Word  and  the  sacramenta 
are;  and  tbe  sociefy  in  which  the  one  is  preachedaitd 
the  other  administered  is  a  legitimate  part  of  the  visi- 
ble Catholic  Church  '  (Litton,  On  At  ChurA,  PhEa.  p. 
"  Some  formulairiei,  e.  g.  the  Seotch  ConC  (art. 


CHURCH  3! 

U)idd  tba  ezeiciae  of  dUelplinc"  (iUd.};  aad  thia  It 
d«s  TBij  properly,  fur  if  purity  of  doctrino  and  life  ii 
to  In  mainUintd,  it  miut  alway«  lie  a  uisrk  of  a  tma 
Chnrth  thit  tbire  be  discipUna.  Bnt  InumDcb  rb  it 
if  impcvdble  to  diAcflni  alwaya  whoare  inwardly  pare, 
■nd  ilw  perfectly  to  enfarca  diKipliae,  tlie  viiilile 
ChoTEh  will  alwiys  be  liable  to  cLa  intriialon  of  Che 
■kked,  iDil  bailee  cannot  claim  to  ba  identical  with 
Um  mjAical  body  of  Chriit  in  any  one  place,  but  may 
diin  lo  ba  a  part  of  it,  so  faf  ai  in  iti  doctrine  and 
life  it  confarms  to  tbe  lequiremenU  of  the  Gotpel. 
''Aa  notea"  (ths  Hcramenti  and  tlio  nilniBtrjr  of  the 
Wont), "  tberarine,  serve  to  auure  uaof  the  exiatence 
of  tlut  myitical  body  which  in  Itaelf  ia  an  ol^)act 
of  aenae,  but  of  faith ;  by  which  tha  charge  brought 
of  old  againat  ProCeatanl  doctrine — that  ita  inrinblo 
ChoRh  ii  a  fiction  of  the  inU'jination — ii  absDdantly 
refilled"  (Litton,  p.  257). 

(1)  FatA—Tbe  friiib  or  tbe  Chnrcb  ia  given,  in  aa- 
thoriiatire,  though  not  ia  dognuUiul  farm,  In  tbe 
Word  of  God.  "The  Church,  aa  tbe  body  of  believers 
in  Cliritt,  existed  before  the  New  Testament  was  writ- 
ten. It  waa  to  tha  Church  that  the  Word  was  ad- 
dr«Hd.  It  Is  by  the  Cburcb  that  tbe  anthanticiQ'  of 
the  Word  has  been  witnessed  from  the  beginning. 
Bat  the  Word  was  given  to  tlio  Church  aa  its  test  and 
ataudard  of  fiuth.  The  '  faith' was  in  the  Church  be- 
Ihn  the  Word  was  written ;  but  tbe  Word  was  given 
to  be  the  norm  of  f^itb,  by  which  the  Church  might 
and  should,  in  all  sgea,  test  the  &ith,  or  any  proposed 
Dudiacntiona  or  developmenta  of  the  faitb." 

Tbe  Church's  fulth,  as  drawn  fhim,  and  resting  on, 
tha  Word  of  God,  ia  expressed  in  her  creeds  or  confes- 
■ioni.  At  iuccesaive  periods,  as  tba  exigenclea  of  tba 
times  hare  required,  or  hiTo  seamed  to  reqaire,  its 
iMdIng  minda  have  convened,  sometimes  by  civil, 
•ooKtlmes  by  eccleaiaitical  authority,  at  other  llmea 
by  both,  in  generjl  council*,  when,  by  eonaant,  the 
dfKtrinaa  of  tha  Church  bjve  been  thrown  into  tha 
fonn  of  confessions  or  symbols.  In  tbeso  symbols, 
the  Soatlng.  undefined,  but  current  beliefs  of  the  gen- 
erd  Charch  bare  crj-atalliied,  and  thus  have  been 
innsmitted  to  us.  The  first  is  the  Apostles'  Ciaed. 
This  is  nniversally  accepted  in  tbo  Church,  and  is  of 
highest  authority.  Though  the  most  ancJont  of  all 
the  formnlariss  of  belief,  there  ia  no  avidance  that  the 
apostles  composed  it  aa  it  now  reada ;  tbe  beat  expla- 
nation is  that  it  grew  Into  shape  fhim  the  common  and 
geoeral  coufassion  of  faith  in  tbe  primitive  Charch 
until  it  very  early  assumed  tbe  farm  it  now  has.  Il 
is  the  germ  of  all  subaeqnent  creed  development.  The 
next  is  tbe  NlcBno.Consti]ntinopalitin  symbol,  com- 
monly cmlled  the  Nicene  Creed,  which  was  the  work 
of  two  o-cumanical  conndls  in  3ib  and  881,  This  has 
alvSTs  bean  of  great  weight,  as  chjeSy  settling  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  expresses  the  genersl 
view  of  tha  Cburcb  to  this  dsv.  The  Chalccdon  sym- 
bol followed  in  451 ;  and  then  the  Athnnosian  Creed, 
called  alter  Athanaaius,  though  it  is  doubtful  if  ha  waa 
the  snthor.  There  were  no  other  confiisslDns  until  ths 
Htbmistioii,  since  which  we  have  tbe  Lntheran  svm- 
boli  (7) ;  tha  Beformed  (IS) ;  ths  papal  (Canonea  et 
Decrtu  Concilii  I'lldeadni,  IMS;  I'rofessia  Adei  Tri- 
dentina  of  Pope  Pius  IV,  etc.);  confessions  of  tbe 
Greek  Church;  Arminian  and  Sooinian  confessionB; 
hot  none  of  these  ore  of  univeisal  autbori^,  ta  are  the 
ociginsl  tota  of  tha  early  Church. 

i*.)  Tbe  aUrilmla  of  (he  Church  are  uni^,  holineas, 
catholicity,  and  apostolicity.  These  also  are  explain- 
ed diSenntly,  according  to  tha  theory  of  tbe  Church 
aaintained.  ProtutaDta  generally  find  these  attri- 
tatei  only  In  the  invisible  Church.  There  is  evi- 
i»B.a.j  a  unity  of  bith  (Eph.  Iv,  IS),  a  unity  of 
lova  (1  Car.  zili,  18),  one  spirit  (Eph.  iv,  4),  one  hope 
(■liJ.lt).  one  body  (Rom.  xii,  b\  one  head  (Eph.  iv, 
V,\  and  one  object  of  wonhip  (Eph.  iv,  6).  That 
this  nnity  ia  nndn  one  common  earthly  bead  is  held  I 


5  CHURCH 

by  Roman  Catholics,  but  denied  by  Prolaetonts.  By 
these  a  spiritual  unity  is  affirmed  to  exist,  even  whero 
there  ia  not  uniformity  of  Church  polity,  nor  entira 
agreement  of  doctrine,  nor,  indeed,  any  internal  bond 
save  that  of  the  "commnnion  of  saints."  Holiness  ia 
uscribcd  to  the  Cburcb  as  expressing  tbo  moral  puri- 
ty of  its  members ;  they  am  addressed  in  tba  N.  T.  aa 
"aainta,"  "sanclifled,"  by  reason  of  tbair  union  with 
Christ  aa  tiieir  living  bead,  and  tbo  poBsession  of  tbe 
Holy  Ghost,  tha  Sanctifier  (1  Cor.  i,  2;  vi,  19).  Bc- 
causo  this  bolincaa  is  a  personal  work  in  tbo  hearts 
of  believera  ai  auh,  it  can  be  predicated  strictly  only 
of  tbe  invisible  Cburcb,  but  it  ought  to  be  manifcslcil 
in  tbo  individual  and  corporato  life  of  tbo  Church,  in 
order  that  aba  may  fulfil  ita  original  constitution. 
Catbolicity  was  first  applied  to  tha  Christian  Church 
to  designate  not  only  ita  univeraality  aa  embracing  all 
true  balicvara,  but  also  tha  ononeas  of  those  believers 
aa  excluding  all  heretica.  In  modern  timea  it  is  used 
to  mean  the  umversally  diffusod  nature  of  tbe  Cbuicb 
by  its  presence,  without  respect  to  local  or  national 
boondaries.     Tbo  Romanist  claims  that  all,  and  thosa 

the' Catholic  Cburcb ;  while  Protcstanta  admit  it  (o  be 
the  whole  body  of  Christians,  in  whatever  visible  com- 
munion they  muv  bo :  henco  composed  of  all  the  cburcb- 
os  of  all  nations  (Mark  xv,  16;  AcU  i,  U,  So),  the  same 
in  all  time  (Matt,  xiriii,  20),  and  possessed,  by  rea- 
aon  of  tbo  preaence  of  its  great  head,  of  the  mesns  of 
saving  gnica  (tbiif. ,-  Eph.  1,  22).  Apostolicity  is  not 
insisted  upon  by  Protestants;  when  uacd,  however,  by 
them,  it  mesns  (be  possesion  by  the  Church  of  true 
apostolic  doctrine,  sfurit,  and  life;  while  by  Roman 
Catbtdica  it  moans  tmving  a  nunistry  regnlarly  and 
ctn&Iy  succeeding  to  tbe  apostles. 

Tha  attributes  (unity,  holiness,  catholicity,  perpetu- 
ity) are  anquestJODably  essential  to  the  true  Church, 
and  aro  ascribed  (o  ber  in  tbe  New  Testament.  But 
neither  Che  N.  T.  nor  the  Apostles'  Creed  define  tbe 
Cburcb  aaa  visible  organliation,  but  as  tbe  "commu- 
nloa of  solnta."    ThiaChurcbbasalwaysexisted;  but 

visible  corporation  or  socleQ'  on  earth  has  ever  been 
endowed  with  the  attributes  above  named.  See  this 
irgument  well  staled  in  the  i^inosbxi  Raiac  (Oct. 
1853);  compare  Bartow,  Strmm  on  fie  Umljio/Ihe 
OWcA,  iii,  Sll  (N.Y.  1Mb),  , 

HI.  i/ijtojy  o/  (Ae  Dxlritu  of  At  CSktcS.  — Th* 
apostles  and  their  immediate  succossors  were  too  much 
engrossed  with  the  work  of  spreading  the  Gospel  to 
p:iase  to  proscribe  the  nature  of  an  institution  which 
waa  sure  to  grow  into  shape  as  tha  necessities  of  the 
case  required.  The  apostles  themselves  were  too  ear- 
nestly employed  in  fulfilling  tbe  command  ofCbrist  to 
disciple  all  nations,  and  ihose  directly  following  them 
partook  too  largely  of  their  spirit,  and  understood  too 
fully  their  mind,  to  ba  turned  aside  by  tha  necessity  uf 
explaining  what  they  knew  to  be  a  feci.  Hence  '■  no 
exact  definitions  of  the  Cburcb  are  found  previoua  to 
tbe  time  of  Ci'prian"  (HagenUach,  Hi-lory  nfDoclriaft, 
i,  19B).  The  dafinili.ma  of  the  latter  (Cyprian)  make 
an  epoch  in  tbe  biatory  of  this  doctrine.  The  first  dif- 
flcDlly  arose  aa  to  the  unit]'  uf  tbe  Church,  in  confonnd- 
ing  tbe  inward  with  the  outward.  "  Ireanus  ahotrs 
the  first  trerms  of  thia  perversion ;  it  was  matured  l>y 
Cyprian"  (Nasnder,  CiriMum  Dogauu,  vol.  i,  p.  2-20). 
"  'Thus  the  Jewish  atand-point  (a  Ibeocracy),  which  at 
first  bad  been  overcome,  made  ita  way  into  the  Church 
in  another  form"  {ibid.).  IrenKus  says  tbo  Church 
alone  contains  all  the  ricbea  of  trntb ;  Clement  de- 
scribaa  tbe  Cburcb  as  a  mother,  both  aa  a  mother  and 
virgin,  as  the  body  of  the  Lord ;  Origen,  thoagb  usual- 

the  Church ;  TartuUian  claimed  (hat  whoever  separated 
(nm  tba  connection  with  tbe  outward  communion, 
which  was  of  apostolic  orij^n,  and  had  at  ita  head  (he 
tedrt  npoftot-'ea,  in  so  doing  renounced  Christ,  though 
after  Joining  the  Montanists  be  essentially  changed  his 


CHURCH  31 

opinion.  It  ts  of  DO  bvbU,  un  Cyprian,  what  >  man 
tcachui  itlionoughtbatheteachwontortheChnrch; 
where  tba  biihop  Is,  there  is  Uie  cburcb,  etc.  Tha  rooti 
of  the  extreme  cbnrch  doctrine  are  to  be  tnced  thue 
wrlj.  A  reaction,  however,  eooQ  took  place,  growing 
out  of  a  more  ■ciontlflc  diuemment  of  the  ipirltual 
IdeaoftbeChnrch.  Clement  ulla  theCbarcba  com- 
ronnitf  of  men  led  by  the  divine  Logot,  an  InTinciblo 
city  upon  earth,  which  do  force  can  lulidue,  where  the 
will  of  Godia  done  u  it  ii  in  beairen.  Other*  combat- 
ed the  oatward  anltj  of  the  Church  la  oiucriptDTal. 
Hontanism  Inaiated  that  tha  unity  i*  inward;  it  re- 
gatded  the  internal  fact  of  poueaaing  the  Spirit  ai 
the  fandamantal  thing— not  the  ordinary  influence  of 
of  the  epirit  In  lanctification,  hut  hia  extraordinary 
power  in  giviog  new  revelationj,  which  were  tho 
Kinrces  of  authority  and  unity  in  the  Church.  A  far- 
ther reaction  of  Fcparatiam  against  tha  Catholic  idea 
took  place  in  Novatian  and  hia  fullovon.  Tboy  in- 
ueted  that  the  Catholic  Church  li  eaaenlially  holy  ii 
allita  members,  andhenM  maatexclade  tmrn  ita  com 
TDonion  all  anwortby  niemben,  and  na*ei  readmit 
Uiem,  otherwiae  it  would  loae  ita  catholicity.  They 
conaequently  withdrew,  and  claimed  to  !je  tbo  Catholic 
Church.  "The  false  idaaliam  of  the  Gnoatica,  and  the 
snbjective,  heretical,  and  achiamalJcal  tecdenciea  of 
leparate  aecta,  eipeclally  of  theMontaaisttandthe  fol- 
lowers of  Movadan  (the  primitive  PoriUna),  form  a 
■triking  contrast  with  this  falae  externa]  unity  of  the 
Catholic  Church"  (see  fiagenbach  and  Neander). 
"Two  catuea  contributed  (In  the  seoond  period  of  the 
Church  history)  to  determine  about  the  Church :  1. 
The  exumat  triumph  of  the  Church  Itself  in  Its  vlc- 
tory  OTcr  Pagaoiam,  and  its  rlaing  power  under  the 
protection  of  the  state.  S.  The  victory  of  AnguBlln- 
ism  over  the  doctrines  of  the  Pelagians,  Manichnans, 
and  Don•tiBt^  which  in  different  way*  threatened  to 
destroy  eccledasticil  uni^.  In  opposition  to  tha  Do- 
natiita,  Angostlne  asaeitrd  that  the  Church  consists 
of  the  sum  toUi  of  all  who  are  baptiisd,  and  that  the 
(ideal)  sanctity  of  the  Church  ii  not  impaired  by  the 
impure  elements  externally  connected  with  it.  The 
bishops  of  Rome  impressed  upon  this  catholiciam  the 
stamp  of  the  papal  hierarchy  by  claiming  for  themselves 
the  primacy  of  Peter.  But,  whatever  variant  opinioaa 
were  lield  respecting  the  seat  and  nature  of  the  tme 
Church,  the  proposition  that  Ihen  iMnotaivation  out  of 
Ihe  Church  was  Hnnly  adhered  to,  and  carried  ont  in  all 
Ks  consequencea"  (Hagenbach,  vol.  i,  p.  B62).  It  is 
irorthy  of  luite  that  at  this  period  Jovinlan  taught  that 
"  the  Church  is  fannded  on  Faith.  Hope,  and  Love.  In 
this  Church  there  is  nothing  impure;  every  one  ia 
taught  of  God ;  no  one  can  break  Into  it  by  violence 
AT  steal  into  it  by  artlflce."  "Aa  Jovinlan  tanght  the 
Pauline  doctrine  of  Mth,  so  he  did  the  Pauline  idea  of 
the  invisible  Church,  while  Augustine  obatructed  his 
similar  fundamental  idea  by  a  mixture  of  the  Catholic 
idea  of  the  Church."  "  Hera  again  we  have  a  sign  of 
the  Protestant  element  in  Au^atlne"  (bis  comment  on 
the  "Thou  art  Peter"),  "that  all  religious  conscioua- 
ness  is  immediately  to  be  traced  up  to  Christ,  and  that 
with  lum  the  commnnity  originates  which  Is  called  the 
Church"  (Neander,  Cinttiam  Degmat,  vol.  li,  p.  897, 
898). 

Until  the  14th  century  the  Roman  hierarchy  bad 
comparatively  no  opposition  in  carrylnft  ont  suprema- 
cy in  the  Wcxt  to  iU  vilest  extent ;  at  this  time  a  fl-eer 
spirit  began  to  show  itself.  Even  on  the  Catholic 
stand-point  a  difference  was  stirred  respecting  the  re- 
lation of  the  changeable  and  unchangeable  In  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Church;  on  the  position  of  the  papa- 
cy in  reaped  of  the  Church ;  whether  the  pope  was  to 
b^  regarded  ts  ita  representative  or  soverei^  head; 
whether  the  general  cooncLls  or  the  pope  ^tood  bigheat. 
The  UnlremitA-  of  Paria,  with  chancellor  Cerson  at  its 
head,  led  on  this  controversy.  See  GitRaoH.  "  The 
myatlcBl  idea  of  the  Church  and  the  notionof  ■  univer- 


6  CHURCH 

sal  prieMhood,  which  wsa  intimatalj  connected  with  II, 
waa  proponnded,  with  mora  or  less  aecnncy  of  deEnU 
tion,  by  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  a«  well  aa  by  the  brerun- 
ner*  of  the  Befbrmation,  WycUffe,  Matthias  of  Janow, 
Hnsa,John  of  Wssel,WeBBel,  and  SavonamU"  (Hagen- 
bach). Theae  tendencies  were  fully  developed  in  tha 
Refurmatlon  and  in  its  results.  The  Western  religiona 
world  became  divided  in  the  statement  of  tho  Cbntdl 
dogma,  as  it  looked  at  the  qneation  of  salvation.  Tba 
Protestant,  regarding  the  doctrine  of  }ustiflcation  by 
fbitta  as  fandamental,  said  the  Church  is  approached 
through  it ;  the  Romanist,  still  adhering  to  the  Chnrch 
as  tha  Ibnntain  of  spiritual  life,  affirmed  that  Inetifica- 
tlon  ia  obtained  through  tha  Church.  ProtcitanU  aa- 
aert  that  tha  Church  conaiats  in  the  invMble  fellowship 
of  all  those  who  are  united  by  the  bonds  of  tme  faith, 
which  ideal  union  is  but  imperfectly  rapresented  by 
tha  visible  Church,  in  which  the  true  Gospel  is  taught 
and  the  sacraments  are  rightly  administered ;  the  Bo- 
man  Catholics,  that  the  Chnrch  is  a  visible  sodety  of 
all  baptliad  persons  who  adept  a  certain  external 
creed,  have  the  aame  aacramenta,  and  acknowledge  the 

The  recent  contreveniea  concerning  the  Idea  and 
nature  of  the  Church  sll  revolve  atwnt  the  one  pohit, 
via.,  whether  the  Church  of  which  Christ  ia  the 
"  Head"  is,  or  is  not,  a  visible  cotporatjon  here  on 
earth,  entitled  to  the  promiaea,  privilegve,  and  enthor- 
ily  which  the  Scripturea  assign  to  the  i[dritnal  Church, 
rtotestants  generally  deny ;  tha  Romanists,  the  High- 
Anglicans,  and  a  few  writers  in  other  branchce  of  the 
Proteetant  Church,  afflrm.  The  so-called  Nev-Lti- 
theran  divines  of  Germany  have  developed  a  theory 
of  the  Church  In  which  the  Protestant  idea  gives  way 
to  the  MeTarchical ;  in  which  the  aacnments  are  not 
merely  notes  of  the  true  Church,  but  the  real  guard* 
of  Its  continued  life.  The  profound  and  myaleriotu 
synthesis  of  the  divine  and  human  ia  found  in  faith, 
according  to  the  old  Protestant  ayste m ;  according  to 
the  new,  it  is  found  in  the  sacraments  (compare 
Schwarts,  Zkt  GaekKUe  d.  ntnaU*  TkeotogU,  bk.  iii, 
ch.  iii).  Rothe  has  developed,  with  his  naual  vigor, 
a  theory  of  tho  Church  akin  to  that  of  Arnold,  viI^ 
that  the  Church  is  indispensable  to  the  moral  edoea- 
tion  of  homanily;  but  that,  aa  humanly  ■mpreves, 
tbo  neceeaity  for  the  Church  diminishes;  and,  Anally, 
the  atale  nil)  become  religious  (a  real  tbeoeracy),  and 
the  CliHTTh  will  become  absorbed  in  the  state. 

W.Ctiu'ituHm  oflkt  CAurcJ.— Christ  did  not  so 
much  create  a  Church  during  his  aojaurn  on  earth  aa 
implant  principles  which  would  be  subsequently  de- 
veloped into  a  Church.  Whilst  he  waa  yet  with  hia 
disciples,  they  needed  no  other  bond  to  hold  them  to- 
gether than  his  person.  The  founder  of  the  new  niaa> 
ifeatatlon  of  the  kingdom  of  God  seemed  not  to  design 
to  collect  about  him  namenjus  adherents,  but  to  Im- 
plant deeplv  into  the  minds  of  a  few  the  higher  ani- 
mating ajJrit  of  this  kingdom,  which  throngh  thdr 
lives  should  work  out  into  a  complete  and  efTective  or> 
ganication.  Ha  found  thoM  whom  he  called  fw  this 
work  Jews ;  he  associated  with  and  instructed  them  af- 
ter tho  customs  of  Judaiem.  He  diatlnctty  told  them, 
however,  that  they,  in  their  persona,  faith,  life,  and 
teaching,  were  to  constitnte  tbe  Lnginnlng  and  the 
agency  of  a  new  order  of  things.  They  were  com- 
manded to  go  forth  after  hia  death  and  disciple  all 
notiona,  and  to  baptize  them  In  tbe  name  of  ttie  Fa- 
ther, the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  thua  bring 
all  people  into  the  kingdom  of  God.  It  ia  thua  clear 
that  the  religion  of  Christ  waa  designed  by  him  to 
supersede  all  others,  not  only  by  its  spirit  and  ca- 
sence,  but  also  in  the  particular  method  or  form  of 
its  manifestation.  Ha  made  provision  for  this  naolt 
by  conatitDtlng  apostles,  who  should  authoritative- 
ly command  and  teach,  abonld  open  and  shot  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  bind  and  tnoee  on  earth,  and  as 
render  virible  and  powerfbl  his  Word  among  meik 


Belbn  (nterinK  upon 
in  JcmHlem  nntjl  ei 
(Lake),  which  power  they  were  usurcd  would  come 
sot  many  d>^  >fter  the  iiciniiDn  of  tb^  Lord. 
That  they  already  recognised  theTnielTU  ■■  chenen 
hir  >  high  eapecial  work  i>  evideot  by  Iboir  filling  up 
Ihs  TBcancj  in  tbelr  Dumber  caiued  by  the  apoatu; 
imd  death  of  Jndu  Iicariot  with  the  eeleetion  of  in- 
Mber.Hstthiaa,  to  till  hiipUee  (Acts  1,15,  26).  Tbiu 
completa,  they  conttaned  to  wait  and  pray  for  the 
•paca  of  lerea  day*.  When  the  day  of  Pentecost  hud 
fully  come,  "  while  the  apostles  and  diaciplet,  a  han- 
dnd  and  twenty  In  number,  were  sssenibW  in  or  near 
the  Temple  for  the  momiiiK  devotioni  of  the  fettul 
day,  and  were  waltini;  in  prayer  fbr  tho  fulGluient  of 
the  pnnnlae,  the  exalted  SaTiour  poured  down  from 
his  bearenly  throne  the  faliieas  of  the  Holy  Ghwt 
Bpon  them,  and  founded  his  Church  upon  earth" 
(SehattCSamlffitorj.VQi.  i,  p.  69).  ThedayofPcn- 
tecoet  may  be  regarded  ■■  the  birthday  of  die  Chris- 
tiau  Church.  Tlisn  It  was  formed ;  thence  its  gradiul 
dertlopment  proceeded.  There  ti  a  diversity  of  opin- 
ion aa  to  the  latemal  polity  it  assumed,  as  might  be 
tipected',  butltmDitb«coDcededby  all  that  the  apos- 
tles woald  hare  "safflclent  guidance"  aa  to  the  man- 
ner In  which  it  was  to  be  organized.  This  guidance 
does  not  Imply  that  'tUparticBlir  firm  mait  have  been 
giren  to  tliem  by  Chrirt,  but  only  sacb  direction  as 
weald  lead  them  to  punue  the  wiMSt  methods.  Con- 
■cquently  Ihay  began  by  preaching;  and,  as  converts 
were  made,  by  baptltlng  them,  and  then  taking  them 
intoacloaer  fellowship  for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Sapper,  spritnal  instructian,  and  wonhip  (Acta  iii,  43, 
etc.).  As  tbey  were  Jews,  it  was  likely  they  would 
adopt  the  methods  of  worship,  govemmeul,  etc.,  to 
which  they  were  accustomed.  Archbishop  Whately 
Biji  (Kavdm  of  drift  ikSiHaled,  p.  88) :  "  It  ap- 
pun  highly  probable,  I  might  say  morally  certain, 
tkit  the  synagogue  was  brought — the  whole  or  chief 
pan  of  It  —  to  embrace  the  Oospel.  The  apostles 
did  not,  then,  so  much  form  a  Christian  Chureh  (or 
congregation,  eedenu)  as  make  an  existing  congrt- 
gstiou  ChristiBn  by  introducing  the  Christian  sacra- 
nmls  and  worship,  and  establishing  whatever  regnla- 
tioni  were  necessary  for  the  newly  .adopted  faith,  leav- 
ing toe  machinery  (if  I  may  so  speak)  of  government 
idchinged ;  the  rulers  of  synagogues,  elders,  and  oth- 
er officers,  whether  spititoal  or  ecclesiastical,  or  both, 
being  already  proTided  in  the  existing  institutions." 
Titrhiga(seo  his  DiSyna^iga  fflere),  Neander,  Litton, 
and  many  others,  agree  in  this  opinion,  that  the  syna- 
gognes  wero  the  pattern  which  the  apostles  proposed 
to  themselres,  though  It  ia  by  no  moans  certain  that 
they  adopted  any  model. 

t.  All  that  can  be  done  in  the  determhiation  of  the 
polity  of  the  apotlolie  Chttrdt  is  to  trace  the  practice 
of  the  apnatles  as  recorded  In  their  acta  and  writings. 
This  polity  Is  not  presented  as  legislative  enactments, ' 
but  (imply  as  facts,  ihowing  bow  tho  apostles  acted  in 
given  esses.  In  the  flrat  account  we  Hod  the  Church 
compoeed  of  the  apoatlas  and  other  disciples,  and  Ibcn 
of  the  apostles  and  "the  multitude  of  them  that  be- 
lisiod."  Hence  it  appears  that  the  Church  was  at 
•rst  compoeed  entirely  of  members  standing  on  an 
equality  with  one  another,  and  that  the  apoetics  alone 
held  a  higher  rank,  and  exercised  a  directing  influ- 
ox*  over  tin  whole,  which  arose  f*mn  the  original 
position  in  which  Christ  had  pUced  Ihem  in  relation 
to  other  believers  (Neander,  Plamting  and  Training, 
p.  BJ),  Tho  apostle^  as  necessity  required,  created 
other  office*,  the  Brat  of  which  we  have  mention  is 
Ihit  of  ifsoom  (fiatevia)  (Acts  vl,  i\  followed  soon 
sfterbjthatofeM(r(irp(«/3£>ripoc)(Actsx1,80).  Tho 
line  of  the  creation  of  the  office  of  elder  or  presby- 
ter ii  not  given,  tyom  which  It  Is  not  clear  whether  it 
anise  hefim  or  after  the  diaeonale.  The  first  refer- 
mce  la  ilden  aMmnea  thalr  existence.     The  office  of 


:7  CHURCH 

elder  and  that  of  bisbop  are  generally  conceded  to  be 
identical.  The  apostles,  deacons,  and  elders,  with 
the  whole  body  of  believers  in  every  pisce,  cooitidK 
ted  tho  membership  and  government  of  the  Church. 
See  Bishop.  The  deacons  were  overseers  of  tlio 
poor,  snd  probably  conducted  religious  worship  and 
adminiatored  tiie  sacramenla  (.Acts  viii,  BE).  Tho  cler- 
ical function  of  the  deacon  is  dispnied  (see  Amfricaa 
Pnat.  <ad  Thud.  Rttiev,  vol.  v,  p.  134).  The  elders 
were  appointed  not  only  to  teach  and  administer  the 
sacraments,  but  also  to  govern  the  Church  or  chureb- 
es  in  the  absence  of  the  apostles  (Acts  xx,  28.  etc.). 
Tho  ministr)',  however,  was  not  confined  to  those  or- 
ders ;  it  was  ratiier  a  gift  which  any  one  possessing 
could  exerciao  under  due  regulations.  By  reference 
to  1  Cot.  xii,  4-1?,  also  28,  it  will  be  seen  that  "apos- 
tles," "prophets,"  "helps,"  and  " govemmenta,"  all 
pertain  to  tho  ministry;  also  in  the  correspond ing 
pBSBa;;c,  Ephcs.  iv,  11, 13,  the  miuisterial  office  is  as- 
cribed to  the  direct  agency  of  tho  Holy  Ghost:  "Ha 
gave  some,  apostles;  and  some,  prophets;  and  soma, 
evangelists ;  and  some,  pastors  and  teachers  ;  for  the 
perfecting  of  the  etints,  for  the  work  of  tho  ministry, 
(br  the  edifj-ing  of  the  body  of  Christ."  "  Those  pas- 
sages establish  nothing  respecting  the  ministerial  o^na 
of  the  apostolic  B.^ ;  what  they  do  teach  us  is  that  the 
spiritual  endowments  necessary  (br  the  office  of  an 
apostle,  a  pastor,  a  teacher,  or  a  gOTcmor  of  the 
Church,  whether  these  functions  were  united  m  the 
same  perBon  or  not,  flow  dlrecUy  tram  Chri^,  and  are 
n  part  of  (ho  standing  spiritual  constitution  of  the 
Church"  (Litton,  p.  874).  The  manifold  gifts  of  the 
Spirit  wero  trmed  gencricslly  lianimaia  (xapiaiia- 
to),  end  were  either  a  natural  endowment,  sanctified 
and  applied  nndor  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
the  edlfyin;;  of  the  Church,  or  a  supemntursl  (lift  of  a 
miraculous  character,  in  [he  exercise  of  which  the  di- 
vine egent  was  more  cons^cuoua  than  the  human. 
Another  division  is  Into  thi-e  which  dirplsyed  them- 
selves in  word,  and  those  which  had  a  more  particular 
reference  to  action  (Utton;  Keander,  i'^Einfinj  ani 
Traimg;  Olshaueen,  Hooker,  etc.).  TbcM  gifts,  It 
appears,  were  not  confined  to  any  particular  class, 
but  were  liestowed  as  the  Spirit  saw  lit  to  distribute 
them.  See  Giptb,  Spibitdai,.  The  jirie»((j  function 
pertained  to  the  ministeiial  office  only  in  tho  sens* 
that  all  believers  were  priests,  to  ofler  up  spiritual 
sacrifices  to  God  by  Christ  (1  Peter  ii,  4,  6,  etc.); 
and  In  no  sense  was  there  a  lanctity  attaching  to  the 
minister  which  did  not  attach  to  the  ordinsry  believer, 
except,  perhops,  to  the  apoeties,  whme  office  was  not 
tfl  be  permanent  in  the  Chureh.  No  human  media- 
tion ia  represented  in  the  New  Test,  as  necessary  to 
the  soul  seeking  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  the  fTnlta 
of  the  Spirit  except  such  as  may  ottiM  knowledge  and 
faith,  but  never  as  inStpaaabir.  Christ  end  his  sal- 
vation an  equally  accessible  to  minister  and  people, 
and  on  the  same  terms. 

The  (fucipfiiK  oftbe  apoatollc  Chnrcb  comprehended 
four  particulars  In  its  exercise :  1.  Nothing  scandalous 
or  olTenMVe  unto  any,  especially  nnto  the  Church  of 
God,  could  be  allowed  (1  Cor.  x,  82);  2.  AU  things 
were  to  be  done  with  aeemliness  and  in  order  (1  Cor. 
xiv,4D);  S.  All  unto  edification  (1  Cor.  xiv,  26);  4. 
All  unto  the  glory  of  God  (I  Cor.  x,  31),  The  spjere 
of  its  government  was  strictly  spiritual.  Tho  apos- 
tles honored  the  civil  authority  as  a  divine  inEtitntion, 
and  enjoined  obedience  in  the  days  of  Claudius  and 
Nero,  BS  did  our  Saviour  in  all  temporal  matteta  ren- 
der obedience  to  Herod,  and  command  that  "the  things 
which  belong  to  Cnsar  should  lie  rendered  to  Cttsar," 
But  in  the  spiritual  calling  the  mla  was  "to  obey  God 
rather  than  man,"  snd  for  this  principle  they  were 

Siuce  the  apoatolic  times  the  Constitution  of  the 
Christian  Church  hss  undergone  vsrious  modifica- 
tions.   The  flrat  of  tiieae  changes  ia  the  distinction  bo. 


CHURCH  328  CHURCH 

Incn  tiikap  bimI  Mar,     It  ta  nudntilncd  by  tztreme  j  ths  mluionar;  l*bora  at  Koine  of  Pater  and  Paul,  thm 

■dvncalea  of  EpUcopicj  that  St.  Paul,  in  ompoveriog  two  leading;  apccUeij  tbe  pqLticalpni-eiaiDeDce  oftbe 
Timothj  at  Coiinth,  sod  Titua  in  Cnt«,  in  tbe  capacit}'  j  metropolii  of  tbe  world  ;  the  exec ati-re  wisdom  andor- 
of  preib}'tera,  to  ordain  elders  in  ever;  city,  and  to  ex-  i  thodox  itialinct  of  tbe  Roman  Cbnich,  and  other  aec- 
■rciaa  jurisdiction  ovnrofllceni  of  that  clisa,  bs  well  ai  ondary  cuiiies,  farored  (be  aaccDdencj  of  tbe  Romui 
thoae  who  held  tho  office  of  deacon,  appointed  them  rao  (ibid.),  Ihe  early  fitherg,  a>  IfpiatJua,  Irenieua, 
thiu  to  tie  perniaacDt,  and  fo  created  the  oSce  known  Tortuilian,  Ilippolytur,  Cyprian,  etc.,  concede  pren- 
ia  after  times  as  the  lucal  bishop.  Tbo  inodaraU  Epia-  dtoco  to  tbs  Church  at  Rome,  but  only  in  honor,  not  in 
copaliana  and  the  l*reeliyteriiinB  hold  that  the  mission  Jurisdiction.  After  tbe  convenion  of  Constant!  ne.  and 
of  Titus  and  Timothy  was  peculiar,  contemplating  a  ^  the  removal  of  the  Roman  ca^Cal  to  Bjianlium  (after- 
Special  work,  and  that  the  miasSon  ceased  with  its  ac-  wards  called  Constanllnopla),  the  see  of  tbe  new  cap- 
complisbnient.  On  the  whole,  on  this  case,  as  well  Ital  boldly  disputed  tbe  supremacy  with  tho  seo  of 
■a  on  that  of  St.  James  at  Jenualem,  and  the  angela  .  Borne,  from  which  time,  as  new  agitatjons  arose  in  tb« 
of  the  Bpocalrptlc  churches,  Litton  save.  "  Hespectin); '  Church,  and  the  empire  gradually  fell  to  docay,  the 
the  origin  of  tbo  epucopal  order,  Scripture  leuves  us  two  greot  diirliions  into  the  Easteni  or  Greek,  am) 
very  much  in  the  dsrk.  No  order  of  mioistera  other  {  Wsatem  or  Roman  Catholic  took  place,  and  becann 
tlum  Ifaeae  three — apostles,  presbyters,  and  deacons —  ,  the  aettled  forms  and  sources  of  ecclesiastical  daiiiia> 
are  mentioned  in  tbe  New  Testament  as  forming  part    ion. 

of  the  then  existing  polity  of  the  Church  ;  for  eieiy  '  Addiliansl  and  inferior  OTdars  of  tbs  ministry  rapid- 
attempt  to  eatabllsb  a  dietinctiDu  between  tbe  presby'  ly  multiplied  in  the  Church.  These  were,  arcbdu. 
tar  and  the  bishop  of  Scripture  will  prove  frnitlaai,  ao  .  cons,  deaameues,  subdeacons,  aimlyleii,  oiorciala,  let- 
abundant  is  the  evidence  which  proves  they  were  but  tors  or  readers,  ostiirii  or  door-keepers,  psalmists  or 
different  appellations  of  one  and  the  same  office  (p.  {  singers,  copiats  oi  fossarii,  catechbta,  defensoree  or 
412)."  As  to  the  rise  of  episcopacy,  it  is  said  "  to  1  syndics,  ceconomi  or  stewards,  besides  others  (Ding- 
these  Boccossors  of  the  apostolic  detcgaUs"  (snch  as  .  ham's  An/iqailif  n/rlrurf.rA.  vol.  1,  p.  ]!6).  Then 
Timothy)  '^  came  to  be  appropriated  tbe  title  of  bisb-  were  four  several  ways  of  deaignatlnu  penons  to  tba 
op,  which  was  originally  applied  to  presbyters.  At  ministry  In  the  apostolic  and  primitive  Church:  1. 
the  commencement  of  tbe  second  century  and  thence-  !  By  casting  lot;  i.  By  choice  of  tbe  flrst-IVuUa  of  the 
brward.  bishops,  preab}-ters,  and  deacons  are  tbe  offi-  |  Gentiles;  8.  By  particular  direction  of  tho  Holy  Ghost; 
cars  of  the  Church  wberovertbo  Church  existed,  Ig-  i  4.  By  common  suBVsge  and  election.  Ordination  waa 
natius's  epistles  (in  their  unadulterated  form),  and  tbe  |  lirst  by  the  laying  on  of  tbe  hands  of  the  apostles  or 
uther  records  which  are  preserved  to  or,  are  on  this  '  elders,  and  afterwards  of  a  bishop  or  bishopa  (see  ik'J.). 
point  decisive. .  . .  They  (the  bishops)  retained  in  their  .  As  to  Ihe  powers  of  tbe  clergy  in  tbe  government 
own  hands  authority  over  presbyters  and  tbe  func-  |  of  the  Church,  two  principal,  distinct,  and  opposite  tbo- 
tions  of  ordination,  but  with  respect  to  each  other  they  |  ones  obtain.  Tbe  Roman  Calbollc  ia,  that  "tbegor- 
were  equals"  (Smith's  Did,  qf  Bible,  art.  Cudrch).  I  emment  of  the  Chnrch  is  i  hierarchy,  or  tha  relatloit 
Dr.  Hitchcock  (Am.  PreJist.  and  Thtol.  Rev,  vol.  v,  |  of  the  clerical  body  to  the  Christian  people  is  that  ofa 
no.  IT)  affirms,  "Thus  tbrongboul  do  we  find  in  Cle-  ,  secular  magistracy  to  its  subjecla,  and  ChrisCisn  min- 
ment  tbe  original  New  Testament  polity  (Identity  of  '  islera  are  mediators  between  God  and  man — that  is,  are 
pptsliyters  and  bishops)  as  yet  unchanged"  (p.  1S7).  I  priesla  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word"  (Litton,  p.  S96). 
"In  short,  the  Ignstian  Episcopacy,  instead  of  having  "The  bicrarchism  of  Rome  is  the  natural  and  inevita- 
the  appearance  of  a  settled  polity,  handed  down  from  I  ble  consequence  of  the  doctrine  that  the  clergj-  aremr' 
tbe  apostles,  has  the  appearance'  of  being  a  new  and  itB-xhr,  the  Church"  (ibid.  £97).  Bellarmine  sums  np 
growing  inslitntlon,  unlike  what  went  before,  as  well  tbe  Romish  doctrine  thus :  "  It  has  always  been  t» 
as  what  was  coming  after  it"  (ibid.  p.  I4G).  "The  j  lieved  in  the  Catholic  Church  that  tbe  bisbopa  in  thair 
wavering  tarminolojiy  of  Ireneus  is  indicative  not  of  diocese,  and  tbe  Roman  pontiff  in  the  whole  Church, 
Bposlolic  tradition,  but  of  later  genesis  and  growth,  I  are  real  ccelesiartical  princes;  competent  by  their  own 
and  that  growth  not  yet  completed"  (ibid,  147).  "No  \  authority,  and  wilbout  the  consent  of  tbe  people  or  the 
besitation  in  Tertullian  in  accepting  the  Ejascopal  reg-  j  advice  of  presbyters,  to  enact  laws  binding  upon  tba 
imen.  Kvidently  this  had  become  the  settled  polity.  |  conscience,  to  judge  in  causes  ecclesiaiticsl  like  otbet 
The  maturity  of  the  system  is  indicated  by  entire  :  judges,  and,  if  need  be,  to  indict  panl^hmint"  (Bet 
IteadinesB  in  tba  uso  of  terms"  (ibid.UVi.  "In  Cyp.  larm.  ^cSBm.Pmt.b.  iv,  c,  16).  The  Protestant  ttaa- 
rian  of  Carthage,  between  24B-258,  we  find  the  ays-  i  ory  it  that  alt  believers  are  a  spiritual  pritathood,  and, 
lem  fully  matured.  Now  these  are  tokens  of  growth,  as  such,  constitute  the  Church,  and  that  tbe  Kiafe 
and  are  inconxistent  with  the  idea  of  apostolic  tradi-  .  Church,  thus  composed  of  believers  differing  in  gifia 
tlon"  (ibid.  \5S).  There  is  but  little  doubt  Ihe  bishops  i  according  to  the  operation  of  the  Spirit,  is  the  fountain 
at  first  succeeded  to  office  by  seniority,  and  afterwards,  of  authority  In  tbe  administration  of  government. 
asthedlfficultiesnf  tbe  oflice  increased.  A. D.iOO,  they  '  "In  short,  no  principle  of  ecclesiastical  (xility  is  mora 
became  elective  (Hilarj-).  As  Ihe  Church  multiplied  !  clearly  deducilde  from  Scripture  (ban  that  Ihe  sover- 
and  expanded,  tlie  older  churches  and  the  most  nu-  '  eignty  of  a  church  resides  not  in  the  people  apart  from 
nemos  became  relatively  more  important  and  infiu-  their  pastors.  Tbis,however,  beingadmitted,tbecsB• 
ential,andtheir  bishops  mora  powerful;  benceweflnd  I  veisealso  remains  true,  thst  tbesovcreignty  of  a  cburcta 
(ha  episcopacy  undergoing  marked  changes:  1.  The  isnot  inthepastoncxclusively  of  thepeople"(Littun, 
Uohoprics  at  Jerusalem,  Rome.  Antioch,  Alexandria,  p.  SOD).  Dr.  Schsff  says,  in  reference  to  the  first  cnan- 
Ephesus,and  Corinth  are  termed  by  pre^mincnceiafes  cil  of  Jerofalem,  "though  not  a  binding  precedent,  (it) 
apoMo'icr,  without,  bowevet,  the  concession  of  snperior  ,  is  a  significant  example,  giving  the  apostolic  unction 
authority ;  2.  Consequent  upon  provincial  synods  the  to  tho  synodical  form  of  church  government,  in  which 
metropolitan  dignity  arose ;  also.  3.  The  patriarchal ;  \  alt  classes  ofthe  Christian  community  are  represented 
and  4,  finally,  the  papacy.  Ci-prian  allowed  that "  pre-  in  tlie  management  of  public  affairs  and  in  settling  con- 
cedency  shoubl  1«  given  to  Peter,  '  that  Ihe  Chureb  of  trovcrsics  respecting  faith  and  practice"  (CI. //u(.  voL 
Christ  may  be  abown  to  tw  one."'  "Thesamapro.  i,p.iaG),  By  many  Protestants  Ihisview  of  the  coas- 
pension  to  monarchical  unity,  which  created  out  of  the  cil  is  questioned,  and  the  right  of  laymen  to  an  equal 
episcopate  a  centre,  lint  for  each  congrcgBtinn,  then  participation  in  church  government,  ftom  this  andotb- 
fbi  each  diocese,  pressed  on  lowanis  a  viKil>tc  centre  er  apostolic  examples,  denied  i  so  that,  to  this  day.  the 
for  the  whale  Church.  Primacy  and  e piscdpncy  grew  relative  powers  of  ministry  and  laity,  in  tbe  admlnis- 
together"(,'vhafr. /7irforjFn/»Sf  rAnVtoa  C*uf cii,  vol.  tratlonof  ecclesiastical  government,  remain  undefined 
l,p.  4*.^),     The  biffh  antiquity  ofthe  Roman  Cburch;    among  soma  ofthe  great  Protaalant  cbunliea. 


CHUKCH  AND  STATE        ,  331  CHCKCH  AND  STATE 


cMded  in  «>nyiDg  out  theu  thMriaa  full;  in  practice. 
Tlie  empCTara  uiit  kings,  sided  in  gensral  bj  the  laitj 
■ad  •  luge  number  of  the  cleTgy,  oppoaad  the  papal 
eliinu,  in  ([ute  of  oil  the  ezeommanicatioDi  which 
ware  hurled  affminit  them.  Even  men  like  Bernard 
of  Clairvaox  eipreaaed  tbelr  diaaent  from  theaa  ultra- 
papal  Ibcoriea.  ThB  lut  pope  who  eodeavored  to  en- 
finellieae  daima  waa  Boniface  VIII,  who,  in  hia  no- 
oa  bull,  Uium  SaaclOM,  mainUined  ' 


Bra  of  the  terrltoriat  ajalcm,  the  period  of  the  ereat- 
ut  debaaement  of  the  Chriatijui  chaichea.  Nearly  all 
the  Church  aaaembliea,  viz.  the  convocalioaa  in  En^;- 
luid  ;  the  national  aynoda  and  Ksneral  aaaembliea  of 
thaProleatantchnrcheiia  France,  Germanj',  and  other 
conntriea ;  the  national,  proTlncial,  and  diocaeaa  rya- 
oda  of  theCharch  of  Rome,  were  forbidden,  or  Ibll  into 
general  dianae.  In  the  Cbnrch  of  Rome,  daring  thla 
period,  the  olalma  of  the  pope  w 


airj'  for  aal  nation  to  believe  that  the  Roman  popes  had  .  the  atate  goremmentr,  but  atrenuoos  efTurta  were  made 
power  onr  everything  on  earth.  Boniface  bad  to  pay  :  in  France,  Gemuuij,  Italy,  lad  other  countriei  to  re- 
ftn  tbia  aztraardtnaiy  aaaump^n  of  power  with  Im-  dace  the  papal  prerogativea  in  milten  purely  eccleai- 
[(iHnment  and  Ill-treatment  which  caoaad  hia  death.  [  aatical,  and  to  inireBae  that  of  the  bisbopa  and  of  the 
Tlia  transfer  of  the  papal  see  to  Avignon,  and  antiee-  national  chnrchea.  Theae  efforta,  however,  were  lesa 
qHotly  the  Great  Schiam,  were  fatal  blows  to  the  aacceasful  than  Ihoae  of  the  atato  governmenta. 
pnctical  eiecotioQ  of  the  mediiBval  theory  of  Chnrch  |  The  French  Revolnlion  of  1789  ahook  the  itroctare 
aid  State,  althoogh  the  theory  itaelf  was  never  for-  -  of  eociety  uf  Kurope,  political  aa  well  aa  fccleaiaaticiil, 
malli  renounced,  and  the  notorioua  bull,  Uitam  Sane-  '  to  its  very  foundation>.  The  prinriplee  of  the  Revolu- 
lam,  of  Boniface  VIII,  which,  ae  tir  aa  France  waa  '  tion  did  not  prevail,  but  the  goveramenta  of  Earopo 
DOiHfrned,  had  been  revoked  by  one  o(  the  Avignon  aaw  the  neceaaity  of  reconatmcting  the  idminiatration 
p^wa  (Clement  V),  waa  formally  raatorsd  by  Lao  X  of  tbe  atalea.  Several  important  chan^cea  date  ftom 
in  1516.  Bat  the  popea  had  not  anffldent  power  to  j  tbe  Congreaa  of  Vienna  in  l(il5.  The  long  alliancea 
pnvcnl  the  emperor*  and  kinga  from  paaaing  bwa  by  '  of  Pnteatant  and  Roman  Catholic  governmenta  io  the 
which  the  righta  of  the  atata  govemmenta  vrere  en-  war  agsinat  France,  and  the  territorial  change*  intro- 
la^ed,  and  many  lalatary  nfbmu  introduced  into  the  dnced  bytheCongreas  of  Vienna,  led  to  an  interohaB)^ 
churchea.  of  toleration,  aa  (kr  aa  the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  and 

7.  Froai  lAe  S^finynatioH  to  lieprtiau  Time. — The  '  RonunCatholic  chnrchea  were  concerned.  Some  states 
great  refoimera  of  the  16th  century — Lu^er,  Calvin,  recogniaed  all  three  aa  atato  churchea,  entitled  to  eup- 
Zwinglioa,  Helanctbon,  and  others — were  all  agreed  port  by  the  Mate  gomnmsnta;  and  in  moat  of  the 
In  condemning  the  confttiba  by  the  Cfaarch  of  Rome  othen  there  waa  at  leiat  a  gradual  approach  to  giving 
of  apiritDal  and  aecnlai  power.  They  all  inaiaCad  on  to  tbe  membera  of  the  three  churches  equality  of  politi- 
keeping  tbe  two  powera  apart,  and  eapecially  in  their  cal  rights.  The  relation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
earlier  wrhinga  favored  the  self-government  of  the  in  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  conntriea,  to 
Church.  Bnt  theae  viewa  were  not  consiatently  car-  the  pope  was  regulated  by  concoidata  and  conventiona 
ried  throogti.  Aa  all  the  bishops  opposed  the  refbrm  [see  CoHcosDATa],  which  stipulated  what  righta  tbe 
of  the  Church,  the  princes  and  the  monicipal  govern-  state  governmenta  abould  allow  tbe  pope  to  exercise 
menta  were  invited  by  the  reformers  to  see  to  tbe  ex-  '  upon  the  Church  of  a  particular  country,  and  what  in- 
aculton  of  the  Chnrch  reform,  and  to  the  recoostracdon  fluence  the  atata  governments  (even  the  Protestant) 
of  tbe  Reformed  churches.  No  provision  lieing  made  should  have  upon  the  electior  i>f  bishop,  the  sppoinl- 
for  a  common  bond  of  union  between  the  Reformed  ment  of  other  ecclesiaatical  dignitaries,  tbe  direction 
ctaorches  in  different  countries,  the  power  of  the  stale  of  Roman  Catholic  schools,  tbe  management  of  Church 
govemmentineachparticularcDDDtryovertheCbarch  '  property,  and  other  denominational  eAirs,  In  the 
grew  almoat  without  oppoaition.  To  this  must  be  add-  Protestant  churches,  a  consciousness  awoke  of  the  un- 
edtbat  most  of  tlie  reformers  adhered  to  the  idea  of  a  ,  worthy  servitude  into  which  tbe  Church  bad  been  forced 
Chriatian  atate  whose  authorities  were  invested  with  ,  in  the  17tb  and  ISth  centuries,  and  the  demand  grew 
tba  right  to  puniah  tboae  who  denied  tbe  fundamental  ^  stronger  and  stronger  for  the  restoration  of  at  least  a 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  See  Servetcs.  Tbua  |  part  of  the  aelf-govemmentoftfao  churchea,  by  meena 
State-Churchlam  waa  established  in  all  the  Lutheran  of  convocations,  synods,  aaaembliea,  and  coundls.  A 
aad  Reformed  countries,  and  developed  tbe  more  rap-  new  impulse  was  given  to  these  demands  by  the  rev- 
idly,  as  the  churcbea  had  never  so  powerful  a  repre- 1  olutionary  movemenla  of  the  year  1848,  and  by  the 
seatitive  aa  tbe  Chnrch  of  Rome  had  had  during  the  agitation  for  political  reforma  which  baa  since  been 
Middle  Agea.  The  conatant  eSbrts  of  tbe  Roman  I  going  on  In  nearly  all  the  Earopeen  states.  The  reg- 
Catholic  states  to  rootont  ProtestantlBm  by  force  nat-  ulai  convocation  of  elective  Church  aaaemblies,  and  the 
nrally  led  to  retaliatory  raeaaurea  on  tbe  part  of  Pro-  transfer  to  them  of  a  greater  orleaaer  part  of  tbe  gnv- 
lestant  princ«a,  and  thus  the  dangerous  prindple  came  I  emment  of  tbe  Church,  has,  since  1848,  been  the  gen- 
gradually  to  be  developed,  CujvM  rrgio  rjat  rdigio  (tbe  eral  tendency  in  all  the  Proteatant  churches  of  Europe, 
religion  of  a  country  moat  conform  to  that  of  the  I  As  regards  the  Church  of  Rome,  public  opinion  more 
prince).  Tbe  application  of  this  prindple  led,  on  the  :  and  more  declared  itaelf  against  the  conclusion  of  coD- 
MH  hand,  to  nuny  and  bloody  wars,  but,  on  the  other,  I  cordats,  and  in  fkvor  of  a  regulation  of  the  Roman 
it  induced  the  Roman  CathoHo  prinoea  to  claim,  like  Catholic  affairs  of  every  particular  country  by  apedal 
the  Proteatant  princes,  a  greater  inSaence  over  rslig- 1  laws,  daa  regard  being  had  to  the  recognition  by  the 
ieu*  affairs  than  the  popea  had  ever  conceded  daring  Roman  Catholics  of  the  pope  as  the  head  of  the  Churrh. 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  auccaaa  of  the  Reformation  I  WbilethoLutheranandRefbrmedcburcheaaaanmsd 
had  ahowu  the  wealiness  of  the  popes,  and  their  oppo-  |  almost  from  their  very  beginning  the  character  of 
sitioa  to  tbe  radical  changes  in  the  relation  of  tbe  i  atata  chorches,  a  number  of  minor  sects  sprang  np  in 
Church  of  Rome  to  the  states  was  mora  nominal  than  I  the  IGtb  and  the  following  centuries,  which,  meeting, 
elEcient.  The  Isat  coronation  of  an  emperor  of  the  on  the  hand  of  the  state  governmenta,  with  nothing 
WeitbythepoinwaathatofCbarieaTinlSBO.  The  I  but  persecution,  were  led  to  demand  from  the  stale 
popes  protested  in  1648  against  the  peace  of  Westpha-  not  only  toleration  for  themselves,  but  freedom  of  re- 
lia,iD  1701  against  the  creation  of  a  kingdom  of  Pros-;  llgioua  belief  In  general.  Eapecially  waa  this  the  case 
■is,  and  in  MI6  against  the  Irealy  of  Vienna,  bat  all  In  England,  where  the  Nonconformists  gained  greater 
these  and  similar  acts  had  no  infiuence  whatever.  strength  and  influence  than  any  diasenten  on  tbe 

The  growth  of  rationalism  and  infidelity  in  the  17th  '  Continent  of  Europe,  and  became  true  pioneers  of  tbe 
and  ISth  canturiei  accustomed  princes  and  stateamen  principle  of  a  complete  aepantion  between  Church 
to  regard  tbe  cbnrches  as  part  of  the  state  organiam,  and  etata.  Persecution  drove  many  of  the  dissenters 
tad  jiHt  as  abaolulely  subject  to  iIm  government  of  I  to  the  New  World,  and  here  their  principles  found  a 
every  tsrrilMy  a*  the  tivil  adminisbatlon.    This  is  tbe  |  genial  tmL    In  SODM  of  the  cdoniea  Cbnrcb  and  State 


CHUKCH  AND  STATE  3! 

were  nnited,  inora  oi  leas  cloaely,  nntil  after  tb«  Rev- 
olution. Atthedeclarstion  of  iade|)endcn«,  the  United 
&t«t«B  established  tiie  absolute  BepAraLion  of  Church 
and  State,  and  the  legal  eqoolity  of  all  forms  at  be- 
lief, u  fuDdainetiUl  institutions.  The  United  St&tea 
have  always  remained  true  to  this  principle,  and  in 
the  lersral  etatea  of  Uie  Union  il  ii  now  pracMcallj 
carried  out*  The  prosperoUH  growth  of  the  free  Amer- 
ican churcher,  and  their  intluence  upon  Bociet}',  haa 
had  great  effect  upon  opinion  In  the  Old  World.  The 
experience  of  America  baa  largelj  added  to  the  num- 
Lec  of  the  friends  of  free  churches  in  Europe.  The 
Dumlier  of  diasentiag  cbuichei  which  claim  absolute 
independence  of  the  slate  is  everjiwhere  on  the  in- 
crease, and  irlth  them  sympatiiiio  a  large  political 
par^  of  Badicala.irho  make  entire  separation  between 
Church  and  State  a  part  of  their  political  platform. 
In  18J8,  the  principle  of  aeparation  of  Cborcb  and 
State  woe  formally  acknowledged  in  the  new  constitu- 
tions of  Fiance,  Austria,  I'rusala,  and  other  stales. 
TUa  triumph  of  tlie  American  principle  was  of  only 
short  dnrationi  but  none  of  the  European  conntries 
have  since  ceased  to  have  a  large  political  party  which 
aims  at  conforming  legislation  on  Church  affdrs  to  that 
of  the  United  State«,  and  at  carrying  through  the  princi- 
ple of  entire  aeparatbn  between  Church  and  State.  It 
is  a  very  remarkable  &ct  that  even  men  likeDr.  Pusey 
have  of  late  shown  themselves  Eavoralile  to  the  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  Stole,  in  order  to  put  en  end  lo  th> 
servile  condition  of  the  Chnrrh,  One  of  the  most  prom- 
inent Protestant  statesmen  and  writers  ofFrance,  CounI 
doGaBparui,speakBonthe  subject  as  follows:  "Letnt 
one  be  sur^nised  at  the  extieme  Importance  I  attoct 
to  the  separation  of  Church  and  State.    For  two  centn- 

abolishing  the  nnjost  and  worn-out  pretences  of  both 
Church  and  State,  their  sepamljon  would  ^ye  both  ' 
the  Church  and  to  society  the  peace  they  require. 
would  seem  nowaday  as  though  tlio  citiien  and  tl 
Christian  were  two  different  persons,  having  different 
rights  and  different  duties.  The  Christian  is  Uught 
to  curse  liberty  as  the  poisonous  ^1t  of  pbilosepby 
and  revolution ;  the  citizen  ia  taught  Co  look 
Church  as  the  natural  enemy  of  modem  ingi 
Thus  arises  a  sullen  enmity,  a  deep-rooted  i 
in  the  minds  of  the  people,  and,  so  to  speak, 
within  the  same  society.  Yet  nothing  wo 
erroneous  than  this  distinction.  Christianity  ts  so  far 
from  being  the  enemjr  of  free  InetitntianB,  that  these 
institutions  have  never  existed  but  in  Chriplisn  coon- 
tries  ;  the  nations  which  obey  the  law  of  Brahma,  of 
Buddha,  and  of  Mohammed,  know  of  no  other  form  of 
government  than  despotism.  Liberty  is  the  fruit 
the  Gospel  i  It  proceeds  from  the  only  religion  which 
intrusts  the  individnal  with  the  care  and  the  salvation 
of  his  own  soul;  materialism  kills  It,  faith 
live;  and,  in  return,  by  an  intimate  and  mysterious 
connection,  despotism  kills  faith,  liberty  notirishei 
What  is  this  opposition  which  divides  the  Church 
society?  Nothing  but  a  mlsnnderstandiDg,  whose 
mist  shall  disappear  before  (he  sun  of  liberty.  Tht 
ideal  of  the  Christian  is  also  the  Ideal  of  the  citizen. 
Tlie  state  wonld  gain  no  less  than  the  Church  by  tbeir 
mutual  Independence.  Wo  never  attempt 
nity  lo  rule  that  which  Ood  has  created 
For  two  centuries  the  state  has  dragged  on  the  Church, 
or  has  been  dragi^  by  it ;  tho  result  wss  mutusl  suf- 
fering and  mutual  servitude.  Separation  restores  each 
to  its  proper  place.     Tho  state  has  no  longer  hi 


CHURCH  AND  STATE 


ll  with :  It  h; 


,o  longer  i 


,  )r  those  invisiblt 
sap  and  weaken  its  foundations.  Free  in  its 
authori^  gains  both  In  strength  and  In  respei 
vestiy-quarrels,  which  aie  tho  plagac  of  oil  st 
ligioDS,  are  at  an  end.  Union  rrade  the  Church  the 
enemj*  of  Ibc  state,  separation  makes  them  friends. 
Conscience  rcvolls  against  the  hand  of  the  slate,  il 


lovea  a  power  which  g 
T01.KBAT1DS. 

Among  the  liberal  party  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Wunlries  of  Eunpe  the  principle  of  a  separation  be- 
tween Church  and  State  has  likewise  fonnd  manj  ad- 
rocatea.  Of  tbe  great  stateamen  of  Europe  in  modern 
times,  few  havo  given  so  cordial  an  adheskm  to  tin 
principle  as  count  Cavour,  who,  during  bis  whole  polit- 
ical career,  stood  np  tbr  a  free  Church  in  a  ttee  state  ; 
and  banjn  Ricasoli,  whose  famous  letter  to  tbe  Italian 
bishops,  dated  Nov.  26,1866,  is  a  complete  commentary 

of  European  State-Chunhism,  will  remain  of  lasting 
ince.  We  give  the  following  extract  fmin  it: 
iecisions  adopted  by  the  goverrxment  arise  frcm 
the  desire  that  perfect  liberty  in  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State  should  pass  fmmthe  abstract  religioD 
of  principle  in  which  it  had  hitherto  remaired  intc  the 
reality  of  (act.  The  goremment,  therefore,  desires  thai 
Italy  may  veiv  soon  enjoy  the  magnificent  and  impo*. 
leg  religions  spectacle  now  aflbrded  to  the  free  citizens 
of  the  United  Slates  of  America  by  the  National  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore,  wherein  religious  docb-inea  are  frvely 
discussed,  and  whose  decisions,  approved  by  tbe  pope, 
will  be  proclaimed  and  executed  in  every  town  and 
village  without  ra^jxafnr  or  plant.  It  i«  liberty  which 
has  produced  this  admirable  spectacle;  liberty,  pro- 
fessed and  respected  by  all.  In  principle  and  in  fact,  in 
ita  amplest  appUeatlon  to  civH,  political,  and  social  life. 
In  the  United  States  every  citicen  ia  free  to  follow  the 
perrnasion  that  he  may  think  liest,  and  to  worship  the 
Divinity  in  the  form  that  may  seem  to  lifm  mort  ap- 
propriate. Side  by  side  with  tbe  Catholic  Church 
rises  the  Protestant  temple,  the  Hussulmsn  mosque, 
the  Chinese  pagoda.  Side  by  side  with  the  Romish 
clergy  the  Genevan  conslstoij  and  the  Methodiat  as- 
sembly exercise  their  office.  This  state  ef  things 
generates  neither  conf^ion  nor  clashing.  And  wly 
is  this?  Because  no  religion  asks  either  spedal  pnt- 
tflction  or  privileges  from  the  state.  Each  livra,  de- 
velops, and  Is  followed  under  tbe  tsotectkm  of  the 
common  law,  and  the  law,  equally  mpected  by  all, 
goarantees  lo  all  an  equal  liberty.  The  Italian  gov- 
ernmenl  wishes  to  demonstrate  as  tar  as  possible  llial 
il  hai/ailh  in  Sxrtg,  and  ts  desirous  of  spplying  it  to 
tbe  greatest  extent  compatible  with  the  interesta  of 
public  order.  It  therefore  calla  upon  tbe  Insbopa  to 
retnm  to  their  sees  whence  they  were  removed  by 
those  very  motives  of  public  order.  Itmakea  no  con- 
ditions save  thst  one  incumbent  upon  every  citiaen 
who  desires  to  live  peaceably — namely,  that  he  shooM 
confine  himself  to  his  own  dnty  and  observe  the  lavs. 
Tbe  sUle  will  insure  that  he  be  neither  disturbed  Ttat 
hindered  ;  but  let  him  not  demand  privileges  if  be 
wishes  no  bonds.  Tbe  principle  of  evor*  fVee  statr, 
that  tho  law  Is  equal  for  all,  admits  of  no  distinctions 
of  any  kind.  The  government  wonld  be  glad  to  cait 
off  all  suspicion  and  abandon  every  precaution,  and  if 
it  does  not  now  wholly  act  up  to  this  wish,  it  is  because 
the  principle  of  liberty  wblcb  it  has  adopted  and  put 
into  practice  is  not  equally  adopted  and  pradimt  by 
tbs  clergy.  Let  your  lordships  remark  the  diffsnnce 
between  tho  condition  of  tho  Church  in  America  and 
the  condition  of  the  Church  in  li^rope.  In  those  vir- 
gin regions  tho  Church  Is  established  amid  a  new  so- 
ciety, but  which  carrird  icOk  ilfivai  lie  molher  eotntry 
all  lie  tlemrsU  nf  civil  life.  Representing  tbe  puml 
ond  most  sacred  of  the  social  elements,  ihe  religions 
feeling  which  sanctions  right,  and  sonctifioe  duty,  and 
carries  human  aspirations  tu  above  all  earthly  things, 
tho  Church  lias  here  sought  only  tiie  empire  pleasiDg 
to  God,  tbe  emfdre  of  souls.  Companion  of  libertr, 
tho  Churrh  has  grown  beneath  ita  abetter,  and  has 
found  all  that  sufficed  for  free  development  and  the 
tranquil  and  fecund  exerdse  of  its  mlnistr}'.  II  has 
never  sought  to  deny  lo  others  tbe  liberty  which  it 
enjoyed,  nor  to  turn  lo  its  exduaive  advatittse  tbe  id- 


CHURCH  AND  STATE  Si 

tdtM&mt  whlcb  pnitoeted  It  In  Ennpa,  on  tha  oUmt 
had,  tha  Cbnrch  inaB  with  th«  decideaca  of  the  grait 
iopin  that  had  iQlijagated  the  eactb.  It  mu  coo- 
■liutad  amid  the  political  aod  ucial  eataeljimi  of 
Iha  barbarotu  agea,  and  waa  coropeltH!  to  form  an  or- 
guiiation  itrooK  aDough  to  reaiit  tha  ahipwreck  of 
all  rivilixatioa  amid  the  riiidK  flood  of  brnte  forca  and 
Tialma.  Bat  vbUe  tba  worlit,  omerijiiig  from  the 
ehaos  oTtha  Middle  Agaa,  ra-entand  the  path  of  prog- 
nu  marked  ont  b^  God,  the  Chorch  tmpreued  open 
all  hariRg  any  reU^on  with  It  tha  immobillt;  of  the 
dogma  hitnuled  to  ita  gaanlianahlp.  It  viewed  with 
ra^&kin  the  growth  of  intalllgaDce  and  the  mnltipll- 
catioD  of  social  forcea,  and  declared  ItMlf  the  enemy 
of  all  liberty,  denying  the  Srat  and  moat  IneoDtsatable 
of  all,  the  liberty  of  conacienca.  Heneo  aroae  the  con- 
flict between  the  accletliutical  and  the  civil  power, 
■Inee  the  farmer  represented  enbjectlon  and  Immobil- 
ity, and  the  Utter  liberty  and  progreia.  The  conSict, 
tnm  peculiar  circum<taDcei,  has  greater  proportlona 
In  Italy,  became  the  Church,  thinking  that  a  kingdom 
waa  oeceeeary  to  the  independent  exerciea  of  its  epirit- 
ul  mbiUtry,  foand  thit  kingdom  in  Italy.  The  ec- 
deaUsCiuI  power,  from  the  same  reaaon.  Is  hars  in 
eaotradletion  not  only  with  tha  clrll  power,  but  na- 
tional rif^t.  The  bi^pa  cannot  be  conaidered  among 
H  a>  aimpla  paaton  of  aoula,  since  they  are  st  the 
aame  time  the  Inatrnnenta  and  defenders  of  a  power 
at  Tarianca  with  the  natlooal  aapinttloni.  The  civil 
power  i«  tberefbra  conatcalned  to  impoee  thoae  meas- 
area  npon  the  blsbopa  which  an  naeeaaary  to  preserve 
hi  right*  and  thoae  of  the  nation.  How  Is  it  possible 
la  tirroiiute  this  daplonble  and  perilona  conSict  be- 
tween the  two  powers ~ between  Chorch  and  atate? 
Let  oa  '  render  unto  Oaar  the  things  that  an  Caiaar's, 
and  nnto  God  the  thln<cs  that  are  God's.'  and  peace  be- 
tween Church  and  atite  will  be  troubled  no  more." 

Sea  Henog,  Reai-Enaiaop.  vol,  sin  (Snpplem.),  a- 
T.  Btaat  aail  KireAe ;  a  complete  hlatory  of  the  nls- 
tioa  of  the  Christian  Cbmvb  to  the  state  waa  began  by 
RiAl  (Rom.  Calh.),  hut  not  complatad  (GaelUiMkia 
DariUMiaiff  4er  t'trUitaute  ocittAm  Kirdie  imd  ataat. 
vol.  1,  Halns,  1S86,  embradng  tha  time  from  the  foun- 
datkmofChiiitianitytaJnatinknl);  TInet,£>fatnr 
ja  ■BoaVeafatuia  da  mmmMoi  riSgiauei  tt  no'  la  itpa- 
rwlMs  ie  rrgHie  H  4t  FMat  aaiiagie  eommt  coiuiqtam 
mioMiart  et  cammt  gaanmUt  da  prmeipe  (PjiHs,  ISti ; 
tmalatad  Into  En^isb,  Lood.  1S48,  lima);  Laurent, 
L'E^iit  el  CE'lat;  Handeshagen,  Uebtr  tinge  Ha^- 
NEMHste  Hs  itr  jndbtallScitea  Entaiiitbiitg  dm  Vei'- 
iilhmta  SBwdU*  Slaal  nd  Kvdni,  In  Dore's  Zol- 
KiHJt  fAr  JSrinstewweif,  vol.  I  (Berlin,  1861) ;  Roaco- 
vlny  (Bom.  Cath.),  JWoawamfti  CaOuHearni  M(b)Mii- 
rfwd'a  A»IaM  tx  pMtilala  cMH,  torn.  1  (Qoinqna  Eo- 
ekaUa,  1B4T) ;  Richter.  GaMcUe  da-  enaiffel.  Kirritn- 
««i/aBi(iv»DeiitKUBKf(Ijdpcic,lg51);  the  manoata 
<<  Cbnrch  law  (HTtrcleivscAQ  by  Richter,  Walter,  PUU 
ips,  and  other*.  Lord  MontagtM  pleads  Ibr  ttie  Stale 
Chanh  In  Tie  Four  Ejp*nmHiU  m  CAunlk  md  BbUt 
(Umdon,  1B63).  maintaining  that  only  four  forms  of 
Chorch  and  Sute  are  posaible;  1.  WImh  the  Chnrch 
b  Identical  with  tba  stats,  L  a.  when  It  is  a  national 
Chorch;  i.  When  the  Chorch  la  under  the  stata;  8. 
When  tbe  Cbnrch  overrides  tha  atile;  4.  When  there 
b  no  Cbnich  at  all.  In  tbe  author's  opinion,  tbe  iis- 
Uooal  ia  the  only  normal  flirm  of  Chnrch  and  state. 
la  aach  of  the  ether  forms  the  Church  and  stale  are 
depraved.  See  also  Dnpin,  Traili  d*  la  Pmtaiue  ec 
<U>.  ft  lempcnlit  (Paris,  1707);  Dupln's  Manufl  da 
Dnil  Scrltsiailiqat  (Paris,  4th  ed.  1845;  claiming  the 
lights  of  Roman  Catbolic  state  govemmenta  over  the 
Chnrch  of  Rome):  Ztxbuim,  EMieitdaiSlaalmnddrr 
Xireh  (t  i97) ;  De  Haistre,  Du  Papa  (tbe  moet  cele- 
tnled  del^BH  of  nltra-papal  thsfnies)  ;  Arehhlshop 
Wake,  71«  AaUvwilf  B/Prioea;  Warburtnn,  AUiniet 
^fTmrdtimdataltO-lwy.  Habl<e*,£n>iatbH(16Wi){ 
"'  '  "  '   mBtlaMm  (a  Cjfami  (i  vola.  4th  ad. 


CHURCH  DIET 

1841);  Pttsay,  Rcjral  Stprmaiy  (1M7);  Cotaridge. 
CmuHmtiam  of  Ckurdt  and  BlaU  (1880)  i  Chalmers, 
National  Chureia  (1BS8);  Vincent,  ProUtlamtinnc  en 
Frana.  p.  190;  Brownson's  Anfais  (Kom.  Cath.),  Oct. 
ISM;  Dexter.  Cangiygaioiialim  (Bast.  1S6&),  p.  !09: 
D'Aabien6,  Jiuagi  (N.  Y.  ed.),  p.  "iSU ;  Palmer,  On  Ihs 
Clairch,  ]i,  291  iq. ;  Church  of  Enghad  Quartfrlg,  Jul. 
1866,  art.  vi ;  Scliaff,  CKurtA  HiMtorg.  ii,  90.  366 ;  Cal- 
vin. InUUaia,  bk.  iv.  ch.  30;  A'n^^A  Recirw,  vol.  xi 
and  foil,  (many  articles) ;  CalhoUc  World,  April,  1B67, 
art.  Ij  Wardlaw,  On  (^arch  EatAtiiKmnli  (London. 
1830.  8va)i  Noel,  (M  the  Um<xt  of  Church  and  Slate 
(N.Y.l»J9.12oio);  Cunningham,  iKaciioiono/CaurcA 
Prindpla  (Edinb,  1863,  8vo). 

CHURCH. ARMENIAN.  SeaABUENiAiiCiinRCB. 

CHURCH,  ASSOCIATE.  Bee  PrE8BVTebiam 
(Akbocutb)  Church. 

CHURCH,  BAPTIST.     Sae  Baptistb. 

CHURCH,  CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC.  See  Cath- 
ouc  Apostolic  Chcrcii. 

CHURCH,  CONGREGATIONAL.    Sea  Cohobe. 


CHURCH  CONGRES3.aaamagivBntofraaBath- 

orings  of  ministers  and  laymen  of  the  Eatabliabed 
Chnrch  of  England,  whlcb  since  1861  have  annually 
bean  bald  for  the  purpose  of  discusaing  Important  re- 
llgioiia  and  eccle^stical  qneatloni.  Tlie  first  con- 
gress WIS  convoked  by  a  aalf-constitntad  committee, 
which  Invited  men  of  nil  theological  parties  to  lie  pres- 
ent. In  order  to  maintain  the  nentral  character  of 
the  Church  Congress,  no  reedalians  ware  to  be  passed. 
Althonch  this  original  plan  ha*  been  adhered  to,  the 
High-Church  party  hat  been  In  an  nnmlttakalilo  as- 
cendancy at  all  tha  congraeaea,  and  the  Low-Church 
party,  on  that  account,  In  1866,  formed  a  design  (not 
yet  enecuted)  of  calling  a  separate  Law-Church  Con- 
gress. The  congresses  held  from  1861  to  1866  were 
na  Ibllowsi  1861,  Canterbury;  1863,  Oxford;  J86S, 
Manchester;  1864,  Bristol;  1866. Norwich ;  1866,  York. 
At  each  of  tbaae  congresses  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
presided.  Tbe  attendance  in  every  case  was  large, 
and  a  number  of  bishops,  and  prominent  clergymen 
and  laymen,  took  part  In  the  proceedings.  A  cu- 
rious difflcutt}'  stood  In  the  way  of  tbe  congress  of 
1865,  which  deserves  mention,  as  it  show*  the  relation 
of  the  bishops  of  England  to  thaso  meetings.  When 
it  waa  resolved  by  the  congress  of  1864  (at  Bristol)  to 
hold  tha  next  one  at  Norwich,  it  was  understood  that 
tbe  sanction  and  co-operation  oftha  bishop  of  that  citj' 
had  been  obtained.  But  this  proved  to  tie  a  mistake; 
and  when  tbe  bbbop  was  applied  to  by  the  olflclal  re- 
aidunm  of  the  congress,  he  did  not  consider  (he  author- 
ity of  the  persona  constituting  it  sufficient  to  entitle 
tbem  to  bis  caneideratlon.  The  request  from  B  public 
meeting,  and  a  vote  taken  in  tbe  diocese  of  Norwich 
on  the  subject,  was  deemed  no  more  sufficient.  Only 
when  the  chapter  of  Norwich  (including  the  honorary 
canons)  had  declared  in  favor  oiflhe  congress,  the  bidi- 
op  consented  to  preside.  See  Rivington'a  Etdeuat- 
Heal  YtarJuxA/ar  1966  (London,  1866,  The  "Year- 
book" givee,  at  p.  1S6  to  17i,  afbll  acconntoftluCon- 
Rresa  of  Norwich).  Tbe  full  imweedings  of  each  meet- 
ing of  the  eongrcM  have  been  published  in  a  special 

CHURCH,  C0N3TITDTI0N  OF.     See  Eccxeai. 

An'lPAI.  POLITT. 

CHURCH.  CUMBERLAND   PRESBYTERIAN. 

Sea  PREHBITKRIAS  (Coil BER LAN D)  ChURCU. 

CHURCH  DIET  {Kin^enlag),  a  name  given  to 
free  gatberinga  of  clergymen  and  laymen  of  the  Ger- 
man Proteatant  Btala  churches,  bald  since  1848  for  tbe 
discussion  of  retigiona  and  ecclesiasticB]  queationt. 
The  Church  Diet*  vera  called  into  existence  in  conae- 
qnenoe  of  the  revolntionaiy  movements  of  the  year 
1848,  which  appeared  to  tend  to  a  separation  between 
Church  and  State,  and  to  endanger  the  influence  of 
the  aTsngalical  Chorch  span  aotJa^.    Members  of 


cmmcH  DisciruNE        ai 

the  LntbenD,  th«  Bebimcid,  uid  the  United  Evangeli- 
cal churchea  t«ok  part,  andtba  High  Chnrch  "Coafes- 
■ionslists,"  under  Stalil  and  Han gslan berg,  worked 
hand  in  hand  with  the  Evnnjjtdicil  party,  nnder  men 
like  Nitzach,  Bethnun-UolltiBg,  and  others,  at  the  fint 
annual  meeting*  of  the  Diet  of  Wittenberg  (18*8  and 
1849),  Stuttgardt  (1860),  Elbarfeld  (1861),  Bremen 
(1852),  Berlin  (1863),  Frankftirt  (1S64),  LQbeck  (1866), 
Stuttgardt  (18o7>,  Hamburg  (18BS).  But  in  1880  the 
former  party  dlo  not  appear,  hecaaee  the  eiecutire 
committee  had  refused  In  put  the  UlsKDter  and  the 
Civil  Marriage  qneationa  on  the  programme  of  the 
meeting.  Conaequently,  at  the  aaaembly  of  Barmen 
(ISGO),  and  the  following  ddbb  at  Brandenburg  (18fl!) 
and  Altenburg  (1864),  the  Erangelical  party  (the  "  Cou- 
aengua"  part;)  woi  alone  repreaented.  Slmultaneooa- 
ly  with  every  meeting  of  the  Church  Diet  haa  been 
held  an  aasemblj  of  the  Congress  tor  Home  Hisilons. 
See  Home  HiaaiDxa.  The  full  proceedings  of  eacb 
meeting  of  the  diet  have  been  published  in  a  special 
report.    A  briefer  account  is  given  in  the  annual  KircA- 


det  Kirchtatoga  (1863). 

CHURCH  DISCIPLINE.    See  DiHCiPLttrB. 
CHURCH,  DUTCH    REFORMED.      See   Boi^ 

I^NDJ    RsrOBMED  pROTKSTAire  DirrCB  CUOBCH. 

CHURCH  EDIFICES.     Under  ^  n^Ueetert  (q.  t.) 

a  brief  history  has  been  given  of  tiie  development  Of 
eceleslaatlcal  architecture.  The  praaent  article  wilt 
contain  various  paiticnlars  concerning  tlio  history  of 
some  of  the  most  prominent  churches,  their  names, 
form,  alte,  positioD,  the  arrangement  of  tbe  interior, 
the  ODter  bnildtnga  connected  vith  the  Church  aer- 

i.  Hitlers  tf'^  Erte&m  n/ Cliirdto. —Until  tbe 
second  century  ChrisUans  were  not  permitted  to  erect 
churches,  but  wore  compelled  to  worahip  in  private 
houses,  in  the  open  flelda,  rr,  to  eaeape  peraecatiao,  in 
the  Catacombs  (q.  v.)  and  other  concealed  places. 
On  the  auspenilDn  of  persecntion,  we  find,  from  A.D. 
S02  and  forwards,  notices  of  Church  ediflcea  in  NIco- 
media,  Edessa  (Odessa),  nnd  other  cities.  Diocletian 
Issued  an  edict  (A.D.  S06)  ordering  all  Christian 
churches  Xo  lie  razed  to  the  ground.  Under  Constan- 
tine  these  were  rebuilt,  and  great  numbeni  of  new  ones 
erected  over  the  whole  Roman  emplin.  Chief  among 
them  were  tho  magnificent  basilicas  [see  Basilica]  of 
St.PeteT,6t.raul,andMarhiHaggiorainRome.  The 
form  of  the  buildings  and  the  coDtamlnatton  of  idolatry 
prevented  the  general  changing  into  Christian  houses 
of  worship  of  the  old  pagan  temples,  many  of  which 
were  destroyed.  Still  some  of  them  were  tht 
verted,  especially  after  the  time  of  Tbeodoslns 
the  materials  of  others  were  largely  osed.  Jastlnlan 
I  (A.D.  666)  rebuilt  twen^-ibnr  chnrchos  in  ConsUi 
tinople  aione,  and  many  other  cbnrches,  eioiaters,  rest- 
ing-placfls  for  pilgrims,  and  other  religious  buildings 
over  tbe  entire  empire  of  the  Orient,  and  especially  ii 
Palestine.  The  church  of  St.  Sophia  (q.  v.)  he  rebnil 
with  great  lieauty  and  splendor.  This  served  as  : 
pUtern  for  Chnrdi  edifices  throogh  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world.  Such  was  tbe  aplendor  of  the  new  St. 
Sophia  that  Justinian  exclaimed,  Nicicqca  n,  £aXo- 
/luv,  "  I  have  surpassed  thee,  0  Solomon!"  The  em- 
peror appointed  for  the  service  of  this  church  aixty 
pfesbjterB,  one  hundred  deacons,  forty  deaoonessea, 
ninrty  sub-deacons,  one  hundred  and  ten  readers, 
twenty-five  singers,  one  hundred  door-keepers,  mak- 
ing five  hundred  and  twen^-flve  of  the  clergy  and  at- 
tendants. From  the  death  of  Justinian  (A.D.  676)  to 
the  eighth  century  but  few  Chnrch  buildings  of  great 
note  were  erected.  During  the  reign  of  Charlemagnt 
many  churches  were  erected  in  Kortb-western  Europe. 
The  belief  that  tlio  world  was  to  be  destroyed  in  thi 
year  A.D.  1000  paralyzed  all  energy,  and  it  wai  not 
till  that  year  had  pasaod  that  the  great  revival  of  all 


CHURCH  EDIFICES 

deputments  of  human  activity  called  foKh  tbe  sidrll  erf 
princes  and  dtiea,  as  well  as  of  tbe  clergy,  to  tbe  erec- 
tion of  the  many  grand  monuments  of  eecleaiasticiJ  ai^ 
chilecture  that  adorn  tho  history  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
This  zeal  in  churcb-boilding  became  so  modifed  into 

,  rit  of  pride,  ambition,  and  corm|Aian  during  lb* 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  as  to  become  one  of 
hief  causes  tliat  produced  the  fiefbrmatioo.  Tbe 
Ri  of  selling  indulgences  to  raise  money  fw  bnOd* 
ing  chnreliee,  flrsi  introduced  in  the  cltrenth  oentiny, 
carried  to  such  esc«fS  in  raising  funds  for  [cbtiild- 
the  goi^mus  St.  Peter's  (q.  v.),  that  the  rcfonneia 
hod  in  this  a  most  powerful  argument  in  their  contest 
Uie  Romish  Chnrch.  In  Europe,  the  building 
repairing,  and  maintaining  of  edifices  for  the  nstioDBl 
churches  is  provided  for  entirely,  or  at  least  to  a  great 
ezlest,  fyomthsgeDeralnationaltaxps.  Otherchorch- 
ae  bnildthrar  edifices  by  voluntary  contribnttoDS.  This 
Is  nnlversally  tha  case  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica. 

In  the  remainder  of  Ibls  article  wo  chiefly  follow 
Bingham,  Orig.  Eccb:  bk.  viil.  ch.  i),  making  use  of 
Farrar's  abridgment,  with  modiUcations  and  odditnos- 

II.  Tie  OKwal  A'anv*  •>/ Cfaimla.— The  word  d»- 
ntmcitas,  or  domaa  Dei,  tbe  lord's  house,  occnia  In  tba 
4th  centDiy.  Cyprian  uses  It  to  denote  tbe  Lord's  day, 
and  also  the  Lord's  Supper;  yet  it  is  used  by  Jenmie 
for  a  bnllding  set  apart  for  divine  worship.  It  sn- 
awers  to  tha  Greek  nipinniv.  See  Ciidbch.  Domaa 
Dei,domti*  eccfenis, domiu  dAnso — that  is,  "tin  Lord's 
house,"  "the  house  of  the  church,"  "the  house  of 
God" — are  expressions  in  freqnent  use  from  tbe  tbird 
centary.  In  Eusebiua  we  have  a7n>c  inXifirfac  (jb 
iosss  «/  Ike  dmrvk.  Doam  ditiiut,  tho  house  of  God, 
waa  a  term  employed  to  dealgnste  tbe  polace  of  tbe 
Roman  emperor;  but  the  Chriatians  transfetTed  tbe 
appellation  to  their  churches.  Tertullian  uses  tha 
name  demat  coluubit,  the  bouse  of  the  dove,  cr,  as 
Mede  exploiiu  it,  the  house  of  the  dove-like  nligton, 
ortbs  bouse  of  the  dove-like  disciples  orChrist.  As 
the  Temple  of  God  at  Jeruaalrm  is  frequently  io  Scrip- 
ture styled  the  house  of  prayer,  so  Christian  chnrches 
are  called  wponvrritpxa,  or  oicoi  ev/n-Jipim,  oratoriet, 
or  hmaei  qfpnu^.  In  later  times  these  titles  were 
appropriated  to  pmaller  or  domestic  chspels.  Some 
early  writers  distinguish  between  iirXiTeiaor^pioi'and 
lackriaia,  the  former  signifying  the  duMnjr,  and  the 
latter  the  congrrgatiim ;  but  in  the  writings  of  Ignatins, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  oth- 
ers, the  word  intXtfoia  usually  means  the  MUw^,  and 
ot  lenfcth  became  the  current  expression.  Biailka 
was  originally  applied  to  tbe  imperial  palace,  or  public 
halts,  and  waa  not  used  to  deaignale  places  of  wonblp 
until  Christian  emperors  had  appropriated  such  build- 
ings to  the  use  of  tbeChnrch.  SecBASiucA.  'Avri- 
rropov  is  BynDnymous  with  baiiSca,  and  was  occasion- 
ally applied  to  places  of  divine  wDTsbip  built  by  em- 
percsi.  Churches  were  sometimes  called  Ittaifi  (HrXoi), 
cither  troia  the  Inscription  of  dedication,  or  ftmn  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  Tha  term  rpoiraia,  trapaa,  occmn 
iuEusobius.  Tbe  reason  of  this  name  is  sought  in  the 
reported  appearance  of  the  crocs  to  ConatantlDF,  and 
the  iaianoa,  on  which,  according  to  Eusebius,  was 
inecribed  roii  aravpoi  Tporaiov.  Maitriipiov,  or  mr- 
moria,  denoted  acbareh  dedicated  tn  the  memory  af  a 
martyr.  If  the  person  in  memory  of  whom  the  church 
wBs  built  was  a  prophet  or  on  apostle,  then  tbe  chnrch 
respectively  took  the  nama  riiroffroXu'o»p  and  irpof  ij- 
riiov.  Id  addition,  we  find  at  different  times,  and  for 
various  reasons,  the  following  names  given  to  Chris- 
tian churches;  anp^,  emcuVd,  amciliaiiila,  combM*- 
cuIiTt  cans,  thfvo^f,  fwvaorijpwvt  rot/ujr^ov,  eorj^t 
Chritli,  vaiic,  f  qvec,  and  many  others.  The  titles y!>- 
min  and  dtiibnaa  were  at  all  times  r^)e(led  as  pm- 
fane. 


CHURCH  EDIFICES  3; 

Mais  w&iU,  md  ««U«d  V  tiM  naoM  of  tboM  adot*. 
Sosa  of  the  Pntattiirt  deDomtDntom  Dime  their 
ctetb  idiflee*  aftci  ths  apoitle*,  bat  onljr  for  Um  pnr- 
ftuJatOaaSijiattanimAtAber.  Poiitvu,  aod  tba 
ctodn*  iaflmiKed  by  tham,  nunc  thdr  chniches  by 
lUr  DCdioal  Domber*,  u  the  flnt,  »cDiid,  stc.,  or  liy 
n  which  thay  ara  located.  In  tlia  UathodUt 
Ciatb  tba  DBinea  of  tba  apottlei  an  oTttn  OMd  t  aod 
ttarch  adlfleea  are  wmetlincs  Bamed  in  honor  otWa- 
In irnKBe  otbcT  diitm^fulahed  leader  In  the  Church. 
III.  Farmi  effAKrcJka. — The  carliaat  gioaad-fnrnu 
vne  obhmg.  The  basiUou  (q.  v.)  wen  rubioned 
tibEr  the  analog  of  a  ehip,  or  perhape^  ratber^  after 
■bi  aUong  (tonn  bad  bean  aeUled  opon  fay  other  Influ- 
nna— atof  architectnral  coavanlence,  etc. — tbat  part 
•fcht  cAarch  to  receiTe  beltevare  waa  called  the  nave 
fan,  ahlp).  Tbii  wai  ■fterward  connected  with  *l- 
Itfprkal  or  myatleal  meaninga;  a.  g.  to  denote  the 
dugen  to  which  tba  Charch  waa  axpoaed,  and  the 
nfety  whidi  it  offered  to  Ita  membn*.  The  boat  of 
fruttui  the  ark  of  Noah  wen  explained  ai  emblem' 
■tic  of  the  Chnrcb  In  these  two  reapecta.  On  tba  other 
kud,  Ibe  Byiantlne  chorchea,  and  many  that  were 
blaenced  by  tbcm,  were  romd.  Daring  the  Lamtard, 
or  earlg  ReuHd-arch  period  of 
architecture,  the  churches  a>- 


Je  form  of  at 
the  late  Gothic  they  bad  the 
*  bead  of  the  eroaa  bent,  to  rep- 
reaent  the  bowing  of  the  head 
of  the  Savionr  when  be  died : 
thm  at  Rosen   (St.  Ouen). 


often  did  not  extend  beyond 
the  walla,  not  appearing  at  all 
in  the  external  architecture. 
IT.  Tki  Skt. — Tbia  waa  generally  choaen  on  the 
■nnniit  ofa  monntiin  or  other  elevatul  place,  for  two 
iMBu,  Til.  tecnrity  and  retirement  Ironi  the  hoMla  of 
tba  void,  and  a  notion  that  ulerated  pUcea  were  ape- 
rUly  holy.  The  Temple  of  Solomon  had  been  built 
N  a  hill ;  and  the  Chriatiana  remembenMl  the  exprea- 
MiD,"IiiriIlliflnpmIoe  eyea  to  the  bilU,  ftom  whence 
oaetb  my  help."  At  fint,  axpoecd  titoatloni  wero 
inided;  but  when  tba  impediment  arising  (Tom  p3% 
uoTed,  they  ware  prabired.     At  other 


9  they  erected  their  chnrcbe*  oi 


T.  Atpul. — The  earllaat  cbnrehe*  Qieed  aaitward; 
•I  a  later  period  (4th  or  6th  century)  tbii  wa*  re- 
reratd,  and  tba  aMntDUDtal  table  waa  placed  at  the 
ewt.  ae  that,  in  facing  It  in  thair  davotionaj  they  were 
ttnad  toward*  the  eaiL  The  Jewiah  ctutcm  waa  to 
tmato  tba  watt  in  prayer.  "As  the  Jewa  Itegan  their 
1>7  with  the  trttimg  to.  aa  tbe  followera  of  Christ  be- 
pa  Ihetn  with  Ibe  riimg  jh.  The  eye  of  tbe  Chris- 
Oa  tamed  with  peculiar  Intaraat  to  the  ea(t,  in  remenv 
bruc*  of  the  Horning  Star,  the  SaTioor,  the  San  uf 
KighteonaiMaa.  This  idea  waa  mixed  up  with  many 
Nli^Dot  oba«rT>nc«a.  After  baptism  the  newly^d- 
■itted  BMmben  of  tbe  church  were  turned  wltb  tbelr 
facet  aatward;  and  the  dead  were  uaoally  buried  in 
Iha  sane  padtloD,  nndar  the  conviction  that  Chriat  at 
Hit  aaccBd  nmiog  should  appear  in  the  rv.tJ' 

Tl.  Itltnud  Arnmgtnti^. — Noparticnlsr  slroclure 
■r  aimgamaBt  of  the  interior  prevailed  dnring  tlie 
■ntihtwcentnriaa.  From  the  fourth  century  we  find 
BBHarBity  prerailing  in  the  batUiau  both  of  the  Eaet 
•nd  WtaL  Tbe  body  of  the  church  was  dirided  Into 
ihiw  paria,  corrtapanding  with  the  threefold  diviaion 
ef  the  Chrkthuw-^nto  fitrgf.  inclndlug  the  sen-anta 
aftkacDagregatfMii/nirA^iii'.Drftfiwiien;  and  cobrcAu. 
■••■.  TM»  ■nangemcnl  waa  also  hi  conformity  with 
tta  dMrian  at  tba  ancknt  Temple— into  tbe  holy  of 


)5  CHURCH  EDIFICES 

I  bollet,  the  UDCtoaiy,  and  tba  coart.  The  three  paila 
,  ware:  1.  The  bema,  oi  sanctuary,  in  which  the  clergy 
;  officiated.  2.  The  luoi,  or  nave,  sppropriatfld  to  the 
(aitbfnl,  the  lay-members  of  tbe  church.  3.  Tbe  nor- 
Uez,  or  ante-temple,  the  place  of  penitents  and  catecho* 

ted:  thia  iritetftvm  aubdiTidingthe  narthezintoout- 

;  ar  and  inner,  and  also  reckoning  the  txtdnx,  or  ootel 
I  bnildlnga,  a  portion  of  tbe  church. 

1.  Tht  Bema,  or  Stmelvary.  -The  inner  part;  of  tb* 
charch  approprinted  to  tbe  clerg}':  fttim  liaimv,  lot 
'  avaiSaiyiir.loaiemd.  Tbia  name  was  eometunea  giv- 
^  en  to  the  raited  plut(urm  which  supported  the  tbnine 
I  or  chair  of  the  biahop  and  tba  aeata  of  the  pretliytcrt, 
'  and  H>melimes  to  the  whole  of  that  part  of  tbe  church 
.  In  which  the  platform  and  the  alUr  stood.  It  was  alto 
!  called  Sjiov,ayiBiiiia,SfiaviyiiiH',lheliofy,  or  iiieho^ 
'  of  Kolia;  upartioif  and  rpialiirrijpiou,  prabjftery^  b^ 
I  cause  it  was  the  place  In  wbicb  tbe  presbytera  eat  and 
I  discharged  their  dutlet ;  Svaiairriipuii',  because  tbe  al- 
tar stood  here ;  d^uroi',  ii/)nnii',orini>re commonly  in 
I  the  plural,  alvra,  dfiara,placa  not  to  be  entered  or 
I  trodden,  becsuae  laymen  and  fematea  ware  not  allowed 

with  a  teat  within  thia  inclosure,  it  was  called  □I'li- 
KTopov,  regal  palace.  The  platform  of  this  part  of  the 
church  was  an  elliptical  recess,  with  a  correeponding 
arch  overhead,  and  aeparated  from  the  nave  fay  a  rail 
carlootly  wrought  like  net-work,  called  cmiceUi,  chaD- 
ceL  Within  were  tbe  Inshop's  throne,  and  aubordinata 
aeata  right  and  left  for  the  tower  cle^y.  The  faisbop'a 
throne  waa  otually  covered  with  a  veil,  and  for  thit 
reason  waa  called  cofAedra  nsfffto.  In  the  middle  stood 
the  altar,  in  auch  a  poaition  as  to  be  eaaily  encompaeaed 
on  every  aide.  On  one  tide  of  it  waa  a  email  table  for 
receiving  oblations;  on  tbe  other  a  recess,  called  ortv- 
of  uAamoc,  into  which  the  vaasels  were  conveyed  aftar 
the  aacrameot. 

!.  Tb^aH,— ThiswaathemainbodyoftbechuTcIl, 
and  called  by  dlSerent  naniea,  derived  from  tba  uaca 
to  which  it  was  applied.  It  was  called  the  oratory  of 
the  people,  because  they  there  met  for  religious  wor- 
ihif^  reading  ttw  Seripturaa,  prayer,  and  hearing  the 
word.  It  was  also  called  the  place  of  BBsembly,  and 
tbe  quadrangle,  from  its  quadrangular  form,  in  con- 
tnat  with  the  elliptical  form  ofthe  cbancel.  Inacen- 
tnl  position  stood  the  aw^,  MUggrMhim  fcctoriBK,  or 
reader'a  desk,  elevsted  on  a  platform  alwvo  the  level 
of  tbe  surrounding  se«ts.  This  was  eometimes  called 
the  pulpit,  and  the  tritianal  ofthe  church,  in  distiiw- 
tion  ftum  the  jSw".  <"  tribunal  of  the  choir.  The 
cboristeia  wen  prorided  with  aeata  near  this  deak. 
The  aeata  on  either  aide,  in  ftDnt,  were  occupied  by  tbe 
faithful,  or  tbe  communicanta.  The  goapelt  and  eplt- 
Ilea  were  chanted  ft-om  before  the  altar.  The  senbon 
was  also  delivered  by  the  preacher  atanding  on  the 
platform  oftbe  aanctuarj-,  oron  the  steps  leading  tn  It. 
But  when  large  churches  were  erected,  it  became  diffi- 
cnlt  for  the  preacher  to  make  himself  beard  from  thia 
poaition.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  a  platform 
waa  erected  for  him  in  front  of  tlie  bema,  within  the 
body  ofthe  nave.  Tbe  rules  of  the  primitive  churchea 
required  the  separatioa  of  the  sexea,  and  thia  was  gen- 
erally observed.  The  men  occupied  the  left  of  die  al- 
tar, on  the  sooth  side  of  the  church,  and  the  women  the 
right,  on  the  north.  They  were  aeparated  by  a  veil, 
or  latlicB.  In  the  Eastern  churehea  the  women  occu. 
pied  a  gallery-,  while  the  men  aat  below.  The  catechu- 
nwns  occupied  a  part  near  to  the  lielievcra,  arranged  in 
tlieir  sevpnil  clasKSi  but  they  were  required  to  with- 
diaw  at  the  tummoni  ofthe  deacons— Ar,  catecAamnn/ 
lu  the  resr  of  the  catechumens  tat  the  penitents,  who 
had  been  allowed  a  place  again  within  the  church. 
The  walla  of  tbe  church  war*  aummnded  by  ante- 
chamben  and  receeses  for  the  accommodation  ofthe 
asaembly,  toi  meditation,  readinir,  and  prayer.  There 
ware  aiolaa  aorrmuidlug  the  nave  which  aeparatad  il 


CHUSCH  EDIFICES  ! 

fhna  thfl  chunben.     It  wii  Mpinted  tnm  the  dun- 

ccl  b;  *  partition  or  Utti«-irork,  wUb  ■  cartain,  and 
tiie  entnnce  to  the  cboii  vu  bj  falding-doan  in  this 
partidait.  Theaa  doon  were  piorided  with  curtaina, 
wblch,  aa  well  as  the  larger  cuTtaia,  called  raroiri- 
raaiia  and  roT-oiriraafUi  fiiHJTUoy,  van  dnwn  aaide 
dnringthe  celebiatian  artheEucbarut,aiiddiuruig  tbs 
dtdiniy  of  (tie  aermon. 

8.  Tit  Nartia,  or  Anlt-lewipU.—Tbia  vaa  the  enter 
division  within  the  walls.  It  waa  called  wpovaoi;, 
mCe-dunp^;  wpoiniXa,  portioo ;  and  vapttijE,  ta/trvia. 
The  Utter  name  la  supposed  to  bave  been  given  it  in 
wnsequeDce  of  its  oblong  aliipe,  nsambling  in  this  Te- 
spect  a/cmio,  or  rod.  It  wai  an  oblongssctionof  the 
building,  estending  quits  acron  the  front  of  the  chnrch. 


36  CHUKCH  EDBICES 

I  It  was  entend  bj  three  doon  landing  from  the  aster 
porch.  The  great  entnnce  was  at  the  west,  oppoaits 
tothealtai;  it  was  called  (after  the  correi  ponding  part 
of  the  temple)  wpaia  or  ^aaiXucq,  the  btautifid  or  rcijk 
algate.  1heHraiiiu/s,or  Tpdvaoc,  InthestricterseDaa, 
was  allotted  to  the  catechumens  and  penitents.  Her- 
etics and  unbelievers  were  also  allowed  a  place  here, 
tbout(h  this  was  forbidden  by  some  Eastern  sfuoda. 
The  irft,rv\a,ot  portico,  waa  chiefly  Ufed  foi  the  pra< 
formance  of  funeral*.  But,  in  the  lai^r  chnrcfaea, 
meetings  on  ecclesiastical  affalii  were  held  in  it.  The 
primitive  Christians  were  Bccnitomed  to  wash  tiefoT* 
entering  a  church,  as  a  symlMl  of  the  purity  becoming 
tlut  boly  place.  In  due  time  the  veuel  osed  fcr  tlut 
purpose  waa  introduced  into  the  porcb.    The  Tasael 


CHURCH  EDIFICES  3! 

ra  callad  cpqvt,  fuiXi},  ^iapt  Ko^viiffiXov,  Xiayra- 

Vir.  TVoiiJo-StuUn^orfteitnf.— Alltheboild- 
iiigt  tlUched  to  tbe  choirh,  *acb  ai  courti,  (ide-liulld- 
ia^  viiigs,  ■□()  other  erection*  and  places  in  Ibo  uea 
loanected  with  )C.  were  called  taedra.  Tbe  eacloaure 
usmid  the  cburch  «u  known  by  the  nunea  inpifio- 
Xsf,  ffroai,  iripurrHuv,  nrpuvruov,  nrpaoniXsv,  Om- 
MlH,  ftritiylia.  The  open  epace  between  the  extreme 
'  circninfereace  and  the  cbarch  li  called  by  Eoiebius 
a\9jtov,  iMiplitc'aim,  buC  ii  no  other  than  the  Latin    ' 


I synony 


with  tl 


er^mena,  and  CbotclaBiofpeni 
oiled  T(M)(;«Aaio*riC,  or jfciite«.    They  were  alto  called 
fflliaZovrit,  or  ;(ii/ui{ufifvoi,  ticsm  the  circumatanct 
<i  their  standiDB  in  tbe  open  air,  ezpoaad  to  all  thi 
chingBs  of  the  weather.     The  moat  important  uf  the 
extdne  were  the  kifrftabnu. 
dldatea  were  iniitracted  and  prepared  for  baptlim,  and 
there  were  aeparalc  apartmenU  for  men  and  wome 
here  sUo  councils  and  eccieilaitical  meetiagi  wi 
kdd,  and  hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  wer« 
cap.icioufl  dimensioni.     Then  haptiaEeriea  were  not 
Itched  to  all  cburchet,  hot  were  genoraliy  erected  ad- 
jacent to  cathedral  cborchea,  denominated,  on  tida  ac- 
connc,  baptitna',  and  ctntral  cburchea.     There  were 
also  asTsral  other  imaller  buiidinga,  >uch  aa  the  dia- 
taucmm  vuigiam^  in  widch  the  Bacred  atanAilfl, 
erunents  and  ioImi  or  the  clergy,  were  kept.    Thia 
Waa  called  KftnnXiapx*''^^^*  ya^o^v\aaotf,  (TEiifo^fXa- 
Bsv.     Here  the  clergy  were  accustomed  to  retire  for 
private  exercises  preparatory  to  the  public 
bHice  it  was  called  secrctuin,  or  teentarima. 
also  a  general  andieace-room,  and  deaominated  labita- 
totva^^  recrptoTHtm.     Many  are  of 
balldiag  was  need  as  a  prwos  for 
dslinqnent  clergymen.     There  wj 
IniidiDgg  called  paifapiarw.  This 
ii  a  word  borrowed  Erom  the  Sep- 
tugiDttranBlationofEiek.ll,  17, 
where  it  doaotei    ■  - 


CHURCH  EOmCES 

and  wfAi)  wpaia  or  jiam^acii.  They  were  « 
made  of  lines,  and  often  richly  ornamented.  The 
date  of  tbe  buHding  or  dedication  of  the  cburch  waa 
niuallyinBcribedonthedoDr.  Somatioies  a  motto  waa 
affixed,  a  doctrioai  aentiment,  a  prayer,  or  doxology. 
Later,  the  doors  were  often  ot  bronie,  omaraented  with 
Biblical  scanea,  etc.  In  tbe  early  Round-arch  period 
<A.D.  700-1000)  the  colunins  beside  the  doors  usually 
rested  on  the  backs  of  croucbing  lions,  grifflos,  or  othra 
real  or  imaginary  anitnala,  who  symbolized  ■  guardiao- 
ship  of  tbe  entrance  to  the  church. 

The  doorway  was  often  highly  ornamented  with  clna- 

spondingly  decorated  arched  way  overhead.    This  arch 
latercoDtained  angels  or  saints  sculptured  in  the  stone. 

PtiBeaUMii. — From  the  fourth  antui;  downwards, 
great  attention  was  paid  to  the  pavement  of  the  church. 
In  large  churches,  the  oarttaex  tiad  a  pavement  of  ptat- 
tarj  the  nave  one  of  wood;  and  tlw  sanctuary,  or  part 
immediately  around  the  high  altar,  was  adorned  with 
a  tessalated  psrenient  of  polished  and  parti-colored 
marl>lB,  consUtutlng  a  rich  mosaic  work. 

Wimdom.  —  Tht  Chriatian  churches  from  the  first 
were  well  provided  with  windows.  It  Ls  cnatomary  to 
refer  the  origin  of  gbise  to  the  third  century ;  but  this 
is  incorrect.  The  Pbcenician^  Egyptiana,  Greeks,  and 
Romans  used  glaas  long  befiae  the  Christian  nn.  (Sea 
GiuUs.)  In  France,  windows  of  ttotb  colored  and  cut 
glaas  ware  in  use  in  the  sixtli  century. 

The  foilowiog  stalament  with  regard  to  the  media- 
val  and  more  modem  churohee  and  cathedrals  is  taken 
tnm  Cbambera,  EiK§lopitdia,  s.  v. 

''In  the  larger  and  more  oomplale  churches,  the  nave, 
and  frequently  also  the  choir,  are  divided  longitodin- 
ally  by  two  rows  of  pilar*  Into  three  portions,  the  por- 
tion at  each  lUa  b^g  generally  somewhat  narrower 
and  leu  lofty  than  that  in  the  eenti*.    TheMaidapo^ 


the  clergy.   Libraries  were  attach- 
ed to  many  charches.      In  theae 
coQectionfl  were  included  not  only   j 
the  liturgical  and  other  church-    i 
books,  and  tlie  mannscript  ci^ea   J 
of  the  holy  Scriptures,  in  the  orig- 
inal langoagea  aikd  translatiaas, 
bnt  al»  bomilias,  eoCeolcaef,  and    . 
oth::rtheDlo);ical works.   Fromthe    I 
librariee  of  Jerusalem  and  Cnsa- 
na,  both    Eusebina   and  Jenmie 
AkSj  derived  the  materials  for 
tbtir  itricings.     Schools  were,  In 
later  times,  osMblisbed  in  oonnae. 
tion  with  some  chnrehes.     If  no 
IhuIlIjo^  was  provided  fer  the  pnr- 
poR,  Um  citecbumens,  or  younger 
dcrgy,  wen  taught  in  the  bapUst- 
•ry  or  vestry.     Other  bnildlnga 
■are  oiioi  fitunAcux,  fie  kMla- 
i™  y  (*s  buiop  and  eUrgg ;  \tni- 

hg-flam,  supposed  by  some  (o 
ban  been  a  kind  of  inn,  by  otlieri 
a  common  place  of  reMirt  for  raat 


*ation  ofthe  Temple.     The  prin- 
dpal  eutrancs  Waa  caUed  nAi], 


Goot^lc 


CHURCH,  EVANGEUCAL    338 


CHURCH  OF  GOD 


tinng  an  oiled  tbe  aUles  of  the  nave,  or  of  th«  choir, 
at  the  cue  may  be.  In  some  churches  the  shIeB  ira 
cODtiniuil  along  the  transepts,  tbns  ninnin);  round  tba 
whole  cbanh ;  In  olbcn  there  are  double  aisles  to  the 
nave,  or  to  bolh  nare  and  choir,  or  even  to  neve,  choir, 
■nd  transept.  Behind,  or  to  the  ea«t  of  tbe  choir,  Is 
HlUBted  the  '  Chapel  of  the  Vlrj^in,'  with  sometimes 
anuniber  of  altars;  and  it  is  not  anuinalforilde  chap- 
el* to  be  placed  at  diH^ent  places  slang  the  aisles. 
These  ueoally  contain  thetombsof  thefonndei,  and  of 
other  benefactors  to,  or  diKnltaries  connected  with,  the 
church.  The  extent  to  which  these  adjuncts  exist  de- 
pends on  the  elie  and  importuice  of  the  church,  and 
they  are  scarcely  erer  alike  in  two  churches,  either  in 
tinmber,  rumi,or  position.  Vestries  for  the  nse  of  tbe 
priests  and  choristers  generally  exist  In  connection 
with  the  choir.  Along  die  sides  oftbe  choir  are  rsnged 
richly-ornamented  seats  or  stalls,  usually  of  carved 
oak,  surmounted  with  tracery,  erchBB,  end  pinnacles; 
■nd  among  theee  leats,  in  tbe  case  of  a  bishop's  cbnrch, 
the  highest  and  meet  coosplcuons  is  the  Mhoalled  ca- 
liedra,  or  scat  for  the  bishop,  froia  which  tbe  mthedrsl 
takes  its  name.  The  larger  English  cathedral  end 
abbey-churches  have  usually  a  chapter-house  attached 
to  them,  which  la  of  various  forms,  most  commonly 
octagonal,  and  is  often  one  of  tbe  richest  and  moat 
beautiful  portions  of  the  whole  edifice.  On  tbe  Conti- 
nent, chapter-houses  are  not  so  common,  the  chapti 
(q.  T.)  being  usoally  held  in  tbe  cathedral  Itself,  or  i 
«ne  of  the  chapels  attached  to  it.  Cloisters  (q.  v)  si 
also  A-eqsent,  and  not  unusually  the  sides  of  tho( 
which  are  farthest  removed  from  the  church  or  chB| 
ter-house  are  enclosed  by  other  bnlldings  connected 
with  the  establishment,  such  as  a  libnry,  and  places 
of  residence  fnr  some  of  tbe  offl(!lals  of  the  cathednl. 
it  is  hers  that,  in  Roman  Catholic  churches,  the  ball, 
dormitories,  ixnd  kitchens  fbr  tbe  monka  are  common- 
ly placed.  Beneath  the  church  there  la  frequently  a 
crypt  (q.  v.).  In  some  cathedrdl  churches,  the  crypt 
Is  in  reality  a  second  undergronnd  church  of  great  si 
and  beauty.  The  baptistery  (q.  t.)  is  another  sdjoi 
to  the  church,  though  frequently  forming  a  huildi  _ 
altogether  detached.  Host  of  the  parts  of  the  chnrch 
which  we  hare  mentioned  may  be  traced  ou  tba  an- 
nexed ground-plan  of  Duriiam  Cathedral,  btit  It  must 
not  be  supposed  that  their  position  is  always  that 
whicb  is  there  represented.  Tbe  position  of  the  nave, 
cbolr,  or  chancel,  aisles  and  transepta,  are  nearly  Inva- 
riable, but  the  other  portions  vai;,  and  are  scurcety 
■like  in  two  churches."  Modem  Church  ediflces  vaiy 
grestly  in  form,  structure,  and  arrangements.  Sea 
Bingham,  Orig.  Eceta.  hk,  vlii;  Coleman,  Chrislian 
Antiiiviti'i.  cli.  liii;  also  Siegel.  Handbarh  der  chriii- 
lidi-larchlkhen  AUerlh&mgr,  li,  866,  427,  and  references 
there.  On  tbe  adaptation  of  ancient  art  to  modem 
Cburch  architecture,  and  its  dangers,  see  Close,  Omrch 
AnJiiteeture  Sniptiirally  amtidertd  (Lend.  18*4,  8vo) ; 
T.  K.  Arnold,  Rrmarts  on  Clott'i  Church  Archttedan 
(London,  1844) ;  and  a  series  of  articles  on  Church  ar- 
chit«ctu»  In  the  ChruUait't  Sfimlhlg  MagatoK  (Lond. 
1844,  M4a) ;  Milnun,  Hutory  of  Loti*  ChriiUaKilf, 
vol.  vili,  cb.  vlii. 

CllUltcn,  EVANGELICAL.     See  Prussia. 

CHURCH  FATHERS.     See  rATHEiis. 

CHUKCH,  FRENCH  REFORMED.   See  FBA^CB. 
Bbpurmbu  Ciidrch  of. 

Cll  ORCH,  ttALLICAN.    Sec  Galucam  Chduoh. 

CIICRCII,  GERMAN   REFORMED-     See  Gbk-| 
•ux  Reformed  Ciickcii. 

CilUKCII,  GREEK.     See  Greek  ChitrcH;  Bub-  < 

•lA. 

CHURCH  HISTORY.     See EccLKSiAaiicAL H is- 1 

CHDRCH,LT[THERAN.  a-^l.rTHFRAMCHDRca.; 

CHLRCH.METHODIST  (EPISCOPAL  ASDOiH-, 

■B).     See  METiioDisTa.  { 


CHCRCH  UISSIONART  80CIETT.     See  His- 

ONAKY  SoCIBTieS. 

CHURCH,  MORAVIAN.  See  M0R*vtA!«8- 
CHDRCH  MUSIC.  SeeMcsiC;  Psalmody. 
CHURCH,  NEW  JERUSALEM.    See  Swedbv 

DBOIAHB;   New  JbBUSALKM. 

CHURCH  OP  ENGLAND.  See  Emoi-akd, 
Chdbch  or. 

CHURCH  OF  GOD,  a  denorotnation  of  Baptuta  in 
e  United  States,  organized  In  1830  by  John  Win^ 
«nner,  formerly  a  minister  of  the  German  Refonucd 
Church  at  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Hiibny.  —  During  tbe  period  of  WinebreDner'i 
pastorate,  revivals  of  religion  were  ftrqnent  witbin 
the  bounds  of  his  charge,  and  extended  from  It  tfrad- 
nelly  to  other  churchea  and  coni^regations,  oltboo^ 
some  minlstaia  of  the  German  Reformed  Cburch  op- 
posed the  movement.  As,  in  the  mean  time,  Mr.Win^ 
brenner's  sentiments  in  regard  to  theology*  and  church 
government  underwent  a  change,  and  other  preacben 
were  raised  up  from  among  the  converts  whose  view* 
agreed  with  his,  a  call  was  made  in  1830  for  a  Coonn- 
tion  to  organire  an  association.  Mr.Wloebrenner  WM 
chosen  moderator  of  the  Convention,  and  it  waa  r»- 
solved  to  form  a  separate  denomination,  tmder  tlw 
nuno  "Chtrtk  of  God."  The  Cbnreh  toc^  ivot  chief- 
ly  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  Weptem  States,  hsiing 
(in  1867)  no  eldership  In  the  New  England  States  and 
in  New  York,  and  but  one  eldership  in  the  Southern — 
Texas.  The  latter,  at  tbe  beginning  of  the  war,  »ep- 
araled  from  the  General  Eldership  because  of  the  anti- 
slarery  doctrines  professed  by  it.  At  an  atiniial  meet- 
ing held  In  1S6«,  the  Texas  eldenhip  expressed  a  de- 
sire lo  reunite  with  tbe  General  Eldenhlp,  but  no  def- 
inite resolutions  were  passed. 

The  eighth  triennial  General  Eldership  of  the  Chnrcfa 
was  held  at  Decatnr,  Illinois,  on  Us;  3],  1866.  and  tfa* 
following  days.  The  following  Annual  Elderships  were 
represented:  East  Pennsylvania,  West  Pennsvlvania, 
East  Ohio,  West  Ohio,  Indbna,  Southern  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  Iowa,  German,  Michigan.  A.  F.  Shoemaker 
was  elected  speaker.  Centralia  College,  in  KaDBas, 
was  reo^nised  as  an  ioBtitntion  of  tbe  Church,  and  It 
was  resohed  to  estaUish  another  college  in  Ohio,  West 
PennsylTanla,  Indiana,  or  Illinois.  Tbe  subscription 
list  of  the  weekly  denominational  organ,  the  ChMTx* 
AdBOcale.vt^  reported  to  lie  2700,  and  resolutions  irere 
passed  In  fiivor  of  the  establisbment  of  a  Sunday- 
school  paper  by  the  Board  of  Publication,  and  of  a 
German  psper  by  Sev.  J.  F.  Wirishimpet.  A  scriei 
of  resolutions  was  also  adopted  on  the  duty  of  loyalty, 
agaiost  slavery,  and  In  favor  of  eqaol  rights  of  ^I 
men,  irrespective  of  color, 

II.  J)dc<W»m.— (GoTTte,  cited  beloit.)    The  foUow- 
-  "    ■  -       -  ■  of  the  views  of  the  denomiii»> 


sod  \*<r  TeitsDKUt.  lo  be  the  Wonl  of  God 

tlc& 

of  faith  and  pne- 

•S'xisi'a 

Soo,  and  lloly  Splrl^  ud  thai  then  Ihw 

8.  Slw  bglleTci  Id  tbe  f.dl  and  donvitv 

of  man;  thu  Is  la 

«7,  tl«l  mu.  by  nature  t.  de.Ututa  of  the  hr«  end  iaagt 

of  God. 

IhreoghthasUiK 

meal,  IT  liFirtoua  -acriace  of  ilonu  (JhrliL 

a.  Hhe  bellcTH  In  the  glAi  ud  otBcs. 

rating,  sod  •■Bcll. 

■  fl.  8he  brIlBre.  in  U«  free  mor-l  ap-ne, 

God. 

oat  by  (lie  vDTki  or  Imv,  or  by  rorfcs  of  hln 
8.  She  believe.  In  the  nnei^tr  of  rspm 

-n  rtKht«„,«««, 
ntlon.  or  the  nnr 

lilnh ;  or  in  the  ehmiita  of  msn-s  uonil  ns 

ar>.  after  the  In- 

see  <if  God,  by  the  Inliuene  and  poireT  of  Uie  rad  and  SpUll 

CHURCH  OF  GOD 


339       CHURCH,  STATES  OP  THE 


[gird's  Supper- 


Vi 

CkrlMinB  BobUlh,  ■ 


ifl  Lord*'  Sapper  (hoald  b« 
muliUot,  Id  i,hrirtluu  only,  In  n  ill 

Uifl  kfuthutlDD  of  Ibo  Lard'fl  dij,  a 
A  dmf  of  HHl  uid  rellglout  vonhlp. 


rtuLATkv  uid  dBTOuUy  Dtverred  bj  bU  tb«  people  end 
L  aha  briloret  1b  the  preprletf  uid  ntlllty  of  holding  fut- 


otOod 


■WEISA".' 


ee  that  dvU  vaTemTnento  i 
le  tenant  Boad;  ILul  iJhiiftiiiiLi  oug 

■Bd  thftt  ftomab  ta  Ihs  Uv,  out  of  tha  (^hurch^  fbr  Jnnlc^ 

uuiiBi  of  (]»  ChTtttUn  lellgloii. 

In  the  necaulty  of  a  vJHuouh  aod  bQly  life, 

In  (ha  TlilbllllT,  unlly,  laiialrr.  unlnrial- 
ot  the  ChnRh  of  Ood. 
Ld  the  peieoDel  comloff  end  nlta  d  Jeeiu 


Ibfljoftnad  Ibe  upjDil''  Itael 


ie  b?U?Tai  tn  tlH  ItdmorteHty  of  the  eonl ;  1 


III.  Climrdk  Gaum'nmimL—"  In  chtireh  gDnmmenC 
tkit  bodj  i>  iodapandeDt  uid  coop^tntiaiul ;  yet  tho 
mHnben  of  all  cburchet.  wben  duly  orKaniied,  an  mh. 
jtclta  the  iaperriiion  of  >  Chnrcb  Council,  vODipoaed 
of  the  preachers  in  chargo  and  the  elden  and  dea- 
(0B>  of  each  church,  all  of  wbom  «ro  elected  by  the 
membert.  In  addition  to  the  comiciLi  of  each  local 
cborch.  they  hiTe  a  conrederatioa  of  cfanrchea  called 
an '  Eldersbip,'  conaisting  of  all  ths  {uatnrB  wlthiti  cer- 
tain boand^  and  an  equal  Dumber  of  nilinic  elders  as 
delexatee.  She  hii,  la  addition  to  ber  local  chnrcbea 
or  stations,  larger  Helds  of  operation,  exiled  circolta. 
Hence  her  miniiters  art  some  of  them  stationed,  ind 
otfaers  travel  on  circolu,  and  otben  are  misaiDOaries 
atlarKS."  The  eldenhips  meet  annnally.  Tbc  Gen- 
eral Eldersbip,  which  consists  of  delegates  fhnn  Annu- 
al □deiships,  ia  held  ever;  three  years.  The  General 
Eldership  owns  and  controls  all  the  common  propertj 
of  the  ChDreh.  No  minister  c&n  be  delegated  to  it 
who  has  not  held  a  preacher's  appointment  for  Btb 
jrcan  prerioaa  (Oorrie,  cited  below). 

IV.  Suautici The  Cbnrch  hat  a  domestic  and  Un- 

(ign  misaionary  society  and  a  printing  establisbniBnt, 
all  which  are  under  the  oontrol  of  the  Geuersl  Elder. 
■Up.  A  weekly  paper,  the  CAarck  A  drocatt  (in  1867, 
tld  TidinDc).  BJid  a  Sunday-schml  paper,  called  the 
Gtm  (established  in  tSCi),  are  pul.lisbed  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.  The  denomlnaUon  in  1889  hid  11  eldenhipi, 
■boiil  47a  churchca.  iM  ministers,  and  ^,688  mem- 
bcru  See  Gorrie,  CAvrehti  and  Strtu  Winebrcimcr, 
Uiiloij  n/  Stliginia  DrnomiaatUnu  ;  A  mcrioia  Boptiit  \ 


ASmaac;  Anamal 


Cgdopadia  for  1860,  p. 


CHURCH  OF  JESUS  CHRIST  OP  THE  LAT- 
TEH-DAYS  SAINTS.     See  Hobmoks. 

CHUBCH  OF  THE  MESSIAH,  a  religions  sect 
astabliibed  in  1863,  in  Blaine,  by  a  person  named 
Adam*,  who  provlonsly  had  been  a  Mormon  elder. 
The  founder  of  tho  sect  claimed  to  have  visions  and 
special  instdCBtlons.  Among  the  peculiar  poluta  of 
the  new  faith  were,  that  its  members  aro  of  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim,  and  that,  "as  the  corse  was  now  taken 
off  from  Falesilne,"  the  time  bad  como  for  the  lost 
tan  tribes  to  retain  to  tho  land  of  their  btbera.  They 
unticlpBtsd  the  ro^eatoblishment  at  Jerusalem  of  the 
throne  of  David  in  greater  than  Solomon's  aplendor. 
In  expectation  of  tho  near  advent  of  tho  Messiah,  IM 
members  of  tho  sect  from  tho  Slato  of  Maine  want  in 
1866  to  Palestine,  and  established  a  colony  at  Jalh, 
ttae  ie«-port  of  Jemsalem,  with  ono  president  (Adaina) 
and  two  bishops  as  its  leaders.  Through  the  efltorta 
of  the  American  and  English  consuls  in  jErusalem, 
Ute;  met  with  ■  kind  reception  on  the  part  of  tho  TurV- 
ish  paclm  and  the  people  of  JaSii.  Land  had  been  *e- 
caredforthem  bafon  their  anival,  throagh  the  Amei^ 
ican  vics-caOBul  at  Jab.  Tho  colonists  built  quite  ■ 
nomber  of  booses  and  a  Ihreo-etory  hotel,  baTing 
brought  the  lumber  alt  the  way  from  Maine.  Cent- 
plaints  made  by  the  coloniMs  of  the  hardships  they 
were  forced  to  endnro  induced  the  government  of  the 
United  Statee  to  tend,  at  the  beginning  of  1BS7,  an 
agent  (the  Rev.  Dr.  Bidwell,  of  New  York)  to  Jatb,  in 
order  to  make  a  thorough  ezaminatbn  into  the  affiiirs 
and  prospects  of  tho  colony.  In  the  conree  of  the 
year  1867,  a  CDutiderable  number  of  tho  colonists  be- 
came dissatisfied  with  tlieir  condition  and  the  mio  of 
president  Adams,  and  returned  home.  The  remaindet 
liava  gradually  diapcrtcd. 

CHURCH  OF  ROME.    See  Roman  Cathouo 

CHURCH    OF    SCOTLAND.     See    Scotland  ; 
ScoTLAiin,  FftRR  Cburch  or. 
CHURCH  POLITY.     See  EtKuuiAancAi.  Pol- 

CHURCH,  FBESBTTERIAK.     See  PxMBTn- 

MAH  CHDBCII. 

CHURCH,   PROTESTANT   EPISCOPAL.     Sm 

PBOTEnAHT  EntCOPAL  CSCBCB. 

CHURCH,  REFORMED.  SeeRsronnDCHOBcn. 

CHURCH,  REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN.  See 
Pbebbitebiah  (Rk formed)  Chdkcb. 

CHURCH,  STATES  OF  THE  (Pnfrmfflwm  Pttri), 
the  territory  governed  by  the  Pope  ss  secular  prince. 

I.  fiisCory.— The  Chorch  of  Borne,  which  became  at 
an  early  date  one  of  the  chief  Christian  churches  of 
the  world,  received  in  821,  by  a  special  edict  of  the 
emperor  Constantine,  the  right  to  ac»[4  legaclei. 
The  story,  however,  that  Constantine  presented  biihop 
Sylvester  and  the  Roman  Church  with  the  city  of 
Some  and  other  territories  is  an  invention,  and  the 
pretended  document  of  donation  is  a  late  forgery,  taken 
ftx>m  the  so-called  CtHuttCadiin  Sgtratri,  which  was 
compiled  from  the  Gala  iroti  8flvetlri  (see  HQnch 
[Rom.  Cath.],  Urbtr  Se  frdieliMe  arkadwig  Comlan- 
fM  dtt  Groitat,  Freilmrg,  1824 ;  Biener,  de  donaUomt  a 
CooHimlaio  il.  iniperalore  in  Sylvnlnim  pimlijicm  eat. 
lato,  in  hit  work  de  coUrttioiulMM  canonxm  eeetam 
Graca,  Beriin,  I8S7).  Under  the  later  emperors,  a 
large  amonnt  of  property  of  every  description,  includ- 
ing many  landed  estates  in  vsrious  parts  of  Italy  and 
France,  was  presented  to  the  Roman  Church;  and, 
moreover,  the  emperors  conferred  upon  the  bithopa  of 
Rome  many  lucraUve  privileges,  aa  Gratian  upon  Da- 
masns  in  S78,  Valentin  is  n  upon  !.«  the  Great  in  445, 
etc.  The  eccleuastical  prerogative!  which  Ibe  popes 
claimed  at  heads  of  the  Church,  and  which  were  (jiad- 
ually  conceded  by  the  emperors  and  acquiosced  in  by 
the  iHihopi,  greatlj'  enlarged  the  saenlar  power  and 


CHURCH,  STATES  OF  THE       340       CHITRCH,  STATES  OF  THE 


wealth  of  the  popea.  Under  Gregorj  I  tha  lindcd 
pnpcrty  bclongiDg  to  tha  Bomui  Church  wu  very 
exICDiive,  eBpeciilly  in  Sicily  anil  Guil.  But  nnlil 
the  eighth  centD[7  the  Ronisn  biabopi  held  all  thia 
landed  property  eufaject  to  the  nvereign  authority  of 
the  emperon.  The  first  independent  posuHioa  of  the 
popes  wa»  the  town  ofSulri,  which  Gregory  11,  in  738, 
obuined  tram  the  Longobardian  king  Laitprand,  who 
had  wmted  it,  with  other  terntoriea,  from  the  Byzan- 
tine empoTora,  The  friendly  reladona  between  the  Ro- 
man  See  and  Loitprand  ceaaedunder  Gregory  III  (7S1- 
741).  and  moat  of  the  pjpal  terrritoiy  was  reoccnpied 
by  the  Longobardiitii.  The  pope  inToked  the  intercea- 
■bn  of  Charlea  Martel,  in  conaequence  of  which  Luil- 
prand,  in  713,  realored  (o  Pope  Zachary  not  only  the 
Ibniier  property  of  the  Roman  hUhopa,  but  alaa  the 
Ibur  Byzantine  townt  of  Amelia,  Orta,  Bomarao,  and 
Bieila.  Tha  pope  oven  lucceeded  in  diapoeing  the  king 
amicably  toward  the  exarch.  In  reward  for  which  he 
receiTed  from  the  Byianllne  emperor  two  villa*.    King 

Ing  ail  Italy,  and  thu«  forced  Pope  Stephen  II  (7S1!- 
T&T)  to  invoke  again  the  aid  of  the  Franks.  Pepin, 
who  owed  hii  cmwn  partly  to  the  infloenee  of  the 
pope,  twice  (7M  and  7d5)  undertook  &  campaign  into 
Italy,  declined  tha  demand  of  the  Byiantina  empeior 
to  rratore  to  him  his  former  Italian  poaaeasiona,  gave 
to  the  pope,  In  addition  to  ilia  former  poaHaaicns,  the 
Exarchate  and  the  ?entapolia  (the  five  citiei  of  Rimini, 
Pesaro,  Fane,  Slnlgaglia,  and  Ancona),  and  aasumed 
himself  the  title  of  patriclui  (patron)  of  Rome.     The 

The  Longobardian  king  Deaiderina  found  means  to  put 
off  the  complete  execotian  of  the  utipalatioDa  made  by 
Pepn,  and  alCimaleiy  now  hostilities  broke  oat,  which 
induced  Adrian  I  to  invoke  the  aid  of  Charlemagne, 
who  hi  741  put  an  end  to  the  Longobardian  kingdom, 
and  enlarged  the  donations  of  his  fathen.  As  the 
original  deeda  of  theae  donations  are  lost,  their  extent 
can  uo  longer  bo  fixed  with  entire  accuracy.  The  ex- 
Unt  docnment  in  which  Louis  le  Debonnaire  sanc- 
tions the  donations  of  Charlemagne  Is  a  forgery.  In 
conaequence  of  tha  coronation  of  Charlemagne  os  em- 
peror by  Leo  lil,  in  800,  the  connection  of  the  pops 


irely  ■ 


issed,  snd  the  ] 


pal  docntnents  were  henceforth  dated  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  the  new  emperor.  The  king 
of  the  Franks,  as  Roman  emperor,  had  thos  become 
the  real  sovereign  of  Rome,  who  had  to  sanction  the 
election  of  a  pope.  The  temporal  power  of  the  popea 
npidly  increased  under  the  weak  Carlovinglana,  alter 
whoee  estinction  (888)  the  imperial  dignity  was,  nntll 
933,  conferred  upon  Italian  grandees,  and  subsequently 
was  tbr  acme  time  discontinued  altogether,  n'hen 
Otto  I,  bi  962,  reaasumed  the  dignity  of  Roman  em- 
peror, he  at  once  confirmed  the  papal  posseaaiona  (the 
original  document  ii  lost,  but  a  copy  aomewhat  modi- 
fled  in  the  eleventh  century  ia  extant).  A  document 
containing  s  donation  from  Otto  III  to  Sylvester  II  Is 
a  forgery,  and  there  are  no  other  reasons  for  tha  exist. 
ence  of  that  pretended  donation.  In  1062  the  Roman 
See  obtained  feudal  right  orer  Benevento.  The  count- 
aas  HaUlda  of  Tuscany  promised  to  the  pops  to  be- 
queath to  him  her  eitensive  territory ;  but  on  her  death 
the  property  became  the  subject  of  a  violent  and  pro. 
tracted  dispute,  and  the  claims  of  the  popes  were  not 
tecognised  until  1201,  by  Otto  IV.  In  the  agreement 
between  Otto  and  the  pope  the  following  territory'  was 
designated  as  papal  possessions:  the  country  from  the 
deliles  of  Ceperano  (on  the  frontier  of  Naples),  as  far  j 
aa  the  fort  of  Radicofano  (on  the  Tuscan  frontier),  the  | 
eXBTchaU  of  Ravenna,  the  Pentapolia  (aee  above),  the 
Marches,  the  dnchy  of  Spoleto,  the  poaees^ns  of  the 
eonnteas  Matilda,  tlie  coonty  of  Brittenorium,  with 
other  adjacent  lands  expresely  mentioned  In  the  doc- 
uments of  the  emperors  from  the  times  of  Louis  (which 
Utter  clauses  recognised  the  contents  of  a  number  of 


apnrlona  documanla).  Otto  IT  also  promised  to  dsi 
fend  the  claims  of  the  pope  lo  the  Itingdom  of  Sicily. 
Thua  the  Stales  of  the  Church  were  firmly  eatkbliahed, 
and  as,  aince  10S9,  the  election  of  the  pope  had  been 
Independent  of  the  emperor,  the  high  political  poeitian 
of  the  popes  in  the  Chriatian  world  was  confirmed. 

During  the  following  centuries  the  popes  were  mors 
intent  upon  preserving  than  upon  enlarging  their  pua- 
sessions.  In  127B,  Philip  III  presented  to  Gregory  X 
the  county  of  Venaissin,  and  in  IMS  Clement  VI 
purchased  Avignon  from  Joanna,  queen  of  Sicily  and  s. 
countess  of  Proveocc.  Duripg  the  residence  of  the 
popea  at  Avignon,  and  during  the  schism,  the  popn 
liad  to  concede  extensive  privileges  to  various  cities. 
Otherparts  were  given  as  fiefs  to  Italian  princes:  thus, 
in  144B,  Alphonso  I  of  Naples  was  made  papal  ^icar 
of  Benevento  and  Terradna;  bnt  Nicholas  V  (1447- 
1468),  Pius  II  (H58-1464),  and  Sixtoa  IV  C14;i-1184) 
reconsolidated  the  popal  pofsetsions.  Julius  II  (15(8 
-161!)  reconquered  from  the  Venetians  ail  the  places 
which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  pope,  and  even 
added  to  his  terrilory  Ponna,  Piacenaa,  snd  Reggio, 
(has  giving  to  the  Stales  of  the  Church  the  most  ex- 
tensive l^ntier  they  have  ever  bad.  Parma  and  Pia,- 
ceniawere  soon  lost  again,  bnt  in  their  place  Camerino 
nnd  Ncpi  were  obtained.  Reggio  had  to  be  abandoned 
in  1&33.  and  Modena  in  1&37 ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 

jeded,  as  Ancona  in  1632,  Perugia  in  IMO,  and  the 
feudal  relations  of  olbere,  aa  Femra  (1638),  Urbino 
(1636),  and  tba  dnchy  of  Castro  (the  dispute  concerning 
which  lasted  until  17S6),  were  abolished.  About  fifly 
years  later  tho  States  of  the  Church  entered  into  a  pe- 
riod of  rapid  decline.  In  1783  tho  government  of  Na- 
ples declared  the  feudal  relation  in  which  that  kingdom 
had  stood  to  Rome  as  terminated.  In  1791  Avigmoi 
and  Venaiaun  were  annexed  to  France,  and  in  1TB$ 
another  considerable  tnct  of  territory  was  lost.  At 
the  peace  of  Tolentlno,  Feb.  19,  1707,  Pius  VI  had  to 
cede  all  tho  papal  poaaeaaiona  utuate  in  France,  and  to 
agree  Uiat  the  districts  of  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and  Bo- 
magna  ahould  be  incorporated  with  the  new  Ttanspa- 
dan  Republic.  On  the  16lh  of  Februar}'  the  republic 
was  proclaimed  in  tho  city  of  Rome,  the  papal  goven^ 
ment  was  decUred  abnllshed,  and  the  pope  himself 
was  carried  into  raptivi^.  Ihe  treaty  of  Vienna,  Id 
1816,  restored  to  the  pope  the  Marches,  with  Cameri- 
no, the  duchy  of  Benevento,  with  the  principiiity  of 
Ponte-Corvo,  the  legations  of  Ravenna,  Bologna,  and 
Ferrara;  and  gave  to  the  emperor  of  Austria  the  right 
of  garriaoDine  Ferrara  and  Commacchio.  NotUng 
was  said  in  the  treaty  of  Vienna  about  the  papal  claima 
to  AvigniHi  and  Venalaain,  on  which  areoont  the  pops 
protested  against  the  portion  of  the  treaty  relating  to 
the  States  of  the  Church. 

Certain  acts  of  Leo  XII  (1814)  created  grnrral  in- 
dignation among  the  inhabitants  of  the  papal  leniloTT. 
In  February,  IBSl,  an  insnrrertion  broke  out  in  BcJc^ 
na,  which  soon  spread  through  the  whole  province, 
and  from  there  thraagh  the  larger  portion  of  the  States 
of  the  Church.  A  provisional  govern  ment  was  estslv 
lisbed,  nnd  on  the  !6lh  of  Fobroary  an  arsembly  of 
deputies  declared  the  abolition  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  popes.  The  intervention  of  Ausrtia  put,  how- 
ever, an  end  to  the  insurrection.  The  rrprescnlatireB 
of  the  great  powers  found  the  civil  administratien  so 
nnsatisfsclory  that  they  u^fently  recommended  the 
introduction  of  reforms.  As  these  were  not  gr9ated,a 
new  insurrection  occurred,  which  caused  another  inter- 
vention of  Austria,  and  the  occupation  of  Bologna  )iy 
Austrian  troops.  This  was  at  once  followed  by  an  oc- 
cupation of  Ancona  by  France,  which  was  unwiliioglo 
leave  the  pop*  under  the  sole  patntoage  of  Aunia. 
,  Both  occupations  lasted  until  18S8.  tiregoiy  XTI 
(18S1-184G)  convoked  an  asaembly  of  deputies,  Jn  onitr 
to  learn  tbe  wishes  of  the  people,  butit  led  to  no  relbms 
of  any  account.    Tha  discontant  of  the  people  contia> 


CHCKCH,  STATES  OF  THE        341 


CHCBCH-WAKDENS 


aed,  and  ahond  ilnlf  in  Mpeited  rerolntloTiaiy  out- 
breaki.  Fiu«IX(elee(«d  JuQal6, 1846)begantoiDtn>- 
dnce  impoitBot  chmnges  into  tbe  pablic  ulinlnlBtrHtiaii 
(motu  proprio  of  2d  uid  14th  of  October,  1S47,  funda- 
mentBl  gUtnta  of  Htb  of  Mucb,  lS4a,  etc.),  and  tbiu 
S>va  an  impalas  to  ■  political  movement  wblcb  he 
■oon  found  hlmtelf  nnabla  to  control.  He  had  to 
pmnt,  on  ths  14th  of  March.  1848,  a  coniUtDtional 
Ibrm  of  goTgrniDent,  whleb  was  mod  followed  \iy  tbe 
appointnKDt  of  D  liberal  minlitry  (Mamiunl)  and  the 
conTOcation  of*  Conatitnent  Aasembl}'.  An  •tt«itipt 
to  cnrb  the  libenl  movement  by  tbe  ippointauat  ot  i 
ooDHrvative  mlniitry  (Count  Koaai)  failed,  and  thi 
pi^M  was  compelled  lo  cooienttotbe  a^polntnuat  of  i 
democratic  mlnietrj'.  On  the  Z6th  of  November  tbi 
pope  fled  fntm  Rome  in  diiKUiae,  tad  took  up  hli  lesi' 
daiic«  at  Gaeta,  in  tbe  kingdom  of  Naples.  In  eonie- 
qmnce  of  this  movement  a  provisional  government  waa 
eatabliahed  at  Rome,  which  declared  the  temponl 
power  abolished,  and  proctalmed  tbe  republic  (Fsbra- 
U7, 1849).  This  led  to  a  new  intervention  of  Aastrin 
(after  the  defut  ot  Sjrdinia)  In  the  legations,  and  lo 
tbe  laikdiDg  in  the  Pspal  States  of  a  French  armj, 
under  Ondinot,  In  April,  134Q.  Tbe  city  of  Rome  aur- 
randered  on  ^fl  2d  of  Ja1y,the  papal  rule  was  raatond, 
■nd  all  tbe  relbrms  of  the  first  yeari  of  tbe  ralgn  ot 
Fins  ware  abolished.  The  political  and  flnsnclai  con- 
dition of  the  States  of  the  Church  after  tlie  restoration 
of  the  pope  was  most  deplorable,  and  the  psople  con- 
tinned  to  be  diauliafled  with  tbe  pspel  rule.  When, 
io  iaS9,  in  conseqaence  of  tbelr  defeat  at  Magenta,  the 
Aoxtriaiis  hod  to  withdraw  their  troops  fkom  Centnl 
Italy,  Bologna  and  the  nelKhboring  legations  (the  Bo- 
nagna)  at  onceihookoffthe  papai  rule,  and,  together 
with  Puina  and  Modena,  oi^anized  them,  under  the 
name  of  Emilia,  Into  s  proviilonal  state  ander  the  dli> 
tatorahip  of  Farinl.  After  tbe  treaty  of  Zurich  (Nov. 
10, 1S59),  Austria  and  France  propoaed  the  coBTDcatloii 
ef  a  con^reu  for  tbe  regulation  otthe  Italian  affain, 
hot  the  pope  refused  to  take  part  in  it,  as  the  gnat 
pewer*  did  not  agree  to  guarantee  to  him  the  reatora- 
tbn  of  the  Romagua.  Victor  Emmanuel  consequently, 
by  m  decree  of  the  ISth  of  Uarch,  1S60,  after  a  popalar 
rota  had  declared  in  favor  of  annexation,  incorpoialed 
the  KonuKna  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  papal 
govemaient  now  tried  to  organize  a  powerful  army, 
diiefly  of  fordgn  volunteers,  under  tbe  French  general 
[^moricibre.  When,  after  the  conquest  of  Naplea  by 
Garibaldi,  a  part  of  the  old  Naapalilan  army  bad  been 
onited  with  the  papal  troops,  tbe  Italian  government 
demanded  the  discharge  irf  the  fbreign  volunteers  as 
menacing  the  unity  of  Italy,  and,  when  the  papal  gov- 
emment  refused  to  comply  with  this  request,  the  king 
marched  troops  into  the  papal  territoiy,  defeated  the 
papal  troops  at  Castelfidardo  on  the  18th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  captured  tbe  remsinder  at  Ancona.  Umhria 
and  tlte  Horebes  now  declared  at  once  in  favor  of  an- 
DtxatioD,  and,  a  popular  vote  having  tieen  taken,  were 
incorporated  with  Italy  by  decree  ot  the  17th  of  De- 
cember. As,  after  tbe  fall  of  Qaeta.  Rome  became  tbe 
reftage  of  the  expelled  king  of  Naples,  and  tbe  centre 
of  all  plots  against  Italian  unity,  tbe  Italian  Party  of 
Action  loudly  demanded  (he  cooqueat  of  Rome,  and  in 
March,  1861,  eveo  tbe  lulian  Pariisment  decUred  tbe 
dty  of  Some  the  natonl  and  indiapcnaable  capital  of 
tbe  kioxdom.  Attempts  mode  by  the  Italian  prime 
■Inistar  Cavour  to  prevail  upon  the  pope  to  consent  to 
a  eeparation  between  his  temporal  and  ecdeaiaatical 
power  biled ;  and  the  tame  waa  tbe  case  with  a  pmp- 
oaitlon  of  Loula  Napoleon  to  bring  about  a  recondtia- 
tlon  between  the  Italian  and  tlie  Roman  governments 
en  the  bads  of  tbe  existing  extent  of  tile  papal  territo- 
ry. In  ISGS,  Oarlbaldi  made  an  attempt,  at  the  bead 
WTananayofvolunteaTS,  to  conquer  Rome,  and  deliver 
Italy  both  from  the  rule  of  tba  pope  and  tliat  of  the 
Prendk,  but  this  monmeat  was  promptly  suppressed 
by  the  Italian  BOvemment.    On  tbe  16th  ot  Septem- 


ber, IMl,  France  concluded  with  the  government  of 
Itaiy  a  convention,  by  which  France  promised  to  with- 
draw its  army  ot  occupation  IVom  Rome  within  two 
years,  while  Italy,  oD  tbe  other  hand,  promiaed  not  to 
attack  tbe  papal  territory,  and  even  to  protect  it 
ag^nst  any  foreign  attaclis,  to  assume  a  proportional 
part  of  the  papal  debt,  and  not  to  oppose  the  orgauixa- 
tion  ot  a  papal  anny,  provided  the  Utter  should  not 
threaten  the  safety  ot  Italy,  In  accordance  with  the 
proviidona  of  tills  convention,  the  city  ot  Borne  and  the 
papal  territory  were  evacuated  by  the  French  troop  in 
December,  1S66.  The  pope  bos,  up  to  this  time,  per- 
I  slsleDtly  declined  all  proposals  to  abandon  his  claims 
I  (o  the  proviucss  which  have  been  incoiponited  with  the 
I  Idngdom  of  Italy,  and  still  more  lo  renonnco  the  tcm- 
I  poral  power  alt<^etber.     See  TEHroHAL  I'owbd. 

II,  gcefejjgrtieai  Slaliilici.  —  Tho  Papal  Stales  had 
I  in  1S53  an  area  ot  17,4M  aqosre  miles,  and,  according 
to  tbe  cenius,  a  population  of  S,l!4,608  souls,  among 
whom  were  SSS?  Israelitsa  and  208  PnitaaUntt,  while 
the  rest  were  Roman  Catholics.  They  bad  nine  arcb- 
biahoprics,  viz.,  Rome  (whose  metropolite  is  the  pope 
himself,  represented  through  a  cardinal  vicar),  Bene- 
vento,  Fermo,  Ferrora,  Ksvenna,  Urbino,  Bologna, 
Camerino,  Spoietn — the  last  three  without  luBVagans. 
The  namber  ot  bishoprics  was  seventy-nine,  of  which, 
however,  many  hod  been  permaaanlly  united,  so  that 
tbe  actual  number  of  bishops  amounted  only  lo  flfty- 
eight.  All  tbe  eight  archbishoprics  and  most  of  the 
bishoprics  lie  in  the  provinces  wblcb  in  1869  were  an- 
nexed to  Sardinia.  The  Sutea  of  the  Church,  tbui 
reduced,  had  in  1867  about  700,000  inhabitants.  The 
city  of  Rome  had,  in  1866,  !10,7ai  inhabitants,  among 
whom  were  4667  Israelites  and  42B  Protaatants.  Con- 
vents are  very  nameroui.  There  were,  in  184S,  1824 
convents  of  monks  and  612  of  nuns.  Tbe  secular 
clergy  were  estimated  at  83,000,  monks  10,000,  nun* 
BOOO.  Tho  former  belong  to  50,  tbe  latter  to  11  diSer- 
ent  orden,  Tbe  total  nnmlK<r  of  clerical  penoos  In 
the  city  of  Rome  was  (in  1SG6)  7878.  Tbe  superiors 
of  most  of  the  ordere  reside  In  Rome.  See  MuNA- 
cmaH.  As  tbe  seat  of  the  central  government  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  SUtes  of  the  Church 
(more  particularly  Rome)  have  a  number  of  eccleuas- 
tlcal  offices  and  boards,  which  are  treated  otin  separala 

articles.       See    PoFEj     CARDINAt.;     CoNaBEQATtON ; 

CdSIa  Roua^a.  See  Henog,  Stat-EncgUet).  vii,  676 
sq.;  Wetzernnd  Welta,  £iralea-£«it»a,  vi,lT6;  Su- 
genheim  (Protest.),  GodudUe  der  Enllrkmg  and  Aa*- 
biidimg  dii  Kircliautaiat  (Leipilg,  1864))  Scharpff 
(Roman  Catholic),  EnttUhmg  tin  KirdurubuUt  (1854 ; 
tranil.  Baltimore,  18G0)j  Dellhiger  (Rom.  Oath.),  1% 
CAntqI  md  ChttTctti  (Munich,  18611  bansl.  1868); 
Brockhans,  Cormertafiotit-Ltxiion,  viil  (Utb  ediUou, 
1866),eS3aq.     See  IrALY. 

CHURCH,   UNITED   PRESBTTEEIAN.      See 

PnSBBTTKRIAH  (UnITBD)  ChDBCH. 

CHURCH- WARDENS,  officers  in  tbe  Church  of 
England,  whose  business  is  to  look  to  the  church, 
choich-yard.  and  to  observe  the  behavior  of  the  psrisb- 
loners ;  to  levy  a  shilling  torfeitare  on  all  snch  as  do 
not  go  to  church  on  Sundays,  and  to  keep  periena  or- 
derly in  church  time,  etc.  By  Canon  89,  church-war- 
dens or  questmeu  in  every  parish  are  required  to  be 
chosen  by  tbe  jcaat  consent  of  the  minister  and  the 
parishioners,  it  it  may  be ;  bat  if  they  cannot  agree 
upon  such  a  cbidce,  then  the  minister  shall  choose  one 
and  tbe  parishioners  another,  and  without  such  a  joint 
or  several  choice  none  shall  take  upon  them  to  be 
church-wardene.  But  if  the  pariah  ia  entitled  by  cus- 
tom to  choose  both  church- wardens,  then  the  paraon  is 
restrained  of  bis  right  under  this  canon.  The  dutiet 
of  English  church-wardens  are  laid  down  In  Prideanx, 
PraOkat  Guide  lo  tie  Dwiat  of  Chardt'ieardmi  (10th 
ed.  LoQd,  1833,  ISmo).  Id  tbe  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  America,  their  dutle*  in  geneml  are  lo  pro. 
tect  tho  cbnrth  building,  to  sea  tliai  wcrsblp  Is  duly 


CHDKCH-YABD  SI 

pToridcd  fbr  tad  performed,  and  to  reprewnt  the  body 
of  tte  pwish  when  oration  miiy  require.  They  ire 
choMn,  with  the  vestryinen,  "  uiniuilly  Id  Eutar- 
week,  sccordiDg  Id  the  unons  of  the  Tarioiu  dioceses." 
'iheir  dotien  are  enjoiniid  by  diocsua,  not  by  gsneral 
euiDaa.  —  Hook,  ClkrcA  i>icttDnar]r,  i.  t.;  Staontan, 
^iefU^i^ttical  Diclinaary,  ».  v, 

CHUBCH-YARD,  a  place  at  gro 
I  burcb,  Bet  apart  for  the  intannent  of  the  dead.  Unr- 
iDg  the  GiBt  three  ccnturiea  of  our  nra  the  ChriatianB 
faUoved  the  law  of  pagan  Kome,  according  ta  which 
every  one  coald  iwlect  bis  hurying-place  oataide  of 
the  tovrna.  The  CbriiCisna  generally  preferred  (o  be 
buried  near  the  gravel  of  the  martyrs,  and  thus  they 
early  obtained  cDmrn  on  buij-uig,  or,  as  they  called  them, 
sloeping-placcs  (tnmtUria,  dormitona),  which  were 
■omctlmeB  nboTa  ths  ground  (urea),  and  sometimes  in 
subterranean  caves.  See  Catacoubb.  When  the  per- 
secutioa  of  Christianity  ceased,  and  the  relics  of  the 
martyra  were  transfBrred  to  the  churches  vitbin  the 
towns,  the  places  around  the  churches,  or  the  vaatibuloa 
of  the  cbarches,  were  commonly  selected  t6r  burying 
the  dead]  for  a  burial  in  the  church  itaelf  was  strictly 
forbidden,  and  only  granted  as  a  special  distinction  to 
biaho|H,  princes,  and  other  persona  of  high  ecclosiaaCi- 
cal  or  political  position.  Thus  gradually  the  church- 
yards liecame  an  established  inatltation  in  connection 
with  the  church.  In  large  cities  every  particular 
church  had  its  church-yard,  and  not  ontil  the  Itth 
century  are  the  church-yards  to  be  found  without  Che 
town.  Gradually  It  became  general  to  close  the 
cburcb-yards  in  the  towns,  and  lo  remove  them  out  of 
the  towns,  aotil  ultimaCel}'  the  govemTnents  of  most 
of  the  states  enforced  this  rule  fhim  sanitary  reasons. 

In  the  Chorch  of  Kome,  church-yards  are  consecra- 
ted with  great  solemnity.  If  a  church-j'sjd  which  has 
been  thus  consecrated  shall  afterwards  be  pollutod  by 
any  indecent  action,  or  profkned  by  the  hurial  of  an 
infidel,  a  heretic,  an  excnrnmunicated  or  onbaptiied 

recDnciliation  Is  performed  with  the  samo  solemnity  as 
that  of  the  consecration!  (Buck).     8c«  CoRSECRa- 


In  the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany  and  other 
conntijea,  church-yarda  were  set  apart  by  prayinj  and 
reading  of  the  Scriptuiw ;  in  England  and  Sweden  a 
Ibnnal  consecration  ia  still  in  uae. 

In  England  tbe  church-yard  is  the  freehold  of  Che 
paraon;  but  Icisthe  common  burial-place  of  the  dead, 
and  for  Chat  reason  it  is  to  be  fkncod  at  the  charge  of 
the  parisblonors,  unless  there  is  a  custom  to  the  con- 
tiary,  or  for  a  particular  person  to  do  it,  in  respect  of 
his  lands  adjoining  to  the  church-yards ;  and  that  must 
be  tried  at  common  taw  (Hook).     SeeBiiBiAt.;  Cem- 

Tha  control  of  the  church-yanls  has  given  rise  to 
manyconflictsbetweenChurchandSCatc.  TheCburch 
of  Rome  forbids  the  burial  of  heretics,  suicides 
communicated  penons,  and  unbaptlzed  children  upon 
the  Koman  Catbolic  cemetery ;  while  the  sCat«  go 
roentfi,  both  Protestant  and  Soman  Catholic,  regarding 
the  cemetery  as  pultlic  and  not  ecclesiastical  property, 
have  freqaently  endeavored  Co  compel  the  burying 
of  all  dead  without  distinction  in  the  same  ceme 
In  the  United  States  tbe  government  does  not 
die  with  tbe  places  and  modes  of  linrial,  and  reli| 
bodies,  as  well  as  single  congregations  and  Indi 
als,  can  make  anv  prnvisions  Oiey  please  for  the  burial 
of  their  dead.— Wetzer  n.  Welte,  Kirdiea-La.  vi,  Ml ; 
Heriog,  Rtai-Enq/Hop.  vil,  TOG. 

CHURCH-YEAR.  Neither  the  New  Testament  noi 
the  Church  literature  of  the  first  three  centuries  con. 
Mln  any  intimalion  Chat  tbe  Christians  of  that  time 
viewed  the  year  from  any  other  stand-point  than  that 
of  subjects  of  tbe  Roman  emperor  or  other  princes. 
See  Calbndak',  Chrokoloot,  Christian.  The  first 
Impulse  to  tlie  idea  of  a  church  year  distinct  from  the 


CHURCH-TEAR 

dvll  year  was  ^ven  by  tba  eatahliabment  of  annlTcr- 

iries  of  prominent  events  in  the  life  of  Christ.  The 
lost  ancient  of  these  aoniveniries  were  those  of  bia 
death  and  resairection  [see  Easteu]  ;  gradually  wstw 
added  Co  them  those  of  bis  birth  [see  CHRDrmAa],  of 
the  ouCpoaring  of  the  Holy  GboeC  [see  Pbdtbcost]. 
of  the  circumcision  [see  Ei^fhahy],  of  tbe  ascenaioB 
[sea  ABCEmioH  Day].  ChrisCmaa,  Easter,  and  Pen- 
tecost came  each  to  be  regarded  as  the  centre  of  a  cycle, 
the  three  cycles  together  emhndng  a  commemotatioo 
of  every  thing  memorable  In  the  Ufa  of  the  Redeemer. 
When  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Uary  and  of  tha 
saints  was  developed  in  the  Church  of  Kome.  a  num- 
ber of  festivals  commemorating  events  in  the  Ufe  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  and  tbe  death-days  of  the  apostles, 
martyrs,  and  saints,  were  added  to  the  eccleuaatical 
calendar.  This  combination  suggested  to  the  writera 
of  tbe  Church  the  idea  that  tbe  cburcb-year  i>  to  c<^ 
ebrate,  within  the  compass  of  a  civil  year,  the  con>- 
memoration  of  all  tbe  memorable  events  in  tbe  life  of 
Che  Chorch,  from  the  birth  of,  or,  rather,  the  annoanoe- 
ment  of  the  birth  of  Christ  to  tbe  death  of  the  lait 
saint.  The  habit  of  beginning  this  year  with  the  first 
Snnday  of  Advent  is  lirst  found  among  the  Neetorians, 
and  was  only  gradually  adopted  by  tha  Church  of 
Rome.  There  arc,  in  all,  four  Sundays  of  Advent,  in- 
tended to  prepate  the  mind  for  the  proper  celebration 
of  Christmas  (36th  of  December).  Christmas,  like 
Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  Pentecost,  were 
each  followed  by  an  "octave"  (commemorative  ser- 
vices relcrring  to  the  gniat  festival  during  eight  dai-s, 
the  chief  festival  Itself  being  counted  in),  the  Sunday 
Immediately  following  the  festival  being  denorairulcd 
the  Sunday  "within  the  octave."  The  Sundays  fol- 
lowing the  "  Sunday  within  the  octave  of  Einpbany" 
were  called  the  "  second,  etc.,  Snnday  after  Epiph- 
any," until  the  Snnday  Septuagesima  began  the  Eas- 
ter cycle.  It  was  followed  by  the  Sunda.i-s  Sexa- 
gesima,  Qninquagesima,  fonr  Sundays  of  Lent,  Palm 
Sunday,  and  Easter  Sunday;  Sunday  within  the  oe- 
Uva  of  Easier  ("Low  Sunday"),  second,  third,  etc.. 
Sundays  after  Easter,  until  the  Sunday  within  the 
octave  of  Aacension  forms  the  boundary-line  between 
the  Easter  and  the  Pentecost  cycles.  WbitBunday 
(Pentecost)  opens  the  Pentecost  cycle ;  and  tbe  follow- 
ing Sundays  are  called  the  first  (festival  of  the  "  most 
Holy  Trinity"),  second,  etc.,  Sunday  after  Pentecost. 
They  mn  on  until  tbe  close  of  the  church-rear,  when 
die  recurrence  of  the  lint  Sunday  of  Advent  opens  the 
new  year.  Tbe  Isst  festival  which  Rome  added  to  bar 
charch-yesr  was  that  otCorpft  CArufi(q.  v.),  Iclie  Ln 
annual  celebration  of  the  doctrine  of  transubetantla- 
tion.  According  to  tbe  importance  attributed  to  iha 
several  festivals,  the  Church  of  Rome  makes  tbe  dis- 
tinction of  "aimplc,"  "semi-double,"  and  "double" 
festivals ;  the  latter  being  again  subdivided  into 
"double  second  class"  and  "double  tirst  class"  (tbe 
highest  f^tivsls).  The  Churcb  books,  as  Mlsaal  and 
Breviary,  have  special  services  fbr  each  particular  fea- 
tival,  and  for  each  dais  of  festivals.  See  Breviabt 
aild  HiBHAi..  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  often 
dwelt  on  a  mysterious  correspondence  between  the 
seasons  of  tbe  chnrch-ycar  and  those  of  the  natural 
year  (Christmas,  tbe  appearance  of  Christ  in  the  tofC 
world  in  winter,  when  natnre  appears  to  be  dead; 
Easter,  in  spring,  when  natnre  sesma  to  revive ;  I'en- 

bloom),  entirely  forgetting  that  this  correspondence 
holds  good  only  of  the  ncHlhern  hemisphere.  Other 
writers  have  more  reasonably  traced  in  this  corre- 
spondence an  Influence  of  pagan  ferCiiais,  in  which 
this  kind  of  corrrspondaoce  can  be  traced  to  a  nry 
large  extent,  upon  Che  doctrines  and  institutions  of  the 
Churcb  of  Rome ;  liut  sltiiouich  in  some  instances  the 
influence  is  undeniable,  it  is  difficult  Co  say  bow  far  it 
extended.  The  chief  feoloree  of  the  church-y ear  were 
thlly  developed  when  the  aepairatlon  between  the  Latin 


CHDKCH,  JOHN  HUBBARD      us  CHTJBHAN-RISHATHAIM 


ml  OTMk  chnrcbe*  look  plan,  and  thtm  U,  tbercAni, 
bat  little  difference  in  tbe  church-year  ut  the  two 
Atatbcf.  Tbe  Gnnki  begin  their  f  ear  on  tbe  Ist  of 
September,  and  have,  of  course,  none  of  tbe  lainti  of 
the  Roman  Cbarcb  who  either  lived  or  were  canonized 
■fler  tbe  Kpnration,  while  the  Latbii  do  not  recogniie 
the  few  saints  which  the  Greek  Chorcb  baa  added  to 
Um  catalogae  of  tbe  ancient  aainta. 

LutbfT  and  the  Latberan  Cbuich  retained,  on  tbe 
whole,  the  Rotaaa  Catholic  idea  of  the  cburcb-jear. 
Ttuy  rejected  the  Corpns  Cbristi  festival  and  the  dayi 
of  the  Eiainta,but  retained  taoetof  the  festivatA  of  Uary 
sa  being  ba^cd  upon  events  mentioned  in  tbe  Bible, 
and  tbe  celebration  of  the  dnyaof  the  npostloi  and  the 
anEels.  In  the  conflict  between  Iligb-Churcb  apd 
Low-Charcb  Lntberaoa  in  tbe  I9th  century,  tbe  for- 
mer  put}"  rtronKlj  insiitedDpoa  retoiainu  ever;  thing 
to  which  Lather  and  tbe  other  fWlhen  of  the  Latberan 
Cbnrch  had  not  ofa)ected,  and  (ome  leading  men  of  tlie 
achool  even  ahowed  a  dlipoeition  to  strain  everj  thing 
Id  common  between  tbe  earlj  Latberan  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  charcbea  as  fur  as  their  memberahip  ' 
tbe  Latberan  Charch  woald  possibly  admit.  This  te 
dency  ehoKS  itself  also  with  regud  to  Cburcb  fei' 
Tals  and  tbe  idea  ot  a  church-yenr.  The  Reformed 
efaarchps  detired  to  return  to  the  form  of  divine  wor- 
ataip  ns  it  existed  in  the  primitive  service,  and  tbere- 
ton  sbowed  a  tendency  to  reject  the  whole  idea  of  a 
charch-year.  In  Geneva,  at  the  time  of  Calvin,  only 
the  Sunday  vae  celebrated,  and  tbe  same  habit  pre- 
vailed in  most  of  tbe  Reformed  cburchei  of  Switzer- 
land. laGormanytbeoppoaitionoftheReformed 
choTch-vear  was  not  so  thorougb.  In  modem 
tbe  crto'bration  of  Good  Friday  has  been  Introduced 
into  most  of  tbe  Reformed  churches  (in  Gei 
1830).  In  the  Church  of  England,  the  HigbJDhurtb 
party  Tctain«i  mncb  more  of  tbe  Litin  cburcb-year 
than  was  done  by  the  Lntberans ;  and  in  modem  times 
•ffbrta  have  even  been  made  to  contarm  tbe  Anglican 
eluirch-vear  in  almost  every  particular  to  that  of  tbe 
Chnrch'of  Rome.  Tbe  Dissenting  churches  of  Eng- 
land and  the  I'rotestant  churclies  of  the  United  States 
have  tteneraliy  rejected  the  idea  of  a  cburch-year,  with 
its  system  of  peculiar  festivals.  Easter  and  Good  Fri- 
day, however,  are  celebrated  by  charch  services  in 
many  of  the  Dotcb  and  German  Refonned  and  Meth- 
odist cbuTchos,  and  some  others;  and  in  tbe  German 
Reformed  Cbarch  the  idea  of  a  church-year,  as  it  Has 
developed  in  tbe  Latin  Cbnrcb  of  the  Middle  Ages,  has 
fband  manv  defenders.  See  Henog.  Arutfiicjiibpii- 
<iir,  vii,  643  m|.  :  Wetzer  a.  Welte,  KirrMm-LaOoii,  vi, 
161  aq.  The  moat  important  Roman  Catholic  works 
on  tbe  chuTch-VMr  are  Gretser,  De  FtttU  Ckriitiaito- 
nm;  Benedict' XIV,  De  Fatii;  Staudenmaiei,  Geiil 
dtM  CkritinDami;  Nickel,  K»  IM.  ZaUat;  Unterli 
DajcM-Hrdigktilen.  Proteatant  works:  Strauss.  B 
tmmgri.  Kirchmiakr  (Berlin,  IB&O);  Bobertag,  Dm 
ttaigtt.  KircitmjaAr  (BreaUn,  1868). 

Church,  John  Hnbbatd.  D.D,,  a  Congregation- 
al minlKter,  was  bom  at  Rutland,  Haas.,  March  IT, 
1771.  Ha  graduated  at  Harvard  1797,  and  was  in- 
stalled paalor  in  Pelham,  M.  H.,  Oct.  Bl,  179B.  He 
died  in  Jane.  1840.  Dr.  Cbunh  was  trustee  of  Dsrt- 
noatb  College,  Prerident  of  M.  II.  Bible  Society,  and 
fflled  several  other  honorable  sUtlons.  Ho  pnliliehed 
anDmber  of  occasional  sermona Spragae,  AwuiU,  ii, 

dmich,  ThOBUH,  D.D.,  A  divine  of  the  Chorcb 
wl  England,  was  bom  1707.  and  adncated  at  Braie- 
Boee  College,  Oxford.  In  I'lO  be  was  made  vicar  of 
Battmei,  end  aflerwards  prebend  of  St.  Paul'a.  He 
died  in  1766.  Among  bla  pabiications  are,  ftrajr  oa 
(is  AntWKt^.V.  r.  (Uad.l737,BT0);  BaHrimt  of 
Aa  dturrk  of  England  on  Jj^amtmliim  (Lond.  173!), 
Avo) ;  Vatdicalvm  itf  Oit  tnraadimt  Aieert  of  Ikt 
CWa  IB  Ok  Jut*  arm  Cmttntt  (anawer  to  Uiddleton 


[Lond.  17H,  Svn]).  Ha  wnM  also  several  traota 
against  Wesley  and  tlie  Methodists,  notices  ot  which 
may  be  fbond  ia  Wesley's  JovnaU  ( Worki,  v,  2G& ; 
vi,Hfi), 

Churching  OF  WOMEN, aformofpiUu: Mania- 
,  iM^  for  iromen  aflar  dnlAiirllL,  used  b  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches,  in  tbe  Church  of  England,  and 
hi  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  "  It  is  in  all 
probability  of  Jewish  origin,  and  derived  from  the  rite 
of  pnriflcation  enjoined  in  tiie  twelfth  chapter  of  Levit- 
icua.  The  rubric  [of  tbe  Engliab  Cbnrcb]  commands 
that  the  office  be  used  only  in  the  cbarch.  Church- 
ing in  private  houses  is  inconsistent  with  tbe  very 
name  of  tbe  office,  and  with  tbe  devotions  prescribed 
by  the  otBce."  Tbe  Roman  Catholic  Cburcb  allows, 
in  exeeptlooal  cases,  chorcbing  in  private  houses,  und 
the  chorching  of  molhen  of  illegitimate  children. — 
Eden.  CkutimtM't  Dielionatif,  e.  v. ;  Procter  (M  Com- 
mon Prayer,  p.  427 ;  Brownell.  Comm.  on  Prajer-boot, 
p. 490;  Wetnra.Welte,it:inik«-L«ziiua,i,5&2(s.v. 


Cbnrl  ('^^3,  tilay',  taa.  ixxli,  S;  or  ^is,  *e%', 
ver.  7),  a  daMVtr  (as  it  should  have  been  rendered) ; 
while  CHURLISH  ia  tbo  proper  rcodering  (of  n^I3, 
tat)iA',  nwjii,  as  often  ebHwhere  rendered)  for  > 
coarse,  Ill-natured  feliov  (1  Sam.  xxv,  S ;  compare  S 
Mace,  xir,  20  j  Ecclua.  xviii,  18;  xlii,  11),  like  Nabal 
(q.v.). 

Chumliig  (y^^,  aiiCt,  sfweoiv)  signlfiM  the  act 
of  presdng  (Prov.  xxx,  31),  being  the  same  vord  ren- 
dered "wringing"  and  "forcing"  in  tbe  same  verse, 
and  agrees  with  tbe  Eistera  mode  of  making  batter 
(see  Thomson,  Land  and  Boot,  i,  893).     See  BtrrrER. 

Cbnrton,  Ralph,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
Eni;land,  was  burn  near  Bicklev,  Cheshire,  Dec.  8, 
ITH.  He  was  educated  at  Malpaa  Grsmniar-«;hoal, 
and  at  Brazenose  College,  O^'r-ril,  where  be  was  en- 
tered in  177!,  and  became-ftaliow  In  I77H.  In  1788  he 
delivered  tbe  Bampton  lecture  On  Ihf  Prxtpkerin  n- 
^>telmg  t\t  Detlruetion  of  JtntaUm  {Qxt.  IT85,  8ro). 
In  17»!hetMcanie  rector  oCMiddletoa  Cheney  J  In  1806 
he  was  made  archdeacon  of  St.  David's.  For  forty 
yean  be  labored  dliigeatly  aad  faithhlly  as  a  parish 
priest,  and  was  engoged  siso  in  freqnent  and  osoful 
I iurarj' labors.  He  died  March  SS,  1831.  Besides  the 
Bampton  lecture,  ho  pnbilsbed  Memoir  of  A' ehiiracffn 
Tmentim  (1778, 1828. 1830) ;  Upo  of  Biihop  SmM  and 
Sir  Sickard  BuUaa  (1800,  8vo)i  Life  of  Than  A'twetf 
(1809,  8vo) ;  and  numerous  detached  aernion*  and 
pamphlets.^ — .4aniiaJ  Aw^ropAy  and  Obituary  (Ixmd. 
1882),  xvi,  278. 

Cba'shan-rishattaaliin  (Hcb.  Kiahan'  Riihi- 
aOa'yim,  Q^riCI  'id^lS,  Sept.  XovaavpiaaZaiii, 
Tulg.  Ckutan-Riualiaini),  the  king  of  Meaopotamto 
who  opi^eaBed  Israel  during  eight  years  (B.C.  1576- 
I&67)  in  tbe  generation  immediately  roUoiving  Joshua 
(Jndg.  iii,  H).  The  name,  if  Hehrev,  would  signify 
Cai*  (comp.  CiWHiK,  Hab.  iii,  7)  o/the  too  vieltd- 
nrtmi ;  but  Furst  (7/i^.  Uanibeirttrb.  s.  v.)  compares 
the  Arabic  aignilication,  darfoftao  gnvenunnit  (see 
Abulf.  Ann.  ii.  p.  100),  with  reference  to  the  twofold 
form  of  Arjm-Naharaim  (q.  *.).  Joaapbus  (Xn(.  T,  3, 
2)  csUs  him  ■'  ChuiarHau  (XDuana3oc),  king  of  tbe 
Aaayrians."  Tbe  seat  of  bis  dominion  was  probably 
tbe  region  between  tbe  Euphrates  and  the  modem 
Ktiahour,  to  which  tbe  name  of  Mesopotamia  always 
attached  in  a  special  way.  In  the  early  caneiform 
inscriptions  this  couutry  appears  to  be  quite  distinct 
troia  Assyria;  it  Is  inhabited  by  a  people  called  \a- 
iri,  who  are  divided  Into  a  vaat  number  of  petty 
tribes,  and  offer  but  little  resistance  to  tbe  AasjTJan 
armies.  No  centralized  monarchy  is  found,  but  as 
none  of  the  Xsiyr^a  historical  Inscriptions  date  earlier 
than  about  B.C.  1100,  which  la  aome  centuries  later 
than  the  time  of  Chushaa,  it  Is,  of  coana,  qnit^  possible 


CHUSr  344  CHJCIA 

thit  avery  diShrmt  conditiDn  of  ttaloga  nuy  bire  ex-  I     Glollug.    8m  Ckhjko. 

U.J  i.  bl,  J-y.     In  "■•  ™i  "l  f^  •<•"  "'       cm-ol.  (K,X„-. ;  ™tb.a«l.,  K.  b.W), .  ml 

.lilM  ohia  to  U.lld  .p  T.,,dlj  .  •"'  P"""'.  •'>*  bo..irf  on  th.  ir«l  b,  Pra,b,11.7«p.~tod  oo  tb; 

...  .,.  lo  ommbl.  ...7  Jm...  ..  q^.bly.    B..«.  „„j  ,,._  c.,piJod.  by  tb.  T.oi»  E.bg.,  ™1  „ 

lioi...a,  0.11.  bm  mml!-  "0  MnopoUmUi,  ..my  ,j,^,  j   i„;^  u„„  Syri.,  ud  bo^doi  ibo  GoU 

U..0..08  lb.1  b.  ..U  b.y.  b«o  ponomr  lo  tt.  ^,  ,_„  <n,„j.„„,  „i  „,,  c„ij.„  'j^  ,^ 

.U»lni'>  yok.  ™  brol.o  rrom  tto  ...k  .1  lb.  p«,p  .  '    '      „^,„„^^  „,   „    ,  ^^  j,„,„„  ^^ 

ot  l™l  .1  lb.  ..do  .„bl  ,..™  by  Olb.  .1  C.l.b  .  ,j.  ,„„  J  ,j,  p^  iiLs  .1  ibo  b..d  rfftl 
„pb^(J.d,.  al,  11),  «.d  oolbo,,,  „™.  I.  b«rt  oJ  ,j,  „t;  p,„^  ,1.  ,.„.^  ,1,,  ,.„„  cmd.1 
II»>pot.oii.i..o^Enn.opow.i.  Jb.ii"  "lib.  „„'„,,  ».m,.  .(lb.  Cyd... ;  lo,.Td.  lb.  ,.13 
i..yii..  rapK  .bool  1.0.  IS.O,  .oold  o.»nlly  r^  t„,  „  „.a.,  „,  .J.^id  b«...o  lb,  SloiJ 

do.:.  11.  lK.rd.mi;  J.110..  lo  u.l,..«^..  («.  K..-  |  [^,„,  .',,  ,,,  .(Am..™  lir  .  n»d.  obltb  .f. 

lin«H.,  WMlor.  £r«teK«>,  ^  B00>  S«  MraopoTA-  .^w.rdB  m.™«l  lb.  P.rt»  Syii»  in  lb.  dirort»o  of 
*"**  Anliocb  (bene  the  .Imo  coniMction  vhich  osisted  be- 

Chn'ai  (Xoomi  ».  r.  X.ir,  Vnlg.  omits),  n  pUoo  i.,eon  Syria  ind  Ciiido,  u  fa<di.sl.d  in  Act.  i».  31, 
nuned  only  in  Jwlilh  rii,  IP,  m  .Mr  EkrabDl,  .nd  '  u ;  G.i.  i,  21).  Tho  wMtocvut  i.  rock-hooDd  in  tb. 
upon  tb.  brook  Htcbronr.  If  tho  history  bo  ot  .11 !  w.st,  low  uid  shelTing  in  lb.  u.l ;  tb.  chi.f  rivets- 
geonine.  this  wm  doobllM.  in  CnUni  Puleslme,  but  gMua,  Cyduus,  sod  CsiyculnDs— were  inaccessibt.  to 
■U  Ibe  OMne.  sppwr  to  be  vety  anropt,  .nd  .ro  not :  ,.,h1,  of  my  site  from  »nd-t«T.  foimcd  at  th.it 
nicogniuble.     See  Joprrti.  |  n-.Dutfas.     By  lb.  .oeiuil.  lb.  uslcm  i«t  was  called 

Cllu'za  [pron.  C^m]  (rslh..  CAuos,  Xo.fof,  for  ,  CilKia  Propria  (.}  .?;.vc  K.Awio,  Ptol.m.v),  or  lb.  Jml 
Cbald.  Itnn,  i.  ..  tllinx,  odhuju.).  tb.  "■l.wsrd"   •^'''""  C'i  m^'of,  Slrabo);  and  the  weelctn,  the  nMji 

,        -.  / 1.    B.—h.,   ,.„    Kl .-^aoHi  (^   ^pi.Ml, 


■Hninn  )  T  in  Bvll   «iiirit  nr   fif  ■  [li»au    Lxvamn  at-    """""""Q  '"  tnODl  Kindt  Of  gnfau  and  Inula  (AeO- 

^h.d  to^  "t  ^y  of  wVm.n  *hor">;pnt«i  htm  SP""  ''^J- '• '-  S  ,=*  V^^T*  ""","'  'IV'  «  V' 
(A.D.  27)  ™  bis  jinmejlng.  (Luke  viii,  fl);  .„d.  ta-  ?" ,'^^'*/ "T;;  '"  '^.^  ""r^"  "!fl<'™'  *?  wft 
Uher  with  Msry  Magilen  .iid  "Mary  the  motber  ;*"«*■  N*).»t  the  wulb^rtcrn  «tmnity«kb™trf 
of  June.,"  having  como  early  to  the  wpnlchre  on  tbo  J"'  ""i,"''^"'  AloxaDder  o«r  D-nn.  Co^m.n« 
■nominB  of  th.  ™ar™ction  (A.D.  M),  ^  bring  ,pW.  CB-C.  m).  and  not  far  from  the  pa-«s  of  Amann, 
and  mntnwnU  to  compute  the  bnriJ,U™nghlW  to  <-Z'^  Af.<y-l^v  X.To,,.v«r  n«W,  Polyb  .^  B)j 
the  Bpoatle.  that  the  t-ord  wa.  rlaen  (Luke  xxiv.  10).  1  *^,  "I*'""''  »  "'*""' °'  *^'''  "''  *"^,S^'* 
TheUTrcura-tanceiwonldwem  to  imply  th.t.h;™  'S'  '''!'*'?!'?"  ^t  "™"'*"-  '^.''  ""^'^  P^'  <"-^: 
•t  thta  time  a  widow  ^^-''  "■*  ^^"^  P'"'™?''*'  Chry.ippus  (B.C.  EOG),  and 

I  of  Arstug  (q.  v.),  author  of  the  aetronamJcal  poem  rd 

ChytawUB,  David  (properly  JTocMa/O,  one  of  tho  ♦omi/Hwn  (B.C.  270);  and  Tarm,  the  birthplace 
mortOToinentofthaLotberan  theologian,  of  the  aec-  of  the  apostle  Paul  (q.  v.).  CllIciaTrachi*  fnmiihed 
and  half  of  the  sixteenth  cenlurj-,  w»»  bom  at  Ingel-  an  iDexhaiiatiUo  aupply  of  ccdan  and  tin  for  ship- 
flDgtD,  Feb.  26,  16a0.  Having  iitndicd  the  ancient  building;  It  waa  also  noted  for  »  ipecie)  of  goat  (Mar- 
Uogaages  at  TCbingen,  he  went  to  Wittenberg  abont  tial,  aiv,  138),  of  whoee  Bhina  cloaka  and  tents  were 
1646,  and  became  a  popU  of  Helaucthon  in  theology.  |  mannftctured.  Its  breed  of  horseB  was  so  superior, 
In  1M8  be  began  to  lectnre  at  Wittenberg  on  pbyaics,  .  that  B60  (one  for  each  day  of  the  year)  formed  part  of 
and  also  on  theology.  After  an  extended  journey  in  '  the  annual  tribute  to  the  hing  of  Persia  (Hemd.  iU, 
Oennany,  SwttzeiUnd,  and  Italy,  he  waa  called  in  90).  The  neighborhood  of  Coryina  produced  Urge 
1661  to  Rostock  ;  and  bis  character  for  ecbolarahip  and  quanUtiea  of  aaffron  (Plin,  Kal,  Hitt.  xxi,  17).  JoH- 
wiadom  guned  him  great  influence  in  Mecklenbu^,  phaai  dentlfled  Clllcia  with  the  TarAitk  of  Gen,  x,  i 
and  aim  in  wider  spheres.  He  waa  eniployBd  by  ^Anl,  i,  6, 1).  Herodotna  saya  that  the  fiiM  Inhab- 
Haximilian  II  to  arrange  eccleaiastical  aeain  in  Aua-  itints  of  the  countiy  were  called  B^iacltat  ('V'"- 
liia.  He  was  principal  author  of  the  aUtutea  of  the  ;,nioOi  and  derives  the  name  of  Cilicla  from  aUx, 
Univeraity  of  Helmatadt,and  waaoneortheantlioTi  Min  otAgenor,  a  Phoiniclan  settler  (vii,  31).  TUa  h 
ofthe/'orwui&a/'CaiM)nf(q.  v.).  Ho  died  June  26,  confirmed  by  PhtsnicUn  Inactiptions,  On  which  the 
1600.  AmonK  l^,™""?*  f"^ ''"f™  ^/'"^  namei.  written  C*aIa*(^bn,Ge..ma..7/<™>../'^«u 
Aurnaiana  (Frankfort,  1578,  Bvo);  De  Morli  el  Vita        „„       „       .  .        .     L.  .      .v  .  .t    ■-.■„  ■  . 

^Tna  (Restock.  1690,  8vo).  Hi.  works  were  col-  P-  ^9>-  Ho™!"*™  «'~  •'^  "jfJ."".*^"""'  "f^ 
lected  and  printed  in  2  vol..  folio  (Laipzip,  1599 ;  Han-  ■  I-y^l""  "«"  »'"'  ™  J"  «^»  'thin  the  Haly.  who 
over,  1604).  A  biography  of  Chytr«ns,  with  a  «,lec  .  *«"  not  conquered  by  Crasos  (.,  28>  Though  par- 
tion  fhtm  hia  works,  waa  pnblished  bv  Pressel  In  the  '">"?  subject^  lo  the  A..yriana,  Medea,  Peniana. 
8thvol.orihowork,£.*»i,.r.»io«™AteS<.*rj1™<fcr  Syn.ns,  and  Roman.,  the  Eleuthero.  (or  free)  Cili- 
Fdter  ier  hlh.  XircAa  (Elberfeld^GS).  See  Sehutz-  '"»■.  f/^  lohabitan.s  of  the  moanlain™  dirtrW. 
tus,  Be  yUa  D.  Cirt™  (H«nborg,  1720-28,  prefixed  lo  "•"  ='"f^'..'"'"  8?^"?"^  '"J"^™  own  kings  (■'  Beg- 
,  th.writingsofChj-lr«;^8yol.,8;o);MelehiorAdam,  uli,"  Tact  i.,  ,8),  Oil  Ibetime  of  V«p«»n.  The  w 
'  VOa  TUfoAw™™  (Francfort,  170B),  p.  323;  Henog,  coaat  waa  for  a  Iout  time  occupied  by  ^ral«,  who  ci^ 
JisatE^s^adie,  ii,701.  '"f  J"  '^^  "PPfP™"  vocation  of  .lav-Kmerchant,. 

»..._  \  ,        .  1    ,.      ,     """l  found  ample  oncouragenient  for  that  ncftinou 

Ciborlum  (r.^Jotip.oc,  a  cap),  a  large  chalice  (a  ^^^3,^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  opulent  Romans  (Mannert,  G«^. 
species  of  pyx,  q.  v.)  or  cup,  often  of  gold  or  silver,  | ,.,  j .  gt^.b^^  ,[,,_  6) ;  but  at  last  their  depredatkiM 
vnth  a  cover,  .umioanted  commonly  by  a  cross.  It  ^^^,  „  formidable  that  Pompev  was  invested  with 
is  lued  to  contain  the  boat,  or  consecrated  wafer,  in  the  |  gjitnuirdlnarv  powers  for  their  anppnisaion.  whldi  be 
mass.  The  name  dioriim  ivas  also  given  lo  a  canopy  I  j^^^plljt,^  l„  forty  ^^,_  He  settled  the  snrvivbig 
on  the  altar,  eupported  by  four  columns,  to  which  the  f^boolera  at  Sola,  which  he  rebnllt  and  named  Pon- 
cnp,  in  the  abape  of  a  dove,  was  attached  by  cham^  „jop„,i,.  cicero  was  proconsul  of  Cilicia  (B.C.  6»). 
OonUlning  the  wafer  for  the  communion  of  the  sick.—  g^j  g^i,^  „n,c  ,ucc«ses  over  the  mountain eeti  af 
Wetrer  a.  Welte,  Kinkfu-lMtioii,  ii,  645.  AraanM,  for  which  he  was  rewirded  with  a  tHmnph 

Ctoonr  (^33,  lakkar',  circuii,  eap.  of  the  Jordan).  (fTput.  ad  Fam.  xv,  8).  Aa  the  more  level  portiMi 
8m  Topoobaphicai.  Txaiia ;  Talbht.  waa  twnarkabU  for  lu  baan^  and  fertillv,  aa  weU  as 


CIMELIARCH  3 

fir  Id  Imurloni  ctlmktB,  it  beeaine  >  hTorito  realdcnoe 
of  tlw  Greeks  ifter  iU  incorpantian  into  the  Mmce- 
dogiu  empire,  uid  Ita  csplul,  Ttnui  (q.  v.),  wia  ele- 
Tiud  into  the  Hit  of  a  celebialcd  uhool  of  pbiloao- 
ph;.  The  conaectiDD  between  the  Jews  and  Cllicia 
dais  bom  the  time  irben  it  became  part  of  tbe  Sjriui 
kingdom  (•«  1  Usee,  xi,  U;  2  Mace.  I*.  86;  comp. 
Judith  i,  7,  13;  ii,  SI,  26).  Antiochua  tbe  Gnat  ia 
•aid  to  ba^  introducod  SUOO  bimiliei  of  the  Jewa  into 
Aaia  Minor  (Joaephna,  Ant,  xii,  S,  4),  maaj  of  wbom 
ir>batdy  MttJed  ia  CiliciA  (Philo,  De  legal,  ad  Caiiua, 
n).  Ill  tbe  &poatolic  age  tbey  were  etill  there  in  con- 
ddembie  numtwn  (Acta  vi,  9).  Cilicinu  nisrccnariea, 
pratohly  from  Trache*,  aarved  In  the  bod;-giurd  of 
Akiaodcr  Jannaaa  (Joieph.  .liX.  xiii,  13,  S ;  War,  i, 
4,3).  The  t^amgogae  of  "them  at  Cilicia"  (Act*  vi, 
S)  waa  I  fUce  of  Jevieh  vonhip  in  Jeriuatam,  appnr- 
pn-tsd  to  the  ute  of  tbe  Jatrs  who  ini|;ht  be  at  Jeruaa- 

Cihda  waa,  from  ita  geognpliical  poaition,  the  high 
nad  between  S^is  and  the  Weit,  and  it  waa  alio  tbe 
uliTe  conntr;  of  Pan];  it  was  visited  by  him,  firat, 
aom  after  hia  converaioo  (GaL  i,  51 ;  Acta  li,  SO),  on 
whirh  occasion  be  probably  (bunded  the  Church  there 
(Neander,  PlTmUmg  amd  Tnawng,  i,  114 ;  Conybeare 
anil  Hawaoa,  84.  Paul,  \,  IT-SA,  !49).  and  aKain  In  bia 
twuBd  apoatollcal  Joamey,  wlien  ha  entored  it  on  the 
ride  of  Syria,  and  cniaaed  Antl-Tannu  by  the  Pyla 
Cilicis  into  Lycaonia  (Acta  xt,  41).  Chrlatinnity 
nnlinued  to  Souriih  here  anU)  the  8tb  century,  when 
Ib<  coDatiy  fell  into  the  handa  of  the  Sancena,  by 
vbom,  and  by  their  succeieon  the  Turlu,  the  light 
of  ime  religion  hai  been  almoat  eitinguiahed.  Ao- 
nntins  lu  the  modern  Turkiab  diriiiona  of  Alia 
Hinor,  Cilicia  Vn^t  belonga  to  the  paahalic  of  Ada- 
IB.  ami  Cilicia  Trachea  Id  the  Liwah  of  Ilcbil  in 
ibt  Houaaelimlik  of  Cyprua  (see  Pnmy  Ct/dopadia, 
I.T.:  Smith,  Did.  of  Clou.  Gtogr.  a.  v.;  Vict.  Lang- 
Vir,  Vofoge  dami  io  CUkie,  Par.  ISGl).  See  Asia 
HiMm. 

CimaUaiob.    See  CEtMEUAHCHA;  SACHtnAH. 

Cinnainoi]  C\'''Otp,  kimuiBUm' ,-  Gr.  ttva/iaiyi  a 
nrd,  according  to  Herodotua  [ill.  Ill],  of  Fbcenician 
origio;  according  to  Geaeniua  [Thu.  Urb.  p.  1223], 
ft«n  ^)p,  to  ttimd  nprigbt)  occnra  drat  in  Exod.  xxx, 
!3,whera  It  ia  ennmerated  as  one  of  tbe  ingredients 
soployed  in  the  preparation  of  tbe  baly  anointing  oil : 
'■Take  than  alao  unto  thee  powerful  spicea,  mvrrh, 
aod  of  sweet  n'aiiasHHi  half  aa  much  (1.  e.  150  ahekela), 
tugether  with  iweet  calamoa  and  cassia."  It  la  next 
BCDtinned  in  Pro*.  tII,  17 :  "I  have  perfumed  my  bad 
with  myrrh,  aloea,  and  euManioH."  Again,  in  Cant. 
i',  H:  "Spikenard  and  salTlran,  calamua  and  chuh- 
■M,  with  all  treea  of  fnnkincense ;  myrrb  and  aloea, 
inlh  all  the  chief  apices."  In  Rev.  xviii,  IS,  among 
Um  mercbandiae  of  Babylon  (Rome),  we  have  "cw- 
wrvm,  and  odors,  and  ointments,  and  frankincense." 
Al»  in  Ecclus.  xxir,  Ifi,  ■■  I  gave  a  aweet  smell,  like 
anmwH  and  aapalatbua."  Cinnamon  waa  probably 
ID  iriicie  of  ommem  in  ancient  Babylon.  The  Be. 
birwi  received  tbia  Indian  ptodaction  through  tbe 
llidiinitpa  and  Nabatheana,  who  brought  it  from  the 
Anil.ian  Gulf.  It  seems  that  the  Arabisnt  at  an  aar-  | 
h  period  had  commercial  inlercoomc  with  Ceylon  and  ' 
I'oniinantAl  India,  aa  they  were  the  Snt  navigalora 
°fllie  Indian  Ocean  (Gen. Txxvii, 35).  Many  writers 
bi-e  doubted  whether  the  ib'iMaBiiM  of  the  Hebrews 
u  the  same  article  that  we  now  call  dnnamnn.  Cel-  i 
•iu  qootea  R.  Ben-Malech  (oif  Cant,  iii,  14)  and  Saa-  ' 
diu  (tliod.  xxx)  aa  conaiderinjc  it  the  Ligit  Aloe,  or  | 
*9r£eriam.  Others  have  doubted  whether  oar  cln-  \ 
unon  waa  at  all  known  to  the  anclenla.  But  the 
une  thintt  has  been  said  of  almoat  every  other  drug 
ahkh  it  DDliced  by  them.  He  word  awn/iaifiov  oc- 1 
ronin  many  of  the  Greek  aDthora,*8  Herodotua,  Hip-  i 
Pntatea,  Thaophraatua,  Dioacoridea,  Galen,  el«.    T^  / 


IS  CINNAMON 

Srat  of  tbeae,  writing  400  years  before  the  Cbriatlan  nra, 
deacribea  Arabia  os  the  laat  inhabited  countij-  towarda 
the  aonib,  and  aa  tbe  only  region  of  the  earth  which 
produces  frankincense,  myrrh,  cinnamon,  caasia,  and 
ledanum  (iii,  107).  He  statea,  moreover,  that  the  Ara- 
biana  were  unacqueinled  with  the  particular  apot  in 
which  it  »a>  produced,  but  that  some  asserted  it  grew 
in  the  region  where  Bacchna  wia  educated.  From  all 
tbia  we  on  only  infer  that  it  waa  tbe  production  of  a 
distant  conn  try,  probably  India,  and  that  it  waa  olitain> 
ed  by  the  route  of  the  Ked  Sea.  Theopbrsatua  (ii,  5) 
gives  a  fuller  bot  atill  fabolous  account  of  its  prodnc- 
tion;  anditia  not  ontil  the  time  of  Dioacoridea,  Galen, 
and  the  Periplua  of  the  EiytbrBan  Sea.  that  wa  get 
more  definite  information.  Galen  aays  that  cassia  and 
cinnamon  are  so  much  alike  that  it  ia  not  an  eaa; 
matter  to  diatinguish  tbe  one  from  the  other.  Cinna< 
nun  of  tbe  beat  quality  ia  imported  in  the  present  day 
from  Ceylon,  and  also  from  the  Ualabar  coast,  in  con- 
aeqnence  of  the  cinnamon  plant  (CVianaaioiimiaZfirfoa*- 
nm)  having  been  introduced  there  from  Ceylon.  An 
inferior  kind  is  also  exported  ^m  the  peninsula  of 
India,  the  produce  of  other  species  of  cianaiaomuin,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Wight.  From  these  couotriea  the  clib 
namon  and  cassia  of  the  ancient*  must  most  liltely 
have  been  obtained,  though  both  are  alao  produced  In 
the  Islands  of  Sumstra  and  Borneo,  in  China,  and  in 
Cochin  China.  Cinnamon  ia  imported  in  bale*  and 
cheata,  the  bundles  weighing  about  1  lb.  each.  The 
pieces  consist  of  compound  qnilla,  are  about  three  feet 
long,  slender,  and  inclose  within  them  acveni  amaller 
quilla.  These  are  thin,  amooth,  of  ■  brownish  color, 
of  a  warm,  aweetiah,  and  egreealile  taste,  and  f^griinl 
odor;  but  several  kinds  are  known  in  modem  mar- 
keta,  aa  they  were  in  andent  times.    In  Ceylon  cinna- 


mon la  carefully  cultivated,  the  best  dnnamon-^ardena 
being  on  the  soDttv-westem  coast,  where  tbe  soil  ia 
light  and  sandy,  and  the  atmosphere  moist  from  tbe 
prevalent  southern  winds.  This  little  tree  belongs  to 
tbe  Uurel  family,  snd  the  leaf  is  not  unlike  the  lanrel, 
though  of  a  lighter  green,  Tbe  white  blossom  comes 
out  with  great  profusion,  and  for  many  miles  aieund 
Colombo  brightens  all  the  landscape  in  ita  aeaaon,  al- 
though it  diffuaea  hardly  any  perceptible  odor  throuj^ 
tbe  air.  The  tree  it  about  twenty  feet  in  height,  and 
apreada  into  numeroua  branchei;  tbe  fruit  or  nut  ia 
about  tbe  aiie  of  a  damson,  and  wben  ripe  is  of  a  black 
color.  The  plants  begin  to  yield  cinnamon  wben 
about  six  or  seven  yeara  old,  after  which  the  phoot*  may 
becuteverythteeorfouryeara.    Thebestkindaoftl^ 


CINNAMON  3. 

rumon  are  obtatTied  from  tVtgn  and  ahoDb ;  tboRe  ]»■ 
than  balf  >n  ioch,  or  more  tlun  two  or  three  inchw  in 
diameter,  an  not  peeled.  "Tbe  petllnt;  is  efFected  by 
makiv^  two  oppoutflfOr,  when  the  branch  is  thick,  three 
or  four  longitudinal  indslons,  and  then  elevntin);  the 
bark  liy  introducing  tbe  peeling-knife  beneath  It.  In 
twenty-fom  houn  the  epidermii  and  greenlih  pulpy 
matter  are  canfallj  ecraped  ofT.  In  a  few  houra  the 
amsller  quills  are  intnduced  into  the  larger  one*,  and 
In  this  way  oongcriat  of  quills  are  fnnnod,  often  meas- 
uring I'oity  inchea  In  length.  Tbe  bark  la  then  dried 
In  the  aun,  and  aflerwards  made  into  bundles,  witta 
piec^  of  aplit  l}iimt>OD  twiga''  (Percivara  AcnMuU  of 
CfsUm.  p.  336-351}.  Besides  cinnamon,  an  oil  ofcin- 
namon  is  obtained  In  Ceylon,  by  macerating  Che  coarser 
pieces  of  the  bark,  after  being  reduced  to  a  coarse  pow- 
der. In  eea-water  for  two  days,  when  Loth  are  submits 
ted  to  dlsdUatioD.  A  blty  substance  is  also  obtajned 
by  bruising  and  bailing  the  riper  fhilt,  when  an  oily 
body  Soats  on  the  aarface,  which,  on  cooling,  concretes 
into  a  dirty-nbitiah,  rather  hard,  btty  matter.  As 
this  oil  bums  with  a  delightful  fhigrance,  when  re- 
ceiving ambasAadon  and  on  bigh  state  occasions,  the 
kin^  of  Candy  used  to  have  lampa  of  it  burning  in 
their  audlence^baniber.  The  wood  itself  la  pervaded 
by  tbe  same  grateful  perfume,  and  walking-sticks  of 
clnnimon-wDod  are  highly  prized,  aa  well  as  little  ar- 
ticles of  cabinet-work.  Some  camphor  may  be  pro- 
cured fhmi  tbe  roots.    Cassia  bark,  as  we  have  seen. 


was  dlstinguisbcd  with  diScnlty  tnm  cinnan 
the  ancients.  In  the  present  day  it  is  often  a 
cinnamon ;  indeed,  aniesa  a  purchaser  specify  It 
namon,  he  will  probabl,v  be  supplied  with  notbin] 


Itia 


bundles 


A  the  aame  general  appearance,  smell,  and 
taste ;  but  its  aubstance  is  thicker  and  conraer,  its  color 

of  CeyloD  cinnamon,  while  it  ia  more  punftcnt.  and  is 
followed  by  a  bitter  taste ;  it  is  also  less  cloaely  quill- 


r  than 


Its 


decoction  gives  a  bine  color  when  treated  with  tincture 
of  iodine,  which  the  true  cinnamon  does  not.  "Tho 
great  consumers  of  cinnamon  are  the  chocolate-makers 
of  Spain.  Italy,  France,  and  Mexico,  and  l>y  (hem  the 
difference  in  Ihs  flavor  between  cinnamon  and  ca-ola 
la  readily  detected.  An  extensive  dealer  in  cinnamon 
informs  me  th^il  (he  German.".  Turk.<,  and  Rnwijins 
prefer  caseio,  and  will  not  purchase  cinnamon,  the 
delicate  flavor  of  which  is  not  strong  enough  for  them. 
In  illustration  of  tlils.  I  wnt  told  that  jomc  cinnamon 
(valued  at  Ri,  6il.  per  lb.),  having  been  by  misUke  sent 
to  Constantinople,  was  unsabiblp  there  at  any  price, 
while  coin'a  %nf«  (worth  about  6d.  per  lb.)  was  in 
great  request"  (I'erclra's  Miii-n„  Af^^i-a,  p.  ISM). 
From  tbe  vorioua  sources,  independently  of  the  dill^r- 


6  cmcLE 

ent  qnalitlas,  It  la  evident,  aa  in  the  caaa  of  dnnamod, 
that  the  ancients  might  have  been,  aa  no  doubt  they 
wBie,  acquainted  with  aeveral  varieties  of  caraia. 
These,  we  have  no  doubt,  are  yielded  by  more  thin 
one  spaciai.  Beiidea  casaia  bark,  there  ia  also  a  cas- 
sia oil  and  cassia  bnda,  supposed  to  be  prodnced  by 
tbe  aame  tree  There  can  be  no  reasonable  donbt,  u 
cinnamon  and  casaia  were  known  to  the  Gmka,  [hat 
they  moat  have  been  known  to  the  Hslirews  al». 
aa  the  commerce  with  India  can  be  proved  to  havs 
been  mnch  more  ancient  than  is  generally  snppiwd. 
(See  the  Ptimy  Cgclopadia,  a.  r.  (Hnnamon;  Celiii 
flitT<Aol.  ii,  860  sq. ;  Hodai  a  Slapel,  Coml  n  TU- 
ophr.  p.  9B4i  Knox.  TVoreb  m  Crjion.  p.  Zt;  also 
Hitter,  Erdk,  Tl,  iv,  pL  ii,  p.  128  »q.  i  Geiger,  Pkar- 
mac  BoUti.  i,  830  sq.;  especially  Ne«  v.  Etenheck, 
De  Cmammao  [Bonn,  1S23],  and  Blume  in  Wirg- 
mann's  Ardiit  fir  Kalmyttch.  1831,  i,  116  aq.i  Mat- 
liua,  Pharmaiagit.  p.  182,  141 ;  Smith'*  IHri.  of  Claa. 
Atitiq.,  Amer.  ed.,  i,  v.  Cinnamomnm.)  Cmnp. 
CaaaiA. 

Cln'neretb  (Heb.  Kimt'ntk,  r-<%i,  a  iiap;  Sept 
Xtvipia,  Vnlg.  Caumk,  Auth-Ver^'^'Chinnereth;" 
Num.  xxiiv,  11;  Dent  iii,  17;  Josh,  xiii,  !7:  sii, 
BS),  or  Cio'neToUl  (Heb.  KituKrotk',  ri1!3.  kirfi, 
Joeb.  xi,3,  Sept.  Xiv(|iu3,Tulg.  CnnvtA,  Auth.Yen. 
"Chinnerolh;"  Josh.  lii,^  SepL  Xtvtpt^,VnlB.CflW- 
rolk,  Autb.  Vers.  "  Cbinneroth  :"  1  Kingt  xv,  30,  Sept. 
XivipiS,  Vulg.  Cttaieralli,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Cinerotb*'), 
one  of  the  "fenced  cities"  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 
(Josh,  xix,  35;  compare  Dent,  iii,  17;  Joah.  li,  i;  I 
Kings  XV,  30).  In  the  last  two  of  the  texts  cited  it 
seema  to  indicate  a  diilricl,  since  it  is  named  with  the 
"tend  of  Naphtali''  and  other  northern  places  aa  hav- 
ing been  laid  waste  by  Benhadad,  king  of  Damascus, 
the  ally  of  Asa,  king  of  Judah  (1  Kings  xv,  ill).  1( 
probably  took  Its  name  from  the  adjacent  city  or  1ak> 
of  the  same  name,  and  woi  pooaibly  the  amalt  encloKd 
district  north  of  Tiberias,  and  by  the  side  of  the  laka, 
afterwards  known  as  '-the  plain  of  Gennetareth," 
The  exptHBion  "  All  Cinnaroth"  ia  unusual,  and  miy 
be  compared  with  "  All  BiUiron"'-probably,  like  tbii, 
a  district  and  not  a  town.  It  Is  also  (be  earlier  nsnn 
of  tbe  lake  Gtmuiartth  (which  is  supposed  to  lie  a  cor 
ruption  of  Cauttrttk,  Ligbtfoot,  IConb,  i,  49«>,  fnai 
which  we  may  collect  that  the  town  lay  on  the  (rest- 
em  border  of  the  lake,  and  was  of  sufficient  conM- 

S7  ;  Num.  ixxiv.  11).  Jerome  says,  but  m'enly  on 
rumor  ("  ferunt,"  Oitamiat.  ».  v.  Chennereth),  that 
Tiberias  waa  originally  called  Cinnerelb  ;  which  Bs- 
land  disputes  (Piitiat.  p.  161),  as  being  opposed  to  Uatt. 
iv,13  TheJewish  Rabbins,  moreover,  identir)-(Lielil- 
foot,  Workt,  ii,  2^)  Tiberias  with  tbe  Eakkath  (q.  v.) 
of  Joah.  xix,  86-38.  See  Chiiiiieeeth.  M.deSaalcy 
thinks  he  has  identifled  the  village  of  Aim  SkaM, 
lying  on  the  western  edge  of  the  plain  el-Ghaweh,  ea 
an  eminence  about  at  its  midiengtb,  at  the  cntnnc* 
of  warty  Rnhudnyeh,  with  the  aite  of  Cinnereth  (.Vof- 
rotivt,  ii,  369,  864).     See  GEitRESASET. 

CipptU  (Lat.  a  poll),  a  small,  low  column  ased  by 
tbe  ancient  Romans  as  a  mile-poat,  or  to  mark  divi- 
sions of  land :  also  a  tomb-stone  of  small  dimensiDai, 
containing  a  diminutive  erilice  or  place  to  receive  tlis 
ashes  of  (he  dead,  being  thus  the  original  of  tbe  mod- 

Clt'ama.a  placewboae  people  (JcKipnfiac;  Vulg. 

Crmnoi),  together  with  those  of  Gabdes,  came  up  wili 
Zorobal*l  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  SO) ;  for  which 
tbe  Heb.  texts  (Eira  11,  !6 ;  Neb.  vii,  80)  hava  Ruub 
(q.v.). 

Circle  (JSn,  nUj),  any  part  of  a  cnrvs,  an  arch. 
The  word  ia  applied  (Job  ixii,  14,  whore,  bowera,  W 
is  translated  "  cireuit'*)  to  the  itntmi,  which  Iht  in- 
cienta  supposed  to  ba  a  hollow  sphan.    Tbey  imagined 


Au  llu  ikj  WM  Mlid,  and  extcoded  like  ui  iTch  ova 
tbt  (arth.  Tbs  vord  ia  abo  refeired  to  tlia  eortA  in 
1,  IS,  and  to  tbe  inrfiica  of  the  oetiu  in  Frov. 


i,  S7,  1 


dand  ■' 


™[«h;" 


a  bDtb 


wbieh  paraagM  it 
nilt,  ii  ipannlng  tli*M.  Id  Wiad.  xili,  !,  tha  Graak 
tenn  ncAoc  i*  v?  nndcrad,  vitli  Nfennce  to  tbe  path 
of  Uw  nan.     Sm  CtKcttr. 

ClTcalt  (n^apn,  Ub^JuA')  aignifiu  tba  act  of 
going  Toaud,  ai,  for  example,  the  apparent  diurnal 
rcTolnlioD  of  the  aun  around  the  eurth  (Faa.  xii,  G) ;  it 
b  *1m  PKd  with  reference  to  tbe  comptetioii  of  a  year 
Id  tbe  original  of  2  Cbroo.  xiir,  23 ;  Exod.  xxzlv,  22 
pn  which  paHagei  it  la  rendand  "  end") ;  or  of  the 
lenn  of  piegnancj  in  1  Sam.  I,  20  ("  when  -  .  .  wa> 
come  abont").  The  Scriptiuea,  bovtavar,  afford  u* 
TSTT  little  intbrmation  ai  to  the  aatronsmlcal  knowl- 
tigt  af  the  Java.  Sea  AsTltonoiil.  In  Job  xxii. 
11,  Ihe  Heb.  word  ia  different.  Sea  Cibcle.  In  1 
Sam.  Tii,  16,  and  Ecde*.  I,  6,  alio,  a  diflarent  form  of 
aipcMdoo  ia  oaed  Id  tha  raiginal  to  algniiy.  In  tbe  Ibr- 
mei  paaaage  (330,  ehewhen  ninallj'  rendered  "  corn- 
pan'^  a  regular  tonr  of  inipecUon,  and  in  tha  Utter 
(3T10)  tbe  periodical  aeries  of  gTTatloni,  or,  rather, 
dirediona  of  the  winda,  vhlch  In  the  Eait  are  quita 
rtgolar  tn  Ibeir  aeaaons.  In  Ecclua.  xxiv,  6,  the  orig- 
inal vord  la  yupof,  tbe  rotation  Of  the  beavana;  but  in 
t  Hue.  ri,  1,  it  i>  almply  ir(p(/3oXit£,  an  (arlonini,  c, 
g.  of  the  Temple. 

CIRCUIT.  In  the  Hethodiat  Eplacopat  Cbnrcb,  a 
fingle  ehnrch,  aopplied  by  a  paator,  ia  called  a  tfafion  ; 
bat  vhen  tvo  or  mora  appirintmanu,  within  a  definite 
tertitotj,  at«  united  into  one  cbar^,  nnder  one  or 
more  miniiteia,  it  la  called  a  "  circait."  Tha  English 
miDDtai  of  1746  give  "  Che  fint  Intimation  of  derlnito 
.  cirroits,  Ihoogh  it  ia  aupposed  they  enifted  befon. 
All  England  was  mapped  into  aaven  of  these  itinerant 
diilricta."  Ia  America  the  circuit  ayetem  woa  oni- 
Tersat  in  Iha  beginning  of  Metfaodism,  and  It  is  still 
widely  in  nae  in  rural  district!  and  in  the  Weatem 
Statea.— Slerene,  Hitary  of  MeUvtdim,  f,  B18.      See 

UETBODtST  EpiaCOFAI.  ChDRCK. 

ClTonmoalllaiia,  *  fanatical  sort  of  Donatlats  in 
tbe  fourth  centarj:,  of  onceitain  origin.  From  their 
windering  babiCa,  they  were  called  CirdmctUiona 
(from  aUa,  tbe  cottagaa  of  tbe  peasants  around  which 
tber  borered,  ccSm  aremnottti  nutUonm).  Tbey 
rambled  ap  and  dawn,  plundering,  burning  houaea,  and 
nioideiing  all  who  resiated  them,  profesilng  to  aeek 
the  crown  of  martyrdoin.  They  called  tbemielvea 
Jfi&u  ChrM  AgomiilicL  Tbere  is  no  evidence  to 
•how  that  their  conduct  waa  approved  by  tbe  Dona- 
tiata,  but  thur  proceedingi  brought  great  odiom  on 
that  party.— Moibeim,  C*.  Hitl.  cent,  iv,  pt.  Ii,  ch.  v, 
and  cent,  t,  pt.  11,  ch.  T  j  Gieseler,  CA.  Hiiory,  pet.  ii, 
diT.  I,  S  84 ;  Gibbon,  DecOnt  and  Fall,  ch.  ixi,  xxiil. 
See  DoHATura. 

ClrotmolBioii  (nbtQ,  mvlaA'i  Sept.  and  S.  T. 
technically  wiptro/u},  which  i>  translated  by  tbe  Latin 
drcHMeiMJo,  i.  a.  a  ctUtatff  oroimd),  a  custom  among 
many  Eaatam  natlona  of  cutting  otf  part  of  the  pre- 
pace,  aa  a  rellgloua  coremony.  Tbe  Jewa,  Lbrongh 
Abraham,  received  the  rite  from  Jehovah ;  Moaos  ea- 
lablithed  ft  as  a  national  ordinance ;  »nd  Josbaa  car- 
ried it  into  tSect  before  tbe  laraeljles  entertd  tbe  land 
of  Canaan  (see  generally  Mlcbaelia,  Lawt  ofMota.  iv, 
IDtq.).  Hales  only  were  subjected  to  the  operation, 
sad  it  waa  to  be  performed,  on  the  ejuhtb  day  of  the 
cbild's  life ;  foreign  stavea  also  ware  forced  to  submit  I 
iDit  on  entering  an  Israelite's  family,  Thoae  who  are 
Bucqnauited  with  other  sources  of  information  on  tbe 
nb}«t  beaidat  tbe  Scrlplnrae  might  easily  suppose 
that  tha  rite  waa  original  with  Abraham,  characteris- 
tic of  hia  aeed,  and  practised  among  thoae  nations  only  ! 
who  bad  learned  it  thim  them.    TUa,  however,  ap-  { 


7  CIKCHMCISION 

pears  not  to  have  been  the  eaae  (Celioa,  ap.  Orjg.  co»- 
(TO  Oitmm,  i,  17, 250 ;  Julian,  ap.  Cyril,  coiUra  JvOan. 
X,  8&4;  compare  Alanbam,  Osmo  Ciava.  p.  7S  sq.  { 
Bauer,  GoUeMdimMti.  Verfait.  ■',  B7  Bq. ;  Jabn,  I,  ii,  277 
eq. ;  see  Borheck,  Itt  die  Bi*clinadtaig  ur^irtoiglidi 
lUtraiKkt  [Dniib.  and  Lemgo,  1798]). 

I.  Pagm  Circtwieusofi. — Firat  of  ail,  ikt  Egsptiau 
were  a  circamciaed  people.  Vonck  (CMacrv.  mucJL 
0.  i,  p.  06),  followed  by  Woeaoling  (od  Herod,  ii,  87) 
and  Ly  numerous  able  writers,  alleged  that  thii  waa 
not  true  of  the  whole  nation,  but  of  the  priesta  only ; 
that  at  least  the  priesta  were  circumcited  ia  beyond 
controversy.  No  one  can  for  a  moment  imagine  that 
they  adopted  the  rite  ftvm  tbe  deeplaed  shepherds  of 
Goaben ;  and  we  are  immediately  forced  to  believe 
that  Egyptian  circumcision  had  an  Independent  origin. 
A  great  preponderance  of  argument,  however,  ap- 
pears to  us  to  prove  that  tbe  rite  was  universal  among 
the  old  Egyptians,  as  long  as  their  native  Inatitu. 
tiona  flourished,  although  there  ia  no  quettion  that, 
nnder  Persian  and  Greek  rule,  it  gradually  fell  into 
disuse,  and  was  retained  chiefly  by  the  priesta,  and  by 
those  who  desired  to  cultivate  ancient  wisdom  (see 
Origan,  adJtr.  iv,  19i  EaecA.  xxxl,  IS;  xxxii.  19; 
and  ad.  Rom.  il,  IS ;  Jerome  ad  Gal.  iv,  p.  177 )  Hora- 
poll.  Bitrogl.  ^.  i,  14,  p.  IS,  ed.  Pann ;  Qeoi.  Alex. 
SfroBL  1,  ISO).  Herodotus  distinctly  decUrea  that  the 
Egyptians  practised  clreomclaion  j  and  that  he  meant 
to  atate  this  of  the  whole  nation  la  manifest,  not  only 
aince  he  always  omits  to  add  any  reatriction,  but  be- 
cause, immediately  following  bis  first  statement  of  tha 
fact,  he  annexes  ibis  remark:  "  The /irieiti,  moreover, 
ahave  their  whole  body  every  other  day,"  etc  (Herod. 
il,  &7).  It  is  difficult  to  suppoae  that  the  bietorlan 
could  have  been  mbtaken  on  [his  paint,  considering 
hia  perscnal  acquaintance  with  Egypt,  (Artapaona, 
however,  makot  a  distinction  between  Jewish  and 
Egj'pdan  circumcision,  ap.  Enseb.  Prtrp.  £b.  iv,  27.) 
Further,  he  informa  ua  that  the  Colchlans  were  a  colo- 
ny from  Egypt,  conaiiUng  of  aoldlera  fMn  tbe  army 
of  Seaeetris.  With  these  bo  had  converaed  (ii,  104), 
and  be  poaitlvely  dtclaraa  that  they  praetiaed  circum- 
cision. Yet  if  the  rito  had  been  conllned  to  the  priest- 
ly casta  of  Egypt,  it  could  hardly  have  been  found 
among  the  Colchiana  at  all.  Tbe  >ame  remark  will 
apply  to  tbe  eavaga  Troglodytes  of  Africa,  every 
branch  of  whom  except  ono  (tho  Kolobi),  as  DiodoniB 
infoTmi  ua  (lii,  SI),  was  circumcised,  having  learned 
the  practice  from  tbe  Egj'ptlana.  Tho  Troglodytes 
appear  to  have  been  widely  dlffuacd  through  Libya, 
which  arguBB  a  correrponiUng  dlCTusion  of  tho  rite; 
yet,  from  tha  silence  of  Diodorus  concerning  the  o(An- 
savage  natlona  whom  bo  rocoonti  oa  Aftican  Ethiopl- 
auB,  we  may  infer  that  it  was  not  practised  liy  tbcm. 
Tho  direct  testimony  of  Diodorua  (i,  28),  Philo  ((^. 
Ii,  BIO),  and  Strabo  (xii,  824 ;  comp.  Agatharch.  ed. 
Hudaon,  i,  4C)  ia  to  tlie  same  eHect  as  (hut  of  Hcrodo- 
tua  Toepecting  Egypt;  yet  thia  can  hardly  be  called 
confirmatory,  since  in  their  daya  the  rite  was  no  longer 
universal.  Josephus  (amira  Ap.  il,  IS)  apesks  of  It 
as  practised  by  the  priests  only ;  be,  however,  re- 
proaches Aplon  for  neglecting  the  inatitutlons  of  his 
conntry  in  remaining  uncircnmciscd.  Origen,  In  the 
paaaage  above  referred  to,  confirms  tbe  Ptalement  of 
Joaephua.  In  Kenrlck's  Herodottu  (il,  B7),  Ihe  French 
commisilonera  who  examined  some  Egyptian  mum- 
mie*  are  quoted  ss  establlsblnn  from  them  the  fact  of 
Egyptian  circumcision.  Herodotus,  moreover,  telle 
na  (ii,  IM)  that  tbe  Ethiopians  ■ten  aleo  circumcised ; 
and  he  was  in  doubt  whether  they  had  learned  the 
rite  from  the  E^cyptlana,  or  the  Egyptians  tram  them. 
By  tbe  Ethiiipiana  we  must  understand  him  to  mean 
the  Inhabitants  of  Mero«  or  Sennaar.  In  tbe  present 
day  the  Coptic  Church  continues  to  practise  it,  accord- 
ing to  C.  Nielmhr  (ijuoled  by  Michaellsl ;  the  Abys- 
Kiniao  Christians  do  tbo  same  (Ludolf.  Hirt.  EHuoji.  i, 
19,  and  Commnt.  p.  268  sq.);  and  that  it  waa  nof  in- 


CIRCUMCISION  3' 

trodoced  udook  tha  lattar  with  i  Judakal  Chiutiinlt? 
appesn  tram  Uicir  performtng  it  apon  botb  lexu.  (It 
la  Bcarcel)-  worth  whlla  to  invent  a  new  Dime,  recUion, 
or  resection,  for  accuracy's  sake.)  Oldendorp  de- 
acribea  the  rite  ai  wtdclf  Bpreid  thmugh  WenUrn 
Africa — 1S°  on  each  aide  of  the  line  —  even  amoDK 


has  been  ascertained  that  it  is  practised  tiy  the  Kafir 
nations  In  South  Africa,  more  properly  oiled  Kosa 
or  Auiakosa,  whom  Pricbard  eupposu  to  fonn  "a 
great  part  of  the  native  population  of  AfHca  to  the 
southward  of  the  equator."  He  remarks  upon  this: 
"  It  is  scarcely  within  proliBLility  that  they  borrowed 
the  custom  from  nations  who  profess  Islam,  or  wo 
ahonld  find  among  them  other  proofs  of  intercourse 
with  people  of  that  claw.  It  is  more  probabla  that 
this  practice  is  a  relic  of  ancient  African  customs,  of 
which  the  Egyptians,  as  it  ia  wall  known,  partook  in 
the  remote  ages"  (Pricbard,  yAynca/Z/iif.  of  Mm,  Bd 
cd.  ii,  287).  Traces  of  tho  custom  have  even  been  ob- 
aerved  among  the  iMtives  of  some  of  the  Soalh  Sea 
Islands  (Pickering,  Raixt  of  Mm,  p.  168, 199,  !00,  etc.). 
How  &T  the  rite  was  extended  throogh  the  Byro- 
Arabian  races  is  uncertain  (but  see  Slrabo,  jivi,  779; 
Epiphan.  Uar.  ix,  BO;  Origin  ad  ffen.  1, 10).  In  the 
9th  section  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  (which,  whether 
genuine  or  not,  is  vciy  old),  the  writer  comments  ss 
follows:  "But  you  will  say  the  Jews  were  circam- 
ciscd  for  a  sign.  And  so  are  all  the  Syriana,  and  the 
Arabians,  and  tha  tdolatrous  priests;  .  .  .  and  even 
the  Egyptians  themselves  are  circumcised."  This 
language  is  vague  and  popular;  yot  it  shows  how  no- 
torious was  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  custom  (see  Hug, 
in  the  Fnib.  ZtUtchHft.  ili,  SIS).  Tha  FhllistJDes,  in 
(ho  days  of  Saul,  were,  howerer,  uncircumdsed ;  ao 
also,  says  Herodotus  (ii,  UM),  were  all  the  Phnniciani 
who  bad  iDlsrcourso  with  tho  Greeks.  That  the  Ca- 
naanites,  ia  the  days  of  Jacob,  were  not  all  circum- 
cised, is  plain  from  the  atfair  of  Dinah  and  Shcchcm. 
The  story  otZipporab  (Exod.  iv,  25),  who  did  not  cir- 

wonld  slay  her  husband  Moses,  proves  tliat  the  family 
of  Jcthro.  the  Hidiaaite,  liad  no  fixed  rule  about  it,  al- 
though the  Midianites  are  (^enenlly  regarded  as  chil- 
dren of  Abraham  by  Ketnrah.  On  the  other  band, 
wo  liave  the  distinct  testimony  of  Josepbus  (AjiI.\,  ]!, 
S)  that  the  Ishmaelite  Arabs,  inhabiting  the  district 
Ci  Sabatbiea,  were  circumcised  after  their  IBtb  year: 
tliis  must  l>e  connected  with  the  tradition,  which  no 
doubt  existed  nmoug  them,  of  the  age  at  which  their 

St  Jerome  also  (quoted  by  Michaclis)  inlbnns  uathat, 
to  his  day,  "vtq}a  jodir,"  tlio  tribes  dwelling  round 
Judsaand  Palestine  were  circumcised,  "especially  all 
the  Saracens  wbo  dwell  in  tbo  desert."  Elsewbere  ha 
aays  that,  "except  the  Egyptians,  IdumKans,  Ammon- 
ites, Uoahlles,  and  Ishmaeiiles  of  the  desert,  of  whom 
tie  grtatgr  part  are  circumcised,  all  other  nations  in 
the  world  are  tmcircunKiscd."  A  negative  argument 
is  more  or  less  dangerous ;  yet  there  is  something 
striking  in  the  fact  that  the  liooks  of  Moses,  of  Joshua, 
and  of  Judges  never  bestow  the  epithet  tmcircitnicueil 
as  a  reproach  on  any  of  the  seven  nations  of  Canaan, 
■ny  more  than  on  the  Moabites  or  Ammonites,  the 
Amnlekites,  the  Midianites,  or  other  inland  tribes  with 
whom  tbey  came  into  conflict.  On  the  contrary,  as 
soon  as  the  Philistines  become  prominent  in  the  nar- 
rative, after  the  Inrtb  of  Samson,  this  epithet  is  of 
ntber  common  occarrence.  The  fact  also  of  bringing 
hack  ss  a  trophy  the  foreskins  of  siain  enemies  never 
occurs  except  against  the  Philistines  (1  Ssm.  xviii). 
We  may  perhaps  infer,  at  leu'C  until  other  proof  or 
disproofis  attained,  that  while  the  Philistines,  like  the  ' 
SidoniansandthEother  maritime  Syrian  nations  known 

yet  among  the  Canaanites.  and  all  the  mora  inland  j 
liibes,  it  was  at  least  so  far  common  that  no  general ! 


18  CmCCMCISIGN 

description  could  be  given  them  from  the  omladon 
It  appeals  from  Josephns  (Ant.  ziil,  9)  that  when  II yr- 
canus  snbdned  the  Idumsans,  he  forced  them  t«  be 
drcumclMd  on  pain  of  expatriation.  Thia  shows  that 
they  had  at  least  disused  the  riU.  But  that  ia  not 
wonderful,  if  it  was  only  ■  custom,  and  not  a  national 
religious  ordinance ;  f^,  as  Michoelis  observes,  the 
disuse  of  it  mav  have  dated  boia  the  edict  of  Antlo- 
choB  Epiphanesi  of  which  it  is  sud  (1  Mace,  i,  41,  4!), 
"The  king  Antiocbos  wrote  to  all  his  kingdom  that 
all  shonid  be  one  people ;  and  that  all  should  kwp  the 
ordinances  of  bis  country ;  and  all  the  nations  acqoi- 
caced  according  to  the  word  of  the  king."  The  raUier 
obscure  notices  which  are  found  in  Jeremiah  and  Eie- 
hiel  of  the  circnmcisicn  of  the  nations  who  were  in  im- 
mediate conUct  Kith  Israel  admit  of  a  natural  inter. 
prelation  in  conformity  with  what  has  been  already 
adduced(Jer.  ii,  26;  Eiek.  xixE,  18;  aico  xxxii,  19, 
tt  paiiim).  The  difficulty  turns  on  the  new  moral  nse 
made  of  the  term  "  uncbcumcised,"  to  mean  simply 
impta-t.  The  passage  In  Jeremiah  is  thus  translated 
by  Ewald:  "Behold,  the  days  come  that  I  visit  all 
the  uncircumcised  circomcised  ones;  Egypt  and  Jn- 
dah,  Edom,  and  the  children  of  Ammon  and  Hoab; 
and  all  the  dwellers  in  the  wilderness  that  are  sbaitn 
on  the  temples  :  for  alt  the  heathen  are  unciRmDiciscd, 
and  so  is  all  the  house  of  Israel  undrcnmdsed  ia 
beart."  The  shaving  of  the  temples  appeara  t«  be  a 
religious  custom  of  the  same  kind :  Herodotus  (iii,  8) 
ascrities  it  to  tho  Arabs  generally,  and  Josephns  rather 
strangely  regards  the  epithet  rpoxcnupidic,  in  tbe  an- 
cient Greek  poet  Cfacerilus  (e.  Ap.  i,  SS),  as  a  descrip- 
tion of  bis  own  countrymen.  Snowing  that  the  E^ryp- 
tians  were  circumcised,  it  no  longer  remains  doubtful 
bow  the  rtprvaeh  ifEgspt  (Josb.  v,  9)  ahonld  be  inter- 
How  fkr  the  rite  of  circumcision  spread  over  tha 
sonth-west  of  Arabia  no  deBnito  record  subaists.  The 
silence  of  tho  Koran  confirms  the  statement  of  Almlfeds 
(Bitlor.Ante-ltlamiea,  p.  180.  ed.  Fleischer,  1831}  thai 
the  custom  b  older  than  Hohammed,  who,  it  wonld 
appear,  in  no  respect  regarded  it  as  a  religions  rite. 
Kerertbeless  it  has  extended  itself  with  tbe  Uobam- 
medan  faith,  aa  though  it  were  a  positive  ordhiance. 
Pococke  (Sprcimm  Hit.  A  mb.  p.  S09)  cites  a  tradition, 
which  ascribes  to  Mohammed  tbe  words,  "Circum- 
cision is  an  ordinance  for  men,  and  ttonoutable  in  wom- 
en." This  extension  of  the  rite  to  the  other  hi 
might,  in  itself,  satisfy  us  that  it  did  not  come  to  those 
nations  from  Abraham  and  Isbmael.  We  have  already 
seen  that  Abyssinian  circumcision  has  the  same  peca- 
liarity  i  so  that  it  is  every  wny  probable  that  Southern 
Aralna  had  tho  rito  bom  the  aamo  aonice  or  inflnena 
ai  Ethiotda.  In  fact,  tbe  very  closest  relations  are 
known  to  have  subsisted  between  the  nations  on  the 
opposite  coasts  of  the  Rpd  Sea.  Another  passage  of 
Abulfeda  (Annaltt  Miatemici,  i,  93)  gives  apecilic  in- 
formation on  this  subject.  In  the  battle  of  Ohod,  ic 
tbe  third  year  of  tbe  Hegira,  "  Hamia,  tbe  nncle  of 
tbe  )>ropbet,  committed  great  slaughter.  When  Sabha' 
ben-Abd-n1-Uu&,  whose  mother  was  a  ciicumciser  in 
Mecca,  passed  by  him,  Hamia  called  out.  Come  on, 

rum]  !"  The  form  of  the  word  proves  that  this  wss 
strictly  the  trade  of  tbe  old  woman,  and  that  tbe  cus- 
tom, as  applied.to  females,  was  no  innovation  of  those 
days.  Niebuhr  had  ocular  dcmanstratkm  of  female 
circumcision  in  Aralna  (Tyors^  ii,  2£1). 

Pococke  quotes  the  eccleslasticsi  historian  Kiika- 
tj^gius  for  the  fact  that  the  Himyarite  Arabs  ritcum- 
cise  (heir  children  on  the  tiglitk  dag.  He  adds  a  p**- 
sage  from  Ai  Qaizali,  in  which  the  writer  Bays  (liat 
the  Araia  differ  from  the  Jews  as  to  the  time ;  for  they 
postpone  it  until  tbe  child  has  teeth,  which  be  tliinks 
safer.  Finally,  be  dtes  IbnAtbir,  who,  writing  of  the 
times  antecedent  to  Hohammed,  says  that  the  Arabs 
were  accustomed  to  citcDmcise  between  the  tenth  and 


CIRCUMCISION  348  CIRCUMCISION 

ntcFnth  Jan.  The  oriian  of  the  ciulom  amongft  i  jraar foretkln  ;  and  it  aha]!  be  itohsn  of  tbo  oa 
this  luKB  seclion  of  Ihote  Gentiles  who  follow  it  i»  to  |  betwixt  me  and  yon"  (Gsn.  xvil,  10, 1!).  It  waa  alio 
be  rouD<l  in  the  Bibiical  record  of  the  circnmcbion  of  ordainod  that  this  ■honld  be  extended  to  ■ervanti  b». 
labpucl  (Gen.  xvii,  36).  Josepbas  rslalei  that  the  i  longing  lo  Abraham  and  bia  leed,  u  well  aa  to  their 
Anbiin»  circiimcin  after  the  thiiteentta  jear,  becanae  I  own  childem :  and  that  in  the  caae  at  children  it  was 
bhmael,  the  founder  of  thoir  nation,  was  circuiacised  |  to  be  done  on  the  el|;hth  day  aftei  birth.  This  was 
at  that  age  (A*l,  i,  12,  !j  see  Lane'a  Mod.  Eg.  ch.ii).  I  appointed  aa  an  ordinance  of  perpetual  obliKation  In 
Thongh  Mohammed  did  not  enjoin  clrcomcliion  In  the  i  the  Abrahamlc  family,  and  the  neiflect  of  it  entailed 
Koimn,  he  was  circumcised  himself,  according  to  the  the  penalty  of  being  cnt  off  from  the  people  (12-14). 
costCRi  of  hie  coantry :  and  circamclsion  is  now  aa  '  In  compliHnce  with  this,  Abraham,  though  then  nine- 
common  amongst  the  Uohammedans  aa  amongst  the  ty-nine  yean  of  age,  was  himself  circumcisad  and  all 
Jewi.  hia  household,  inclading  Ishmael.    On  the  birth  of  hia 

The  statement  of  Philoatorglus  may  receive  light ,  ran  Isaac,  the  rite  was  attended  to  with  regard  to  him 
from  the  Arab  historians,  who  relate  (Joel,  CucAicJtle  (Gen.  xxl,  4) ;  and  it  continusd  to  be  obacrved  by 
<fer  /mrlitat,  v,  !3G  sq.)  that  about  a  century  befbre  '  hU  posterity,  and  diitlnctively  to  characterize  them 
tike  Chrbtian  sra,  several  ilewish  Mvereltcna  reigned  i  from  the  people  amidst  whom  they  dwelt  (Gen. 
in  the  rei^a  called  Sbeba  by  the  Jews,  and  Yemen  by  '  xxxiv,  14, 15).  The  usage  thus  introduced  by  Abra- 
tba  modems,  where  the  Himyarites  (or  Uomeritn)  |  ham  was  formally  enacted  as  a  lepd  inatitate  by  Moaet 
dmrelt.  The  few  facts  preeerved  show  that  they  were  i  (Lav.  xii,  8 ;  comp.  John  vji,  Sa).  Slaves,  whether 
Dot  close  obserren  of  the  Uosaic  law,  and  the  sua-  boma-bom  or  purchased,  were  drcuniciaed  (Gen.  xvii, 
ptcion  might  arise  that  they  were  called  Jews  chiefly  13, 18) ;  and  foreigners  must  have  their  males  circum- 
bvm  their  having  received  Jewish  clrcamcision.  We  '  ciaed  befole  thev  could  be  allowed  (o  partake  of  the 
have,  however,  a  collateral  evidence  of  much  impor-  I  paisover  (Esod'.  lii,  48),  or  become  Jewish  citiiens 
tanee,  to  prove  that  the  influence  acting  on  them  had  j  (Jodg.  xiv,  10.     See  also  Esth.  viu,  17,  where  for  Heb. 

.T^--'  "^r  ^■"  ■''"^'  "n^'';;  %",  T"J^ir'™  B-ltr-riS,"b<icameJews,"theSept.ha»T,p..rVovro 
that  in  Abysainia  a  nation  called  the  Fatasha  still  ex-  ,      ,-,,-'-  '.:.!_,       ,      .         ,  *^        .  .  ,       f     . 

lata,  -which  ha>  very  thoroughly  adopted  the  Jewish  ""  l"'^'"^'"')-  I"  "*"".  "  ■"  «PP<"ol«d  to  be  ob- 
religion,  inwimnch  as  to  have  invented  legends  that  '""'^^  ""  "'""oK  lo  all  who  became  proselytes  from 
allefte  their  descent  from  the  Hebrews.  They  possess  ''o'thenism  to  Judaism  (comp.  Judith  xiv.  10  j  Mai- 
the  Uld  Testament  in  the  Gheez  language  and  charac-  moDidee,  /oure  Biak,  c.  IS,  cited  by  Lightfoot,  //or- 
ter,  bat  their  own  language  Is  said  lo  be  quite  alien  { noHim  Evaiy.  sec.  12).  The  penalty  of  death  for  a 
from  tbe  Hebrew ;  facts  which  prove  that  they  ware  neglect  of  thb  ordinance  appears  in  the  case  of  Hoaes 
really  protrlyted  by  the  Jews  at  some  early  period.  |  to  have  actually  been  demanded  of  the  Esther,  when 
Sea  ABTiiai:(iA.  .At  that  same  time,  it  is  credible,  the  tbe  Lord  "  sought  lo  kill  him"  because  his  son  was 
Hebrew  faith  met  with  similar  ■nccesa  on  tbe  opposite  '  uncircamcited  (Exod.  iv,  S4-S6).  During  tba  passage 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  Jost  believes  that,  during  the  i  through  the  wiidemesa  the  practice  fell  into  diatue, 
war  of  the  Maccabees,  great  nom  ben  of  Jews  migrated  j  so  that  of  those  who  entered  Canaan  none  had  been 
into  Arabia;  and  it  la  certain  that  In  later  times  they  1  circumcised.  As  this  was  btal  lo  their  title  under  tbe 
were  -vtTj  nnmemos  in  Yemen,  and  their  influence  i  covenant  M  take  possession  of  the  bnd,  Joahna,  in 
greaL  Wherever  they  were  settled  proselytes  must  |  obedience  to  God's  command,  caused  all  tbe  males  to 
have  been  made ;  and  great  leal  was  doabtless  used  to  |  be  drcumcised  (Josh,  r,  3-9).  The  moat  eatisfoclorj 
indues  them  to  circumcise  tbelr  childem  duly  accord,  ezpiaaatlon  of  this  ne^ilect  appears  to  be,  that  the  na- 
tBg  to  the  Mosaic  rite.  We  can  then  quite  understand  I  tion,  while  bearing  the  punishment  of  disobedience  In 
PhiloatOTgina's  fact,  if  we  are  allowed  to  suppose  that  I  its  forty  years'  wandering,  was  regarded  as  under  a 
he  spoko  loosely  of  "the  Himyaritcs"  doing  that  which  lemporary  rejection  by  God,  and  was  therefore  prohih- 
waa  done  by  a  great  many  of  them.  An  interesting  |  ited  from  using  the  sign  of  the  covenant.  This  agrees 
itory  ie  told  by  Josepbns — the  date  so  late  is  the  reign  |  with  tbe  mention  of  their  disobedience  and  its  puniah- 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius  (^A%t.  xx,  3) — how  Ixatea,  Hie  '  ment,  which  immediately  follows  in  tbe  passage  in 
young  king  of  Adiabene,  and  h la  mother  Helena,  were  Joshua  (verse  6),  and  with  the  words  (verse  9),  "This 
coniertcil  by  Jewish  teachen  to  a  belief  in  the  one  true  day  have  1  rolled  away  the  reproach  of  Egypt  tmm 
God,  the  God  of  the  Jiebrews:  Bud  how.  when  Izates  off  you."  The  "reproach  of  Egypt"  was  the  throat- 
was  dnirous  of  being  circumcised,  and  his  mother  ,ened  taunt  of  th«r  former  maslen  that  God  bad 
ireadcd  that  it  would  alienate  hia  mhjects,  his  Jewish  '  brought  them  Into  the  wildemeu  to  a1«y  them  (Exod. 
instructor  Ananias  warmly  seconded  her  viewn,  with  a  I  xxxii,  1!;  Num.  xiv,  18-16;  Deut.  Ix,  28),  which,  so 
keart  like  that  of  Paul ;  telling  him  that  If  he  was  re-  long  t»  they  remained  uncircumcised  and  wanderers 
solved  to  Imitate  Jewish  Institutions,  he  could,  without !  In  tbe  desert  for  their  sin,  was  in  danger  of  blling 
being  circumcised,  adore  the  true  divinity;  and  that  u^n  them.  (Other  views  of  the  passage  are  given 
this  waa  far  more  important  than  circumcision.  At ;  and  dlBcuwed  in  Koil'j  Cammntary  on  Jotkua,  p.  129.) 
the  time  he  satiafled  the  young  monarch ;  but  after-  i  From  this  time  forward  it  became  tbe  pride  of  the  na- 
wards,  mnother  Jew,  named  Eleaiar,  came  from  Gali.  tion  to  observe  this  ordinance;  on  all  those  people 
tee,  and  inveighed  m  strongly  on  tbe  Impiety  of  hia  who  did  not  observe  it  they  looked  down  with  con- 
disabedieoee,  Ihat.  without  more  delay,  Iiates  submit-  I  tempt,  not  to  say  abhiHTenca  (Judg.  xiv,  8 ;  xv,  18 ; 
ted  to  the  rile.  It  is  evident  that,  in  a  controversy  of  ll  Sam.  xiv,  6;  xvil,  26;  2  Sam.  i,  30;  Isa.  Ill,  1; 
this  tort,  the  more  narrow-minded  teacher  had  the  ad-  i  Ezek.  xxxl,  IS ;  Ephee.  li,  11,  etc.) ;  and  to  much  did 
vantage;  and,  in  consequence,  it  appears  that  "proa-  it  become  a  rite  distinctive  of  them,  that  their  oppress- 
dytas  of  righteootneSB"  were  always  circumcised  (Ju-  I  on  sought  tn  prevent  their  olwervlng  it — an  attempt 
dith  xlr,  10,  end  Tacit.  Hiit.  v,  6).'  The  fkcility  with  I  Co  which  thev  refused  to  tubmlC  though  threatened 
which  whole  nations  have  mdofAei  the  practice  fhim  I  with  tbe  last  penalties  in  case  ordiiobedlence(l  Hacc. 
the  Mohammedans  proves  that  it  is  not  so  serious  an  i.  4«,  60,60-62).  The  Introduction  of  Christianity  waa 
obetacletothespreadofareligionaaMime  have  thought  'the  signal  for  the  abolition  of  this  rite  in  the  Chnrch 
H  (see  tbe  fVn^  (Sfdopadia.  a.  v.),  ;  of  God ;  as  the  old  covenant  bad  waxed  feeble  and  was 

II.  Janii  Cireiaiidiien.^1,  Hatoni. — When  God  passing  away,  Ihat  which  waa  tba  token  of  it  alao 
anrraimced  to  Abraham  tbat  be  would  establish  hia  ceased  to  be' binding;  the  rule  waa  proclaimed  that 
nmifiBiil  with  him,  he  said  to  him.  "  This  is  my  cove-  "  in  Christ  Jeani  neither  circumcision  av^letb  any- 
Baat,  which  ye  shall  keep  between  me  and  you,  and  thing  nor  uncircumcUon,  but  a  new  creature"  (Gal. 
tby  teed  after  thee :  Every  man-child  among  yon  shall  .  vi,  IS;  Col.  Ill,  II),  though  among  the  Jewish  Chris- 
be  circamdaed.    And  ye  stwll  circnmciie  Uie  fleih  of  I  tjana  were  ttQl  fbnnd  many  wbo  clung  tenadooaly  to 


CIRCUMCISION 

tbeir  ancient  diatioctivg  tlM,  and  voald  hava  ImpoHd 
It  eTan  on  tbe  Gentile  cooverta  to  ChrittUnitj'  (Acti 
XV,  1 ;  GaL  vi,  12,  etc.)-  Our  Lcrd  himaeir  via  cir- 
cumcbed,  becauea  it  became  him  who  was  of  the  seed 
of  Abraham  according  to  the  fluh  to  MGl  all  ligbt- 
eonsaeu,  and  liecauae  be  wu  "  a  minister  of  tile  eir- 
cnmciiion  for  tlie  truth  of  God,  lo  confirm  the  prom- 
ises made  nalo  the  faUiere"  (Kom.  xv,  B);  and  Paol 
caased  Timothy  to  be  drcnmciied  to  avoid  offeoee  to 
tbe  Jaws,  hla  mother  being  ■  Javets ;  bnt  the  ^idrlt  of 
Cbrbtiaolty  waa  avene  fhnu  socb  institutions  (Acts 
sv,  l-II ;  Oal.  li,  S,  etc.}— for  the  outward  camai  cir- 
cumcision it  Boaght  to  lubstitute  that  of  the  heart 
(Rom.  il,  18,  29),  "the  circomcUou  not  made  with 
hands  in  putUng  off  tbe  alna  of  the  flash,  «ven  the  cir- 
camcision  of  Chriri"  (CoL  U,  II). 

Among  the  ancient  Jevs,  tbe  nle  that  drcumcialoD 
■boald  take  place  on  the  eighth  itj  attar  birth  was 
rigidiv  followed  (Luke  I,  59 ;  li,  31 ;  Phil.  iU,  6),  save 
In  BDch  verv  exceptional  cases  as  those  mentioned 
Exod.  iv.  afi';  Joeh.  v,  f.  Even  tbeir  reverence  for 
the  Sabbath  did  not  prevent  the  Jews  ttom  obaerving 
it  DD  that  day  (John  vlf,  !!,  23) ;  according  to  tbe 
BahbJDB  drcnrndsion  "pallit  Sabbatum"  (Ughtfoot, 
Bar.  Iteb.  m  Joan  vll,  3S).  The  operation  might  ba 
perfbnned  by  any  Iiraeilte,  but  usually  it  was  per- 
formed bj  the  father  of  the  child;  in  special  casei 
n  might  perform  it  (Exod.  iv,  ib).     The  Instra- 


sharp  St 


knifa  of  flint  (Exod,  iv,  26;  Josh,  v,  2.  8;  comp.  tba 
\i9oe  AiSwmicos,  used  by  the  Egyptians  in  preparing 
bodies  for  embalming,  Henid.  IL,  86).  See  Khipk. 
The  operation  was  a  paiDfuI  one,  et  leant  lo  grown 
persons  (Gen,  xxxlv,  95j  Josh,  v,  8),  and  requires 
■boat  three  days  tor  tin  Inflammation  to  sobaide  (Ac- 
vienx,  ill,  116).  It  was  usnal  to  connect  tbe  ns^ning 
of  the  child  nith  the  clreumcision  (Gen.  xxi,  3,  4; 
Luke  i,  69;  il,  21),  a  practice  which  probably  had  re- 
spect to  the  fact  that  it  was  in  connection  with  the  In- 
•titotion  of  the  rite  that  God  gave  to  tbe  ancestor  of 
the  race  his  name  of  Abrabvn  (Geq.  xvii,  6).    Sac 

2.  ObHttnlion  bg  <q>oiUitt  Jeri Some  of  tbe  Jews 

Id  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphaijes,  wishing  lo  asein 
ilato  themsalree  to  the  heathen  around  them,  built 
gymnasium  {yv/ivaaioy)  M  Jerusalem,  and,  that  they 
might  not  be  known  to  be  Jews  when  they  appeared 
naked  in  the  games,  "made  themselves  uncir 
cised"  (1  Mace,  i,  16,  imitjiiav  lavroic  aKpoffim-. 
Valg,JiemBU  iM  pnrjmtia  t  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  6, 1,  rqv 
nit  nft'oiurt'  iripiTOfi^i'  lTriia\iirriiy).  Sometimes 
this  was  done  by  a  surgical  operation,  sncb  as  Olsua 
describes  (J)elf«A'c.vii,£S;  comp.  Gmlea,  Mflh.  Mt4. 
Xiv,  J6;  Paul  £gin,  vi.  KB;  Epiphanlua,  lie  pond,  tl 
Wfu.  p.  S38,  ed.  Basil.  Ibii).  sometimes  by  other  mesns 
(Dioscor.  Iv,  IfiT).  The  term  for  this  waa  Irimriirdai 
(Talm.  ri7^7  T]^^)]  i.  e.  draidiig  ocer  again,  sc.  tbe 
prepuce  (i  Mmc  vii ;  sec  Bortbolin.  Mori,  biil,  xxvi). 
AgiLtnst  having  recourse  to  this  practice  from  an  ex- 
cessive antl-Judaistic  tendency,  tlie  aputtle  Paul  cau- 
tions the  GoriBthiaDS  in  the  words,  "Was  any  ono 
called  tning  eircntncised,  let  him  not  become  uncii^ 
cumcised"  (/iij  jimnriis^u,  1  Cor.  vii.  18).  See  the 
Essay  of  Groddeck,  D)  Judaii  pnrpatium  aitraiaiii- 
lau  (I.ips.  1699) ;  also  in  Schuttgeo's  Uvr.  Hebr.  ii ;  and 
in  Hasici  et  Ikenii  ffor.  Thtt.  ii.  798  »q. ;  and  in  Ugo- 
lini  TkiiauT.  xxii ;  Engel,  IM  Jaitronim  prop,  aUrail, 
{Lips.  1699);  Losalus,  De  rpirp<iemo  Judiaco  (Jen. 
)e65);  also  in  Schlsgeri  Ditt.  rar.  (Helmst.  1743,  U, 
89  »q.) ;  WedeU,  ExereiU.  mrd.  ph!l,l.  I,  v,  1  eq. ;  Lu- 
dolf.  Coam.  in  Hiil.  ^Ih.  p.  270 :  Labkert  in  tbe  SItid. 
«.  Kiit.  IBB5,  iii,  657 :  comp.  Faliricii  BibliogT.  Aniiq. 
p.  bin  sq.     See  Foreskin. 

R.  Ftgarativt  Vit  of  Ike  Trna. — The  moral  meaning 
of  tbn  word  "  uncircumcised"  was  a  natural  resolt  of 
its  having  been  made  legally  essential  to  Hebrew 


0  CIRCUMCISION 

bitb.  "  Dneircamcised  In  heart  and  ears"  waa  a  incfc. 
apbor  to  which  a  prophet  would  be  carried,  as  nnrna 
sarily  as  a  Christian  teacher  to  such  phrases  aa  "  ud- 
baptiied  in  soul,"  or  "washed  by  regeneration."  t% 
was  ■  welLknown  and  readily  undentood  tfobot  of 

4.  MaHern  Ctaga. — The  ceremony  of  drcDmciaion, 
as  practiced  by  tbe  Jews  in  our  own  times,  is  thus  :  If 
the  eighth  day  happens  to  be  on  the  Sabbath,  the  cenb- 
mony  must  ba  performed  on  that  day,  notwithitandiiig 
its  sanctity.  When  a  male  child  is  bom,  the  godfa- 
ther is  chosen  from  amongst  his  relations  or  Dou 
friends ;  and  if  the  party  ia  not  in  circnmstancea  to 
bear  the  expenses,  which  are  considerable  (for  aftei 
the  ceremony  is  performed  a  breakbit  is  provided, 
even  smongst  the  poor.  In  a  luznrioos  manner),  it  is 
,  usual  for  the  poor  to  get  one  amongst  tbe  richer,  who 
accepts  the  office,  end  becomes  a  godfather.  Thci* 
are  also  societies  formed  amongst  them  for  the  pnrpOM 
of  defraying  tlie  expenses,  and  every  Jew  receives  tbe 
benedt  if  his  child  is  bom  in  wedlock.  Tbe  ceremony 
is  performed  in  lbs  following  manner,  in  general. 

Tbe  drcumcifor  being  provided  with  a  very  sharp 
instrument,  called  the  circumcising  knife  (see  Quandt, 
De  eultrit  circamcitoriii  Judaanm,  Beglom.  17I3X 
plasters,  cnnimin-*»d  to  dress  tbe  wonnd,  pn^iet 
bandages,  etc.,  the  child  is  broagbt  to  tbe  door  of  tbe 

ceivoi  it  from  her  and  carries  it  into  the  synagogoe, 
where  *  large  chair  with  two  seats  is  placed  ;  tbe  one 
is  fbr  the  godfather  to  sit  upon,  the  other  is  called  the 
seat  of  Elijah  tbe  prophet,  who  is  called  tbn  ani;el  or 
messenger  of  the  covenant.  As  soon  aa  tbe  godfatber 
enters  with  the  child,  tbe  congregation  say,  "  Blessed 
is  he  that  comelh  to  be  circumdaed,  and  enter  into  tbe 
covenant  on  the  eighth  day."  The  godfather  being 
seated,  and  the  child  placed  on  a  cusbion  in  bis  lap, 
tbe  circumcisDT  performs  the  operation,  and,  holding 
the  child  in  bis  arms,  takes  a  glass  of  wine  into  hb 
right  hand,  and  says  as  follows:  "Blessed  be  those, 
O  Lord  OUT  God,  King  of  the  Universe,  Creator  of  the 
fruit  ofthe  vine.  IIJc!«ed  art  thou, O  Lord  our  God! 
who  bath  sanctified  his  beloved  A«m  tbe  womb,  and 
urdnined  an  ordinance  fbr  bla  kindred,  and  sealed  bis 
descendant*  with  llie  mark  of  his  holy  covenant; 
therefore  for  tbe  nicrils  of  thui,  0  living  God !  oar 
rock  and  inheritance,  command  the  deliveranca  of  tbe 
Iwlovedofour  kindred  from  tbe  |ril,  for  the  sake  of  tba 

thon,  O  Lord,  tbe  Maker  of  the  Covenant  I  Our  God, 
and  the  God  of  our  fathers!  preserve  this  child  to  his 
father  and  mother,  and  his  name  shall  be  called  in 
lsTael,A,  thesonof  R.  Let  the  father  rejoice  in  those 
Chat  go  forth  from  his  loins,  and  let  his  mother  Le  glad 
in  the  fruit  of  her  wnmb ;  as  It  is  written, '  Thy  father 
and  mother  shall  rejoice,  and  they  that  begat  thee 
shall  be  glad.'" 

The  father  of  tba  child  aays  tba  following  grace: 
"  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Ixird  our  God,  King  of  the  L'ni- 
versol  who  hath  Banctined  us  with  Ills  commandmeoU, 

father  Abraham."  Tbe  congregation  answer,  "As  bo 
bath  entered  into  the  law,  the  canopy,  and  the  good 
and  virtuous  deeds."  (See  Buxtorf,  Synaffooa  Judai- 
o.,th.I]0 

III,  IMtign  of  tlie  Inttilutiim. — Herodotus  long  ago 
declared  that  it  was  adopted  by  the  Egj'ptians  for 
cleanliness  (ea9npu;niroc  li'viia);  and  a  slight  »c- 
qnaintance  with  tba  idcaa  of  the  Turks  concerning 
personal  delllament  will  make  it  easy  to  believe  that 
an  idea  of  cleanlinofs  continued  the  piactico  among 
nations  which  had  once  become  habituated  to  il.  in 
the  ancient  Ei^ptians  this  Turkish  st^rit  was  carried 
to  a  great  height ;  nor  la  it  wonderful  that  in  hot  cli- 
mates detailed  precepts  of  cleanliness  form  a  very  large 
part  of  primitive  religian.  But  we  can  hardly  r»t  in 
this  as  a  suffideal;  account  of  the  origin  of  the  rite  (ee* 


CIRCUMCISION  Bl 

Doling,  ObifiTOtt.  il,  SB  aq.  [alH  In  UgDlint  l%aimr. 
zxu];  Bnddci  Bitl.  Eeel.\,  I,I.17S  iq.  t  Heyar,  Dt 
laipp.  tifiit.  Htbr.  U,  T,  p.  bii  [[Iko>>i>I  Tkemir.  1]; 
Gnpim  Diu.  m  circmcuio  ab  j£g.  /ncril  derivata ' 
[J«n.  i;!»]  ;  Witsil  ^£(9.  iii,  6,  p.  233  sq. ;  Bfnniv, 
De  nmiacu.  <7truri  [Amit.  1G89J,  p.  37  sq. ;  Cm-pioT, 
Jaipur,  p.  60g  >q.  ;  3turi,  Circumcitio  a  baJiarii  pen- 
liiai  Iraiulala  [Uer.  1790]).  It  is  more  imporUnt  to 
itite  tluE  in  mdeqiiMe  phyalul  reuon  for  pcrtbrmlnjj 
the  optrotioQ  on  female*  of  uveril  African  raaa  hu 
been  fully  anbaUntutad.  Tbe  carioaa  reader  will  And 
Id  Laurence's  LnOmt  (cbap.  v)  the  decirive  testlmoDy 
of  ilr.  Bamiw  and  Dr.  Someirille  on  thig  point,  witU 
uiUnsiaD  to  tbe  effurta  oftbe  Roiniah  miuionariea  to 
forbid  tbe  practice  in  Abjaainia,  and  llie  unexpected 
coDHquences  which  thwarted  tbeia.  Ho  positive  evi- 
dcDce  haa  yet  been  obtuDed  that  the  opeiution  la 
eqniily  expedient  for  the  malea  in  any  of  the  aama 
nca;  yet  the  analogy  of  the  two  cues  forces  oa  to 
bdiere  that  in  both  the  euatain  haa  a  pliysical  or  med- 
ka)  ground,  especially  when  it  ia  remarked  to  predom- 
inate so  mach  in  Africa,  where  alone  (la  fsr  as  yet  ap- 
pears) auch  physical  pecnliarlties  of  itractuTe  enlst. 
it  waa  practised,  moreorer,  by  the  malea  of  AfHcan 
"  es  so  uraj^e.  and  to  little  addicted  to  religiooa  cere- 
'  diam,  that  a  broader  grouad  must  be  sought  for 
n  alniple  cleanliness.  We  have  already  named 
the  Troglodytos.  Strabo  mentions  two  other  tribes 
of  Africa,  whom  he  calls  Kroophagi  and  KoloU  (iiri, 
4,  p.  387-390,  393,  ed.  Tanch.),  who  practised  on  them- 
lelves  a  yet  more  shocking  matilation  (jcoXo^r  rdc 
fhAiivDvc).  ascribed  to  the  Kolobi  by  Diodorua  also. 
Tbe  fjct,  also,  that  most  of  theao  nations  performed 
whatever  operation  it  was,  not  on  intints,  but  on  those 
who  were  advancing  tovnrda  maniageahle  age,  con- 
spires to  indicate  Uat  some  phyncal  inconvenience 
padually  ahowed  itself  (as  wiUi  the  Busbmen  fe- 
males), of  which  they  desired  to  get  rid.  Joet  looks 
upon  lu/ant  circumcision  as  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  Jadaidm;  and  thia  may  be  nearly  correct,  though 
we  have  seen  that,  according  to  Abulfeda,  some  Araba 
delavrd  it  only  tilt  after  teething.  In  fitct,  Diodorus 
(iii,  SIX  when  apeaking  of  that  branch  oftbe  Troglo- 
dyte nations  which  was  «lled  Kolobi,  declares  that 
the?  were  subjected  to  tbe  operation  in  infancy  (>'c 
yrfwiau).  Their  unnatural  and  cruel  custom  la  poaai- 
Uy  to  bo  referred  to  superstition.  Some,  Indeod,  havo 
leoked  on  circumcision  itself  as  a  softened  form  of  tho 
bartBrnns  rite  by  which  the  Galli,  or  priests  of  Cybelo, 
were  quiUHed  for  their  office.  The  Kolobite  custom 
ought,  on  the  contrary,  be  a  carryini;  out  of  that  bar- 
tierily  to  the  extremeit  point  poaslhle,  abort  of  exter- 
Diiniting  the  popoUtion  of  a  tribe.  Traditionary  or 
supernilioiis  reasons  oertaloly  can  alone  explain  tho 
presence  of  the  custom  among  the  Sandwich  Islanders 
(Ulchaelis,  Orient.  BiiliiH.  liv,  50  sq.),  and  aboriginal 
Americans  (GnmiUa.  Hulaire  dt  FOroqut,  Avign.  I'OS, 
1,183  iq.),  for  phyilologicai  conslderationa,  seem  to  fail 
(see  Bnrdach,  Fkgiiol.  Hi,  886).  If  an  Independent  and 
batnan  origin  has  been  discovered  for  Egyptian  drcum- 
dsion.  the  thought  of  necessity  arises  that  the  Israelites 
moil  have  had  it  from  the  aame  sources  as  tbe  nations 
atDOud  them,  and  it  has  been  discussed  (Spencer,  Dt 
Ltg.Btb.  I.iv,  4,  p. 70  Bq.)whetherthcj  even  borrowed 
it  from  the  Eayplians,  (Movers  thinks  {^PkHne.  i, 
m]  that  the  latter  borrowed  It  from  the  Phinniciana, 
rmiug  on  the  myth  of  Saturn,  in  Sanchoniatho, 
Fragm.  p.  36.)  The  idea  has  naturally  given  mocb 
ofeace;  but.  In  truth,  the  question  involves  no  pecul- 
iar difficulty ;  It  is  only  a  part  of  another  tax  wider  In- 
many  other  ancient  nations 


onles 


dins 


with  the  Jews,  and  Uiat  the  Hebrew  law  ia  by  no 
DMans  in  all  points  original.  That  sacrifln  pre-exist- 
ed is  on  the  sar&ce  of  the  Bible  history.  The  same, 
bawBver,  Is  true  of  temples,  tabernacles,  priests,  ever- 
IwtniDg  fire,  oracles,  etc     The  (act  has  been  ofUn  d«- 


CIKCUMCISION 

noted  by  saying  that  the  Jewiab  Instltations  are  a  s^ 

erchal  religion.  Other  treatises  on  the  Gentile  origin 
of  cirenmciaion  are  by  Boftaiann  (Altdorf,  17T1),  Bus 
(Jen.  1TD7),  Zelbich  (Oer.  ITTO),  Anton  (Lipe.  1GS2). 
'"  rcumclaion,  then,  aa  practised  by  the  Gentiles, 
simply  an  expedient  to  promote  health,  facilita- 
ting cleanliness,  and  preventing  certain  painful  afflic- 
tions, such  aa  that  of  the  gomnrhaa  ipuria  {(roiapky- 
nofu,  or  s^cture),  and  especially  tbe  Jtdpa£,  or 
"carbuncle,"  to  which.  In  hot  climates,  men  are  suti- 
ject  (Josephns,  cmt.  Apiott.  il,  14;  Miebulir,  Dt  fAra-  ■ 
bU,  cb,  xit),  or  an  unusual  prolongation  of  the  part  in 
tfuestion  (Thevenot,  1,  58 ;  Haquet,  in  Voij^'s  jfagai, 
furPhsi.  vl,  J43 ;  but  see  Dani,  in  Baldinger's  Magat. 
fir  AtrtU,  xiv,  ilG  sq.)-  In  so  far  as  it  served  this 
end,  the  Inveliles  had,  of  course,  the  benefit  of  it ;  but 
that  thia  fonned  the  reason  and  design  of  its  sppmnl- 
ment  by  God,  though  asserted  by  some  men  of  learn- 
ing and  ability,  seems  utterly  untenable;  for,  in  the 
first  place,  this  opinion  is  without  the  slightest  support 
from  Scripture;  often  as  tbe  subject  is  referred  to 
thero,  we  find  no  hint  as  to  this  being  tho  purpose  of 
the  obaervance;  Zdly,  This  bypotheeis  is  quite  op- 
posed to  the  account  given  by  Moses  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  rite  among  the  Israelites ;  3dly,  It  is  absurd 
to  suppose  that  a  mere  prophylactic  usage  should  by 
God  be  elevated  to  the  solemnity  of  a  religious  ordi- 
nance; 4thly,  Whatever  advantages  In  a  hygienic  re- 
spect micht  accrue  from  the  practice,  these  were  con- 
fined to  Individuals ;  circumcision  is  not  necessary  for 
health  to  men  generally  in  hot  climates  (Niebuhr,  loc. 
clt.)  1  and  therefbre  to  oblige  tbe  whole  male  commu- 
nity to  undergo  thia  proceSB  In  Infancy  for  purposes  of 
health  would  have  been  to  act  as  unwiae  a  pan  as  if  it 
bad  been  enjoined  that  every  one  should  lose  a  limb, 
because  it  was  possible  that  some  one  might  contract 

6thly,  If  circumcision  was  a  mere  hyeienic  precaa- 
tion,  why  should  it  have  been  sboliBhed  liy  Christian- 
ity? why  should  the  apostles  have  held  it  to  be  so 
hostile  to  Christianity?  and  why  should  the  difficult 
of  becominj  a  ChrialEam  have  been  Increased  by  the 
prohibition  to  those  who  embraced  Christianity  of  a 
necessary  condition  of  their  children's  health?  Se« 
Philo,  De  Cinxmcit.  in  0pp.  ii,  210  sq. ;  Ackermann, 
in  Weise's  Mattrialie»f6r  GottaatUcrAat  (Gera,  1784), 
I,  50  sq. :  Schult,  ExrrritaH.  I,  Ii;  Michaeli-,  Orintt. 
Bibl.  xxii,  8  sq.;  Rust,  Handb.  d.  Chimrgie.  v,  BO; 
Hoffmann,  De  nuua  faamditalit  genlit  rircamriia 
(LIpI.  17S9);  Wolfsheimer,  De  catuii  facimSlalu  //«- 
imor.  (Hsl.  1742);  Vogtl,  Dubia  de  niu  cirrvmriliota, 
mfdim  (Gott.  1763);  Hehier^  J)t  ciramteu.  erigiae  tl 
caiuit  Cm  the  Conmeni.  81K.  GM.  xiv,  307  sq. ;  and  his 
Ktit.  Oach.  d.  Rdig.  U,  173  sq.).  On  tbe  supposed 
tendency  of  the  custom  to  prevent  excessive  venery 
(Michaalls  in  Bertholdt'e  Jovn.  iv,  856),  especially 
onanism  (Buxtorf,£ez.  Ck<M.  col.  113  *q.),  see  Schnei- 
der in  Henke's  ZaiKAHflf.  SfnofsfiniKti.V,  iv,3£3. 
For  othfr  reasons,  see  Photius,  Ep.  305. 

When  firs:  appointed  by  God,  circumcision  was  ex- 
pressly set  forth  aa  a  token  ofthe  covenant  which  God 
bad  made  with  Abraham  1  and  the  apoatle  Ulls  na  that 
Abraham  received  "the  sign  of  circnmclsion  as  a  seal 
of  the  rigbteoutness  of  that  fkith  which  he  had,  being 
yet  un circumcised"  (Rom.  Iv,  II);  so  that  to  Abra- 
ham it  wsB  not  only  a  sign  or  token  of  God's  covenant, 
but  also  an  ol>eignatlon  or  certificate  that  he  was  in  a 
state  of  acceptance  before  he  was  circumcised.  As  a 
Mosaicinalitulion,  It  waa  also  the  sign  of  the  covenant 
which  God  made  with  Israel,  which  is  henco  called 
the  '■cDvenaotDfcbcumc!slon"(Actsvii,e).  Incon- 
sequence of  this,  it  became  tbe  medium  of  access  lo  the 
privileges  ofthe  covenant,  and  entailed  on  all  who  re- 
ceived it  an  obligation  to  ftalfil  tho  dutiea  which  tbe 
covenant  imposed  (Rom.  Ii,  36;  Ui,  1 ;  Gal.  v,  S).  In 
a  word.  It  was  tbe  token  which  aisnrad  to  Abraham 


CIROtJMCISION  3 

and  hi*  deKcndanta  tba  promiM  of  the  Hecalah  (Oen. 

xvii).  It  was  thai  made  a  Dacm 
Jewiib  naticmality.  Circuindsion 
arata  the  people  of  the  Jewi  from  the  mt  of  the  na- 
tioTii,  ai  a  people  Bet  apart  Is  God.  Tbeae  vers  its 
■Ht.  Aa  Te§pecta  its  nraming,  that  waa  eyinboUcsl, 
and  tbe  things  which  it  symWized  were  two :  1.  Con- 
ncration  Ut  God  ;  and^  2.  Mental  and  Hpirltiud  puriA- 
eation  (Eiod.  ri,  12 ;  Lot.  xii,  2& ;  DeuC.  x,  16 ;  xxx, 
S:  laa.  Ill,  1:  Jer.  W.i;  vi,10;  Rom.  il,  3S-S9;  Col. 
1),  11,  etc,  CoDipara  I*hilo,  De  Circitmcmime;  Jonea, 
Figuralivt  Language  of  Seripturt,  Lecture  v,  p.  I S6). 
"Tbers  waethu*  involved  the  concept  of  cooHCntfiDo, 
and  along  with  thia  that  of  reconciliation,  in  circom- 
cblon;  and  it  was  thereby,  aa  Ewald  right!}-  remarka 
(Altrrlk.  p.  D5),  an  offering  of  the  body  to  Jehovah, 
which,  according  to  the  true  meaning  of  all  the  off^T' 
JDKS,  as  fully  developed  and  raised  (o  their  true  eleva- 
tion l>y  the  prophets,  had  to  be  presented  to  him  as  an 
offering  of  the  son].  Only  as  thia  inner  offering  waa 
perfectly  proented  conld  the  obligation  to  be  a  prieet- 
ly  liingdom  and  a  holv  poople  be  fallllled"  (Vaihinj 
in  Heriog's  Rtal-EiuyU.  ii,  I10).-Kitto,  s.  v. 

On  thia  aal^ect  in  general,  nee  Spencrr,  Dt  lAgSna 
HA.  rilvitSiia,  i,  5i  Michielit,  CommtnliiTiii  en  iht 
Lavi  ofMoKi,  iil,  68-83;  Witslus,  Dt  Fadtre,  bk.  tv, 
6,  9;  Lokevitz,  De  drcumemme  JiaLrorum  (Vilemb. 
1709-80} ;  Smeets,  De  eiramcuiont  Abrahamo  dimm- 
(Ui  data  (Franec,  ICtW);  Bergwn,  Buekaridang  vom 
butoriKhta,  hit.  u.  msii.  SUadjamla  (Berlin,  1844); 
Brescher,  DU  Badmeidviig  dtr  Israelilen  ton  der  kitt., 
praiti'ch-opfralivrti  u.  rilaalm  Sfi!e  (Vienna,  1849); 
Heymann,  DU  Bfdmadutginpiihnl.  Htdaittaig  Qiae- 
deb.  1844) ;  M.  G.  Salomon,  Dir  Bricharidung,  hut.  u. 
medidnitck  htlruditrt  (Braunschvr.  1844);  g. Salomon, 
FMmotu  nrbil  Hadinddang  (Hamh.  1838) ;  Schmld'a 
ed.  of  Maimoniden,  tract  n^ia  (Strasb.  1661, 1700); 
Wolfers,  Die  BtKkwidmg  dtr  JaJm  (Lamford.  1831). 
IV,  Chrittim  IlewJ  on  ttu  Subject. — "  The  attitude 
which  Christianity,  at  ita  introduction,  aasnmed  to- 
wards circumcision  waa  one  of  abKilutc  bostUily,  ao  bi 
.  aa  tbe  ntceaaity  of  the  rite  to  salvation,  or  its  possenaion 
of  anv  religiana  or  moral  worth  were  concerned  (Acta 
xv;  Gal.  T,  £).  But  while  the  apostles  resolutely 
forbade  its  imposition  by  authority  on  the  Geatiloa, 
they  made  no  objection  to  ita  practice,  as  a  mere  mat- 
ter of  feeling  or  expedienci-.  Paul,  who  would  by  no 
means  consent  to  the  demand  for  TUna,  who  was  a 
Greek,  to  l>o  ciTcnmcised  (Gal.  ii,  3-G),  on  another  oc- 
casion hadTimotby  circamciscd  to  concillste  the  Jews, 
and  that  he  might  preach  to  them  with  more  effect  aa 
being  one  of  themsulves  (Acts  .xvi,  S).  Tbe  Aliyuin- 
lan  Christians  still  practice  circnmcision  as  a  national 
custom  (tee  Gibbon,  DecHite  and  Full,  N,  Y.  edition, 
iv,665).  InaccordancBwlththo  spirit  of  Christianity, 
those  who  ascribed  efficacy  to  the  mere  outward  rite 
■Teapoken  ofintbeN.  T.  almoat  with  contempt  as  'the 
concision'  or  'amputation'  (njv  ■cnrarofiqi');  while 
the  claim  to  be  the  true  circumcision  ia  Tindicsted  for 
Chriatiana  tbemaelves  (Phil,  ili,  2,  S).  An  etbicat  idea 
Is  attached  to  cinmmcislon  in  the  O.  T.,  where  nndr- 
Cumcised  lips  (Eiod.  vi,  12, 80),  or  ears  (Jer.  vi,  10),  or 
hearts  (Lev.  xxvl,  41}  are  apoken  of,  i.  e.  either  stam- 
mering or  dull,  closed  as  it  were  with  a  foreskin,  or 
rather  rebellious  and  nnboly  (Dent,  xxx,  6;  Jer.  iv, 
4),  because  circnmclalon  was  the  aymbol  of  pariQ'  (see 
Isa.  lii,  1).  Thoa  the  fhut  of  a  tree  is  called  uncircam- 
clsed,  or,  in  other  words,  nnclean  (Lev.  sin,  S3).  In 
the  ti.  T.  tho  ethical  and  spiritual  ides  of  parity  and 
bolincsa  ii  ftiUy  developed  (Col.  ii.  11, 13 ;  Kom.  ii,  28, 
29)." 

T.  SrlaUnn  to  Ckrittian  BapHtm.—l.  The  ethical 
and  spiritnal  value  of  circumcision  did  not  depend  on 
Its  existence  or  use  prior  to  its  adoption  by  God  a)  a 
symbol  of  true  religion.  The  condescension  of  Christ 
eonsecrated  and  elevated  old  rites  to  new  spheres, 


12  CIRCUMCISION 

upon  the  principle  tliat  "what  God  harii  cleansed, 
that  call  not  thou  common."  On  this  principle  be 
elected  the  baptismal  pariflcation,  and  tbe  simple  ele- 
ments of  his  Supper.  When  ths  covenant  whb  Abra- 
ham had  reached  ita  full  development,  iDclndiog  all 
tho  seminal  elements  for  the  future  growth  of  bia 
Church  in  the  world,  God  ratified  it  by  the  seal  of  cir- 
cumcision. Whatever  was  afterwarda  added  to  tbe 
polity  of  the  Church  or  nation  worked  no  roodifica- 
tion  of  the  great  principles  involved,  bat  was  rstbar 
culled  into  being  by  the  exigencies  of  times  and  cir- 
cnmslances.  This  rite,  as  a  symbol,  bespoke  the  cdd- 
sumiualJon  of  the  Abrahamlc  covenant  in  all  its  power 
and  fulness  of  temporal,  as  wall  as  eternal  and  heav- 

2.  This  ordinance  Included  in  ita  signilicanco.  aa  a 
fitting  and  most  impressive  emblem,  deep  spiritnal 
trnths.  The  history  of  circumcision,  in  ita  connectioa 
with  the  Abrahamlc  covenant  and  religion,  cleariy  oi. 
bibits  the  nature  of  the  things  It  Fymboliied  liy  the 
direction  of  Ita  flgnratlve  sppllcatians.  lu  involving 
and  engaging  moral  and  mental  purity,  through  fai^ 
and  worship  towards  Abraham's  God,  it  became  tbe 
token  of  spiritnal  blessings  to  the  pious  Israelite  in 
whatever  foreign  regions  he  might  dwell,  nolwitli- 
standing  he  might  never  Ite  permitted  to  behold  Pales- 


:  holy  city. 


real  son  of  Abraham,  entitled  to  the  immunittea  oftlis 
Covenant,  whose  circumcision  waa  "of  tin  heart ;  in 
the  spirit,  and  not  in  the  letter;  whose  pniae  is  not 
of  men,  but  of  God"  (Rom.  U,  18.  39).  Profligacy  in 
the  national  imvemmcnt,  Ihuiigh  it  might  bring  afRic- 
linns,  could  not  nullify  the  spiritua'  law,  or  make  void 
tbo  seal  apon  tbe  faithful.  "All  arc  not  Israel  which 
are  of  rsrael"  (Rom.  Ix,  6).  The  n<piro;i^  cirpti'oc, 
iv  itvivfinTi — "  CiraoRcii'on  in  teart.  in  tpiril" — was 
then,  an  it  is  now.  the  only  mesna  of  nnion  with  tbe 
Meaaiab;  and,  regarding  the  nation,  therein  was  Abra- 
ham's seed  an  iin/isTTBin  in  impfrio. 
8.  The  rehition,  therefore,  of  CiHcciiclsieN  to  CnRiB- 

peculiar  religious  privileges  end  immunities,  tbe  env- 
blems  of  inward  cleansing,  tte  signs  and  seals  of  con- 
secration to  and  faith  in  tlie  God  of  Abraham.      Bap- 
tism follows  and  succeeds  to  the  ancient  rite,  not  be- 
CBUSO  of  external  llkrneas,  but  on  account  of  iden- 
tity of  offices  and  import,  in  sealing  and  imaging  the 
same  spiritual  truths.     For  the  saving  economy  of  Je- 
^ah  baa  been  tho  samo  fWim  the  beginning;  only 
I  instramcnts,  furniture,  and  external  appliances 
'0  nndergone  change.     The  Zion  of  the  old  is  the 
nofthe  newly-arranged  Church;  tho  ;~i — aXoi- — 
has  only  been  purged,  its  arena  enlarged,  and  tbo  ma- 
chinery of  the  garnering  process  changed  from  ■  spe< 
iRc  to  a  genenl  object,  ftom  the  national  to  the  coa- 
nical.     Tho  pious  patriarch  was  a  Christian  In  eveiy- 
thing  but  name  and  extent  of  privilege.     The  lon^ 

rnce  of  the  blessed;  its  latitude  the  breadtli  of  the  rscet 
The  change  nf  the  s}-mbolic  seal  adapts  it  to  a  wider 
sphere,  yet  it  is  only  in  tbe  vialbU  ftorm,  not  in  the 
substance;  it  becomes  a  new  and  moie  eligible  like- 
of  the  same  things.  "  Circumcirion  and  baptism 
ipond  in  meaning.  They  both  relate  to  the  re- 
newal of  the  heart"  (Carson,  p.  3CT}.  It  was  a  mark 
of  distinction  mado  upon  thoM  entering  Into  covenant 
ith  God  for  wonbip  and  salvation  ;  can  baptism  b« 
either  less  or  more  ?  Compare  Andrew  Fuller,  LttL 
Gm.  xvii ;  Dr.  L.  Chase,  Daign  ijf  Bqplum,  in  BapL 
Tracttfor  the  Timet,  p.  26. 

4.  The  writers  of  the  N.  T.  bear  testimonT  to  tbe 
view  hero  presented.  St.  Paul  uses  the  very  liiijiiisii 
ive  words  "  buried  with  him"  (Cbtist}  "in  baptian" — 
avvraipivTft  til'Ttji  iv  t^  /SmrWo/inTi  (Col.  ii,  12),  aa 
synonymous  with  and  explanatory  of  ^  wipiro^q  rot> 
Xpurrov,  "ths  drcundskKi  of  Christ."    WbatevFr  fn> 


CISTERN  3t 

Xmt,  and  for  the  conitrnction  of  th«rn  th*  ruckj-  nK- 
ton  of  the  groand  aflbrda  pecallar  fkcilitiei,  either 
In  origiiul  excavatinos  or  by  enUrgemciit  of  lutaral 
carities.  Dr.  RohidMD  remirki  th»t  the  inhibiUnU 
of  aU  the  hill  country  of  Jud^h  and  Benjamin  ire  in 
the  habit  of  collecting  water  during  the  rdny  SBamti 
in  tanks  and  ciitenu,  in  the  citlaa  and  fleldi,  and  along 
the  high  mit,  for  tin  auBteaanca  of  themselves  and 
their  flocka,  and  for  the  comfort  of  the  pasting  travel- 
ler. Many  of  these  are  oliviomly  antique,  and  exist 
along  ancient  roads  now  deeertad.  On  the  tong-for- 
gDttan  way  ftam  Jericho  to  Betbal  "  broken  clBUmB" 
of  high  antiquity  are  fonnd  at  regular  intervals.  Ja- 
nualem,  detcribed  by  Strat«  a*  wall  supplied  with 
water,  in  a  dry  neighborbood  (xvi,  TOO},  depends 
mainly  for  Uiis  npon  Iti  ciiUms,  of  which  almost  ev- 
ery private  house  posBeUB*  one  or  more,  excavated 
in  tbe  rack  on  which  the  city  Is  bnllt.  The  f()llowing 
an  tbe  dimensions  of  tour  belonging  to  tbe  house  in 
which  Dr.  R.  resided :  1,  IS  X8  X 12  feet  deep;  S,8x 
4x16;  a,  lOxiaxiSj  4,  aOXSOxSO.  Tbe  cistern) 
have  tuoally  a  round  opening  at  the  top,  ■ometlmes 
Imilt  np  with  stone-work  above,  and  famished  with  a 
curb  and  a  wbeel  for  the  bucket  (EccL  xli,  6),  so  that 
they  have  extemallr  much  the  appearance  of  an  ordi- 
nary wsU.  The  water  is  conducted  into  them  from 
the  TooG*  of  the  boosee  during  tbe  rainy  eeawn,  and 
with  care  remains  sweet  daring  the  wbule  aammer 
and  aatomn.  In  this  manner  most  of  the  larger 
baneea  and  palilic  buildings  are  supplied  (ib.),  Juae- 
phos  (  Wta;  iv,  4,  4)  deaerlbes  the  abandaiit  provision 
for  mMr  supply  in  the  towers  and  fbrtrasses  of  Jem- 
silem,  a  supply  whicb  bis  contributed  greatly  to  ita 
eapicHj  for  deVence,  while  the  dnness  of  the  neigh- 
borbood  has  In  all  casas  hindered  the  operations  of  be- 
siegars.  Thus  Hesekish  stopped  the  supply  of  water 
D^ido  the  dty  in  anticipation  of  the  attack  of  Sen- 
■acbwib  (i  Chron.  xxxil,  S,  i).  Tha  progreas  of 
AntiDChna  Sid^tn  (B.C.  134)  was  at  Ant  rvUrded  by 
want  of  water,  thou  th  this  want  was  afterwards  nnex- 
peecedlr  relieved  (Joiepb.  AM.  liii.  S.  2:  Clinton,  iil, 
SSI).  Joaephus  also  hnpates  to  divine  Interpoeition 
lb*  mpply  of  water  with  which  the  army  of  Titus  was 
(iimisfaod  after  suffering  from  want  of  it  (ICur,  v,  S, 
1).  The  Crusaden  also,  during  the  siege  A.D.  Ifm, 
wera  baraased  by  extreme  want  of  wuter,  wliile  tho 
barieged  were  fully  tuppUed  (llatth.  Paria,  //£«.  p.  46, 
49,  ed.Wat.)-  Benjamin  of  Tudeia  says  very  lit(le 
water  is  found  at  Jerusalem,  but  the  Inhabitants  drink 
rain-water,  which  they  coUect  In  tbeir  honaea  (Buhn's 
ed.  of  £ar^  Travttt,  p.  81).  Bdrctsy  gives  tbe  meat 
enaiplete  dcactiption  of  the  aabteiranean  teservoin  ol 
Janualrm,  particularly  those  under  the  Hsram  enclo- 
snre  {Citg  of  ike  GrtatKng,  p.  il6,  etc.).  See  Jsrd- 
aaifia.  The  defense  of  Masada  by  Joseph,  brother 
of  Herod,  a^iost  Antigonna  was  enalilrd  to  be  pro- 
longed owing  to  an  unexpected  replenishing  of  tho 

and  in  a  suiiaeqneat  passage  ha  deacriiiea  the  cistems 
and  rasarvoira  by  which  that  fortreu  was  plentifully 
rapplied  with  water,  aa  he  had  pievionalv  done  In  the 
eaae  of  Jeruaalam  and  Macbcrus  (ICir,  iv,  4,  4;  iv, 
t,i:  vii,A.!t>.  Bnrekbardt  mentions  ciatema  belong- 
ing to  private  houaes,  among  other  places,  at  Sermein, 
naar  Al--ppa  {Sgria,  p.  1!1),  El  Bsra.  in  the  Omnles 
valley  (p.  1S2),  OhsmI  and  Mlssema  In  tbe  Lejah  (p. 
110,  US,  IIH),  Tiberias  (p.  881),  Kerek  in  Moab  (p. 
Vn\  Mount  Tahor  (p.  3341.  Of  some  at  Hableb,  near 
G'd„il,  tbe  dimensions  are  given  by  Robinson  {Lafr 
Ramrcka,  p.  1871:  J,  7x5x3  fept  diep;  2,  nearly 
the  aame  aa  I ;  S,  13  X  9  M  8.  They  have  oiM  or  two 
ftepa  to  daecend  into  them,  as  la  tba  ease  with  one 
near  Giii,  now  dimaed.  deacri)ied  by  Sandys  aa  "a 
mighty  cistern,  fliled  only  by  tlw  raiit-water,  and  de-l 
•ccsiled  into  i>y  slain  of  ilone"  (Sandys,  p.  loO  ' 
•••Rahinsnn.li.SyO).  Oftboas  st  Hoblvh,  aome 
ooverod  with  Oat  stones,  roitiDj  on  arches,  somi 


CITHERN 

tirely  open,  and  all  evidently  ancient  (RobuiHin,  new 
ed.  iii,  n~).  Dr.  Olio  {JrarrU,  ii,  81)  deacnbea  some- 
thing of  a  better  sort  near  Hebron ;  '-Just  without  the 
city  are  some  cistemj,  wliicb  probably  Iwlong  to  a 
very  early  age.  A  large  basin,  forty-seven  paces 
square,  stands  outside  tbe  gate  by  which  we  entered 
the  city.  It  was  nearly  full  of  greenlab  water,  and 
b«s  been  repaired  aX  a  period  apparently  not  very  re- 
mote. It  is  of  very  solid  workmanship,  built  of  bewn 
limestone,  and  nuy  be  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  deep. 
The  descent  is  t>y  Bights  of  stairs  situated  at  tbe  four 
comers,  by  which  the  water  Is  brought  up  in  vessels 
and  akina,  and  poured  into  troughs  for  the  flocks,  or 
carried  away  for  domestic  uses.  It  was  not  at  this 
time  fit  for  drinking.  Another  pool,  of  smaller  dimen- 
Sims,  occupies  higher  granod  on  the  north  side  of  the 
city.  These  reservoirs  are  fliled  by  the  rains,  and  are 
unconnected  with  any  perennial  fountain,"  Vitruvlus 
(viil,  7)  describes  the  method  in  use  in  his  day  for  con- 
slructing  water-tinki,  bnt  the  native  rock  of  Paleatine 
usually  Bupeiaeded  tbe  necessity  of  mora  art  in  this 
work  than  is  suScioot  to  excavate  a  basin  of  the  re- 
qnired  dimensions.  The  city  of  Alexandria  la  aup- 
piicd  with  water  contained  la  arched  ciitems  support- 
ed by  pillara,  extending  under  a  greet  part  of  the  old 
city  (Van  E^ont,  Tratli,  ii,  134).     See  Pooi^ 

Empty  ciatems  were  someUmes  used  as  prison*  and 
places  of  conflnement.  Joseph  was  east  into  a  "pit" 
pl'a,  Gen.  xxzvii,  £!),  and  his  "  dnngeon"  is  called 
by  the  same  name  (ill,  14).  Jeremiah  WB*  thrown 
into  a  mii7  thongh  empty  cistern,  whose  depth  is  in- 
dicated by  the  cords  used  to  let  bim  down  (Jer.xxxviii, 
6).  To  tills  prison  tr-idltion  baa  aatigned  a  locality 
near  the  g^ite  called  Hetnd's  gate  (Hasselquiat,  p.  1401 
Maundrell,  Bohn'a  ed.  of  E,a*f  Tmnli.  p.  418).  See 
FRiso^t.  According  to  Thomson  (^Limd  latA  Book,  il, 
Se2-4).  dry  cIsUms  are  often  used  in  Palestine  for 
granaries,  and  are  very  liable  to  bo  plundered  of  their 
wheat  liy  ants.     See  Ghahaht. 

Various  allustons  by  way  of  Agure  are  made  to  ds- 
terns  in  Scriptare.  Tbe  breaking  of  the  wbeel  at  the 
cistern — the  wheel  that  was  used  to  send  down  and 
poll  up  again  the  bucket  which  drew  water  Itom  the 
Ur|,'er  cistem»_ii  used  in  Ecctea.  xii,  6,  as  an  image 
of  the  breaking  up  of  the  animal  economy,  which  pei^ 
petually  sends,  while  it  la  at  work,  the  'flow  ot  vital 
blood  from  the  heart  to  the  extremities.  To  drink 
waters  out  of  one's  own  cistern  is  a  proverbial  expres- 
sion (Prov.  V,  15)  for  confining  one's  self  to  tbe  legiti- 
mate sourcei  of  pleasure  which  God  hss  associated 
with  our  slate,  as  contradistinguished  frora  those 
which  are  tbe  property  of  othen.     But  the  merely 

man's  workmanship,  end  have  no  living  spring  with- 
in them,  serve  as  a  HI  emblem  of  the  insufficiency  of 
creature  conHdences,  and  of  tba  folly  of  preferring 
Ihe'e  to  the  Infinite  and  everflowing  fulness  of  God— 
SB  in  the  solemn  charge  of  the  prophet,  "  My  people 
have  wimmitlBd  two  evils:  Ihey  have  forsaken  me, 
the  fountain  o(  living  waters,  and  hcned  II 


».  broken 


IS  that  cu 


,13). 
ClBtertianB.     See  Cisth 


Clteaux.     See  Cist  unci  ass. 


■■■  (Jar. 


Cittaarn  {a9»pa,  1  Mace,  iv,  64,  L  «.  eirtora  c* 
^■<l<ir),  a  mnsieal  instniment  most  probably  of  Greek 
aricin,  employed  hy  the  Chaldaans  at  balls  and  rants, 
and  introduced  hy  the  llehrewt  into  Paleatine  on  their 
rptiirn  thither  after  tiie  babylonhui  captivity.  The 
cithern  w,is  of  the  guitar  apeciea,  and  was  linown  at  a 
later  period  as  the  ri'fem,  under  which  name  it  is 
mentioned  bv  the  old  dramatbts  aa  having  constituted 


tbe  Tyrol,  and  SwitterLiad. 


Germany, 


CITIES  356  CITIZENSHIP 

Wflh  nipoct  to  the  ■h&pe  oT  the  tllhem  or  dtban  atffctty  •piritna],  in  hia  betng  a  cltiien,  a  iMmbar  of 
mentioned  In  the  Apocrypha,  the  opinion  of  the  learn-  the  theocracy  (the  n^rv"  inp,  tommvmilji  ••/  JAacalk, 
•d  fa  divided :  accordiaR  to  some,  it  reMmbled  in  (arm  jjum.  xvi,  3 ;  Dent.  1x111,  iY  on  whom  positive  Uwa 
the  Gr«lc  delta,  A ;  other.  repreMnt  it  .»  a  half-  ,,„  enjoined.  Bot  even  to  tfala  ipiritual  privfleg« 
moon,  uidothem,  again,Iike  the  modem  Enitar.  In  G^„tU„  ,„„  admitted  onder  certain  r«trictk.n. 
many  Ea-tem  «""ri«  "  »  ■*"  ■"  ""'""'  '^°f^  \  (Oetit.  ixiii,  1-9):  thn.  -e  dnd  among  the  I.raelit*.. 
varyingin  number  from  three  to  t-en^.toar.     Under    ^  ^  J  ^ 

the  name  of  K««A.r  traveller.  de«nb,  it  M  a  wood-    „.^«^        Canaani^).     The  oily  nation,  thai  w^T* 
en  Dlata  or  d>«h,  w.th  a  ho'*  I «"«-'»,  I  .jj^^^^^,  „„,„j^j  f„„  ,,,6  citizenship  of  the  theoc 
a  pleoe  of  Am  .t™tched  above    ^^^  ^p^cial  command  of  the  Lord  were  the  Am- 
^  Uk.  a  dr«m.    Two  sticks,  jo.«ed  after         ^^  „Tia«bites,  f™m  a  feeling  of  vengean^ 
<  *t-      ,  r  of ''"'P""  "^""f '■''»'   against  tli.m;  ^i  in  Oie  ».me  ritnation  we«  .U  «.- 
*  '«"L  "L  S  '^«  ^1,  7S    ^^*  I*™""  "O'l  l«"*"l,,  fram  a  feeling  of  diagr^* 

.tick.  rtand.p«t.  they  are  »nnected    ,„a  ,i^„,  (Dent.  «iii,  1-6).     In  the  time  orSol* 
by.t™nsver«lp,e™  of  wood^    From  ^  ^  ^ 

the  npper  endof  this  wooden  t nan gle  „  ,  .  ,,-,._  ,.',-,  o„  r.™™. 
to  the^int  below  a™  fastened  Ave  ^"^^^  <?  Chron.  1.,  1,).  See  GHmi-B. 
cliOid.,whlch,atalittledi>Unceabave  I  II.  AOnan. —The  right  of  dtiienthip  (woXtrrifr, 
tlieir  junction,  pa»  over  a  hridg:, like  ,  "freedom,"  Acts  xili,  28,  1.  e.  Id  be  considered  •• 
■  the  atrings  of  a  violin.  The  chord,  equal  to  native,  of  the  city  of  Rome,/a  ciVtrofu,  citm- 
'  are  made  to  vibrate  by  means  of  a  lot)  was  granted  hi  the  time,  of  tile  emperora  to  wbole 
leather  thong  Ikatened  to  one  of  the  province,  and  title.  (Db  Cars,  zll,  !5 ;  SneL  A  ng.  *T), 
lateral  stick.  ofthetTiaogle  (see  Mendelssohn's  edition  as  also  to  single  individuals  (Tacit.  ^niKif.  t,  68;  So*- 
of  the  J^bm,  Sd  Pref.).  |  Ion.  /fen,  1! ;  Dio  Cass,  xliii,  89  j  Appian,  Cm.  Ui,  tC). 

The  clthara,  if  it  be  cot  the  same  with,  reaembles  fiir  some  service  rendered  to  the  .tate  (Cie.  Br^.  XS> 
very  clouly  Uia  jn.tmments  mentioned  in  the  book  or  the  Imperial  bmlly  (Sueton.  Aug.  47),  aomMlmo 
ofPsalmB,nnder«iedenoininationsoflija,  ^23,  313,  through  mere  favor  (Tacit,  i/i*.  lii,  *1),  or  evaii  for  a 
r*.pectively  lendatwi  in  the  A.  V.  "  harp,''  ""  p^al  «"»<»  •"■"  «f  ■»"'"?.  (*.«•  "«■  f;  ?'<■  C«"-  ^ 
tory,"  '■  oiian."  In  Chaldee,  ri-iW.ro  1.  transferred  u  « •  "«  Helnecc.  A^.  ,ut.  Bom  i,  1. 11  «,.>  The 
_il '  _  ..  „  .  ,  _L__._  ,n  !!■  II  ■  .k  1  apoetle  rani  was  a  Roman  citiien  (nni  «(iu,  Sueton- 
Ol^ng,  the  K,.^  fbr  m^HT  (Dan   ih,  6).  in  ^e  A.    c!^.  gg  Amt«n.  D,  dvU^  Ro«.  ^.  Pkntf, 

V.  rerxtered  harp,'  and  the  same  Eng  word  I,  em-  ^j,  ,^35,  ^v  famila-  (Act.,  1.  c.)  [-ee  TaBsra],  and 
ployed  inMead  of  cufc™  (1  Mace  iv  54)  in  Hobert  ^^^  ^is  p^le.tinB  against  cnrpoial  or  cepital  pon- 
Barker".  edition  of  the  £ngl»h  B^U  (Louden,  1615).  i,,,^,^^  ^^^^^  ^^|_  8-7comp.  Cic  rm-.  v,  57,65:  En- 
Geseniu.  (7^.  tfrf.  p.  SI  B)  consider,  cithara  as  the  „b.i/u«.i.-ecif..  v,  I,  etc.).  It  appear,  from  a  varietv 
same  witb  kirp;  bat  Luther  traoflatea  nSapa.Q  by  of  p,,g„g„  ;„  the  ,Us.icwrit«a  that.  Roman  dti.ei 
Brf^r./™,  'withpipes.      SeeHARP.  I  could  not  legally  be  scourged  (nify.  or  jtiffrffi.  otrfO: 

Cltdea.     See  City.  I  this  punishment  being  deemed  to  the  l>f<t  degree  di.- 

Cit'Jni  (Kinioi  V.  r.  Kinoioi,  Vulg.  Cetri,  A.  V.  honorable,  and  the  most  daring  indignity  and  Inaalt 
"Citimi"),  a  nation  whoso  king  Perseus  i.  mentioned  upon  the  Roman  name.  Such  »».  the  l^moD.  "Per- 
il Mboc.  viii,  6)a«  having  been  defeated  by  the  Bo-  da  Ler."  "A  Roman  citiien,  jodge^"  eselairaa  Cic- 
man. ;  evidently  the  ChittiX  (q.  v.),  or  Macedonianp.  gro.  in  hie  oration  against  Ven*B,  "was  publicly  tAaten 
CitiEenBhip,  the  ri,Lbt.  and  privileges  of  a  native  with  rod.  In  the  fomm  of.iles(<ina;  during  thi.  publk 
or  adopted  citiien  (waXirqt.  S  Uacc.  Iv,  SO ;  v,  G ;  ix,  dishonor,  no  groan,  no  other  exprewlon  of  the  unfaap. 
IS,  19;  Luke  xv.  IS;  xix,  14  j  Acta  Kxl,  80),  in  i\f-  py  wretch  was  heard  amid  the  cruelties  he  soffend, 
tinction  fmrn  a  tonigner.  The  Itwi  in  this  respect  are  and  the  Kiund  of  the  strokes  that  were  tnSlcted.  but 
verydifferentiadiirerentagesandoounlries.  !ieeALiu(.  this:  'I  am  a  Roman  citiaen  1' "  Neither  was  it  !>«• 
I.  Htbmc. — Under  the  Mouic  constitution,  which  ful  for  a  Roman  citiien  to  be  bonnd,  or  to  be  exam- 
wi.  framed  on  a  ba.i«  of  religious  rather  than  of  po-  ined  by  the  question,  or  torture,  to  extort  a  confwskn 
liticsl  privilege,  and  distinctions,  the  idea  uf  the  com-  fVom  him.  These  pnnisbmenta  were  dcemtxl  servile; 
monwealth  (roXirira.Eph,  il.  19)  was  merged  in  that  tortore  wa.  only  inflicted  upon  .lave.;  freemen  were 
of  the  congregation,  to  wbicii  every  Hebrew,  and  even  exempted  from  this  inhumanity  and  ignominy.  The 
.iranger.  under  certain  re.trictions,  were  admitted,  right  once  obtained  descended  to  a  man's  children 
See  CoHQiiEaAtiON.  Strict  isolation  did  by  no  means,  (Acta  xxit,  !8:  see  ZImmem,  Gnek.  drs  r^.  Priral- 
aa  some  suppOK,  form  the  leading  principle  in  the  ays-  recAlt,  I,  ii,  441).  The  Jews  had  rendered  fiunal  ser- 
tem  of  theocracy  aa  laid  down  by  Mom.,  f  ince  even  '  vice,  to  Julius  Cnur  in  the  Egyptian  war  (Jo»pbna, 
noQ-Israelites,  under  various  names  [see  Stba:<oer],  |  AkI.  xir.  8,  1  and  2),  and  it  la  not  improbaljle  thai 
Dot  only  were  allowed  to  re.ide  in  Palestine,  hut  had  many  oiituned  lhen«edom  of  the  d^  on  that  ground: 
the  fullert  protection  of  the  law  equally  with  the  na- '  certain  it  i.  that  great  number*  of  Jaws  who  were  Bn- 
tive  laraelite.  (Exod.  lii,  19;  Lev.  sxiv,  22;  Num.  man  citiiens  were  .cattared  over  Oreece  anil  Asia 
IV,  M;  ZXXT,  16;  DenLi,16;  xxiv,I7:  the  law  of  |  Minor  (AtU.  xiv,  10, 13  and  14).  Among  the  privl- 
nsnry,  Dent,  xxiii,  20.  made,  however,  an  exception),  leges  attached  to  citiiensbip,  the  moat  noteworthy  wa. 
and  were,  beridea,  recommended  in  general  terma  hy  tbe  above,  that  a  man  could  not  be  hound  or  impris- 
Hoses  to  humanltr  and  charity  (Exod.  xxii,  21 ;  ixiii,  oned  without  a  tbrmal  trial  (Acts  xx,  !0).  still  leas  be 
9;  Uv.  xli,  83,  84;  Deut.  X,  18;  oomp.  Jer.  vU,  6;  scourged  (Acts  xvi,  87 ;  Cic.  Ten-,  v,  68,  66);  the  sim- 
Ual.  iil,  5 ;  Me  Josepboa,  Apiiti,  il.  iX),  a.  well  as  to  a  pie  assertion  of  citizenship  was  anfficient  to  deter  a 
participation  in  certain  prerogatives  granted  to  the  manietnte  from  such  a  .tep  (Acta  Xxii,  2& ;  CIc.  ['ev. 
poorof  theland,  snchaaa  .hare  in  the  tithe  and  feast,  v,  62).  as  any  infringement  of  the  privilege  wa.  virited 
offering,  and  the  harvest  in  the  Johilee-yeor  (Deut.  ,  with  Kvere  punishment.  A  Jew  could  only  plead  ex- 
xiv,  29;  xvi,  ID,  14  ;  xxvi,  II ;  Ijcv.  xxv,  B).  In  re-  emption  from  such  tnatment  before  a  Roman  msgls- 
tum.  it  was  required  on  the  part  of  non-Israetites  not '  trale ;  he  was  still  liable  to  it  from  Jewish  aatboritits 
to  commit  acts  by  which  the  religion,  filing,  of  the  (2  Cor.  :ii,  24;  Seldcn,  3yt.  Ii,  15,  §  11).  ADOthrr 
people  might  tie  hurt  (Exod.  xx,  10;  Lev.  xvii,  10;  privilege  attaching  Co  citiienahip  was  the  appeal  from 
xviii,  SS;  XX,  2;  xxiv,  16;  Deut.  v,  14.  The  eating  a  provincial  tribunal  to  the  emperor  at  Rome  (Acta 
of  an  animal  which  had  died  a  natural  death.  Dent,  xiv,  11).  See  ArrEAi-  The  rights  of  the  Roman 
xiv,  21,  seema  to  liave  been  the  sole  exception).  The  '  citiien  included  »veral  other  important  privileges  : 
advantage  the  Jew  had  over  the  Gentile  was  thus  '  be  had  a  full  right  over  hia  property,  lua  chiMran,  and 


CITRON 

Ui  depeadcnta ;  he  had  a  Toice  in  the  «i 
tbs  psopls,  uid  ID  tbe  alection  or  nmipgtratM ;  i 
tHtunaot  had  full  aathoril^  after  his  deatb.  8m 
Smith*!  Did.o/Cbw.Anliq.t.v.Vlvitat;  SigoD.  A 
cnUifiH^tninif.  Aiflwai.  (Pir.  1672;  Hal.  I'lG;  alio  ir 
UriBTii  Thttamr.  i);  Spanheim,  Orbii  Sim.  (London, 
!?»;  H«1.17W):  C6lUriiZ>i«rta      '.  . 

fiattner,  De  e'lV.  Horn.  nrgidemU  trtmpt.  (Jen.  167!); 
Lan;<«,  De  anaamlalf  cic.  Roman.  (UaTn.  1710).     Sec 

Citron  (aTptax,  the  tree  ia  iii 
vaa  loDs  without  ■  *pedsl  name  among  tbe  Greeki, 
allbouirh  the?  wen  well  acquaint«d  wiUi  it ;  Ha  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Clou.  Antiq.  a.  V.  CiOaa).  Id  his  1 
Alexutder  Janonus,  Jouphui  telU  ni,  "  EIIb 
pla  were  aaditlous  againet  him  ;  Ibr  at  A  fetti 
«u  then  celebrated,  when  he  itond  upon  tba  altar  and 
■u  BDiDg  to  lacrifiee,  tbe  nation  roae  upon  bim,  and 
pelted  him  vitb  citmna,  for  the  hiw  of  tbe  Jewa  re-  | 
quired  that  at  the  festival  of  tabemaclei  every  one 
should  hkve  bnncbei  of  the  palm-tree  and  citron-tree"  | 


Citron  riowcr  and  Pnilt. 
(Jal.  xili,  18,  6).  The  lata  Udy  Callcott,  In  her 
ScriplKn  /ferbal,  tnentiona  that,  aa  the  modem  Jewa 
Milt  naa  citrans  at  the  feast  of  tabernaclea, ' '  in  Lon- 
don considenble  >um>  of  money  are  expended  in  im- 
porting them  of  the  beat  kind  for  the  puipose.  They 
must  be  withont  blemiah,  and  the  lUlk  must  itill  ad- 
After  the  te        ■ 


enly  aold,  a 


placed  in  the  common  treuaury,  a>  part  of  the  prai 
for  the  poor  of  tbe  contpreipttioD."  Tbeir  anxiety  to 
oUahi  tbem  with  the  sUlb  atill  adhering  ii  no  doubt 
a  faint  effort  in  secnrd  the  ''thick"  brancbee  and 
"boOKha  of  goodly  treea"  required  for  that  festival 
(L(v.  xxxiii,  40).  But  the  chief  importance  of  this 
fnii  ia  its  anppoead  identity  with  the  n^Dri,  tapjm'- 
iic4,  or  "  apple"  of  the  Bible,  a  conclusion,  however, 
vliicb  baa  been  ably  dlsputpd.  See  Apple.  The 
cilton,  or  Cilnu  med^ — ao  called  becanao  it  waa  fhim 
Madia  that  the  Komana  flrat  receiveil  it— belongs  to 
Iba  natural  i^er  of  Aumntiaceie,  a  delightful  grouii, 
including  the  orange,  the  lime,  the  lemon,  and  the 
•iuddock  (aee  the  Poms  Cgtiinniiu,  a.  t.  Citrus). 
With  ita  dark,  glossy,  Linrel-laoking  leana,  it<  ever- 
mta  Imocbea,  often  bearing  ■imultaoeonily  ripe 
fraiti  and  newlr-opencl  flowers,  and  thus  vouchsaAng 
to  tbe  pilgrim  who  r«ti  in  ita  deep  shadow  the  two- 
ttld  ref^hment  of  a  dfllcious  banquet  and  a  fra- 
ENBt  bn«M,  the  citroo  mnj  well  cUiin  pre-eminence 
''amaagthetNeaorthe«ood"(Can.ii,8).   Abounding 


tbe  Craator's  bounty  baa  provided  against  tbe  eibanst- 
ing  thirst  and  incipient  fever  of  sultry  climea.  A  aet- 
tler  Li  the  torrid  swamps  of  tbe  Amaion  will  devout  a 
doien  oranges  before  bla  maming  meaUVM/age  up  Iht 
Amazon,  in  the  "Home  and  Colonial  Library"),  and 
in  tropical  regions  such  acidulous  fruita  are  invaluable 
on  account  of  their  anti-febrile  viitnsa.  Tbeae  were 
doubtless  well  known  to  the  Hcbrawa,  and.  In  common 
with  all  antiquity,  they  greatly  prized  the  pleasant 
pungent  odor  emitted  by  tbe  rlod.  Hacrobiaa  apeaka 
of  "  cltroaa  veatla,"  abonting  that  It  was  usual  to  keep 
citrons  in  wardrobes  for  the  sake  of  their  perfume] 
and,  like  tbe  modem  Oriontal  ladiea,  wboas  favotila 
vinaigrette  ia  a  cittOD,  in  England  two  or  three  cen- 
turies ago  an  orange  was  so  commonly  used  aa  a  acent- 
bottle  tbHt  it  may  often  l>a  seen  in  old  pictures  of  their 

disinfecting  potency  ;  and  during  the  plague  of  Lon- 
don, people  walkoil  tbe  atreets  smelling  at  orangea. 
Understood  as  belonging  to  this  beaDtiful  family,  there 
la  a  peculiar  felicity  in  tbe  comparison,  "A  word  fitly 
spoken  is  like  citrons  of  gold  in  aalvera  (nr  baskets) 
of  aUver"  (Prov.  jiiv,  II).  The  famous  golden  ap- 
ples which  grew  in  the  gardena  of  the  Hesperidea 
were   uiiquestiunably  either  citioot  or  orangea.     See 

City.  The  Heh.  term  most  frequently  tboe  ren- 
dered  it  ~i''y  (ir,  literally  something  mutd  up,  I.  e. 
having  walls  rearsii;  or  from  ^^7,  to  inp^uard  [Ge- 
senins,  Tha.  Btb.  p.  1004] ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  wo^.c),  > 
word  of  very  eilenslve  signiflcatioD,  embracing  not 
only  tbe  Idea  of  an  encampment,  as  a  nomade  bamlet 
((5en.  iv,  17),  but  also  that  of  small  fortifleations,  aa 
watch-posts  or  watch-towpre  (comp.  Nnn 


icvii,9:  ] 


.  i. «).  SI 


Itbenc 


guUr 


Nearly  equivalent  to  this  ia  ri'7p  (Idryah'X 
wnicn,  with  a  few  exceptions  fDeut.  ii,  36 ;  1  Hings  i, 
41,  4&),  is  found  only  in  the  poetic  style;  and  an^o- 
goua  (in  aenae,  as  probably  also  hi  derivation)  to  ^^ 


cmr  zt 

lut  II  ri'^p  (fe'nfl),  fonnd  onl^  In  Job  xxlz,  T;  1 
Ptot.vU^Sj  iz,S,Ui  xj,  11.  The  word  rendered  I 
"  city"  in  Ruth  iU,  II,  u  ISU  («*a'iir),  properly  gale  ' 
(u  It  U  elMwbere  rendered),  md  there  meane  thwe 
ueembled  in  tht/onm  or  pUca  of  public  liueinesB  >t 
the  town  gatm.  The  Mcond  of  tbeee  tenns  (perbapa 
Trom  ri^S,  to  appnach  u  an  enemy,  or  rather  [Ge- 
lenlai, Tha.  BA.-p.l2S6}lo/ortify\uonea  "prefix- 
ed to  the  uamea  of  lowns  on  both  (idea  of  the  Jordan 
•xiiting  before  the  conqucBt,  as  Kirjalb-Arba,  prota- 
bly  the  most  ancient  name  for  city,  bat  aeldom  used 
in  proH  aa  a  general  name  for  town  (Stanley,  Pabit. 
App.  g  80).  The  clauillcatioD  of  the  hnman  race  into 
dweUara  in  towns  and  nomade  wanderers  (Ueu.  iv,  SO, 
22)  seema  to  be  intimated  by  the  etymological  sense 
of  both  words,  M,  or  /r,  and  Kirjalh,  aa  plioea  of  se- 
earity  against  an  enemy,  distinguiebed  from  the  un- 
willed village  or  hamlet,  wboM 


llyo' 


eby  tl 


IB  of  tb 


See  Ik-  ;  Kibjath.  This  dittinclion  is  found  actual- ' 
ly  eiiBling  In  countries,  as  Persia  and  Arabia,  in  ivbicb 
the  tent-dwellers  are  found,  like  the  Uechabites,  al- 
most ride  by  side  with  the  dweller*  in  cities,  some- 
times even  eojourclng  within  them,  but  not  amalga- 
mated with  the  inhabitants,  and  In  general  making 
tbe  desert  their  home,  and,  unlike  the  Kechabitea,  rob- 
bery their  nndissembled  occupation  (Judg.  t,  7;  Jer. 
xxxv.9,11;  seePruer,  ferna,p.  866,  SSOi  Ualcolm, 
Stncha  of  Penia.  p.  UT-156;  Borckbardt,  Nota  on 
Avfouiu,  i,  157;  Wellsted,  7nnw!f  I'n  Arabia,  i,  335; 
Porter,  DamoKiu,  ii,  96, 181, 188 ;  Vaux,  Nmwh  and 
/■eri^wjii,  c.  il.  note  A  ;  I^yard,  A'tiinieA,ii,  273j  h'in. 
and  Bab.  p.  141)."     Sea  Villaob. 

1.  Towns  are  ■  natural  result  of  t1ie  aggretntive 
principle  in  human  nature.  Keceuity  led  the  early 
races  of  men  to  build  their  towns  on  lofty  spolf ,  where, 
with  the  aid  of  the  natural  B,d vantages  of  the  ground, 
they  could  easily  protect  themselves  a^bist  beasts  of 
prey  and  human  fbefl.  A  town,  and  a  strongbold  or 
fort,  would  thus  be  originally  identical.  As  popniii- 
tion  increaaed  and  agriculture  spread,  so  some  degree 
of  security  came,  wbieta  pennitled  the  inhabilanls  of 
the  caatle  to  dltTnse  tbemselves  over  the  lilll-side,  and 
take  up  their  abode  in  tbe  valley,  and  by  the  aide  of 
the  stream  that  lay  nearest  their  acropolis;  still  tbe 
inhabitants  kept  at  no  great  diFlance  from  the  centre 
of  strength,  in  order  not  to  be  d'^prived  of  its  protec- 
tion. The  town,  however,  would  thus  be  enlarged, 
and  as  the  necessity  for  self-defence  atill  existed,  ro 
would  tbe  place  soon  be  surrounded  with  walls.  Tbns 
there  would  be  outer  and  inner  iiulwarks,  and  in  fome 
sort  two  species  of  community — the  townspeople,  who 
tilled  the  ground  and  carried  on  trade,  and  the  soldiers, 
whose  business  it  was  to  sffbrd  protpction :  these  two, 
however,  In  the  earliest  stairen  of  civlliisdon.wcroone, 
the  peaaant  and  tradesman  taking  arms  when  the  town 
waa  put  in  danger.  How  early  towns  ware  formed 
cannot  be  determined  by  any  general  principle :  they 
were  obviously  a  work  of  time.  The  primary  tend- 
ency hi  population  was  to  diffuse  itself.  Aggregation 
on  particular  spots  would  take  place  at  a  later  period. 
When,  then,  Cain  ia  said  to  have  built  a  city  (Gen.  iv, 
17),  we  have  evidence  which  concurs  with  other  inti- 
mations to  show  that  it  is  only  a  partial  history  of  the 
lirst  ages  that  we  possess  in  the  records  of  the  book  of 
Genenif,  In  the  time  of  tbe  I'atriirchs  we  find  (owns 
sting  in  Palestine  which  Wfro  originally  surrounded 


8  cnr 

ted  only  so  &r  as  sheltenid  by  a  fortiflod  town,  erne- 
tionsofavery  slight  nature  are  found  sufficient  for  tbe 
purpo!ie,  the  rather  because  the  most  bvorable  locali- 
ties offsr  tbemselvea  on  all  rides,  owing  to  tbe  natarvl 
Inequality  of  the  ground.  Hence  we  find  that  hills  or 
eminences  were  almoM  invariably  choeen  as  lita  tow 
tbii  purpose,  a  &ct  which  even  gnw  into  ■  i^overli — 
■'a  city  upon  a  hill."  (See  UaekeU'a  lUiitra.  nf 
Scripl.  p.  70.) 

Of  tbe  ancient  method  of  boildine  in  towns  and 
cities  we  have  no  accurate  knowledge,  any  farther  than 
we  may  gather  Information  from  the  ruins  which  still 
lie  on  the  soil  of  Palestine.  But  these  ruins  can  atTord 
only  general  notions,  as,  though  they  are  numeroivi. 
and  show  that  the  Land  of  Promise  was  Ihickly  peo- 
pled and  highly  flourishing  in  its  better  days,  tbe  ao 
tual  remains  of  ancient  town*  are  to  be  ascribed  to  dif- 
ferent and  very  distant  periods  of  history.  The  Otd- 
sades  left  many  strongholds  which  are  now  in  a  stale 
of  dilapidation  ;  but  the  Crusades  ate  of  modem  da^ 
rampued  with  tbe  time  of  the  Saviour,  which  itaelr  b 
remote  from  the  proper  antiquity  of  tbe  nation.  Tb« 
law  of  sameness,  however,  Khich  prevails  so  rigidly  in 
llastem  countries,  gives  us  an  assurance  that  a  modem 
town  ID  Palestine  may  be  roughly  taken  as  a  type  of 
its  ancient  predecessors.  (See  Olln's  TnaeU,  U,  428.) 
To  diatingniah  cities  that  bore  the  same  name,  tbe 
name  of  the  tribe  was  added.  In  "the  latter  days," 
especially  under  tbe  Herods,  it  was  the  fashion  to  give 
to  ancipnt  towns  new  Greek  names,  aa  Diospolis,  N«- 
apolis,  Seiiaste,  CiBtBTea,  Tiberias.  Jerusalem,  at  a 
later  period,  was  denominated  £lia  Ca{Htalina.  These 
innovations  indicated  the  slavish  dii-position  of  tbe 
age,  and  were  tokens  of  the  bcndage  in  which  tbe  na- 


Ibat  ■«)■  n 


with  r.> 


"fencei 


(See  below.)  In  these  dwelt  the  agricnlturBl  popi 
tion,  who,  by  means  of  these  places  of  Mrengtb,  de- 
fended themselves  and  tbeir  property  from  the  nomad 
trilwe  of  the  neli:hl>oring  desert,  who  llien,  as  tbey  do 
now,  lived  by  plunder.  Kor  were  works  of  any  great 
Strength  necessary.  In  Palestine  at  the  prrisnt  dsy, 
while  walla  are  in  meet  parts  an  indirpensalile  protec- 
tion, and  agriculture  can  lie  advantageously  prosecu* 


exclusively  to  certain  eras.  Tbe  period  of  tbe  Hon 
domination  gave  existence,  as  to  stnictnrea  i.(  gnut 
splendor,  so  to  many  towns  and  fortilied  place*.  Gal- 
ilee was  especially  rich  in  towns  and  village*,  which, 
according  to  Josephua  (Lift,  45),  amounted  in  all  to 
the  numlier  of  204.  Ihe  names  of  the  Palntinian 
cities,  for  the  most  part,  have  meaning,  reference  being 
made  to  the  nature  of  the  locality  or  tbe  character  of 
tho  inhabitants.  The  population  of  towns  cannot  now 
be  ascertained  with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  fbr  the 
materials  are  not  only  scanty  and  dbuonnected,  hot  in 
a  meainre  nncertain.     See  Cbksus. 

2.  The  earliest  notice  in  Scripture  of  city-bnilding 
is  of  tiiat  of  Ihe  citv  called  Enoch  (q.  v.)  by  Cain,  in 
the  Und  of  hie  "exile"  (AW,  Gen.  iv,  IT).  After  Ihe 
confurion  of  tongues,  the  descendant*  of  Tiimrod  found- 
ed Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of 
Shinar;  and  Asshnr,  a  branch  from  the  aame  stock, 
built  Nineveh,  Rebuhoth-iiy-the-rivBr,  Calah,  and  Be. 
sen,  the  last  being  "a  great  city."  A  SDhaeqvenl 
passage  mentions  Sidon,  Gsza,  Sodom,  Gomcsrah,  Ad- 
mah,  Zebolm.  and  Lasba,  as  cities  of  the  Canaanitea, 
but  without  iinplving  for  them  antiquity  equal  to  that 
of  N'ineveb  and  the  rest  (Gen.  x,  10-12, 19  ;  xi,  8.  9; 
xxxvi,  37).  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  inpposes,  (1.)  that  tbe 
expedition  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv)  was  prior  to 
the  building  of  B(1>]-lon  or  Nineveh,  indicatlnK  a  mi- 
gntinn  or  conqnest  from  Persia  or  Assyria  ;  (2.)  that 
by  Nimrod  ia  to  be  understood,  not  an  individual,  bat 
a  name  denoting  the  "settlers"  in  tbe  Assyrian  plain; 
and  (».)  that  the  names  Rehoboth,  Caleb,  etc.,  when 
first  mentioned,  only  denoted  sites  of  boildings  after- 
wards  erected.  Be  supposes  that  Kinavefa  wa*  bult 
about  B.C.  1260,  and  CaUb  about  a  eeatoTT  laMr, 
while  Babylon  appaata  to  have  esisMd  in  the  IMi  cen- 
tury B.C.  If  tbiH  be  correct,  we  most  infer  that  the 
places  then  attacked,  Sodom.  Gomorrah,  etc.,  wen  dl- 
ies  of  higher  antiquity  than  Nineveh  or  Babylon,  btaa- 
much  as  when  tbey  were  destroyed  a  lew  yean  later 


CITY  3i 

(be;  were  citin  in  every  KiiHortha  term.  The  name 
KiiiUhnim,  "double  city-  (GeaealuB, rtcnur.  Heb.  p. 
!£)£},  indicstaa  an  exbting  clt^,  ind  not  a  aile  odIj. 
It  nn;  be  added  that  the  remains  of  civic  buildin)^ 
flistiDg  io  Uoab  are  evidentlj  very  ancient,  if  not,  in 
MOM  ca*ei,  the  aame  aa  thuH  erected  by  Uie  iborig- 
jnal  Emim  and  Rephdm.  (Compare  alio  the  name 
Avitb,  "ruiii»,"aeHniiu,ii.  p.  1000;  Gen.  xii,  1, 29 ; 
^nri.  35i  Iu.xxiU,13;  aee  Wilkiiuon,.l«e.  i^ilHpf. 
i,  BOB ;  Layard,  Nm.  and  Bat.  p,  632 ;  Porter,  Damat- 
<ai,[,S09:  ii,196;  SA-»\iatoa,Oiitliuaif  Aayr.Hiit. 
p.1,  b.)  But  though  it  appears  pruLulile  that,  wbat- 
cnr  date*  nuy  be  a»igned  to  the  building  of  Ilaliylon 
or  Nineveh  in  tbcir  later  condition,  tbey  were  in  fact 
rebuilt  at  those  epochs,  and  not  founded  for  tbe  tint 
time,  and  that  towna  in  mne  form  or  other  may  have 
oceypled  the  aitea  of  the  later  Nineveh  or  Calah  ;  it  is 
quite  clear  that  cities  exiKted  in  Syria  prior  to  the 
time  of  Abrahim,  who  himaelf  came  from  "Ur,"  the 
"city"  of  the  Cbaldiean*  (Geseniua,  i*.  p.  oa ;  Banlin- 
•on.p.4). 

The  oarlieat  description  of  a  city,  properlj-so  called, 
ia  that  of  Sodom  (Gen.  xii.  l-ZS);  but  it  U  certain 
tbat  bam  lerv  early  times  citie*  exiated  on  the  aites 
of  Jenuelem,  Hebron,  and  Damascua.  The  laat,  said 
to  be  the  oldest  city  in  the  world,  mnst,  from  its  un- 
tiratled  situation,  have  alwaya  commanded  a  coojcre- 
gattd  pnpolatioa;  Hebron  ii  said  to  have  been  built 
atven  vsan  before  Zoau  (Tanis)  in  Egypt,  and  is  thus 
the  oalj  Syrian  town  which  presents  the  elements  of 
a  date  for  its  fcundation  (Ndid.  xlii,  33 ;  see  Stanley, 
Paint,  p.  409;  Josepbna,  Ant.  \,  e,  t;  Convbeare  and 
Howson,  SI.  Fad,  i,  94,  %).  Hut  tbere  'can  be  no 
dooht  that,  whatever  date  may  be  xlven  to  E^pElan 
ciriliiacian,  then  were  inhabited  dUes  in  Egypt  long 
belbre  this  (Gen.  lii,  14, 16;  see  Mirtlneau,  Eaglmt 
Lft,  i,  151 :  WiliuDaon,  1,  307 ;  Smith,  Diet.  »/  Claa. 
(j'Bij.  s.  V.  Tani").  The  name,  however,  of  Hebron, 
Kirjatb-Arba,  indjcatee  its  existence  at  least  as  early 
IS  the  time  of  Abraham,  as  the  city,  or  fortified  place 
nf  Arba,  an  aboriipnal  province  of  Sonthem  Palestine 
(Gea.XKiii,2i  Juah.  xiv,  15).  The  "tower  of  Edar." 
near  Bethlehem,  or  "of  flocks,"  indicatea  a  position 
IbrtiGed  againit  maranders  (tien.  xxxv,  -il).  Wheth- 
er "the  city  of  Shalem"  be  a  site  or  an  existioic  town 
cannot  be  determined ;  but  there  can  be  no  doulit  that 
the  litoation  of  Shechem  Is  aa  well  identified  in  the 
pfeatnt  day,  as  its  importance  ai  a  fortified  place  is 
pbin  from  the  Scripture  nanntive  (Gen.  xxxiii,  18; 
ixiiv,  a),  !6 1  see  Robinson,  iii.  114).  On  the  whole, 
it  letma  plain  that  the  Csnaonite,  who  was  "in  the 
Lad"  before  the  coming  of  Abraham,  had  already 
Wltdties  of  more  or  less  importance,  which  bad  beep 
large)  J  Increased  by  the  time  oflhe  return  from  Eto'pt. 
Eren  before  the  time  of  Abraham  there  were  cllicB  in 
Egypt  (Gen.  xll,  14,  IS;  Num.  xiil,  SI;  see  Wilkin- 
aoa,  i,  4,  S).  The  Israelites,  during  their  sojnnro  there. 
were  employed  in  building  or  fhrtifyinE  the  "treasure 
dUea"  of  Mthom  (Abbaiieh)  and  Raamsos  (Exod.  i, 
11;  Herod,  ii,  158;  see  Robinson,  i,  79);  bnt  their 
paMoral  habits  make  It  unlikely  that  they  shoeld 
bsild,  stjll  lens  fbrtifv,  citiea  of  their  own  in  Go!>ben 
(G«i.  ilrl,  34  ;  xlvii,  l-ll).  Meanwhile  the  settled 
lahabitants  of  Syria  on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan  had 
Kiewn  lopower.aud  in  number  of  "fenced  citiea."  Ii 
Iba  kingdom  of  Sihon  are  many  names  of  cities  pre 
•arted  to  the  present  day  ;  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Og. 
in  Baahan,  were  slx^  "great  cltien  with  walls  aikd 
hraun  bars,"  beaidee  nnwalled  villagea;  and  ah 
twanty-lhree  cities  in  Gilead,  which  wrreoccuiried,  an 
(■rhapi  partly  rebnilt  or  fnriiHed,  by  the  triliea  on  11 
eait  of  Jordan  (Num.  mi,  SI,  Sa,  83,  86;  xxili,  1-; 
"4.  43 ;  Dent.  liL  4,  6,  ]4 ;  Josh,  xi,  xiil ;  1  Kings  I' 
1S:1  Chton.ii,3$;  see  Burdkhardt,  a>TTo,  p.Bl),167; 
PoTtar,  Ztanuciu,  il,  ]9i.  IBS,  SOfi,  S59,  275).  On  the 
wnt  of  Jordan,  wbllat  31  "roval  '  eitbea  are  enumen> 
led  (Josh,  xii),  in  the  dlatricl  aaaigaed  to  Judah  126 


CITY 

cidea"  with  villages  are  reckoned  (Josh,  xv);  Id 
IcDJamin,  SG;  to  Simeon,  17;  ZeUulun,  13;  Issarhsr, 
16;  Aaher,  32;  Naphtali,  19;  Dan,  17  (Joah.  xviii, 
xix).  But  from  aome  of  these  the  possessors  were  not 
spoiled  till  a  late  period,  and  Jerusalem  itself  was 
It  captured  till  the  time  of  David  (2  Sum.  v,  G-9). 
From  thia  time  the  Hebrews  became  a  city^wellin;; 
and  agricultural  rather  than  a  paalonl  people,  David 
enlarged  Jerusalem ;  and  Solomon,  besides  embelliiih- 
ing  bia  capitul,  also  built  or  rebuilt  Tadmor,  Pulmym, 
Geier,  Belh-horon,  Haior,  and  Megiddo,  besides  ptore- 
cities  (2  Sam.  v,  7,  9, 10;  1  Kings  is,  15-18;  2  Chron. 
vlii,  G>.  To  Solomon  also  is  ascribed  by  Eastern  tra. 
ditlon  the  building  of  Persepolis  (Chardin,  Vosagt,  vili, 
890 1  Uandelsto,  i,  4 ;  Kur^n,  c.  xxxviii).  Tiie  works 
Jeroboam  at  Shechem  (1  Kings  lii,  25;  Judg.  ix. 
45),  of  Rehoboam  (2  Cbron.  xi,  6-10),  of  Baaslta  at 
Kama,  interrupted  by  A>a  (1  Kings  xv,  17,  S2),  of 
Omri  at  Samaria  (ivi,  24),  the  rebuilding  of  Jericho 
in  the  time  of  Ahab  (xvi,  34),  the  works  of  Jehosha- 
phat  (2  Chron.  ivii,  12),  of  Jothara  (2  Cbron.  xxvii, 
4),  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  and,  later  still,  the 
~  a  of  Herod  and  his  family,  belong  to  their  re- 

a.  Collections  of  hoasea  in  Svria  for  social  habitation 
may  b©  claaaed  under  three  heads:  (1.)  cities:  (2.) 

prns,  with  citadels  or  towen  for  resort  and  defence  ; 

)  unwalled  villages.     The  cities  may  be  aaeumed 

have  been  in  almost  all  cases  "  fenced  cities,"  1.  e. 
possessing  a  wall  with  towers  and  gates  (Lev.  xxv, 
29i  U«ut.  ix,  1;  Josh.  U,  16 1  \-i,  20;  1  Sam.  xxiii,  T; 
1  Kings  Iv,  13;  2  Kings  Ti,26i  vil,3;  xviii,  8,  IS; 
Acts  ix.  26)  I  and  that,  as  a  mark  ofconqoest  wsa  to 
'\  down  a  portion  at  least  of  the  city  wall  of  the 
captured  place,  so  the  first  care  of  the  defenders,  as  ef 
the  Jews  after  their  return  from  captivity,  was  to  re- 
build the  fortifications  (2  Kings  xiv,  IS,  22;  2  Cbron. 
xivi,  2,  6;  xxxiii,  14;  Neb.  iii,  iv,  vi,  vii;  1  Mace. 
iv,  60,  61;  X,  46;  Xen.  HtU.  U,  2,  IB).  But  around 
the  city,  especially  in  peaceable  Umea,  Jay  undefended 
Buburb«(l  Cbron.  vi,  67  sq.;  Num.  xxxv,  1-5;  Josh. 
xxi),  to  which  the  privilet.'ea  of  the  city  exunded.  (See 
below.)  The  cily  thus  became  the  citadel,  while  the 
population  overflowed  into  the  suburba(l  Mace.  li,  Gl). 
The  absence  of  walls  as  indicating  security  in  peace- 
able times,  combined  with  populousness,  as  was  the 
case  in  the  flouriahing  period  of  B^typt,  ia  illustrated 
bv  the  prophet  Zecburiab  (ii,  4;  I  Kings  ir,  25;  see 
Martinean,  EaU.  Uff,  i,  806). 

According  to  Kuatern  custom,  apedal  cities  were 
appuinled  to  furnish  apecial  snppliea  fbr  the  service 
of  the  stute:  citiea  of  store,  for  chariots,  for  horsemen, 
for  building  purposes,  for  provision  for  the  royal  table. 
Special  governors  for  these  and  tJicir  aurroundinc  dis- 
tricts were  appointed  by  David  and  Solomon  (1  Kings 
iv,--,  ix.  13;  I  Chron.  xxvli,  26;  2  Chron.  xvli,  12; 
xxi,  3;  IMiicc.  x,  89;  Xen.  ^Mit.  i,  4, 10).  To  Ibia 
practice  our  Lord  alludea  in  his  parable  of  the  pounds, 
and  it  agrees  with  the  theory  of  Hindoo  government, 
which  waa  to  be  conducted  by  lorda  of  single  town- 
sbipa,  oflO,  100,  or  lOOO  towns  (Luke  xix,  17, 19;  rre 
Elphinstone,  Ii^ia,  ch.  ii,  I,  39,  and  App.  v,  p.  485). 
To  the  Uvites  48  cities  were  assigned,  distril>uted 
Ibrougbout  the  country,  ti>gether  with  a  certain  amount 
of  anburlian  ground,  and  out  of  these  48, 13  were  spe- 
cially reserreil  for  the  family  of  Asrun.  9  in  Judah 
and  4  in  Benjamin,  and  6  aa  refuge  cities  (Josh,  xxl, 
13,  42).  butafter  the  division  of  the  kingdoms  the  In- 
vites in  Israel  left  their  cities  and  resorted  to  Judah 
and  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xl,  1»,  14).      (See  below.) 

i.  The  internal  government  of  Jewish  citiea  was 
vested  before  the  Captivity  in  a  council  of  elders,  with 
Judges,  who  were  required  to  be  priests;  Joaephns 
aays  seven  Judtcea,  with  two  Levites  as  officers,  tV^nipf- 
rni  (Deut,  itxi,  5,  19;  xvi,  18;  xix,  17;  Ruth  iv,  2-, 
Joaephus,  AiU,  iv,  B,  14).  Under  the  kings  a  president 
or  governor  appears  to  have  been  appointed  (1  Kings 


d  cunelt,  or  one 
foot  puungen  la  pAM  each  other,  Uiou^h  it  Ib  clear 


CITY  360  CITY  OF  REFUGE 

kxil,  !6 ;  !  ChroD.  xriii,  2G) ;  and  ]udg«a  were  nnt '  aUo  men^nt  an  attempt  made  bj-  Pilata  to  btiag  wa- 
autoD  circuit,  who  ref«rr«d  nutters  of  douliC  to  a  coon-  ter  to  Jenualem  (Anl.  sviil,  S,  !).  See  Coudcit. 
ell  composed  of  priests,  Lerilea,  and  elders  st  Jerusu-  Other  cities  appear  to  have  been  raoatir  cantented 
lem  (]  Chron.  nxili,  *;  xiti,  39;  2  ChroD.  xii,  6,  8,  with  the  fountains  whose  elisteiin  had  probsUy  led 
10,  tl).  After  the  Captivity,  Ezra  made  similar  ar-  to  their  formatioa  at  the  tint.  See  Wates. 
rangeiDeota  for  the  ai-pototmeiit  of  judges  (Eira  vii,  1  Bnrial-placef,  eicept  in  specuil  caws,  were  outaide 
J5>.  In  the  time  of  Josephus  there  appear  to  have  the  city  (Num.  xlx,  11, 16;  Matt,  viii,  98;  Luke  vii, 
been  council!  in  the  provincial  towns,  with  preaidents  |  [-j.  j„],|,  xix,  41-  Hell,  ziii,  IS).  See  Grave. 
in  each,  under  (be  directions  of  the  g™t  council  at  j  ^  ^  ^^^  ^^^  .^^  inhabitants  are  frequently  dewrib^ 
Jerusalem  yosephus  .4ni^^iv  a.  4 ;  War,  »,  21,  S ;  j  ,^  ^  writings  under  the  simililwle  i>{  a  m..ther 
L-A  12,13,  27.  H  67,  61,  68, -4).      See  Sakhebr.m.  '    „j   ^„  chil,lren;''hence    the  phrase  "Children    of 

In  many  Eastern  citiee  much  space  is  occupied  by  |  zi^'  (Joel  ii,  88).  Ciliea  are  also  tharacteriied  u 
gardens,  and  thua  the  siie  of  the  cit»e  is  much  in-  virgina,  wives,  widows,  snd  harlots,  according  ti.  their 
creasedCNiebuhr,  I'offqjw,  11,172,  239;  Conybfflire  and,  diff^^nt  cwiditions.  Thus  Jeroialem  U  called  a 
Howson,  1,96;  £«*«•,  p.  240).  The  vast  extent  of  ;  virgin  (laa,  xxivii,  22);  and  the  lerin  harlot  U 
Nineveh  snd  of  Babylon  may  thua  be  in  part  account-  ^^  ^  Jerusalem  (Isa.  i,  21),  also  oPTjre  (I«.  xxiii, 
ed  for  (Diod,  ii,  70;  Qumt.  Curt,  v,  I,  26;  Jonah  iv,  ly,  ^f  Nine,eh  ™,h.  iii.  1),  and  of  Samaria  (Euli. 
11 :  see  Chnrdin,  Vog.  vii,  273,  284 1  Porter,  Daauueu;  ,  ^^,\i^  t,) 

i,  153 :  P.  della  Valle,  Ii,  83).  Id  most  Oriental  ciUes  |  ^^^^^  Qity  (wildon.  simpiv  n-^SXO,  mrt^nJ,'.  a 
■h.  .•».>.  ..-^  '•tremaly  nairow,  seldom  allowing  j        ,  .        ,.        .     ,,     •       '      .'.  ...  . 

jj  „„...  ™.  l I  .-rt  ,_"   '»™*'  o»  Intrenchment  of  besiegers;  ■■moun^     Isa. 

_^  'munition,"  Nah.  ii.  1),  a  town  with  walla 

SflhTsC^to  ofVir«-eh"m"^  hm"«  been  '  "^  fortiftcation  (2  Chron.  xi,  II  i  oftener  with  ■'^JJ,  eiu 

wide  enough  for  chariots  to  paw  each  other  (Nah,  ii. ,  iuo/,  2  Chron.  xiv,  6;  or  both  words  in  the  pinr.,  xi, 
4;  aeeOlearius.  Trat.  p.  294,  809;  Burckhardt,  TVyw.  i  10.  H,  28;  xii.  4;  xxi,  8).  From  the  fiifngving  »»- 
m^roiio,  1,188;  Buckingham.  Arab  TriU$,  p.  330 ; ! 'n«rk»,  it  will  be  andersloud  how  the  phrases  to  iitiU 
Mrs. Poole,  ffwttriBOMa-miiwrf,  1,141).  The  word  a  city.and  to/or(.»  or/™»  il,la  the  Oriental  idiem. 
for  "  streela"  u«d  by  Nahum-(n-.ani.  fh.m  =nn,  \  "■«•?  gener^ly  the  same  th,n^.    S«  Fo"""*.    The 

,        .     ,       .11.1        ,         ,    ■   t J    ,-■' Ifencmg  or  fortification  was  usually  with  high  walls, 

broad.  irXar..a.)-i8  used  also  of  streets  orbrosd  pbices  i  ^^  ,»teh^owers  upon  them  (Dent,  iii,  5).  See  Fo». 
in  .leruMlem  (Prov.  i,  20;  Jer.  v,  1 ;  xxii.  4;  Cant.  „„j.^,,om.  The  walls  of  fortified  cities  were  fi-nnert, 
iii,  a) :  and  it  may  t«  remarked  that  the  thoroughfares  j  j^  ^^  gt  least,  of  combostible  mslerial.  (Amos  i.  7. 
(irAarria.)  into  whKh  the  sick  were  broughtto  receive.  io_„,  the  gates  being  covered  with  thick  platea  of 
the  shadow  of  Peter  (Acta  v,  15)  were  more  likely  to  ;„„  ^  ^^^  ,p„  ^,,1  jg .  j^  j^  g  .  ji^s  xu,  10), 
1«  the  ordinary  streets  than  the  special  piazxt  of  the  \  The„  ,„  j«,  within  the  city  a  citadel  or  tower,  to 
city.  It  seems  likely  that  the  immense  concourse  ^^^^^J^  ,1,^  inha|,itants  lied  when  the  city  itself  roald 
which  resortedlojemsalemaltho  feasts  would  induce  not  be  defended  (.luda.  la.  4G-SZ).  They  were  ofUn 
wider  streets  than  in  other  citiea  (see  1  King.  x«,  W).  ^^^  «|„»ted  ground,  and  were  enterwi  bv  a  flight  of 
Herod  budt  in  Antloch  a  wide  street  paved  with  stone,  :  ,^  /j  glugs  i,  2 ;  Isa.  ixxvi,  1).  See  Wall. 
and  having  covered  ways  on  each  side  Agrippa  II .  ^  „„„  Suburbs  (in  the  plur.  B-0-3a  "r, 
paved  Jerusalem  wllhwhit«slone{Josephus,.4Br.  xTi,  ,      .        ,-    .      -^  ■,  ,  ^.i      '■■.-"„', 

6,  2  and  3 :  »ic,  9,  7).  The  street  of  most  cities  of  '  f^  «»?™*""  ■  «'''»"/  P^™,  J  Chron.  xl-v  2), 
Palestine  would  not  need  paving,  In  consequence  of  ,'■*■'  '»'"'  -'"'"''■•d'd  by  open  pa-ture-irronnd.  or 
the  ™cky  nstu™  of  the  founiition;  on  which  they  lav.  -^mof.--  The  foity^eUht  rltie.  wh»:h  wer*  given  to 
The  Stndght  Street  of  Dsmsscns  is  still  clesriv  defin;d  ""  I*"*"  "«"  t"""'  ^e"'^"''*"' ;  "•e  extent  of  the 
and  reco^iaable  (irby  and  Mangl«.  v,'86 ;  lioMn«.n,  1  ■"""'-  "PP-rt^lntaB  W  "<h  "ty  ^ /"""^".v  <»""«J 
new  ed.  of  Ka.  iii,  464,  466).  In  building  CsBSarea,  I '"  .N"™-  ««*'.  l"*  •  Josh.  xxi_,  41,  42.  They  were 
Josephua  says  that  Herod  was  careful  to  carry  out  the  "  idendy  the  aurronnding  distncto  to  which  the  aty 
drainage  offtctnally  (.losephits,  -4a(.  xv,  9.  6).  The  i  K»ve  the  means  of  protection  and  safety.  See  So»- 
internal  commerce  of  Jewish  cities  was  probablv  car-  ;  '"'^'  , 

ried  on  as  now  by  means  of  baaaars  (q.  v.) ;  for  wo  read  City  of  Rbfcoe  (usnally  in  the  plur.  IJS^jan  ^^J, 
of  the  bakers'  street  (Jer.  ixxvii,  51),  and  Josephus  '  arty'  hanMiUal',  from  US^  amiraeied,  Ge•eIlin^ 
speaks  of  the  wool  market,  the  hardware  market,  a  Tia,  Hrb.  p.  121S;  Sept.  wriXiic  ruv  ^7a^(ifr^aii', 
(jace  of  blacksmiths'  shops,  and  the  clothes  market,  at  fvya^ivTijpia.  fvyaiiia  ;  Vulg.  oppida  in  fifgiiitonaK 
Jerusalem  (Ifar,  v,  8, 1).     See  Stbeet.  \aaxiHa, pntiiiia,  irjiarata,  or  iirbaJ\igil:tonam,'i. 

The  open  spaces  (irXanini)  near  Ihe  gates  of  towns  1.  Among  the  Hebrews,  six  Lerltical  dtiea  Fpe- 
were  in  ancient  times,  as  they  are  still,  used  as  places  '  cially  chosen  for  refuge  to  the  involuntary  homicide 
of  assembly  by  the  elders,  of  holding  courts  by  kings  until  released  from  banishment  liy  the  death  of  the 
and  Judges,  and  of  general  resort  by  citiiens  (Gen.  high-priest  (Num.  xixv,  6, 13, 16 ;  Joeb.  ix,  2,  7,  9). 
jtiiii,  10 ;  Rutbi  V,  1 ;  2  Sam.  iv,  2 ;  xviii,  24 ;  ixi. '  See  Ulood-reveMOx.  There  were  three  on  each  aide 
12;  2  Kings  vii,  1,  e,  20;  2  Chron.  xvUi,  9;  xxxii.6;  of  Jordan.  1.  Kedesh,  in  Maphtali,  now  JCedu,  about 
Neh.viii.l,  13. 16;  Job  xxix.  7 ;  Jer.  xvii.  19;  Malt,  twentv  miles  E.S.E.  from  T.vni,  twelve  S.S.W.  from 
vi,  5;  Luke  xiii,  26).  They  were  also  used  as  places  Uania's  (1  Chron.  vi,  76 1  see  Robinson,  iii,  366;  B«nJ. 
of  publlceiposureby  way  of  punishment  (Jer.  xx,  2;  of  Tndela.in  the  Karig  TVor.  p.89).  2.  Shkchem,  id 
Amos  V,  10).  See  Gate.  Prisons  were,  under  the  Mount  Kpbraim,  A'afra/iu (Josh,  iil,  SI;  1  Chron.  ▼!, 
kingly  government,  within  the  royal  precinct  (Gen.  07 ;  2  Chnm.  x,  1 ;  see  Robinson,  iii,  113).  B.  Hb- 
xxxix,  20;  1  Kings  xxll,  27;  Jer.xxxii,2;  Neh.iii,  BBo.f.  in  Judah,  rl-£A'i/>/.  The  last  two  were  myal 
26;  Actsxxi,84;  xxiii.SS).  cities,  and  the  latter  sacerdotal  also,  inhabited  by  Da- 

Gri-at  pains  were  taken  to  supply  Jerusalem  with  vid,  and  fbrtilied  by  RebolKtam  (Jo*h.ixi,]3;  2  Sam. 
water,  lioth  liy  tanks  and  cisterns  for  rain-water,  and  v,  6;  1  Chron.  vi.  55;  xxix.  27;  2  Chron.  xi,10;  aee 
liv  reservoirs  supplied  bv  aqueducts  fMm  distant  Kobinpon.  i,  814;  ii.  464).  4.  On  the  E.  side  of  Jor- 
sprinirs.  Such  was  the  fbnntain  of  Gihon,  the  aque-  dan— Bbzrr.  in  the  tril*  of  Reuben,  in  the  plains  of 
duct  of  HeiekUh  (2  Kinits  xx,  2<i;  S  Clirnn.  xxxil,  MobIj,  said  in  the  Gemsra  to  l«  opporite  to  IlebroD, 
(10;  Isa.  ixii,  9),  anrtof.Si.lnmon(Eii.'l.  ii.ei,  ofwhich  perhaps  the  later  flosor,  and  the  priMnt  finan 
last  water  is  xtill  ronveyed  from  near  Ilfthle hem  to  (Dent,  iv,  43;  Josh,  xx,  8;  ixi,  86;  1  Wncc,  v,  26; 
Jprusalpm(Maundrell,inBohnsed.of  A'..rVy  Trar.  p.  Jo-ephus.  .4M.  iv,  7.  4;  see  Reiand,  p.  862).  6.  Ra- 
457;  Robinson,  1. 614  sq.;  Olin,  il,  UOsq.).     Ju>ephut    MoTH-GlLeAV.  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  suppoecd  to  be  m 


CITY  OF  REFUGE  3 

or  Baar  tlu  site  of  u-SkoK  (Dent,  fr,  43;  Joah.  sii, 
88:  1  Kingaxxii,  3;  «e«  Kclanil,  p.  966).  6.  Goi^M, 
ia  Balkan,  Id  the  half-tribe  of  Muuuseh,  ■  Iowa  whose 
site  hai  not  boeu  ascertaiaed,  but  which  douhtlou  i;ave 
it*  nama  to  the  dUtrict  of  G.iiUoalCk,  Jmlaa  (Daut. 
iT,43j  Jash.Kzi,!7)  1  Cbron.  vi,  71 ;  Josepbua,  .liK. 
ir.  7  i  He  Heland,  p.  H1&:  Porter,  Damaim,  U,  S51, 
?Mj  Barckhardt,  5}ivi,  p.  286),  The  Gemara  ootlcBs 
that  the  cities  on  uch  liilo  of  the  Jordan  ware  nearly 
upposita  each  other,  in  icconlance  with  the  direction 
to  divide  the  land  Into  threi  parte  (Duut.  xix,  2;  Ke- 
land,  p.  662}-  UaJmonidei  uiya  all  the  fortv-eisbt 
Livlticat  dties  had  the  privilege  of  aaylum,  but  that 
the  BIX  refiiice-citlea  were  iV(|Uired  to  receive  and  todife 
the  homicide  giataitonily  (Calmet  On  Xam.  xxxv). 

The  directiooa  reapectin^  the  refuge-citlea  preaent 
•cme  difficaltiaa  In  interpret jtion.  The  Levitjcal  cit- 
iM  were  to  have  ■  apace  of  1000  cubita  (aboot  £83 
jarda)  bejond  the  city  will  for  pasture  and  other  pur- 
poKfl.  Presently  after,  20M1  eubita  are  ordered  to  be 
tin  Bolinrb  limit  (Knni.  xxiv,  4,  6).  The  solation  of 
(be  dUDcnlty  msv  be,  eiLhei  the  2000  cubita  are  to  be 
added  to  the  1000  aa  "fleldi  of  the  auburbt"  (Lev. 
XXT,  34),  aa  appaori  to  hive  been  the  case  in  tbe  gift 
to  Caleb,  which  excluded  the  city  of  Hebron,  but  1d- 
clnded  the  "  fielda  and  vitlagea  ofihe  city"  (Joab.  xxi, 
11,19,  Pjttriirk),  nr  that  the  additional  2000  cubita  were 
a  fpecial  ^ift  to  the  refu^^e-citisa,  while  the  other  Le- 
vilical  citip"  hi<1  only  lOO^i  cubit<  Ibrauburb.  Caliuet 
snppoMa  the  line  of  ^000  cubita  to  be  meaaured 
parallel,  and  the  1000  perpendicular  to  the  ciiy' 
wall ;  an  explanation,  however,  which  auppinca  all 
the  ciiiea  W  be  of  the  aame  nie  (Calmet  On  h'uiubtrt, 

XXIV). 

a.  Places  of  refuge  where,  under  the  cover  of  relig. 
km,  tha  guilty  and  the  anfortunnte  might  find  shelter 
ssd  protection  wen  not  unknown  among  tbe  ancient 
haattien.  The  jui  o^U,  or  right  of  shelter  and  Impu- 
nity, w^  enjoyed  bj-  certain  plsces  reputed  sacred, 
anch  as  KTOvea.  temples,  and  allaia.  Thia  protective 
power  commonly  spread  itself  over  a  considarable  dia- 
triet  ninnd  the  holy  apot,  and  was  watched  over  and 
pzeserrsd  by  severe  penalties.  Among  the  Gieeks 
and  Bomans  the  nambar  of  these  phicea  of  asylum  be- 
came in  time  vary  great,  and  led,  by  abuse,  to  a  ft'eah 
tncraase  of  criminals  (TacKu".  ^aa.  iii,  60,  63).  Ti- 
berioa,  ia  consequence,  caused  a  solemn  inquiry  Into 
their  eCTecta  to  be  made,  which  raaultad  iu  a  diminu- 
tion of  their  number  and  a  limitation  of  their  priri- 
legea  (Suetonius,  Tib.  87,  compared  with  Emostl,  £r- 
emniit  ad  k-l;  Odiander,  De  Atsllt  Gat&an,  in  Gro- 
nov.  7%'iaar.  L  vi).  In  the  Apocrj-pha  (2  Msec,  iv,  S3) 
mentton  is  made  of  a  city  having  the  Jua  ssyli — "Oni- 
BS  vittidrew  himself  Into  a  sanctUKry  at  Daphne  that 
liath  by  Anilocbia."  The  temple  of  Diana  atEphesua 
(Acts  (ix,  27)  was  also  a  heithen  asylum,  whose  priv- 
ilegea  in  this  respect  lucreased  with  the  progresa  of 

This  paean  custom  passed  into  Christianity.  Aa 
esdy  aa  Conatontina  the  Great,  Cbrlatinn  chuicbes 
ware  aaylumi  for  the  unfortunate  persona  whom  an 
outraged  Uw  or  powerful  cnemiea  puraned  (Smith's 
Gibbon,  e.  XI).  Thaodosius,  in  431,  extended  this 
privilege  to  the  houBaa,  gnrdi'ni,  and  other  places 
wbkh  were  under  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  churches,  and 
the  synod  of  Toledo,  in  681,  widened  the  right  of  aay- 
Inm  (a  thirty  pacea  from  each  church.  Since  then 
thia  ecclesiastical  privilege  prevailed  in  the  whole  of 
Catbolk  Chrltlendom,  and  waa  preserved  undiminish- 
ed, at  least  in  Italy,  ao  lonji  as  (be  papal  independence 
remained  (Hallam's  Middit  Aga,  c.  Ix,  pt.  i).  Ihe 
tight  acted  beneHeially  in  agea  wlien  violence  and  re- 
venge predominated,  and  fixed  habitationi  were  less 
eotnmon  than  now ;  hot  its  tendency  to  tranafer  power 
fttmi  the  ma^trate  to  tha  prksthiwd  was  Injurious  to 
the  inviolability  of  law  and  the  steady  administmtion 
of  JuMiec  It  has  acconlingly  in  ncant  timee  been 
1I.-12* 


II  CITY  OF  REFUGE 

abrogated  by  most  governments  ^CtrntenatiaiM  Lixj. 
ton,  s.  v.). 

8.  Among  tha  Jews,  tha  "  cities  of  refuge"  bore  some 
reaemblance  to  Ihe  asylum  of  tbe  classic  nations,  but 
were  happily  exempt  from  the  evil  consequences  to 
which  refarenca  has  haen  made,  and  afford,  even  to 
the  preaant  dsy,  no  mean  proof  of  tbe  superior  wisdom 
and  benignant  spirit  of  the  Jewish  taws.  The  inati- 
tution  was  fraioad  with  a  viaw  to  abate  tbe  evils  which 
ensued  from  the  old-eetablishad  lights  of  the  blood- 
avenger  [see  AvKNQBB  OP  Blood],  and  thereby  to 
farther  the  prevalence  In  the  nation  of  a  mild,  gentle. 


d  fori 


ivmg  S| 


An  ii 


e  map  will 


iw  wisely  these  places  were  chosen  » 
make  a  city  of  refuge  easy  of  access  from  all  parts  of 
the  land.  To  any  one  of  theae  citiea  a  person  who  had 
unawares  and  uninlentionslly  slain  any  one  might 
flee,  and,  if  ha  reached  it  litfore  ha  was  overtuken  by 
tho  avenger  of  blood,  he  was  safe  within  Its  alielter, 
provided  ho  did  not  remove  more  than  a  thousand 
yarda  l^m  ita  circuit,  nor  quit  the  refuge  till  the  de- 
cease of  the  high-prieat  under  whom  the  homicide  had 
taken  place.  If,  however,  he  transgressed  these  pro- 
vlaiona,  Ihe  avenger  might  lawfully  put  him  to  death. 
Tbe  roads  lesding  to  the  cities  of  refuge  wera  to  ba 
kept  In  good  repuir.  Before,  however,  tlie  fugitive 
could  avail  himaelf  of  tho  shelter  conceded  by  Ihe 
laws,  ha  was  to  undergo  a  sotema  trial,  and  make  It 
appear  to  tha  satisfaction  of  the  magistrate*  of  tha 
place  where  the  homicide  wsa  committed  that  it  was 
purely  accidental.  Should  he,  however,  be  found  to 
have  been  guilty  of  murder,  ba  was  delivered  "into 
(he  hand  of  the  avenger  of  blood,  that  he  might  die." 
The  beneflt  of  the  protection  aflorded  wsa  common  to 
strangers  sod  sojourners  with  native  Israelites. 

According  to  the  Rabbina,  in  order  to  give  the  fugi- 
tive all  possible  advantage  in  his  Sight,  it  wsa  the 
buainess  of  the  Sanhedrim  to  make  the  roads  that  la<l 
to  the  citlaa  of  refuge  convenient  by  enlarging  them. 
and  removing  every  olietructlDn  that  might  hurt  hia 
foot  or  hinder  bia  speed.  No  hillock  was  left,  no  river 
waa  allowed  over  which  there  was  not  a  brid^,  and 
the  road  was  at  leaet  two-and-thirty  cubits  broad.  At 
every  turning  there  were  posts  erected  liaaiing  tba 
words  Se/vgr,  Btfvgr,  to  guide  the  unhappy  man  in 
his  flight!  and  two  atudvnts  in  the  Uw  were  sppolni. 
ed  to  accompany  him,  tliat,  if  the  avenger  should  over- 
take him  before  he  reached  the  city,  they  might  at- 
tempt to  paciiy  him  till  the  legal  inveatigation  could 
take  place.  When  once  eettled  in  tba  city  of  refuge, 
tba  manalayer  had  s  convenient  habitation  assigned 
him  gratuitously,  and  the  cilliens  were  to  tesch  him 
some  trsde  wberaly  ha  might  support  himseir.  To 
render  his  confinement  mora  easy,  tbe  motbera  of  tbe 
high-prieata  uaed  to  feed  and  clothe  these  unfortunste 
fugitives,  thst  they  might  not  be  impatient  and  pray 
for  the  death  of  their  sons,  on  whose  decease  they  were 
restored  lo  their  lilierty  and  their  property.  If  the 
slayer  died  in  the  city  of  refuge  liefore  he  was  released, 
bis  Iwnes  were  delivered  to  bla  relations,  sftar  tha 
death  of  tho  high-prieat,  to  be  buried  in  the  sepulchre 
of  bis  lilhers  (Lewi«,  Origititt  /Trbraicc).  If  the  hom- 
icide committed  a  fraab  act  of  manslaughter,  be  was 
to  flee  to  another  cityi  but  if  he  weie  a  Levfle,  to 
wander  Irom  city  to  city.  An  idea  prevailed  that 
when  the  Messiah  came  three  more  citiea  would  La 
added — a  misinterprets  lion,  as  it  aeems,  of  Deut.  xli, 
8,  9  (l.ightfoot,  Cfnt.  Chor.  clii,  208).  Jerusalem,  to 
some  extant,  poeaeesed  the  privilege  of  stylum  under 
similar  restrictionB — a  privileue  accorded  to  Sblmai, 
but  forfeited  by  him  (1  Rings  il,  36,  46). 

That  tha  right  of  asylum  among  tha  Jaws  was  in 
later  periods  of  tiieir  history  ao  extfndrd  as  to  open 
tbe  door  to  great  abuses  may  be  inferred  from  1  Mace. 
x,43,  where  unqualified  impunity  and  exemptiun  fhjm 
l>oth  liabilities  and  penalties  are  promised,  under  the 
Influence,  not  of  the  Mosaic  law,  but  of  heathen  morals 


CIVIL  ADMINISTRATION        362  CLARE 

tr.i  ■mbition,  to  "  whcMosTir  tbey  be  tlut  8m  unto  became  rector  of  All  Saint'i  parith,  Hd.  On  tb* 
lb«  Temple  (t  Jemulem,  or  be  witbia  the  liberties  breaking  out  of  the  RevoluHon  he  retired  to  Prince 
theteor."  In  the  vorda  now  cited.  rerercDce  appears ,  G«rge'i,  and  in  1779  began  to  officiate  there  in  St. 
to  be  made  to  ■  custom  which  jirevailed  from  very  i  Paul'*  pariab.  la  1792  he  waa  elected  (o  the  epiaco- 
earl^  timear  both  imoa^  tbe  choaen  people  and  the  na-  !  pat«,  being  the  first  biabop  tiiat  was  cooBecrated  oti 
tiona  of  the  world,  of  fleeing,  in  <9Ue  of  peisooal  dan-  I  thit  aide  tlie  Atlantic.  In  IBOO  he  waa  chaplain  to  the 
ger,  to  the  altar.  With  the  Jen  a,  It  waa  custoiDary  Senate  of  the  United  SlUea ;  in  IBOe  be  becuM  no- 
br  the  fii),'itlve  lo  la;  bold  of  the  homa  of  the  altar,  |  tor  of  Trinit<r  Chnrch,  Upper  UarlboroDgh,  Hd.  He 
whether  In  tbe  tabernacle  or  Temple ;  by  which,  how-  ;  died  OD  tbe  2d  of  Anguat,  1816.— Sprague,  Aumait,  v, 
ever,  aheller  and  aecnrity  were  obtained  onl.v  for  thoae  .  263. 

who  had  committed  aina  of  ignorance  or  inadvertence  |  ClolrvKiuc  (ClAbAvallib),  the  name  of  ■  cele- 
(Eiod.  xxi,  14;  1  Kinn  i,  AO;  11,28).  From  the  laat  brated  Ciateician  abbey,in  aralle^ofthe  Departmeat 
twopawages,  It  aeema  that  atalB  criminal*  olw)  Bought  Aube,  in  Fnmce.  Bernard  became  ita  abbot  in  lllS, 
the  protection  of  the  attir,  probably  more  from  the  '  and  jj,^  monaatery  waa  the  model  of  iDonaiUcJBDi  in 
force  of  cQBlom  than  any  expreea  law.  Their  aafcty,  the  12th  and  IBth  centuriea.— Neander,  Ck.  Bilarj, 
however,  dependod  on  tbe  will  of  the  king ;  for  in  the  iv,  2M.  See  BeBMard  ;  CiffTEBaAva. 
pauagoa  referred  to  it  appeara  that  in  one  caae  (that  of  ;  Cl«p.  Thokab,  a  Congiegalional  niiniat«-,  waa 
Adonijah)  life  waa  ipared,  but  in  the  other  (that  of  I  bom  at  Scitnate,  M»w.,  June  M,  1708,  and  grwluted 
Joab)  It  waa  taken  away  even  ■■  by  the  altar.  Com-  ,(  Harvard  1722.  He  waa  otdalned  pastor  at  Wind- 
pare  Matt,  x»iii,  B5.  A  aimiUr  inaiance  ia  found  ham_  Aug.  8,  1726 ;  waa  elected  to  the  nctonhip  of 
in  Grecian  history,  in  the  case  of  Pauaaniaa,  who  Yale  College  In  178S,  and  entered  npon  the  dntiea  of 
fled  from  the  populace,  incenwd  on  account  of  hU  the  office  April  i,  1740.  He  devoted  himaclfenergBt- 
public  treachery,  to  the  temple  of  Minerra,  where  he  igjiy  „  the  work  of  the  college ;  framed  its  code  of 
wBi  iiarred  lo  death  by  order  of  (he  Ephori,  by  block-  ],„,  (i74g_  Latin,  "  the  first  book  ever  printed  Id  New 
ing  up  tbe  entrance  and  taking  off  the  roof  (compare  Hj^gn");  improved  iu  library,  and  in  varioui  ways 
Smith's  Cict.  o/CioM.  .liKty.  s.  V.  Aaylum).  See  Aar-  ,[„ngt|„nedthB  Uatitution.  He  waa  apedally  noted 
'•"'!'•  _  '  for  bis  knowledge  of  maihematica  and  pbyBies,  and  con- 

CiTT  OF  David,  a  section  in  the  aoothern  part  of  simcted  the  flratomry  madein  America.  lUa  oppon- 
JeroHlem,  embracing  Mount  Zion,  where  a  Ibrtre..  (ion  to  Whitefleid,  and  other  cauaea,  raiaed  up  a  p«ty 
of  tbe  Jebaa-tea  stood.  See  Jbbcb.  David  reduced  ,^„,t  him,  and  in  ITBi  he  re.igned  hia  oflke;  tbe 
tbe  fortr^,  and  built  a  new  paLice  and  city,  to  wh.ch  eoiporation,  however,  puudng  a  vote  "expreseivo  of 
he  gave  bui  own  name  (1  Chron.  jti  51.  Bethlehem,  jheir  hi4!h  ertimation  of  his  character  and  aerrinia.-' 
the  native  town  of  David,  ia  alao  caHe<l,  from  that  cir-  He  died  in  New  Haven,  January  7. 1787.  Pr«id«rt 
c»m.tance,  the  city  of  David  (l^uke  .i  11).  |  (^j,    p„,,,i,bed  A»  /B(rWu«««  to  lU  Sb.^  i>/Ph*M. 

CTTropGoD,oneofthenameaoranc»ntJaruBa.  opAg,eikibiti,»  a  g,^„l  11^ './oarAt  An/,^  Sfi- 
Um  (Psu,  alvi,  4),  and  its  ippropnateDMS  is  evident  „^  ^■^-^g^ .  j^  RtSgio^  ComttihOion  nf  CoOesu.  tt- 
ft™Deut.m,5.  .^^,  \periMy  of  rale  CoOrge,  !if«  Havm  {llbV);  A  bri-f 

Holt  Crrr.  The  »crednes.  nf  the  Temple  ex.  b;„^  ^  F.>ri™(i™  »/  Iht  IhdHRc  rrceioed  W 
tendea  itself  in  aome  measure  over  the  city,  and  hence  ^^^mMi^  «  (Ae  CWciw  of  Hew  ff^jfaarf,  .^  «  A™: 
Jerusalem  it«lf  wa.  called  tbe  /fo'j,  CV,,  '^'>i  >» 'o  '  ^^  „f  Ot  nt,c  rAeme  <,/ Rd'gkm  b^i^mg  ta  ^^ 
dhitinguUhed  in  tbe  East  at  the  present  day  (Neb.  xi,    (.1755)     ^„  fi,™  „  (fa  ffat^n  ^ml  n«,iati<m  of 


1 ;  Dan.  iz,  !4).     See  Jebobalem. 

Lkviticai.  Citt.     See  I.bvitb. 

CitT  OP  Palx-thees.     See  Ir-Hatteiiarim. 

Sacerdotal  Citt.     See  Priest, 

CiTr  OP  Salt.     See  Ik-Uahhelah. 

TREAaDRE-crrr  (in  the  plur.  riTasOa  ''^?, 
cfprmitioiu,  "  atore-cities, "  1  Kings  Ik,  19).      I'ithom 


moral  Virtue  aad  ObUgatiim  (1766);  Amvilt  or  Hii^rg 
of  Tate  Colly^  (1766) ;  Co*>S(«vrn  1710a  Ale  yabtrt  ml 
AfafiotU(f  AVtlfornehidi  are  above  Ike  Atmnipiiert  (post, 
1761).— Spragae,  Annali,  i,  31S;  Allen,  .Inerieon  Bi- 
'>gr<^A!i,  a.  V. 

Clara,  or  Clare,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Calbollc 
Church,  waa  bom  at  Aaaisi.  Italy.  119S,  of  ■  noble  ttm- 


IS  (q.  V,)  are  mentioned  in  Exod.  1,  11.  a^  .  ily.  She  abandoned  ber  home  in  1212,  and  wma  ri 
treaaure^cities  built  by  Pharaoh  by  the  unpaid  iiibor  ceived  by  Francis  of  Assiei,  who  cut  off  her  hair,  and 
ofthe  Hebrews;  Ibey  were  probaiiiy  magazines  or  d6-  replaced  her  line  clothing  by  a  jdeco  of  sackcloth  tfcd 
piJta  Rir  tbe  royal  revenue  (which  was  doubtless  paid  about  her  with  a  cord.  Her  parents  atnnuoualy  m- 
tn  kind),  such  aa  are  intimated  in  Gen.  ill,  4H ;  sec  siated  tbii  step ;  but,  under  the  guidance  of  Franck, 
xlviii,  26.  The  Jewieh  kinga  had  similar  places  of  she  disobeyed  them,  and  devoted  herself  to  monastic 
public  deposit  (2  Cbron.  viil,  1,  6;  zvl,  4;  xvii,  2).  life.  She  practised  unheard  of  ansteritiea,  monrahd 
See  Treasithe.  I  to  read  of  as  deacribed  by  Butler  (cited  below).      Clara 

CItU  AdmlniatratJon  of  the  Hemiews.  See  '  was  the  founder  of  the  Clarissea,  or  nuns  of  St.  Clara 
OoVEBitMEKT  (OF  TUB  Hebrbwb).  '■  (l-  v).     Sse  Butlcr,  Iapii  afSaiMi,  Angnst  12;  Lew- 

Clagett,  William,  D.D.,  a  divine  of  the  Church  '  ^'  ^^  *'«^.  "^  Brtriary,  i,  110. 
of  England,  was  born  at  St.  Edmundabury.  Suffolk,  I  Clara.  See  Abrauah  a  SamctA  Cla»&. 
1646;  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  16£a;  |  Clare,  St.,  Ndnb  of,  an  order  sometimee  callal 
and  took  his  degrees  there,  the  floal  one  of  D.D.  in  CUrisses  or  Chirissines.  from  their  fbunder  St.  Clara 
1683.  After  prescbing  seven  years  in  his  native  town  (tj.  v.).  Tbe  reputation  of  St.  Clai*  aoon  gained  her  a 
be  became  preacher  of  Gray-a  Inn,  London,  and  rector  Urge  number  of  followers,  for  whom  aeveral  monaalv- 
of  Famhnm  Royal  in  1683.  He  died  March  S8, 16fi6.  I  iaa  were  buUt  in  various  parts  of  Italy.  In  the  year  1219 
Among  his  writings  are,  A  DUamrte  ooiiwrKiB^  *Ae  I  the  order  passed  into  Spain,  andsoon  after  into  France. 
Of,rTabo«»ofiht  Hots  gpir.1,  against  Dr.  Owen  (Lond.  '  The  rules  of  the  order  were  drawn  up  by  St.  Fnncis  rf 
16R0,2  vol».8vo);  6'<niuflu(Lond.  1704-1720,4  vols. '  Assiri in  1224 :  IheChuiaBea  were  forbUden  to  have  any 
8vo);  and  aeveral  pamphlets  on  the  Romiah  contro-  possessions,  and  silence  was  enjmned  upon  them  ftwn 
versy.— Kippia,  fliojropAw  Brtfonatrn,  ill,  592  sq. ;  ihe  compline  tiil  thetierco  of  thefoilowinnday.  Their 
Darting,  Csclopadut  BMinffraphiea.  i,  666.  ;  (.gijit  «„  three  tunics  and  a  mantle.     After  the  death 

Claggett, Thouab  Johm,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  of  the  founder  the  order  made  stiU  gniater  pmg^lS^ 
Protetrtant  Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  in  Prince  and  counted  for  snme  time  2000  convents,  with  bt,<m 
George  County,  Md.,  on  the  2d  of  October,  I-4I,  and  nuns.  After  the  Rcformatinn  there  remained  in  Eo- 
graduated  at  Princeton  1764.  lie  went  to  EngUnd  rope  900  convents,  with  ahoit  26,000  nonn.  tn  Italv 
for  ocdiuation  In  1767,  and  on  bis  return  to  America    there  are  monasteries  of  CUriaaea,  Mnw  of  which  take 


CLARENBACH 


363  CLARENDOX  CONSTITUTIONS 


Urn  tume  of  "  Nddi  <d  the  Slrict  ObaervaDK,"  others 
thrt  of  "  SoUtutes  oT  the  Inititution  of  SI.  Petar  of 
Aleantan."  After  Cortei  bad  cooqueied  Mexico,  lu- 
bella  of  Portngat,  wife  of  Charlei  V,  aent  tbither  uinie 
noni  of  the  order  of  St.  Clara,  whomide  Kverut  Mttle- 
meati  there.  Near  tbeir  monuteriea  were  foaoded 
nmmuniliei  of  Indian  foaDg  women,  to  be  inatrncted 
bj  the  CUdaiea  in  religion,  and  iuch  works  u  were 
■Bituble  to  persons  of  tbeir  aex.  Wben  Pope  Urban 
IV  miti^lHl  the  ori^al  rule,  thoie  who  adopted  tbo 
mitiguted  rule  were  called  Urbaniils,  while  Che  name 
(rf  (.'lariBeea  remained  to  those  who  adhered  to  theorig. 
iiul  rule.  A  itill  stricter  rule  was  obgerved  by  the 
On^nyofim.  o/Sf.Cofefto,  founded  bj  St.  Colette,  who 
died  in  1447,  which  waa  again  aurpaued  in  ■natsriCy 
by  the  diicalceate  Coni^ret^tioa  uf  Che  Strictest  Ot>- 
ttrvance,  founded  in  IKIl  in  Italy,  and  the  Heroiiteu- 
ee  of  SL  Peter  of  Alcantua  (or  AlcontarinH),  founded 
in  1676.  According  to  the  eUtutica  otlbSi,  conrent« 
were  found  in  Iialv,  France,  Anstria,  Bavaria,  Switi- 
eriuid,  Poland,  Belgium,  Iluilond,  England,  Scotland, 
Spun,  Pniaaia,  IreUnd,  at  Macao  and  Manilla  in  Aaia, 
in  Mexico,  and  in  Central  and  South  America.  The 
namber  of  membert  was  about  GOOD.— Fehr,  Gttchichle 
dtr  JfiwiMnJin,  i,  456  M|.     See  FKAifcia  or  Assui. 

Clarenbacll.    See  Klabexbacu. 

ClarMidon  Cooatltutions,  IIG4,    A  aimgEle 

botween  the  crown  and  the  hierarchy  in  England  be- 
gan with  tfae  elevalion  ofThomaa  i  BeckeC  Co  the  ar- 
chia|H»cop*l  cbair  (Jane,  11G2).  The  pomp-loving 
eonrder,  brave  warrior,  and  powerful  ataCeaman,  the 
IJBToril«  and  conHdant  of  Henry  II,  had  become  a  re- 
vere ascetic,  a  lealoua  bierarcb,  and  the  opponent  of 
the  king.  At  the  council  beid  by  Alexander  III  in 
Uay,  1163,  at  Toon,  Becket,  with  other  English  prel- 
atea,  appeared,  and  was  received  with  disdnction  by 
the  pope.  Ai  aooD  as  he  returned,  be  attempted  to 
execute  the  reaelutions  of  the  council  in  hia  province. 
He  claimed  certain  poaaetaiona,  wliich,  ss  be  asserted, 
had  been  long  alienated  from  the  aee  of  Canterbury, 
and  prnteeled  against  the  levy  of  a  uoiveraal  tax  on 
real  eetats  which  the  king  demanded  for  atate  purpo- 
ses. This  alnady  had  occasioned  a  conleat  with  the 
king,  and  a  breach  wat  almost  effected  at  the  Imperial 
Diet  io  WeaCmtnster,  called  by  the  kinR  to  reform  the 
abDBea  of  the  ecclesiaitlcal  courts,  wblch  were  made 
ioaccnoible  to  the  arm  of  justice.  Cases  of  this  kind 
had  often  occorred  wilhin  a  few  yesra,  and  the  arch- 
bishop now  again  opposed  tlie  demanda  of  the  kin); 
and  the  barons,  while  alcnosC  all  the  blabops  anawered 
in  the  affirmative  to  the  question  of  the  king  If  they 
wonld  ftirtber  aupport  the  "old  caatoms  of  the  king- 
dom," but  with  the  addition  of  Che  dangerous  clause, 
lalpo  onJi'iK  suo  el  jure  ecclmr.  At  the  prayers  of  the 
tashops  and  othera  high  in  office,  perhaps  alM  under 
admonitiooa  tnia  the  pope,  Becket  alio  yielded  at 
length. 

To  ratify  the  concHslona  made  by  the  hiahopa  with 
due  Mlemnity,  and  in  general  to  settle  the  points  at 
iuoe  between  Church  and  crown,  tfae  king,  in  Janua- 
ry, 1164,  summoned  an  aasembly  of  prelates  and  bar- 
ons at  Clarendon,  a  royal  summer  reaidence  near  Salis- 
iHiry.  The  attendance  was  large.  Becket  appeared, 
but  only  to  revoke  the  conceaaions  he  had  made,  and 
to  declare  them  treason  to  the  Inalienable  rights  of  the 
Church.  But  at  lost,  overwhelmed  by  pmyera  and 
threats,  Bcehet  once  more  pledged  bia  prieatly  word  to 
nppoTt  fallhfnlly  the  ancient  customs.  The  confer- 
nieea  were  soon  ended.  Their  results  were  the  Obrm- 
or,  as  they  were  called,  cmwuliidiiiet 


king.  ^CandrnmriibglifpiyK.)  !.  Churches  belonging 
Id  the  king's  flef  cannot  lie  given  pennanently  away 
IToUnUed.)     B.  Clergymen  ac- 


usedol 


inycr 


ippeoi  at  the  king's  court,  where  it  will  be  de- 
cided whether  the  matter  is  to  be  handed  over  tfi  a  civil 
or  ecelesiasticsl  coart ;  in  Che  latter  esse,  a  delegate  ap- 
pointed by  the  king's  judge  is  to  be  present  at  the  trial. 
If  the  accused  is  (bund  guilty,  or  confeaaea,  the  Church 
shall  not  further  protect  him.  (Cundentud.)  4.  Arch-  . 
biebops,  biahopB,  or  high  officials  of  the  kingdom  shall 
not  leuve  the  kingdom  wichoul  the  king's  permisaion  i 
and,  even  in  cose  of  permission,  must  give  security 
that  on  their  jonmey  they  will  undertake  nothing  to 
the  idisadvanlage  of  the  king  or  the  kingdom,  (t'on- 
daimrd.)  b.  Excommunicated  persons  need  not  ^ve 
bonds  to  remain  where  they  are,  nor  to  promise  by 
oath  to  do  ao,  bat  only  to  give  Iwods  or  a  pledge  to 
abide  by  the  decbion  of  the  thnrch,  that  they  may  be 
abfiolved.  (Condmnni,)  6.  Laymen  con  only  l>e  ac- 
cused by  trustworthy  and  legitimate  witnesses  in  the 
presence  of  the  bishup,  yet  so  that  the  archdeacon  does 
not  lose  bis  right.  In  cases  where  no  one  appears  as 
the  accuser,  the  ahcriiF,  at  the  command  of  the  bishop, 
is  to  assemble  twelve  respectable  men  from  the  neigh- 
borhood, who  are  to  swear  before  the  bishop  to  tell  the 
Imth  according  to  their  best  understanding,  (Tiitr. 
aled.)  7.  Vassals  of  the  crown,  and  the  officer*  of  theic 
bouseboids,  shaQ  not  be  excommunicated,  nor  their 
lands  laid  under  interdict,  without  previous  notice  to 
Che  king  or  bis  judges,  that  they  may  decide  if  tl 


cat 


I  chapters,  the  cf 


ts  of  which  ac 


(ubatanltally  the  following  (with  the  Judgment  of  the 
lope  Dpnn  them  appended  in  italics) : — 1.  Diapntes  con- 
cerning the  right  of  patronage  between  laymen,  or  be- 
tween clergymen  and  laymen,  or  between  clergymen 
only,  shall  be  dlicnued  and  settled  at  the  coon  of  the 


tribunal.  (Condtvmed.)  8.  Appeals  are  U 
from  the  archdeacon  to  the  bishop,  from  the  blahop  to 
the  archbishop,  and  from  him  to  the  king,  upon  whose 
command  the  matter  shall  then  he  settled  in  the  srchl- 
episcopal  conrt  of  justice.  Mo  fiirther  appeal  allowed 
without  (he  king's  leave.  (CTowlninfd.)  B,  In  caeo 
of  any  dispute  between  a  layman  and  clergyman  con- 
cerning a  tenement  which  the  latter  declare*  to  be  a 
lay  fee,  if  it  prove  upon  Crial  before  twelve  reapecUlilo 
men  to  be  a  fay  fee,  and  not  an  ecclesiastical  fee,  the 
causa  to  be  Anally  tried  in  the  king's  court,  uoleaa 
both  claim  tenure  under  the  same  bishop  or  baron,  In 
which  rose  the  plea  ahali  be  in  hia  court.  (Owfenxed.) 
10.  If  any  one  belonging  (o  a  royal  court  or  demesne  is 
summoned  Ly  an  archdeacon  or  ■  bishop  on  account 
of  some  misdemeanor  for  which  he  is  amenable  to 
tbem,  and  he  appear  not,  he  may  be  put  under  an  in- 
terdict, but  under  the  ban  only  after  a  previona  notifi- 
cation of  the  royal  official  of  the  place,  and  after  the 
latter  haa  vainly  attempted  to  induce  the  accused  to 
give  the  Church  sstisfactioD.  (fondrnuKd.)  II.Arch- 
liishope,  bishops,  and  vassals  of  the  crown  must,  as 
hnldors  of  royal  flefa,  sppear  before  the  judges  and 
officer*  of  the  king,  and  preserve  all  Che  privileges  and 
customs  of  the  crown-fief,  and  lie  present  also,  like  the 
other  barons,  at  Che  proceedings  of  the  royal  court  of 
Justice,  except  at  capital  trials.  {ToUrateii,')  12.  In 
case  of  a  vacancy  of  an  archbishopric,  bishopric,  an  ai^ 
l>ey,orapriorate,  the  revenues  shall  accrue  to  the  king. 
At  the  reappointment,  the  king  shall  assemble  the  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries  j  the  election  shall  take  place 
in  the  royal  chapel,  wilh  the  king's  consent,  and  the 
advice  of  the  grandees  of  the  kingdom  assembled  by 
him.  In  the  same  place  the  elect  shall,  while  preserv- 
ing hit  ecclesiastical  state,  take  the  oath  cf  fealty  to 
the  king,  hia  feudal  lord.  l>efore  he  is  consecrated. 
(Ojod^titd.)  IS.  If  any  baron  or  tenant  in  copies 
should  encroach  upon  the  rights  or  property  of  a  prel- 
ate, the  king  shall  see  justice  done,  and  if  any  one  en- 
croach upon  the  pDfseaaions  of  the  king,  the  prelate* 
shall  treat  with  that  person  that  he  may  give  satisfac- 
tion. (ToUrtVed.)  14.  Forfeited  posseesions  the  Church 
dare  not  refiiae  to  make  over  to  the  king,  as  such  be- 
long to  him,  whether  thev  lie  Inside  or  outside  of  the 
Church.     (Toltrated.)    IS.  Pleas  of  driit  are  to  ha 


CLAREHINKS  31 

aide  in  tfae  kiog'i  court,  wbelber  dne  upon  conlnct 
or  nut.  (CoiHJrfMaJl)  IB.  Sou  of  puunts  cannot 
b«  ordained  witlioat  the  ctnuont  of  Ibeir  feudal  lorda. 

T\n  higli  importance  of  thcw  decnM  of  the  Diet, 
far  UioM  timea,  ia  ver}-  obvious.  On  tha  ana  band, 
the  king  intended  by  th«m  to  luakt  tli«  dIgniCariea  of 
tbe  Clinrcti  aa  de[iendBn(  apoa  tin  cniwn  aa  the  lur- 
onB.  and  not  only  lo  put  a  limit  la  their  JuriadiclioD. 
but  b]k>  to  aecure  the  election  and  inreatitura  of  tbe 
prelatea,  and,  bj  limitationa  of  the  eppeala  to  the  pope, 
to  preserve  bis  own  paramount  ri)(hu.  On  the  olher 
hand,  hia  aim  was  to  put  iha  exercise  of  Justice  upon 
a  sure  footing,  by  lubjecting  tbe  whole  cleri.-}'  to  the 
eoroman  law  of  the  coontry.  Tha  Conatitolions  con- 
tain tike  Kerms  of  tha  highly  iinportjuit  institution  of 
the  vandering  aasiies,  founded  by  tiini  tvrelre  years 
later  at  tbe  Diet  in  Northamplon.  The  barona  will- 
inicly  gave  their  consent  to  thi*  improvement  of  the 
administration  of  Justice,  and  still  more  tu  the  limita- 
tion of  the  powers  of  the  Church,  hut  Beckel  did  every 
thing  in  his  power  to  destroy  the  effect  of  the  Consti 
'bovBBll.tbe    ■    -       ■'       -■  '-        -  '■-    - 


leloK 


ilergy,  i. 


nclpal  II 


port.  When  the  Constitutions  were 
that  he  might  putbia  aealtotbem,  as  all  the  other  prel- 
ate* did  in  token  of  their  oonaent,  ho  refused.  After- 
warda,  whan  one  of  the  three  copies  made  of  tbe  docu- 
ment was  handed  to  him  fbr  his  seal  and  sigaatufo,  he 
seems  to  have  yielded,  after  some  reslstauce,  to  the 
command  of  tbe  king;  but  he  had  scarcely  left  Claren- 
don when  he  ibowed  the  bitterest  repentance.  He 
suspended  himself  from  all  his  clerictJ  functions  for 
forty  days,  until  he  had  rooeivod  from  the  pope  abeo- 
lullon  for  his  oath,  and  tbe  condemnation  of  tbe  Con- 
stitotiona.  Aftartwlce  vainly  attempting  to  dy  across 
tbe  sea,  be  waa  accuaed  of  the  violation  of  the  Consti- 
tutions at  the  Diet  in  Northampton,  in  October  of  tbe 
aame  year,  and  waa  commanded  to  give  an  account 
of  the  expenditure  of  considerable  sums  be  had  been 
intrusted  with  during  his  sdmlniitration  aa  lord  cban- 
celioT.  Tha  cmdHz  in  hia  hand,  be  declared  that  ha 
would  not  listen  to  the  sentence,  and  left  the  chamber, 
followed  by  calumnies,  but  received  outside  with  en- 
tbusiaam  by  the  people.  A  few  days  later  be  bad  dad 
to  Flanders.  After  an  exile  of  six  years,  ha  returned 
to  England  on  thelst  of  December,  1170,  a^  apparent- 
ly at  leaat,  a  reconciliation  had  been  effected  between 
him  and  the  king.  But  only  four  weeks  later  he  was 
aasaadoaled  in  bla  catbadr^.  The  consequences  of 
this  mnrdar  ara  well  known.  In  October,  1172.  at 
Avrancbea,  the  king  had  to  take  an  oatb  of  purification 
before  the  papal  legate,  and  revoke  all  which  displeased 
the  pope  in  the  Clarendon  ConstitnliDns.  —  lleriop, 
Rrai-EnegldapMU,  Supplement,  i,  RS7  (from  which  this 
article  is  translated) ;  Wilkins,  Concilia  Ma(pia  Briton^ 
«i»,  1,435;  Landon,.V(BiuoiorCoii»i:iit,  p.l38:  Mo8- 
beim,  Church  Batorg,  cent.  lii,  bk.  ill,  pt.  II,  eh.  ii,  ^ 
1-2;  Uume.iTHl.  a/ fa^faniCKarpen'ed.),  1,303-300, 

Clareiiliie*,  a  mons^tie  order  fWunded  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ancona  in  130:!  by  Angelo  dl  Cordo- 
va, after  the  suppression  of  the  Celestins  (q.  v.),  of 
which  he  had  been  a  member.  Angelo  was  cited  be- 
fore pope  John  XXII  aa  a  separatist  in  ISIT,  but  -was 
acquitted.  He  died  at  Naplea  1340,  After  his  death 
the  Clarenines  snbmilted  themselves  to  the  ordinariea, 
and  made  great  progress  in  several  dioceses  of  Italy, 
in  1472,  however,  a  large  number  of  them  joined  the 
Minorites  {q,  v.).  Finally,  when  pope  Julliw  II  reor- 
gsnlied  tbe  Franciscans  (q.  v.),  dividing  lb<'m  into 
Observants  and  Conventuals,  the  Clareni^e^  after  in- 
clining fbr  a  while  toward  the  latter,  at  lant  connected 
themMlves  with  the  Observants.  See  Wadding,  ^a- 
nal.  Minor,  HmrUm;  Febr,  -11^.  C-acA. *t .W*irf»r- 
ife»,l,2«6!  Wetier  u.-Wf]le,Kirch^la:bmJi,be?. 

Clailo,  or  Clariua,  Isidobc,  a  BeoedicUne  monk, 


bisbop,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  tbe  castle  of  Clario, 
near  Brescia,  1493,  and  at  an  early  age  eDterad  tbe 
monaatery  of  Monte  Caasino,  when  ha  studied  eajie- 
cially  the  original  language*  of  Scripture.  Paul  III 
sent  him  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  ha  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  especially  in  tbe  diienssioiu  in  tbe 
Vulgate.  The  pope  made  bim  bisbop  of  Foligno.  He 
died  Uay  38,  l&bd.  His  chief  litenuy  labor  was  a 
correction  of  tbe  Vulgate,  with  annoditions  {Va^ala 
tdiHa  V.  et  jV.  r.,  Venice,  1W8, 1&57, 1561.  fol.).  He 
asserts  that  he  had  corrected  HOOO  places ;  amf  his  fint 
edition  (1542)  waa  put  into  tbe  Index  EipuiK*lori<K. 
He  borrowed  largely,  in  his  notes,  from  Sebastian  Mun- 
sler  (q.  V.).— Hoefer,  A'ouwUe  Biag  Gmirak,  a,  66^; 
Hook,£eetflit9.iv,77. 

Clark,  Daniel  A-,  A.M.,  a  Congregational  and 
Ptesliyterian  minisUr,  was  Lorn  at  Rahway.  K  J., 
March  1, 1779,  and  graduated  at  Frincetoti  in  IMi<. 
While  a  student  at  Andover  Theolngicsl  Semtnarv  Iw 
I  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  Kew  Jersey,  and  in 
1 1812  he  waa  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of  tbe  Con- 
I  gregetional  Union  Cb.  of  Braintreie  and  Weymoall), 
MasB.  Thence  be  removed  in  18ia  to  Hanover,  \.  J., 
and  in  1816  to  Sontbbuiy,  Ckmn.,  where,  in  addiiioD  b> 
bis  work  as  a  minister,  he  taught  gratnitDnsly  "wilh 
a  view  of  elevating  tbe  standard  of  education."  In 
1820  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  west  pariah  of  Abi- 
herst,  Mass..  where  he  was  involved  in  certain  difficul- 
ties, and  In  1826  be  accepted  a  call  to  BenDingtaB,TL, 
where  he  was  very  active  and  useful.  Leavine  Bm- 
nington  in  1830,  he  supplied  Dr.  Beman's  pulpit  in 
Trov,  lalK.red  for  a  time  in  Utica,  N.Y.,  and  was  in- 
stalled pastor  in  Adam^  Jeffcrson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  180, 
In  18B3  his  health  obliged  him  to  withdraw  fron  tin 
ministry.  He  devoted  tbe  remainder  of  hia  days  to 
literar}-  pursuits,  and  died  March  3. 1840.  '-Tboogb 
pTucttcally  a  ConRTegatinnalist  while  he  exeroaed  hi» 
ministry  in  New  England,  he  always  retained  his  pref- 
erence (br  the  PreebyCerian  form  of  Church  govrni- 
ment.  and  resumed  his  relations  with  tbe  PrrsLirteri- 
■n  Cbnrcb  as  soon  as  he  had  the  opportanity."  Ur, 
l^good  (in  Spraicua,  cited  below)  saya;  "Tbe  pat)- 
lished  sermons  of  Mr.  Clark,  I  believe  it  Is  geoenllr 
admitted,  talte  rank  with  the  ablest  sermons  wbicb  ow 
coontry  bss  produced."  For  hia  publications,  see  Ba 
CompUlt  Worki,  vtii  a  Biograpiical  Bktld,  etc.,  hr 
Rev.Ueo.$bepard,D.D.(lft4G,2volB.8va),  6tta  edit 
edited  by  his  son  J.  H.  Cluk,  M.D.  <N.  T.  ISte,  i  volt. 
8vo).— Spragne,  jimH^,  iv,  460. 

Clark.  Jotm,  a  Baptist  mlnbiter,  waa  bom  aeir 
Inverness,  Scotland,  Nov,  29tb,  ITfiS.  Having  fiun 
his  early  boyhood  a  strong  propensity  for  a  Ma&riog 
life,  he  waa  for  about  one  yeiron  boanlof  a  privateer, 
afterwards  sailed  as  second  mate  to  tbe  West  Inllif^ 
and  arriving  at  Barbadoes,  was  impressed  into  thr 
British  navy.  Here  bo  deserted,  and  the  next  vrsxc! 
on  which  he  engaged  being  captured  by  the  Spaniard!, 
he  was  for  nineteen  months  a  prisoner  of  war  at  Ha- 
vana. Soon  after  his  exchange  he  was  a  second  thne 
inipreSBcd,  and,  deserting  again,  reached  Cbarlcstoo,  S, 
C,  In  1785  he  taught  school  in  the  back  settlnuenti  of 
Carolina.  Revisiting  England,  he  became  acqnaialed 
with  Mr.  Wesley,  and  after  his  return  to  this  caantrt 
in  1789  he  became  an  itinerant  preacher  in  Geerpa. 
Finallv  he  became  a  Baptist,  and  a  memlier  of  thr  >o- 
called'"  BapCad  Ouirdi  ofCkritl."  or  "  FriavU  o/Bt- 
maniig,"on  account  of  their  opposition  to  alaverr.  Ee- 
maininga  ftaw  months  in  the  "  Florida  Parisba."  Ur- 
Isiana,  whera  he  preached  almost  daily  and  with  gital 
acceptance,  be  travelled  to  Illinois  on  foot,  aud  in  KH 
revisited  Loukiiana,  preaching  wherever  be  had  >u 
opportunitv,  and  traveUing  great  ilistances,  alwiT^on 
foot.  He  died  In  St.  Uuls  Co.,  Mo.,  Oct.  1  Itta.  im.- 
Sprague,  A  nnalt,  vi,  400. 

Clark.  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  f 
>rn  in  ^Vashlni{ton  Coan^,  N.  Y.,  July  30, 1797  j  «<J 


CLARK,  JOHN  ALONZO 


il7,  ind  In  IfSt  entered  tbe  Stw  Tork 
tonfcreace  nf  tba  Hethodul  Bpiicopjl  Cbarch  is  an 
itiiicnnt.  Haviii);  Ubored  vitbin  iCa  bounde  for  nix- 
tMO  jean,  be  wie  in  1836  tranafBrred  to  tba  llUnolii 
Cooleniicc,  and  in  1»J1  to  Teiu.  In  1844  he  wa>  a 
4elef^te  to  the  GeoBnl  Conference  nf  that  vesr,  and 
at  ita  close  wu  at  hii  own  requeit  tranaferred  to  the 
Tray  Coaference.  He  waa  a^iiain  transTcrred,  in  l»bi, 
to  ItM  Rock  River  Conference,  and  autianed  in  Chi- 
cago,  wh^e  ha  died  of  cholera,  Jnly  It,  llfb3.  In  all 
puti  of  tbe  coantry  he  waa  eminently  well  received, 
and  wheiBver  be  waa  atationed  he  left  buhind  bim  tbe 
rrpDtatiDD.  of  an  ftl>le  and  eameat  Chrlatian  minister. 
Ilia  frontleT  labon,  fall  of  toil  and  peril,  which  be  met 
nith  aboanding  courage  and  enerjiy,  are  amply  de- 
ecTibed  >d  HaU'a  JJ/t  of  Rtc.Juk^  Clark  (N.Y.  8vo). 
See  alM>  J/imtfaa  0/  C<i«/>'ti>cr*,  v,  4SJ 1  Sprague.  Ait- 
mali,  vii,  636 ;  Meliodul  Qaartrrhi.  Jan.  1867,  p.  US. 

Clark,  John  AlotUO.  D.U  ,  a  PmteaUnt  Epia- 
copal  miniater.  waa  bom  in  Pittadeld,  Maaa.,  Uay  6, 
laOl,  and  itisduated  in  Union  College,  July,  183B. 
He  rtiulied  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New 
Tork.  and  was  ordained  deacon  April  Vi.  18S6.  when 
be  took  charge  of  a  miaaionaiy  atation  at  Palmyra, 
N.T.  In  1829  be  became  esaiatontofCbTiat  Church. 
New  Tork  Citjr.  In  1S3S  he  accaplad  tbe  rectorship 
of  Gncfl  Church,  Providence,  R,  I,,  and  In  1SB5  be- 
came rector  of  St.Andrew'a,  Tbiladelphia,  where  he 
lahwed  for  ten  yeara  with  great  acceptance  and  nee- 
fnlneca.  His  health  failing,  he  made  aviiltto  Europe, 
and  on  hii  retnm  publiabed  GSmpta  ofAe  Old  World 
(1  Tola.  ISniD,  1888).  In  ]8i3  he  waa  compelled  by 
the  decline  of  hii  health  to  reaign  hia  rectorahlp,  and 
HI  tbe  37th  of  November  of  that  year  he  died.  Hia 
psblicationa,  beaidea  tbe  TravtU  named  above,  are  the 
fellawing :  CirittioR  Krperimrt  at  diipiaftd  in  Me 
If/i  and  WHtinfft  -/ Si. Paul;  The  Patlar't  TtMiaumy 
(1835);  7%e  Youmg  DUciplr,  or  a  Mrmnir  of  AnioneUa 
R.  Paten  (12mo,  ItW);  Gathntd  FragmaUt  {Vtmo, 
I8t6);  A  Walk  about  Zion  (12mo,ie86);  GUaimgibs 
Ik  Wax  OS°io>  1^3) :  "  poathumoua  volume  of  aer- 
nmi*,endlled  Jnii«,  <Ao«  .Sfo^ier  (ISmo).— Spr*|^e, 
Jimlt,  ▼,  674. 

Claik.  Pctar.  a  Congregation*!  minister,  was  a 
native  of  Watertown,  Haas.,  bom  1693,  graduated  at 
Harvard  llli.  and  was  ordained  paator  in  Salem  vil- 
lage (now  Danvera)  Jnne  3, 1717.  He  puliliahad  sev- 
en] controvenlal  pamphlets  concerning  "  Original 
Hn"  in  opposition  to  the  Rev.  Samuel  Webstei 
Dr.  Chatmcy  (1757-1760)1  Scriftvt  Grand*  0/ tie 
Baftum  of  Cjlrutton  lufanit  aaerted  and  dr/mded  in 
a  Littir.  tie.  (173&}  1  also  aeveral  ocoaional  senDDn*. 
He  died  in  Jane,  1768.— Sptagae,  Amali,  t,  391. 

Clvk,  Bamnal,  a  Methodist  Erdscopal  minister, 
was  born  about  ISDO,  In  Frederick  County,  Ya..  of  pi- 
ona  psrenta ;  entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1831, 
located  in  1854 :  entered  tbe  Ohio  Conference  in  1836, 
located  in  1841,  and  emigrated  to  Iowa  (then  a  Terri- 
tory); entered  tbe  Iowa  Conftrence  in  1844.,  and,  af- 
ter various  relations  to  this  cnnfereDCe,  died  at  hi*  post, 
In  Tan  Boren  County,  Iowa,  Feb.  9, 1867.  "  This  ven- 
erable man  of  God  ....  bad  gone  ap  and  down  for 
nearly  forty  yeara.  preaching  'Cfariat  and  ' 
rection'  to  thonaandr,  From  tbe  Atlantic  to  tbe  western 
borders  of  civil iiatJon."  He  was  formidable  In  de. 
bate,  and  tanked  high  as  a  minister  and  public  tpeak- 
Br."*«iteio/Cwi/c7«ic«»,  1858.  P.S4.1. 

Cluke.  Adnm,  I.L.D.,  a  WesUyan  Methodist 
miniater,  dlatingnished  na  a  divine,  an  antiquarian. 
ind  an  Oriental  scholar,  was  bom  at  Mojbeg,  London- 
darry  Co.,  Ireland,  in  1760  or  1763  (bis  own  mother 
canid  not  6x.  the  date).  Hit  father,  who  waa  a  class- 
ical laacber,  was  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England, 
liiE  hia  mother,  who  was  of  Scottish  origin,  was  a  Pres- 
byterian. Adam,  when  a  boy,  waa  rrmarkabla  for 
pkyirical  vigor,  but  teemed  rMber  atopld  than  other- 


.5  CLARKE,  ADAM 

wiie.  nntn  about  bis  eighth  year,  when  (he  aarcaaroa 
of  a  schoolfellow  npon  hia  dalnees  Beemed  to  rouse  him 
from  a  lethargy.  From  that  time  he  made  rapid  prog- 
ress In  lesrnini;,  especially  in  the  Latm  langnage.  In 
hia  17th  vear  his  mind  was  brangbt,  by  the  ministry 
of  Mr.  B^ttell  and  Mr.  Barber  (Methodist  preacherf), 
under  religious  impressions,  and  in  17T8  he  joined  Ibe 
Methodiet  society  at  Mnllica  Hill,  near  Colcralnc. 
Ha  soon  became  a  clasa-leadar  and  home-mi wionary. 
Having  been  recommended  to  the  notice  of  Werlry,  lie 
waa  aent  liy  bim  in  1782  to  Kingswood  School,* here  he 
did  not  remain  long.  His  SDlTeringB  there  are  amus- 
ingly detailed  in  his  aotobiography.  While  diggini^ 
one  day  In  the  garden  at  Kingswood  he  found  a  half 
guinea,  with  which  be  bought  a  Hebrew  Bible;  and 
thli  (he  says  In  hia  Aulobingraphg)  "laid  tbe  founds- 
tion  of  all  his  knowledge  of  tbe  sacred  writings  of  the 
Old  TesUment."  Towards  the  end  of  1782  he  was  aent 
oat  by  Wealey  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  and  he  re- 
mained in  this  Ubortens  work  with  few  Interruptions 
until  1815.  A  more  earnest,  Althftil,  and  diligent 
preacher  never  lived,  and  few  mora  popular  have  ever 
appeared  In  England.  To  tbelsst  the  chapela  where 
he  preacbed  were  niled  to  overflowing.  Every  part 
uf  Ureat  Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  Gncmsey, 
Jersey,  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  shared  in  his  toils  as 
preacher  und  missionary.  In  1785  bo  was  appointed 
to  London,  and  a^ln  in  1B06  i  and  be  now  remained 
I  in  (be  metmpolls  ten  years,  foil  of  labora  in  the  pas- 
toral work,  in  the  benevolent  enterpriaea  of  the  dav, 
and  in  literary  pursuits.  He  was  thrice  elected  (1816, 
1814, 1832)  president  of  (he  British  Conference. 

While  a  travellinp  preacher,  he  found  time  for  moch 
study,  especially  in  Oriental  literature.  In  1803  he 
pahlished  a  Bibli"graphiail  Dictionan/  (6  vols.  ISmo), 
which  at  once  gave  him  a  literary  reputation.  Beftire 
tbi>,  as  early  aa  1798,  ha  be|;an  to  gather  materials  for 
a  Comrnentary  tm  tie  Bible,  the  first  part  of  which  was 
pnbliehed  in  1«10,  and  the  last  in  1S26.  "  In  this  ar- 
duoua  work,"  be  says,  "  i  have  bad  no  assistants,  not 
ei-en  a  aingle  week'a  help  from  an  amanuenals;  no 
person  to  look  for  coromonplacea,  or  refer  to  sn  an- 
cient author,  to  find  out  the  place  snd  transcribe  a 
paapage  of  Latin.  Greek,  or  any  other  language  (v  hicb 
my  memory  had  generally  licalled),  or  to  verify  a 
qnntatinn,  the  help  excepted  which  I  received  in  the 
cbronnlngical  department  fhmi  my  own  nephew,  Btr. 
John  Edward  Clarke.  I  have  labored  alone  fbr  Iwtn- 
ty-flva  years  j»eviouaIy  to  the  work  tieing  sent  to  the 
'  press,  and  fifteen  years  have  tieen  employed  in  bring- 
'  iug  it  throoiih  the  press,  so  that  nearly  forty  yeara  irf 
life  have  been  ao  consumed"  (.4  utottiijro^jiy). 

His  llteraiT  labors  In  London  f^om  1805 to  181E(dnr- 
ing  which  he  "waa  abundant  also  in  labors  as  pastor  and 
preacher")  were  enormoDa.  Soon  after  hia  aeltlemcDt 
in  the  city  be  was  called  into  the  committee  of  tbe 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soclely,  and  for  yeara  be  di- 
rected largely  its  publications  in  Oriental  lanituages. 
In  1806  he  publisbcd  TAc  Bibliogrvfkical  MiKtUavy  (3 
vol',)-  a  supplement  to  hia  Bibliographical  Dictionary. 
In  1807  the  University  of  Aberdeen  gave  him  the 
degree  of  H.A.,  and  in  irCB  that  of  L1..D.  In  1«0S 
alao  appeared  his  ^urcrinoB  o/Saertd  Literahtrt,  vol. 
j  i  (vol.  ii  by  his  son.  .1.  B.  B.  CUrk^  1880,  8vo).  At 
>  tbe  end  of  that  vear  the  Bible  Society  requested  (hat 
1  the  rule  of  the  'Conferenc*  under  which  Dr.  Clarke 
would  be  compelled  to  leave  London  might  be  sut- 
I  ponded  In  bis  case,  in  order  that  he  might  remain  in 
their  service  longer.  The  request  was  granted.  In 
the  same  year  the  Britiah  government  Intrusted  to 
bim  the  arrangement,  for  puLllcadon,  of  old  state  pa- 
pers, in  continuation  of  Kilmer's  F(rdera,  On  this  la- 
1'orious  and  comparatively  unprofltable  task  he  spent 
the  best  part  of  ten  years,  being  relieved  from  i(  in 
I8I9.  After  the  ontsnixation  of  the  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society  la  1814,  he  preacbed,  spoke,  and  trav- 
elled largely  in  its  service.     During  all  this  time  be 


CLARKE,  EDWARD  DANIEL     see 


CLARKE,  SAMUEL 


»u  working  on  hU  Comiaaitary,  uid  tn  Mudying  for 
it  made  bimiolf  mara  or  less  complatalj  maatei 
onlf  or  Greek  >nd  Hebrew,  but  also  of  the  Oriental 
]jD;jaages,  He  had  ioag  t>iwn  acquainted  with  the 
lanifOBgeB  of  modani  Europa.  These  Tuied  and  ei- 
traordinsry  Ubora  at  IsDgth  injared  bl>  health,  and  in 
1815  he  withdrew  from  London  U>  a  small  utata  at 
Millbrook,  LADcaahire.  Here  he  eonttnued  to  pme- 
cutehis  litaniy  labors,  and  «tpedally  fail  CottmtiUaiy. 
which  was  now  in  an  advanced  state  of  prapantian. 
In  1823  he  returned  to  the  vidnlty  of  London,  and 
fixed  his  reiidence  at  Haydon  Hall,  where  he  apent 
the  remainder  of  his  da]^  engaged  in  literary  lobm, 
and  also  In  the  service  of  the  Charcb  In  various  ways. 
Among  his  most  important  labors  of  this  period  was 
the  organization  of  Metbodism  in  the  Shetland  Isl- 
ands, to  which  he  made  two  missionary  journey  a  (ISEG 
and  1828).  During  the  summer  oF  1832  he  exerted 
himself  too  mnch,  and  died  at  Bayswater,  Middlesex, 
Angast  26  of  that  year,  of  cholera. 

Dr.  Clarke's  life  was  one  of  almost  unparalleled  in- 
duatry  ai  [>reacher,  pastor,  student,  and  author.  Bis 
literary  rapolation  reats  chiefly  upon  hie  Commtiilary 
(laat  ed.  Carlton  and  PorUr,  N.  Y.  1866, 6  vols.  Svo), 
which  bos  had  a  wider  circuUdon  than  any  other  in 
the  English  Ungnage,  except,  perbapa,  Matthew  Hen- 
ry's. It  is  now  BUperseded  by  later  works,  but  will 
always  be  cited  wllli  respect  fur  Its  mullifarious  learn- 
ing, and  for  the  frequent  originality  and  acutenees  of 
Its  annotations.  As  a  theologian,  Dr.  Clarke  was  an 
Arminian,  and  held  the  Wesleyan  theology  entire, 
with  the  exception  of  the  doctrine  of  tile  Eternal  Son- 
ahip  of  Christ.  His  error  on  thli  point  drew  out  those 
admirable  wotla,yftt3en't  BemtB-Iam  tie  Eiintal  Sm- 
Mp  (MVii,  Lond,  ed.  vol.  vii),  and  Trelfry'a  Inquiry 
into  Ikt  Doctrine  a/du  Elenu^  Sotuhip  (M  ed.  Land. 
18J9). 

Besides  the  works  mentioned.  Dr.  Clarke  also  pub- 
lished Diamvru  on  tie  EucharU  (lj)nd.  1808,  8vo); 
MfiBiiri  nflke  Wa'eg  Farr^^  (Lond.  SvD,  N.  Y.  t2mo, 
several  editiona).  Ha  also  edited,  with  numerous  ad' 
diliona,  Baxter's  Clmt^im  Dirtetiny,  Fleorv's  Han- 
men  of  the  ItraeStel ,  Shnckford's  Sacrtd  anil  Profane 
flttdnyi  Storm' t  ReJleetUm*  on  die  Being  and  A  liritmret 
<jfGodi  andHarmer's  06Mn>a(HM<  M  viriouf  PoMo^t 
of  Scripture  (1806,  4  vols.  Svo).  His  contributions 
to  periodicals,  and  his  minor  writings,  pamphlets,  etc. 
■re  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned.  Hla  MiioellanHmi 
Worb  have  been  collected  since  his  death  (Lond.  IB 
vols.  8vo).  Sea  Clarke,  J.  B.  B.,  TJf  of  A.  Clarbe 
(Lond.  a  vols.  Svo);  Southey,  (Jiiann-iy  Sev.  li,  li?; 
Etheridge,  Life  of  A.  Clarit  (Lond.  IH58,  S.  Y.  ISGS. 
limo);  Everett,  ^if(n(CJanlcparfr(^'J(I.ond.lS13; 
Sded.  1866,Svab.);  Sta<^aia,  HiHory  of  .V>^tlioditm,  ii, 
S91,  et  si.  A  monument  to  the  memory  of  Dr.  Clarlie 
was  erected  at  Port  Rnsh.  Ireland,  in  1869,  by  contri- 
butions from  both  the  Oid  and  the  Kew  World. 

Clarke,  Edward  Daniel,  LL.D.,  an  Engliah 
divine,  of  note  as  •  writer  of  travels,  was  bom  at  Wil- 
lingdon,  Sussex,  la  1TG9,  and  was  educated  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  From  1790  to  179!)  he  acted  aa 
tutor  and  travelling  companion  in  several  families, 
travelling  in  France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Gei- 
many.  "In  1739  he  set  out  on  an  extensive  tonr 
with  Mr.  Cripps,  a  yonng  man  of  fortune ;  tliey  trav- 
ersed Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Ijiplsnd,  Finlrrad, 
ItUBsia.tlwcountryoftbe  Don  Cossacks,  Tarlary,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  did  not  return  to 
England  till  1802."  He  was  ordained  in  1805,  and  re- 
ceived the  college  living  of  Harltnn;  in  1809  he  was 
presented  to  the  living  of  Yeldham  liv  his  father-in- 
law.  His  Tranrli  appeared  l>ct»e«n  I'siO  and  1819  (6 
vols.).  A  sixth  volume,  editnl  l>y  Rolwrt  Walpole, 
was  lirought  out  after  bis  death,  4'to  (also  In  11  vola. 
8vo,  1818).  In  1803  he  pul>1ishecl  TrHimniilr,  .fdijer- 
ent  AutAori  reapeciing  lie  eo/oual  Siaiue  ofC<m,  nnrt 
la  180S  A  DUierlatum  on  lite  Sarcuphigm in  the  Bti'iA 


Muteum.  He  died  at  London,  Uarch  9lh,  1B33  (£Vv 
UmA  Cgdopadia,  s.  v.).-  3«e  Otter,  l^e  a-td  Jtmaiiu 
ofEdtBord  Darnel  Ctartt  (Lond.  Viti,  i  vols.  8ra). 

Clnrke,  John,  a  distinguished  tiaptlit  miniatvr. 
was  twrn  in  England,  Uct.  H,  1G09.  He  practised  med- 
icine in  London  tat  some  time,  and  came  lo  Baetm  as 
B  physician  (date  unknown).  Dissalisfled  with  the 
management  of  the  colony  of  Masaacbusetta,  he  left  it. 
and  with  others  purchased  Aquetneck  of  the  Indiuis. 
and  called  It  Khode  Island.  The  dead  dates  March 
34. 1688,  In  1C99  be,  with  eight  others,  fonnded  Kew. 
port,  R.  I.  It  la  not  known  when  be  became  a.  Bap- 
tist or  a  preacher,  but  In  16M  he  became  first  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  in  Newport.  In  IS&l  he  viaited 
■  friend  (VVitlUm  Witter)  at  I.ynn,  Hass, ;  held  n  re. 
ligious  meeting  there:  was  arrested  and  lined  by  Judge 
Endicott  twenty  pounda,  nnder  penalty  of  public  whip- 
ping in  case  the  floe  was  not  paid.  Some  of  Mr. 
Clarke's  ftiends  paid  his  fine,  but  one  of  his  compsn- 
iona  (Mr.  Holme*}  was  severely  whipped.  In  IC&l  he 
went  to  England  to  promote  the  interests  of  rsligknu 
freedom  in  R.  Island,  and  to  have  Mr.  Coddington's 
rommisslon  as  governor  revoked.  He  accomplished 
this  object.  While  in  England  he  pulilbhed  lU  \ejct 
from  Nem  England,  or  a  Narraiive  rf  AVw  En^andi 
Permmlioni  Kkertin  it  it  declared,  that  wLU  Old  Enc- 
laadiibecomiug NeiB,Nrv) EnginndiibecomingOld;  alia. 
FiiurPrvpoiaUto  ParScanent  and  FvnrCanclaMont,timrii- 
ingtlieFailliandOrdrToftlteGotpelofCkritlotiloflae 
lot  Wm  <md  Talamenl.tto.  p.  78.  In  1664  he  tetois- 
ed  to  Newport,  where  he  remained  as  pastor  aitd  pb.v- 
slcian  until  his  denth.  April  30. 16;6.— Backus,  Okwrti 
Hiitora  of  Nt*  England,  vol.  lii ;  Benedict,  Hatory  ^f 
llie  J^a/rfjstf,  vol.  i ;  Al\tii,  Am.  Biog.  Diaiomay,  t.x.; 
Sprogue,  Annale,  vi,  31. 

ClarlEp.  John,  dean  of  Sarum  (brotber  of  Dr.  Sam- 
uel Clarke),  was  liora  at  Norwich,  and  bred  a  weaver, 
but  was  afterwards  educated  at  CBmbridgr,  where  be 
received  the  degree  of  D.D.  He  obtained  a  prebend 
at  Norwich,  was  appdnted  chaplain  to  the  king,  and, 
finally,  dean  of  Salisbury.  He  died  In  1759.  His 
principal  writings  are,  .;4a  Inquiry  into  lie  Cmte  and 
Origin  of  Ecit  (Doyle  Lecture,  Lond.  1720-31,  3  vc4s. 
Svo)!  a  DtBumilrakon  of  Nemloa't  Pluioeopi)i  (Lond. 
1780,  Svo).  His  translation  of  Crofiui  dt  Vtriialt  a 
etill  reprinted.  He  furnished  Che  notes  to  Wharton's 
Religim  ofKMirr. 

Clarke,  Bamnet,  a  Nonconformist,  was  bom  is 
Warwickshire,  1599;  educated  at  Fjnmanoel  Coll^^, 
Cambridge,  and  after  preaching  as  an  evangelbt  at 
Shotwick.  and  Coventry,  and  at  Warwick  (where  be 
was  chaplain  to  the  earl),  ha  became  minister  of  Bennel 
Fink,  London.  He  was  ejected  in  1863,  and  lived  In 
Stodious  retirement  until  his  death  in  1683.  Hto  chief 
works  are  ifurrtw  ofEcclaiaitital  llierory  (Lond.  1 675, 
3  vols,  fol.)  J  A  General  Manpolegg  (Lond.  1677,  3d 
ed.fbl.);  iftrn»-/Dr5cwi<ti»<(A'iMerj(Lond.l6;],i 
ols.  fol.)  1  Mtdidla  neolog-a  (1669,  foL).— Hook,  Ee- 
•       —  '      '      '9  i    Colimy,  Koncenfanmite'  Ue- 


Clarka,  Bamnel,  D.D.,  a  celebrated  Engliiti  di- 
vine and  metaphysician,  was  bom  at  Norwich,  Octo- 
l«r  11. 1S75.  He  received  his  flnt  education  in  tbe 
fre<M<chool  of  Norwich,  but  was  entered  at  1G91  in  Cahia 
College,  Cambridge.  (The  following  account,  so  itr 
as  the  facts  of  Clarke's  life  are  concerned.  Is  modified 
fron  the  EngliA  Cydopada.  which  is  based  on  tbe 
Biograpiia  Britawi-ca.)  At  twenty-one,  after  dtse- 
ly  studying  and  Justly  appreciating  the  reasoning!  of 
licwton'a  "  Principis."  which  had  then  just  appealed, 
he  published  a  new  version  of  Ihe  text  of  Roh>ii>lt> 
Phgtici,  with  numerous  critical  notes,  added  irith  the 
view  of  bringing  tlie  Cartesian  system  into  disrepute 
by  exposing  1u  fallacies.  After  passing  throURh  foar 
editiona  as  the  Unlverrity  text-book,  it  ^ve  place,  as 
Clarke  deeired,  to  tbe  adoption  of  nndisgnised  New- 


CLAKKE,  SAMUEL  367  CLAKKE,  SAMUEI. 

a  treatiBM*  H«  tiow  went  tbroagh  h  diligent '  iti  London.  Hs  pabliflhed  ia  the  Mine  yeAf  au  an* 
le  of  BiliUc«l  reading  in  the  ori((iniil  linguages,  nwer  to  the  treatise  of  Ur,  Uodwell  "  Od  the  Sbul," 
c  coDTH  of  vhicb  he  carefully  (tadied  the  early  in  which  that  divine  conteada  that  It  Is  not  Immortal 
era.  On  hii  ordinatlDn  he  wu  Intro-  ;  until  mtde  lo  ijj  lupliam.  Several  rejoinders  follow- 
daoad  lo  Dr.  More,  biabop  of  Norwich,  by  Whiaton,  ed  on  each  aide.  His  patron,  Dr.  Hare,  next  procured 
■rboiD  he  gucceeded  u  domettlc  chaplain  to  that  bith-  for  blm  the  rectonhip  of  St.  Jamea's  and  a  ciiaptalnfv 
Dp  ta  twelve  yeara.  In  1690  ha  publiahed  three  ei-  ,  to  Quaey  Anne,  which  indnced  him  to  take  IiIb  degree 
uya  on  Cimfinmalioti,  Bigitum,  and  fitpeiUtinet,  togetb-  '  of  D.D.  In  ITIS  appeared  hia  Seriptun  Doctrim:  of 
rr  with  Rrfiictioiu  na  Toland'i  AmynlOT,  concerning  Ott  Triiiitji,  a  work  which  lavolved  him  fbr  the  remain' 
the  nncsnonical  Gospela.  Two  j'ears  aflerwarda  foU  der  of  hia  life  in  a  controversy,  in  which  his  jirincipal 
lowed  hia  f 'onpirne  on  Ikt  Four  Gmpeli,  which  in-  '  adverwry  waa  Dr.  Waterland.  A  full  account  of  the 
dncvd  Hiahop  More  to  preaent  him  with  the  living  of  ,  controverry  may  lie  found  in  Van  Uildert'a  Li/e  of 
Drajloo,  near  Norwich.  In  1704  he  was  appointed  to  |  IFaftrlunif  (jeealao  Wateri.akd).  The  Lower  H cute 
preach  the  Boyle  lecture  at  Oxford,  when  he  choae  for  of  Convocation,  in  1714,  complained  to  the  bithcps  of 
his  mbject  7*^;  Baivfaiid  AttribHIei  n/God.  The  aat-  |  the  hfterudox  and  dangeroua  tendency  of  ita  Arian 
iabdioD  which  he  gave  on  thia  (Hxaeton  led  to  hia  re-  i  (eneta,  and  Clarke  waa  prevailed  upon  lo  apologiie, 
eiaction  the  Ibllowing  year,  when  ha  read  a  aeriea  o.  and  to  declare  bia  Intention  not  to  write  any  more 
lectarea  on  the  Evidfoeer  of  natural  a»d  rrvtattd  St-  '  upon  the  Trinity.  A  clrcumetandal  account  of  tbla 
li^HN.  Theae  diacoarsaa  paased  through  aevernl  edi-  |  proceeding  la  iilveu  In  the  Apvlcgf/or  l/r.  Clarbe,  1714. 
tioaa.  Clarke'a  argument  for  the  being  of  God  "reata  |  "CUrlie'a  vlewa  were,  in  really,  a  reproduction  of 
npoa  Che  fact  that  we  have  the  conception!  of  li'n«and  i  the  Origenistic  and  High-Arian  doctrine  of  aubordina- 
tpace,  expreaaive  of  certain  attrlbatea  orqualitiea — the  I  tion,  u  diitingniriied  IVom  the  Atbanatjan.  Hia  poei- 
oDe  eternal,  the  other  Illimitable  in  ita  nature.  But  |  lioni  were  the  following :  The  Faprenie  and  only  God 
every  qoaliCy  muat  have  a  coexiatent  iub)ect  to  which  <  ia  the  Father— the  rola  origin  of  all  being,  power,  end 
it  belong!,  and  therefbre,  lie  argusa,  there  moat  oxiat '  aathorily.  'Concerning  the  Father,  It  would  be  the 
■  bring  who  poaaesaaa  theje  attribute"  of  Inlinlty — that  \  highest  blaspheniy  to  affirm  that  he  could  poifiUly 
■a,  there  muat  be  a  God.  The  almllarlty  between  have  become  man,  or  that  he  could  poeaibly  have  f  uf- 
Clarke'a  argument  and  that  of  Spinoza,  In  many  points,  fered  In  any  sense,  in  any  snpposillon,  in  any  ci.poclty, 
ia  at  once  evident.  They  both  started  with  the  idea  In  any  circamrtance,  in  any  atate,  or  In  any  nature 
of  Daceaaai7  eniMKe,  showing  that  If  any  thing  oxltC  |  wbaterer.'  With  the  Father  there  has  exleted  'f^m 
■Bv,  sDBied  Dj)  must  have  existed  firom  etamily.  The  i  th?  begjonlng'  ■  second  divine  Person,  who  i>  called 
distinction  between  the  two  arguments  ariiies  from  !  his  Word  or  Son ;  who  derives  his  being  or  essence, 
their  dilTercnt  determination  of  the  aitoiule  idra  from  |  ond  all  his  attributes,  (him  the  Father,  not  by  mm 
which  our  reasoning  must  commence.  Clarke  affirm-  ,  nrrm:ls  '■fnaiwt,  bul  bf  <ni  nrl  of  Ikt  Fntkir't  opHotial 
•d  tka  idea  of  infinite  atlribulri  to  be  fundamental,  tcilL  It  Is  not  certain  whether  the  Son  existed  fmrn 
and  then  Inffrred  an  Infinite  substance.  Spinoza  be-  ell  eternity,  or  only  before  all  worlds ;  neither  is  It  cer- 
gan  with  the  InOnile  substance,  and  inferred  the  at-  lain  whether  the  Son  was  l^cgottcn  IVom  the  same  es- 
tribates.  The  result  was  that  the  Utter  rested  Anally  Fence  with  the  Father  or  made  out  of  nothing.  Toth 
In  the  notion  of  aubatanca  an  Identical  with  God,  and  are  worthy  of  censure  who,  on  the  one  hand,  affirm 
reduced  the  common  theism  lo  pantheism;  the  former,  that  the  Son  was  made  mt  of  nothing,  rr,  on  the  otb. 
reasoning  from  the  attrlbutES.  waa  open  npon  other  rr,  afSnn  that  he  is  the  self-exirtcnt  substance.' 
evideDce  to  conceive  of  Ihem  an  existing  in  a  divine  Clarke  wlit  not  be  poeiUve  upon  these  pointn,  becanse 
pcnoniJity— in  the  God  of  Christianity.  The  clear-  of  the  danger  of  presumiDK  lo  be  able  to  define  the 
neaa,  however,  with  which  both  grasped  the  idea  of 'As  partlculsr  metaphysical  mvnper  of  the  Son's  deriving 
infmiie,  aa  one  of  the  neceaAary  conceptlDna  of  the  hu-  <  Ins  eerrnce  from  the  Fstber.  With  the  Father  a  third 
man  mind,  is  in  either  cose'  abundantly  manifest"  Perwn  has  also  existed,  deriving  his  essence  from  him 
(Uoidl.  y/utory  of  Modem  fUIofapif,  chap.  11,  f  2).  '  through  the  Son.  This  Tenon  has  higher  titles  aa- 
Knmenna  replies  and  objections  to  Ibis  h  priori  At-  '  cribed  lo  hiro  than  to  any  angel,  or  other  created  be- 
goracnt  appeared  at  the  time  of  ita  first  publication,  ing  nfaalaoever;  l<nt  is  nowhere  called  God  in  Scrlp- 
(3ae  a  liat  in  KIppis's  Siog.  Brilanmai,  and  the  cnrre-  '  ture. I^eing  solordinate  to  the  Son, both  \y  nalare and 
spondence  between  Butler,  Blterwards  bishop  of  Dur-  '  hy  the  vill  of  the  Father.  The  error  of  Clarke  orlg- 
ham,  and  Clarke,  printed  at  the  end  of  Bishop  Butler's  inated  in  hia  failure  lo  discriminate  carefully  between 
Woiiu.)  One  of  the  principal  was  '  An  Inquiry  into  the  essence  and  the  hypoattiis.  Htnce,  in  quoting 
the  Ide«s  of  Space,  Time,'  etc.,  by  Bishop  Law.  The  .  from  the  Scriptures  nnd  the  tethers,  he  refers  to  the 
SssiligBeFj  alao  met  with  strong  opposition.  See  God;  '  /ttnUiul  nalvrt  pbrveology  that  Implies  aubirdlna- 
NartrsAL  Tbeoloot.  The  foondation  of  morality,  tiun,  and  which  »»s  intended  by  Iboae  employing  it 
Bccoding  to  Clarke,  mnaisls  In  the  immutable  difler-  to  apply  only  to  the  ktjpDi'alieal  chnraelfT.  He  even 
eitees,  relations,  and  eternal  flinesa  of  things.  The  cites  such  high  Trinili-riana  as  Athanasius  and  Hilary 
lot  expTBsdon,  being  of  ftwiuent  occurrence  in  this  as  holding  and  teaching  that  the  subordination  of  the 
dlsconrse,  acquired  a  fashionable  usage  in  the  ethical  Son  to  the  Father  relates  lo  the  Son's  nsenre.  Ihe 
raobularies  of  the  day.  Regardless  of  moral  aeniU  term  '  unbegntten'  he  airo  held,  as  did  the  Ari»n»,  to 
roent,  ao  fully  developed  aince  by  Shaftesbury,  Hnteh-  !«  a  synonym  with  '  i!nerei.led,'  so  that  the  term 
eaon,  and  Adam  Smith,  Clarke  bsisia  solely  upon  Ihe  ,  '  begotten'  must  necersarilr  figaity  '  crested.'  Thur, 
principle  that  the  criterion  of  moral  rectitude  Is  in  the  mii^^onceivlng  the  Nicene  use  of  these  two  terms,  ho 
confarmity  to,  or  deviation  from,  the  nalnral  snd  eter- '  endeavors  to  pmve  that  Ihe  Nicene  Trinitarians  laugtt 
nalfltneas  of  things;  In  other  words,  that  an  immoral  thai  the  Fntber  alone  possesses  necesrary  existrner, 
act  Is  an  Irrational  act—that  is,  an  act  in  violation  of  while  the  Son  exists  cnntingcntly.  Bnt  1  olb  of  these 
the  actoel  ratios  of  exlsUnt  things.  The  endeavor  to  terms,  as  we  have  seen,  were  limited  by  the  Council 
radoce  moral  philosophy  to  mathematical  certainty  i  of  Nice  to  the  reraen,  and  have  no  relation  to  the  e»- 
wia  chancteristic  of  that  age,  and  led  to  the  forma,  sence.  The  essence,  us  such,  neither  legets  nor  ia 
tien  of  theories  remarkable  perhapa  more  for  their  In-  begotten.  They  merely  indicate  the  peculiar  mannct 
genulty  than  utility.  Dr.  rrlee  la  an  apologist  for  the  i  In  which  the  flrat  and  second  hypostasis  participste  In 
moral  thenry  of  Clarke,  snd  among  tis  oppugnars  we  one  and  Ihe  same  eternal  substance  nr  nature.  In 
may  Intlance  Sir  Jamea  Hackintoah,  iNv^st  afElh-  '■  thie  use  of  the  term*,  cnnFequently,  ■begotten'  signl- 
ieal  Pklofjihi/,  p-n  sq-,  see  also  Whowell, //itf.  c/ ,  fies  •  uncreated' as  much  as  does 'unbegotten.'  The 
Mttrnt  rkilatoplis< '««.  "■  Begotten  Son  Is  as  necessarily  existent  as  the  Unbc- 

In  KOe  Clarke  obl.iincd  Ihe  rectory  of  St.  Dennett's,    gctten  Father,  becaaaa  the  e<scnce  is  the  seat  and 


CLAKOMONTANUS 


368 


CLASS-MEETINGS 


toorce  of  necaiury  (xEiteDce,  ind  tbia  ii  poueued 
^ike  by  both— In  Hie  inatance  o(  the  lin't  Fenon  by 
p«teniil7,  and  of  tha  Mcond  by  filiution^'  (Slicdd,  //i«- 
lonin/Chri,lianDoetriiu,i,S»6  S6«). 

"  Tbe  paint  on  which  Clarke'*  pblloaophieal  fame 
chiefly  resto,  and  to  irhirh  he  devotnd  a  very  coruiider- 
able  portion  of  hia  life,  was  hi*  contro%'elsy  npoa  Ia^ 
trtji  and  Neeitnig — 3  coDtroversy  in  wblch  be  itood 
opposed  M  LeibniCi  aad  CoIUne,  and  by  wbich  he  eo- 
deavored  to  overturn,  finally,  the  tatalktio  concluajon* 
of  9|iinaiiam.  Throughoat  tbii  canle>t,tha  victory 
In  which  was  claimed  on  both  sides,  Clarke  maintained 
most  pawerftilly  the  doctrina  oT  Frea-will,  and,  accord- 
ingly, here  alio  manifested  hia  oppoalticin  to  tha  pbi- 
loaophy  which  tenda  to  mezKB  the  idea  of  self  either 
into  that  of  natnie  or  of  God.  Of  the  tlireo  fun- 
dimentiU  conceptiona,  therefore,  fmm  which  all  phi- 
loanphy  springs,  those  of  finite  self  snd  the  infinite 
lield  In  tba  writinga  of  Clarke  by  far  the  most  promi- 
nent place,  so  ihit  we  may  properly  regard  him  as  the 
chief  representatlTB  of  the  idealistic 
tha  aga  Immediately  ancceediii);  Locke,  as  Cndworth 
was  daring  the  age  that  immediately  preceded  him" 
(Morell,  /f'ifor?  of  Modem  Philot^ij,  pt. !,  ch.  Ii,  §  3). 

In  17S4  a«rke  obtained  the  masUrahip  of  Wigston 
Has|dta1,  and  pobllshed  a  volume  of  sennons.  Ho 
died  rather  snddenly  in  May,  172S.  Hia  Expontiim 
o/lU  Church  CiUtckim  and  Strmmu  wem  publiahed 
after  bis  death  (Ixindon,  I73D,  10  vols.  8to).  In  tho 
Caltchim  he  teaches  that  worship  ahould  be  paid  to 
the  Father  only,  through  the  Son,  and  in  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  moral  character  of  Clarke  Is  praised  by 
all  hia  bio/raphers.  His  principal  works  were  tr<ins- 
lated  into  German  by  Semler,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  German  Rationalism.  "  He  was  a  waiy  and  very 
skilful  disputant,  well  disciplined  in  the  acholaatlc 
logic.  Inferior  to  Locke  in  compreheniivenes*  and 
ori.!inality,  he  was  greatly  superior  to  him  In  acquire- 
ments, being  eminent  as  a  divine,  a  mathemiticijn. 
a  metuphygldan,  and  a  philologiat"  (Eagliih  Cgdapx. 
dia).  His  Worti  were  publislied  In  1738,  in  4  vole. 
fol.,  of  wbich  tbe  first  contains  bis  Lite  (by  Hoadley), 
and  lU  Sermons,  published  from  his  MS. ;  the  second 
contains  76  Sermons  and  the  Boyle  Lectures;  tbe 
tfaird,  a  paraphrase  of  tiie  Fonr  Evangelist*,  with  minor 
pleceij  the  Ibtirth,  the  Scrlpian  Doctrine  ofOie  TVrn. 
tijr,  and  a  number  of  controversial  tracts.  Of  tbe  sep- 
arate works  numerous  edition*  have  been  published. 
See,  besides  tbe  writers  already  cited,  (eepecially) 
Faiibafm's  Appmdix  to  Dimer'i  Penan  ofChriit  (fA- 
inburtth  translad™,  dLv,  Ii,  vol.  iil,  870  «q.) ;  Hoadlcv, 
life  ofclarte  (preflsed  to  ITonb,  4  vols.);  Hook, 
Bcda.  Biography,  iv,  88;  Wataon,  TS-o'ijioo!  Ituli- 
(KCei,  1,  S31  (N.  V.ed.);  Hngenbach,  Zfufo^  >/ ZIoD- 
trinei  (ed.  by  Smith),  §  234,  §  362. 

ClaromontanuB,  CODEX.  Sec  CLER^oirr 
Handbcrift. 

Clarkaon,  ThohiM,  was  bom  March  S6, 1760,  at 
Wisbeacb,  CambridgeshirE',  where  hia  father,  a  clergr- 
maa,  waa  master  of  tbe  fiee  grammar-school.  He 
otudied  at  St  John's  CuUege.  Cambridge,  and  became 
a  promoter  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  In  Great  Brit- 
ain by  a  Latin  piize-essay  wbich  ha  wrote  in  17H6, 
on  the  question,  "Is  it  right  to  make  slave*  against 
tbali  will  ?"  In  order  to  pursue  the  agitatk>n  of  the 
question,  be  relinquished  hi*  chances  of  advancement 
in  the  Church,  for  which  be  was  Intended,  and  In  which 
he  had  takrn  deacon's  order*.  His  essay  was  trans- 
lated into  Endish,  and  bad  an  extenaive  circulation. 
Thenceforth  bis  life  was  devoted  to  the  anti-slaver;- 
cause.  He  labored  indefntigably  to  brini  to  light  tbe 
iaiquitiea  and  croelties  of  the  slave-trade,  [ravelling 
some  years  thousands  of  miles  in  ftirtherandn  of  his 
benevolent  designs,  and  pnbllsblni;  on  the  subject  al- 


haelfin  the  British  West  Indlea  In  1SS3.    He  also  took 

an  active  part  In  other  benevolent  schemes,  partlcu- 
brly  in  tlie  establishment  of  instituUon*  for  seameit. 
Ha  died  Sept.  S6, 1846.  His  principal  wHtioK*  ue, 
H!ilors  oflba  AboUtiim  of  lie  Slat^^ade  (S  vols.  Sto, 
I8UB :  new  ed.,  wttb  I^bce  by  Btoagbam,  1889)  ;  A 
PorlraU  of  QaabTitn,  1807 ;  mvA  n  i^e  of  WiU^am 
Pttm,  1818.  See  Taylor,  Bii>s.  Shetek  af  T.  Clurtr.* 
(Lend.  1847,  ISmo). 
ClaiB-leader.  Sea  Ci^sS'Iieetiscs. 
CtftBB-mafttlnga.  In  the  Uethodlst  Episcopal 
Church,  and  Indeed  in  all  Methodist  chnrcbea  tbnmgb- 
ont  the  world,  each  congregation  is  divided  into  amaJI- 
ercomponie*,  called  doasu.  One  of  tbe  more  experi- 
enced memben  Is  Bn>°inted  by  the  paitnr  to  be  trader 
of  the  class.  "It  Is  his  duty,"  in  the  Uethodiit  Eps>- 
copal  Church, "  I.  To  see  each  pereoa  in  bia  claaa  once 
a  week  at  leaat;  in  order  (1.)  To  Inquire  bow  tfasir 
scats  prosper.  (2.)  To  advise,  reprove,  comfort,  or  ei- 
I  hort,  as  occasion  may  require.  (3.)  To  receive  what 
'  they  are  willing  to  give  towards  tbe  relief  of  tbe 
i  preachers,  chnrch,  and  poor.  II.  To  meet  tbe  iniiila- 
ten  and  the  stewards  of  the  aociety  once  a  week ;  in 
order  (1.)  To  inform  the  minlsUr  of  any  that  an  sic^, 
or  of  any  that  walk  disorderly,  and  will  not  tio  re- 
proved. (2.)  To  pay  tbe  stewards  what  they  have  re- 
ceived of  their  several  classes  in  the  week  preceding" 
(Dite^ite,  pt.  i,  cb.  ii,  1 1). 

A  rudiment  of  tbe  "  claas-meetlng"  may  pertkaps  be 
found  in  tbe  Pn^iieifiagi  begnn  at  Korthamptoo. 
Tbete  were  nllgioua  meeting*  fir  discuasions  on  tbe 
Scriptuiva,  prayer,  and  mutnal  Instruction,  conducted 
by  clergymen  under  fixed  rules.  Bishop  GrindaL 
Bishop  Parkburst,  and  other  bisbopa  hiiibly  approved 
them,  but  Queen  EllEabvth  prohibited  tfaem  (Mav  7, 
1577;  Wllkins,  Concti.  iv,  389):  they  were,  huweVer, 
kept  up  In  many  places  until  Whitgift  (who  became 
archbishop  of  Canterhnry  in  1583)  succeodal.  In  his  vi- 
olent way,  in  puttlni;  them  down.  Marsden  (CSiTcibs 
and  SfcU,  I.  !50)  remarks  that  these  meetings  gave 
Wesley  "the  idea  of  those  social  meetings  in  whieb  tha 
luty  were  to  soatain  an  Imporunt  pott,  thou^  still 
onder  the  guidance  of  their  pastors,  and  In  which  tea 
strength  of  Metliodism  conaiats"  (aea  also  Grant, //>•- 
loiy  of  Ike  Eag'M  Chardk,  i,  4S6,  London,  1^11).  A 
nearer  approach  to  the  "  dara-meeting"  is  to  be  found 
in  the  "  reliffiovt  avvftu"  so  widely  dilfoaed  in  the 
Churob  of  England  toward  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. According  to  Woodward  (Jtite  end  Prograi  if 
the  Btligioiu  Borietia,  etc..  Lend.  1744),  it  waa  "  about 
1666  that  several  young  men  in  London,  being  brought 
to  serioaa  convictions  by  the  preacblngof  tbeir  clei^. 
and  applying  to  their  mitiister*  ftir  religious  connsel. 
were  advised  by  them  In  meet  ti^tber  once  a  week, 
and  apply  themselvee  to  good  discourse  and  things 
wheroin  they  might  edify  one  another."  These  sod- 
atlea  toon  multiplied,  and  in  1678  a  digest  of  mice  for 
their  conduct  »»*  adopted.  Horneck,  Beveridge,  Stil- 
lingfleet,  and  TIIIdIsod  were  among  the  promoters  of 
these  BocieUes.  By  1691  there  were  forty  of  tbeae  re- 
ligious Mideties  in  I^iidon,  and  many  In  other  pens 
of  EoglAnd.  For  their  ruiea  see  Woodward  (cited 
above),  and  also  Hook.  Eeclaiaitiail  Bioffrvphf,  ii,  SG3 ; 
vi,  166.  Dr.  Clarke  (Memoirs  of  the  IVedef  Famify. 
l.ond.  1843,  vol.  i,  p.  144)  gives  a  tetter  from  Samuel 
Wesley,  Concmmff  iht  ReHgiaa  Socinia  (1699),  in 
which  they  are  named  aa  supplying  the  lacknf  confti- 
temitiea,  sodalities,  etc.,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
and  their  objects  and  methods  are  highly  commended. 
On  the  Continent  of  Eun<i>e.  the  CoOr^  Pirlatit,  bo. 
gun  by  Spencr  at  about  the  ume  time,  had  ends  and 
methods  umewhat  like  those  of  tbe  later  class-meet- 
ing (see  PiBTiBX;  SpRireBl.  Woodward's  Iwok  was 
translated  into  German  by  the  excellent  D.  E.  Jablon- 
ski  (r|.  v.),  and  similar  societies  were  Ibcmed  in  van- 
ooB  parts  of  Germany  (flhritHim  Remimbnmcv,  Juy, 


CLASS-MEETINGS  369  CLAUDE 

18U,SD0)-  The  neirett  apprDach  to  tb«  "  clau-mect- ;  In S  liackolid lug  hy  timely  winianltkin,  and  tor  ipMial 
i«g"  ta  the  Rommn  Chorch  is  perhap*  ta  lie  found  in  ,  oTarsight  of  (he  tick  »nd  tha  poor."  See  Keyi,  Cajc 
tbe  "Sofiniy  of  St.  Vincent  de  P»ul,"  which  li  rom-  bw/eri'  l/amaal  (N.  Y.  1851,  Mmnl;  Miley,  TmOiit 
pMBd  of  lnymen,  wboM  objecu  are  mutual  ediBcation  m  C'ou-fliecli'K^  (Cincinnati,  1861,  lamo);  Roasar,  Ox 
U  periodica]  meatiriBa,  aod  the  promotion  of  active  '  Clajt-merlinpi  (Richmond.  1866) ;  Fish,  On  Clatt'iiteet- 
chuitj.  See  Vikcbkt  itx  PAD^  Societi  or.  ,  iagt  (Lend.  1K6U,  IPmo) ;  Wealry.  Iforfa  (K.  Y,  edit), 
When  Wealey  eocameoead  hli  itlDerant  labon,  the  v,  179,  and  often ;  Poiter,  Compauliiim  n^ifediidtni,47, 
rtligioua  loeittif  "received  Mr.  Wealey  with  open  «i8;  Stevena,  Afufory  p/J/e/iodum.  ii,43l^,  4&3;  Wet- 
ama"  (Coke  and  Moore,  £^  ^Ifo^,  l'92.  p.  6,  7).  bgtm  UUhmM  Jtaga*int,Jaly,  1»«3.  j,.  S19;  AaguK, 
It  is  ant  at  all  unlikely  that  Wealey'i  views  as  to  the  185S,  p.  7(M ;  Smith.  Biiiory  qf  IIVfTrym  MtHuxium, 
tmei  "  aoeial"  life  of  Christianity  reo»i»ed  an  impulM  i,  660-678  (l^nd.  1867,  8vo) ;  Jfelli.  Quar.  Set.  IKft', 
tnuB  tfaese  organ iiadons.  Bat,  according  to  hia  own  559,  662 1  U/io/FalliirJtuvei,tluaan-leada-{S.y. 
accoont.  the  "  clasa-moeting"  arow  out  of  what  waa  at  Carlton  and  Porter). 
flnt  a  merely  fiscal  plan  to  pay  a  church  debt  in  Bria- '      _, ,  .    ,„,    .,  ,      _  .,  -  ,     ,    •  ,    i.  «. 

MWHk;  (1.)  ^01  fie  whole  Kviety  ahould  L«  dIvldBd    „  ,     „,   ^     ^  «,       ;„.i'   .-  ,   ,      .o,'™     j 
into  tittle  comiwDiH  or  cleewe  .beet  twelve  ie  eech    "*''  ^'  ^  """  ^"7  <""■  ^'^'  '"•  ^^  Citivda, 

tl»t  i<.„tHb.Ue.  et  the  ^  «,d  brin.  It  In  te  lb.   J  ""  ■-•■*»"•  •>'"."•  "•«-■■  »  »  •«?»»•?  <;''■■ 

dem  ,.™lr  .|i  .  t«.|Zi  ..«..i,  r»m  wbi.b  w.  i»™ '■"  """'"  '"1°,  ^■",  •'  '^■"'"•' "  ■"■,"- 

nqted  ee  »..;  epltlteel  bleeelb..  tb.1  w.  ....  «,rt    «""'  "''T  ""J"  "'"'?  ?'  '»•""»•  "r  ("J; 

Y.  «L,  .11,  »»).     Sortie  tl»e  efte;,  en.,Ul.t.  b.!.,,    " '""  ""«  'i^"'T  'S*  "'."S'"'  J™  'P""' 

the  .^letle,,  It  .tntol.  11.  ml.d.  ••  Til,  i.  tl.  ,.iy  i  S^J""?  "?'>■' T?  ?.S'  ?l''  ".i  1'  S  ■  ' 
tUtv  w.  tt^d.     Tb.  laden  .,e  tie  ,.».,.  .1.  m..    '?■'"•"'',■  ,»•"»«•"'•  L  ,»)•    Tl"  •■?«'wl"  I"'*" 

sTSiiv ™i,.  11. m,trib.ti.iu, b.".i.o w.t.1  .„■,  "';••■' '•";'■  i «^' ,""!•■" !■;,':■' 'r?"" '" 

tb.  MuU  of  their  brWlren"  (Wedey,  ITwfa,  vii.  8MV  ™f«"nee  to  tie  ren.ov.1  of  wme  oftbe  difficultie.  co,.- 
AllMr.W-l.,....l.ti«w;»™.dirtd«ll.Stb.i  r  ,  r.  /";  Tr  w  ,r  v!','""' 
.l™»,  ..d.  ™ta  whl.h  .n  etm  ..b«.htidi,  olv  ,""  "'  '^'■,"';ir"r  '  ,  »  T  ,  '  T 
.weed  (.M  •b.T.t  1 11.  S.  coafl  of  Crrte  [He  Fair  Haves.],  iid  neerl, 

aeel  of  the  eiiio',  ..llj,  ..d«.Mlit,  ^Method.  '  £,'  *'  •','J":J"A  AS'^,  '^''  '"-.'iiV  ^k" 
b«Ud..t.lh.d2;.r«iii.  The  mei  l.MlJ|j»,t  '^'-■f,;,;«  "I- '="'■'  «.  .lip  .„  «,.rf  b,  11. 
end   ed—eed  H«hodiJ>  bold  It  b,  bleb  ..iS. '  f*  ""'*"■>:  f '?.'>'"'"■  S,"  ?'•'■,'^.'''""  " 

.■««bodi.., bold. tl.. tl. ,:o.„..io,tf «!.». „  '"">■  s.".r±":"":i',''rrJS"A"f.'_i 


part  of  a  man'a  dnty  befbre  ha  can  claim  to  be  a  par- 


12  i:). 


,„,,._>..     i    .  ., ,     ,f,i,j„       1.-  1.  ■    .1.      aijri^c."'.l*)i"n'llherB  was  danger  lest  the  Khphiiud 

»  or  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  is  the  .  JV  ■  .  .i  ,t^  e  _.?  .  ,->  i.  i  ^a  a 
Mill;.,  .im.  «rr.iu-.>.i.._i>k  tk.  -k^i.  i— i..  —j  ■•  **  driven  into  the  African  SjTiis  (v,  1.).  It  la  artded 
paolic  sign  of  feUovabip  wiib  toe  whole  body :  and  l,...  ..j        a.   m    it       \t  j     .t. 

ir«  t«  .  »..»  ih.i  _  t,.,!.!  .h  t  I.  ■        ,.    V  f-~i'      '*'■'  f*"  "S'  driven  to  Clauda,  and  ran  under  the  lee 
aaya  to  a  man  that  we  hold  that  it  la  part  of  tiod  a  .    tiff     1<-^       vr  ,  .i^  *•>.''!    h 

will  that  we  shonld  exhwt  one  another,  edifv  one  an-  ,  "  ...  ^"''   .  '"     .*'."'   T'X  "  "       narmonj- 

.a.,,  ^bf... ..,  Hull,  01.  to  ...ii«,  «,.i...  01. '  r;*  ",;i™rr"  "l;  vf'i  ■""-*■"  ■'"",■"' 

fothe,  o.  God-.  d«ll.|!.  will  .;  ..d  ..,  w.lb    """/"  "•  "'?  U-vmpbio.l  elr..m,t;b™,  .f  0,. 


with  God.     I  am  prepared  to  atand  before  members  of 


le  (aa  well  as  from  the  etjn  ology  of  the  word  Eu. 


^.tb,™  aotel.  .,.»b,„  0,  Pte.l.f..«;i  or  *  .rt'l     .1.1.  .' ti  i'tt;  S.E.,  „,  „lbe,, 

Kpiacopal  chnrches,  and  aav.  aa  I  constantly  do.  lou  i.  ,- ^      n-,,    -■     j-       .      .                  ti      <              . 

■  ..Zl                  ™       i             ,     ^             ■-  1         .     .  E.N.h.     Tbia  isliind  la  about  seven  milea  lonit  and 

r  t":'^.-:  ss^i^r^cviXa:^  ?-.""% .'» \  ■'"'!■  ",^"  <"-';  •■  •  •^f,: 

»     .1.     .   J-   -J     1  ii>      =.        _.j      »     -L        ^.,1     !•,.  direction,  and  la  prolonged  bv  "fome  rmkaadincent. 

for  the  individual  life;  it  novldea  for  the  public  life  _„, ,.  ulir,.^  ,J1  .j„„,.    "    r                ..     .  '^        '. 

.  ,.    ,     ■^..       ,                .1.           .  .  would  "afford  the  advantage  ofcomp^ire 

Dt  It  alEoirether  leavea  out  the  social  ,       -                                  "..^            T,    . 


of  the  Church,  lint  It  altogether  leavea  out  the  social    , 

me'a  M.S. 'in  Conybeare  and  How-mi's  SI.  I-iaa,  ii, 
hip"  ■      -       -     - 


life  of  the  Church  ;  and  thkt  la  in  the  New  TepUment  1  '_'".'  '."'^  ™""U'_"""°  _°'  ."".™"  I'"''*.    ^^*^- 


I   I  hold"  (Arthur,  Spteek  at  WaUym  ConferHKe, 

||mo.g^  Chrt.  .ans  a.  the  nawre  of  he  'communion  {^  ,^  ,(,„„  ^(,,,„^  ,^„  ^^^„  ^^^  «  J^-^, 

?  ""^    ■  ■'.?    ^v      i;  ?k*  '     1  ^"/r^P""  «'"'™  "f  "hfriating  in  the  l™t,"  "  undergirding  [or 

ton,  rf  "V«»  life.  »n<i  theenUr«em.nt  of  the  king.  ^5^^  ^^^  .hip."  and  making  her  -nng  by  "  lower- 

dom  of  Christ     The  cU..-m<|eU->g  amon^t  the  Mrth-  j^'lte^r :"  which  kept  the  Thip  (<,.  v^)  fVom  foun- 

ed»ta  ■«  "">tl°g  but  the  re«lla^i""  "f  thia  idea;  it  is  ^         «„j„  ,^^  j^  „,  .  foVnighf.  "  gale  In 

~"TIk      ""^  r''.w  -rnlV       ir*     •  Adria,'  and  preaerred  her  for  the  rouBh  remtlv  of 

^^  ?!L^t  ^t^^'^         .J,       .    "^  ^ii',"*  «  "*;k  on  thV Wand  of  Melita  (Smith,  Vog.  «nd  Skip- 
It  baa  been  the  true  life  ofereiYtbngln  Hethodsm,  '         1    .,- o.    n    1  bj    j        on  m.    .n^  n...i      c 

in  every  part  of  the  worid.  like  thoae  .«enci«.  of  nal  T^  "^  *"  '^""^  ^  "^  P'  »='  ^'  ^"^^  ^>-      ^ 


which  lie  out  of  sight,  but.  by  their  penetrating  in-  I 
fiaence.  give  vitality  alike  to  the  flower  and  the  foreat  Claude,  Jeak,  one  of  the  moat  eminent  of  Faench 
tree"  {Lrmd.  Quar.  Arpinc,  Oct.  ISM,  p.  ISl).  ''  Even  '  Protestant  divines,  waa  bom  at  I.a  Sanvelat,  near 
if  tbe  clasa-meeting  were  less  inaeparabfy  lionnd  np  Agen,  In  the  pouth  of  France,  in  I6:B.  He  studied 
whfa  the  entire  disciplinary  aod  flnancbil  economy  of  IheolOKy  at  Montanben,  waa  ordained  in  IMS,  and  be- 
If  etbodisni.  still  Its  advantaTea  are  so  niimemua  that  tnn  hia  paatoni  lahon  at  La  Tr^gnc  in  the  same  year, 
to  aenr  it  from  the  Methodistic  syetom  would  be  to  In  1654  bo  was  called  to  the  churcb  at  Xltmes,  whem 
Inflict  a  paralyzing  stroke,  if  not  a  deatfa-hlow.  It  af-  be  slw  taught  in  the  Ibeologictt  school.  In  1661  ha 
bida  opportunity  for  inatruction  more  individual  and  waa  intirdlcted  from  hia  ttanctions  by  the  goycrament, 
paraonal  than  can  be  offered  from  the  pulpit,  Ibr  Chris-  as  a  penalty  fbr  opposing,  in  the  provincial  synod,  a 
tiaa  fellowBhip  mmn  intimate  than  can  be  eVijored  in  |  prefect  of  nnion  lietween  Romanist*  and  Proteatanli 
the  congregation,  lor  the  needful  ontponrince  of  a  propowl  by  the  governor  of  Lsngnedoc.  He  went  to 
nhid  hardened  either  with  sorrow  or  with  joy,  ftir  Paris  to  have  Ibia  penalty  revokad,  and  while  there 
watching  the  progress  of  Tonne  diadples,  ttor  prevent'  I  waaprevailid  upon  by  Madame  Torenns  (who  wished 


CLAUDE  350  CLAUDIUS 

to  rave  herbuabind  from  RomiDiam)  to  writo  ogiinat '  "Mnctui,"  *nd  tayt  be  wu  a  MiTT«etor  orhli  vmn. 
Aniauld  an  the  Eucburiit.  which  led  to  >  eontroveny  But  the  identity  of  namea  ao  coininan  oa  Pixluu  and 
of  great  note.  Claude'atraclale  was  circulated  in  MS.;  Claudia  may  lie  notbing  more  than  a  mere  a«ideii- 
but  in  IG64  Arnauld  puliliabed  bi*  celebrated  FerpHu.  tcl  cuincidmca  i  as  fur  the  ttrm  "  unctua."  it  ia  \rti. 
Hide  la  Foi,  etc.  [see  Ar:(auld].  t«  which  Cliiude  re-  cigely  one  irlilch  a  heathc^n  woold  not  luve  appUnl 
plied  In  IC67  in  hia  Rfpoiue  an  Tra  te  de  la  Ptrprtuili  to  a  Chriatlan.  wbom  he  would  bavo  resarded  aa  the 
dt  la  Foi,  etc.  (tee  an  account  of  the  controversy  in  adherent  of  a  "pniva  aapetttitiD"  (fliny,  J^p.  ad 
Dijle,  tranalation  of  1736. 10  volt.,  iv,  S66).  He  had  Traj.);  and  aa  re»pect«  Padens'a  correction  of  Mar- 
previouily  be?n  appointed  mlniater  at  Montinban  tial'a  venes,  until  we  linov  whether  that  waa  a  cor- 
(]6G:i).  and  uLw  profeaiior  of  theology.  In  166G  he  was  rectinn  of  their  rtyle  or  a  coneclion  of  their  morals 
Interdicted  again,  and  in  that  year  he  became  paator  (in  which  caaa  Pudena  really  moat  have  done  hia  work 
of  Ibe  He(brm°d  cburob  at  Charenton,  near  Paris.  :  very  badly).  «e  can  build  notblnu  on  it.  On  the  otb- 
Here  he  remained,  pnpuUr  and  osefiil,  regarded  aa  the  er  hand,  tbo  Immoral  character  of  Martial  himarlf  ren- 
chi:^f  literary  defender  of  French  Protestantism,  until  ders  it  iniproljabla  that  ha  shoald  have  had  a  Christian 
168G.  The  eminent  Port-Royaliata,  Arnauld  and  Nl- !  and  a  friend  of  Paul  among  bla  friends.  Furtlier, 
cole,  found  him  a  capaMe  and' worthy  opponent.  "In  |  PHai*a  Pndens  and  Claudia, if  buiband  and  wife,  most 
1673  appeared  hia  D'fioM  de  In  R-/..nnal-.oit,  on  Ri-  '  have  been  nerried  l>efare  A.D.  G7,  the  latest  daU  that 
IpOMi '.H r  Prrjagfi Ugilima d:  Nicok  (Uleet  ed,  Pari^  can  be  asaigned  to  Paula  writing.  But  Martiol'a  epi- 
1S41,  8vo).  In  16!<1  Ctande  hud  a  controveraial  cnn-  gram  muat  buTS  been  written  after  tbia,  perhapi  aev. 
ference  with  Bosauet,  aft?r  which  he  publbhed  Rr-  erai  yeoraafler.for  be  came  to  Rome  onlyin  A.D.6C; 
poiutilaOM/titnred-B-uittt^lMiliyB,  I68»,  8vo).  so  that,  If  they  were  married  perrons  in  67,  it  Is  not 
Tbj  conference,  aa  usual,  led  to  no  approximation  lie-  likely  ilarliul  would  celebrate  thair  nuptials  jaara  af- 
tween  tlie  contending  pirde*."  In  I&(5  the  Tevoe.ition  ter  this.  Id  fine,  If  PhuI's  Pndena  and  ClaudLi  were 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Lnuia  XIV  oMiged  Claude  to  unmarried  at  Ibe  time  of  his  writing,  they  most  at 
seek  refuge  in  Holland,  where  ha  was  wall  received,  least  have  been  persona  of  itandinK  and  reputatioii 
on  account  both  of  hia  Lilent^  and  bla  perHinil  charuc-  among  the  Cnriatlaoa ;  and,  In  this  case,  can  it  be  sup. 
ter,  and  the  prince  of  Orange  granted  bim  a  pension,  posed  that  a  poet  meaning  lo  gratify  them  woold 
He  died  Jan.  1.3.  1C8T.  ills  Fla'aUt  det  /'rofrjCnnf  invoke  on  them  the  favor  of  heathen' deiliea,  whom 
erueLmKnl  opprim^i  daiu  It  Royiume  de  Fronct  was  tbey  bad  renounced  with  abhorrence  7  See  Atcb- 
published  after  bia  death  (lie<t  ed.  by  BaBnage,  Co-  deioon  Williaiiu'a  pamphlet,  O*  Fudeit  and  Claudia 
logne,  1763,  8vo).  Ilia  »y1e.  though  aimple,  was  rig-  (Lond-  1848);  an  artlole  in  the  QKort.  Ra.  for  July, 
oroua,  being  surliined  by  logical  akill  and  erudition.  |8J8.  entitled  "The  Romuis  at  Colcbesteri"  and 
l.aDerize  wrote  a  bioL{raphy  DfClaude(AmateTdam.  !bii  ICxcnisua  in  Alford'f  Gmk  TeMarWHt  (vol.  jii. 
1687)"  (Kmj.  C^clapirdia).  Several  of  bia  work*  are  pnilecic.  p.  104),  in  which  the  eonlcnla  of  [be  two 
tranalatod.  vii.  Townwnd,  Claiidr'i  Ifurorical  D^eact  works  Nrtt  mentioned  an  eic?^ied  in  ■  rammaiy 
f/At  Rfformalicfm,  icitk  Lift  a/Clnade  (Land.  Ul.'i.  2  furm.  See  also  ConTbeir*  and  Hit»»m's  St.  Paul,  ii, 
vob.Svoj  ■.^■KttOj/ on  tit  Comiioti/iim'/ a  BtrminQMU  484  n. 

{'^  J"^^-**  (LoDd"^.  1,07,  lamo)  -Hang,  I^   ^^i,  ^  .  ^^^  „^j  (toTw.;  a  man  of  specul^ 

XTli,  aoe.  ii,  pt.  1,  ch.  i,  S  12,  note;  Bijlo.  1.  c.     On    j^u   ^ti^e      Ha  wrote   a  tieatiao   T>e  ita/ti   Amim 

Clande's  qoalitlee  aa  a  preicber,  and  his  bomitetlcal    ..Jr    ,,  _'   „  .    .j      i>.i   !>_._   i^-n i  _> ;_.. 

.  *T.     ..,■-'       t    I     n  '>■  rt....    {Bio,  Max.  Patr,  vl :    Sto,  I'a/r^  OiuiamL  i)  against 

on   CP«i.  IMMi  «.v.\  ,  "■•  anlbropomorphisra  of  Faoatus  of  Rheglum  (q.  v.). 

»q.  [Pans,lB60,8io).  j^^  ^^^^^  that '■  thought  is  inaepinilile  from  the  es- 

Cl*lld0  OP  ToBtsi.  See  CLACntoa.  Ci-KHEits.  |  sence  of  the  soul,  and  that  its  spiritual  activity  la  iitde- 
structible"  (Xeander, /fufory  nf  Dogmat.  ed.  Ryland. 
I,  »10).  For  an  analvaia  of  the  tract,  see  Dupin,  Ec- 
dn.  IVriten,  ii,  150  (Lond.  1698),  and  aarke,  Smtrt. 
n'mo/SarrrdfJlrraltav,ii,2*9.  Certain  Latin  hymns 
HTV  Htlriliuted  tn  Clandiua,  via.,  Contra  Poitia  ooihu  (in 
....tlhis  Claudia  was  a  Briti-h  nuud^n,  daughtir  of  I"", "'  ^'^  •^">'  '"'^  ^T  ^jfT^  "^^ 
king  Cugidunus,  an  ally  of  Rome  Cra^itaa,%j;r-»/.  'K^^„'„;:r  Sidol^A'p^^;^^^  to  wS^m  «i™"" 
14]^  who  took  «,e  nam.  of  hi.  imperial  patron,  Tibcri-  ^;' ^^^t^,  X  a'S'""^  ^w"  c  n;^  ^' 
oaClsudius.    Pudens,wegatber(yomanlnaoriplionat    ,,     ,      ,f.i..^i^„.  "  i~"  e,  t~ 

Cbicbealer,  and  now  in  the  irarden?  at  Goodwood,  was    '"'''""  °'  '^•"''^'»'""' 

at  one  lime  in  close  connection  with  king  Condunua,  Clsu'dinsCKXoi'i^ioc,  forLat.  ClnnJuu.  prrh.  from 
and  gave  an  area  for  a  lemple  of  Neptune  and  Mi-  chwiiif,  I  mr),  the  name  of  two  Komana  mentioned  in 
nervs,  which   was    built    liy  that  king'a    anthnritr.    the  N.  T,      See  also  Fei.ix. 

Claudia  la  said  in  Martijl  (si,  53)  to  have  been  of  1.  The  fourth  Roman  emponir(eJtclndinB  J.  Ciesar), 
British  extraction  {coral  i$  Brilanmt  fdila).  More-  who  aucceeded  Caligula  Jan.  2S,  A.D.  41.  IIU  ftil! 
over,  ahe  is  there  also  called  Eiijma.  Now  Pomponin,  name  was  Tibesiob  Ci.addics  Dntrsus  Neko  Cxsar 
wife  of  the  late  commandrr  in  Britain,  Aulus  Plautius,  AdODSTIIB  GEttHAKicus.  He  was  the  eon  of  Dmsu 
under  whom  Ciaudla'a  fiither  was  received  into  alii-  and  Antonia,  and  was  bom  Aug.  1.  B.C.  10,  at  Lyons, 
ance,  belonged  to  a  house  of  which  the  RuA  were  one  in  Qaul.  Losing  hi*  father  In  Inrancy,  be  was  aban- 
of  Uie  chief  hranchea.  If  ahe  herself  were  a  Rub,  and  doned  lo  the  care  and  society  of  domcrtics,  and  de- 
ClaudU  ber  pruteg^.tbe  latter  might  well  be  called  spised  by  hia  imperial  relatives  (Tacitus,  ^n.  ii.  A&, 
Roflna  I  and  we  know  that  Pomponis  waa  tried  for  1 :  Suetonius.  Cta»d.  i).  NotwithnUnding  the  weak- 
having  embraced  a  foreign  religion  (tupmlilion-t  ez-  nesa  of  intellect  rreulting  from  tbla  neglect,  he  devo- 
Irmt  Tta)  in  the  vear  b7  (Tacitua,  Ann,  xii,  8S).  ao  ted  himself  to  literarv  punuita,  and  was  the  author  of 
tliat  there  are  many  clreumalancea  concurrent  tending  >eyeral  treatises.  On  the  mnider  of  Caligula,  he  hid 
to  glre  verisimilitude  to  the  conjecture.  On  the  other  bimaelf  through  fear  of  sharing  his  relative's  fate,  bal 
hind,  it  may  )«  j>aid  that  the  attempt  to  identify  this  waa  found  br  a  soldier,  at  whoae  feel  be  fell  a  suppU- 
Cliudin  with  the  British  Udv  Claudia,  whose  marriage  ant,  but  4ho  saluted  him  emperor;  and  be  was  thos 
to  Pndens  Is  celebrated  by  Martial  (Epig.  iv,  1.1).  rests  unexpectedly,  and  almost  by  force,  hnrried  into  the 
on  no  foundation  beyond  the  identity  of  the  names  of  popular  aaeembly,  and  constituted  eniperor  chiefly  It 
the  partios,  and  the  fAct  that  Martiil  calla  Pudena   the  PrKtoriau  Guards,  under  promise  of  a  largeaa  Is 


Clan 

'dl 

a  (K.\avtia.  fern 

.ofCfaadKu.),, 

iCbrix 

tisn 

female  r 

tinned  in  i  Tim. 

tingT 

thaus,A 

.D. 

64.      She  bi  Ihni 

ight  t^  have  1 

wcome 

the 

wife  of  Pudr' 

ns,  who  Is  mentii 

medlntho-am 

(al- 

though  1 

,inu 

;s  is  named  l*tween).    Ithaabee 

n supposed 

CLAUDIUS  3?1  CLAUDIUS,  MATTHIAS 

Bch  Mliliat  (Saetonluii,  Clau  I.  V}.     According  to  Jo.  an«ctmcnt>  (tse  Merivjlc,  Homaiu  uijer  lAe  Eaifirt, 

Hphu  (/(•(.  lilt,  a.  1,  3  and  4),  the  tlirone  vu  in  &  v,  4T4  tq.").     He  »l«i  erected  numerouB  pulilii  baild- 

ft^x.  mumn  flndly  aecured  Cu  him  thruugb  the  nil-  in|ji^  and  carried  out  Mveral  important  public  varke. 

dnw  and  aolicitationi  of  Herod  AKrijipa  I  (c|.  v.).  Hnvinfc  married  hii  niece   A^pippina,  ehe  prevailed 

Ttui  obligation  he  retnmed  by  great  and  peculiar  fu-  upon  him  to  aet  uide  hla  onn  aon  Dritinniciui  In  Ta- 

lon  lo  thai  pereonage,  for  ho  enlarged  tUe  temturj-  vor  of  her  own  Mm  Nero  by  s  fanner  marriage ;  but, 

tt  Agrippa  bj  adding  to  It  Judna,  Samaria,  and  wme  diecovering  that  he  regretted  this  »tep,  rhe  poisoned 

linict*  of  Lebanon,  and  appointed  bii  brother  Herod  lilm  on  the  ISrb  of  October,  A.D.  hi.     (See  Smith* 

u>  tlw  Ungdom  of  Cbalcie  (Joaephui,  AtU.  xlx,  fi,  1 ;  Dictionary  of  Claaical  Biogriiphg,  r.  t.)     During  the 

IN™  Caauo)^  li,  P),  giving  to  this  latter  aba,  after  reign  of  CUudiua  eBverel  per»ecution«  of  ChriMians 

bii  bntlier'a  death,  the  prsaidencv  over  the  Temple  bj  Jews  triok  place  in  the  duminioni  nf  Herod  Agrip- 

11  Jcnmltm  (Joaephuii,  Anl.  xx,  ],  S).     Indeed,  the  pu,  and  in  one  of  them  the  apoetle  Jumee  was  exe- 

Im  were  generally  Intatcil  I  y  tiim  with  indul^nce,  cuted.     1  hese  dominiona  emijraced  liy  far  the  Urgetl 

tFDHially  those  in  Asia  and  E^pt  (Jh(,  x'ix,  b,  3,  S;  number  of  L'hriatian  congregstJonB  uhich  were  estab- 

IX,  I.  -J),  alcbongh  those  in  I'alestine  seem  to  have  at  llshed  up  lo  the  time  of  his  death  (A.D.  44).     After 

tiewi  Eolfercd  much  oppression  at  the  hunds  of  his  bin  death,  mosCoftbetrrritory  overwhicb  be  had  ruled 

pwemora  (Tacitus,  Hit.  v,  9,  etc-.) ;    but  about  the  was  reincorporuted  with  the  Roman  empire,  his  enn, 

middle  of  lilt  reign  those  who  abode  ut  Rome  were  nit  Agrippa  II,  receiving  only  Trachonicis  and  Gaulonl- 

<uisbed  thenn  (Acti  ivili,  i;  gee  Helienitrait,  De  tis.      Thai  the  Chriitlan  congregations  began  to  ab 

Jtdmi  Ranta  fxvU,  Lips.  1714).     From  the  language  tract  to  a  larger  degree  the  attention  of  the  Roman 

of  Suetonios  in  relating  thii  event  {Cbtiid.  !fi),  it  is  aulhoritier.    At  the  pame  lime,  the  apoFtle  Paul  bests 

erideni  that  the  Christians  were  also  indiscriminately  t^  establish  congregations  in  many  of  the  Isrger  citiea 

iDclnded  in  the  execution  of  the  edict  as  a  sect  of  the  of  the  empire,  while  those  of  earlier  origin  assnmed 

Jews,  if,  indeed,  they  were  not  the  more  nnmerona  much  larger  dimensions.    Nevertheless,  the  difference 

{■rtofthat  pcfftioa  of  the  inhabitants:  '*  JadROs,  im-  l«tween  Jews  and  Christians  was  not  generuUy  un- 

pitlser*  Ciralo  [i.  e.  Chuto.  see  Kossal,  Dr  Ckriito,  in  deratood  by  ths  Roman  autboritjes,  and  thia  circum- 

rtmtnemuwra'o,  GrSn.  I'lTjaesiduetumuttaantes.  stance  had  acme  beneHciil,  but  also  some  injurious 

Roma  eipulit"  ("  He  banished  the  Jews  from  Rome  consequences  as  regarded  the  Christians.     On  the  one 

cmanotint  of  the  continual  disturbances  Ihey  made  at  hand,  the  missionary  activity  of  the  apostlee  and  their 

the  hiBligition  of  one  Chrertua").     See  Chrestcs.  helpers  met  with  no  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Ro- 

The  historian  has  evidently,  in  his  ignorance  of  the  man  state  (»ee  Kraft,  /'rolta.  II  de  mueeuli  Chrini  en. 

nwrtls  of  the  case,  attriboted  the  proverbial  Insurrec- !  tiaia  tMn  Judaiea  iwiniW  Ma  [Erlang.  1771],  and  J. 

lioiutT  spirit  of  the  Jews  to  the  Infinence  of  Christi-  ^  H.  Ph.  Sv idrnstbcber,  IHb,  6e  ChnMliamt  ad  Troja- 

BDity,  a  confusiim  which   the  dlspatea  between  the  tarn  tuqve  a  CttMarilnii  ft  SfiuVtt  Homanopro  cuUorilna 

Jew  a  and  Christiana  on  the  subject  of  the  Messiah  may  reliffitmii  Sfotaica  trmprr  hiAiHi  [Helmsttdt,  1790]); 

hate  eoDtrlbnIed  to  Increaee.    Suetonius  doe*  not  give  on  the  other  hand,  many  who  might  have  been  will- 

the  exact  year  of  this  event,  nor  can  it  be  made  out '  (ng  to  Join  the  Christian  Church  were  deterred  from 

from  any  other  classical  authority;  he  mentions  it,  I  doing  so  by  Ihe  fear  thnt  the  yoke  of  all  the  Jewieh 

Ittwever,  in  connection  with  other  events  which  are  '  law  would  be  placed  qpon  them.     (See  Wetier  und 

hiown  to  have  taken  place  at  different  dates  Iwtween  Welte,  Kirrhf^-Lexitim,  t.  v.) 

AD  44  and  63 :  a  comparison  of  the  associated  events  2.  CLAcmua  I.ysias  (Acta  ixiii,  SC).     See  Ltsiab. 

iBlhe  Adaappears  tofli  itin  theyear  A.D.49.    Oro-  -,,.,_,                 ,..         ,n.  _, 

siu  (ffiar.  vir^fixe.  It  In  the  ninih  year  of  Claudius,  ,?'""*^  *?*^^  ^'^l  "^  ^''^'  ""^""f 

A.D. «  or  50.  referring  to  Josephus.  wh.,  however,  ?"!<"  'J«      «"'*  Protestant  R<fonner,     wa.  l«r«  In 

uy.  nothing  ;bont  iL     Pearson  (J ««/.  /W.  y.  22)  Sp-™  »bo"t  the  clo«  of  .he  eighth  centnry,  "d  «lu- 

thinkithettemhyearmoreprcbible(A,D.52or53).  f "^i  u"""'  F«"'"  "^  Urgel,  whom  be  accompanied 

i>_  _,.,.. V.  1-71.  r««™.  (-™nnT«™  i.  ifii.  j«  n  ""*'  Fraice.  Germany,  and  Italy,  but  whose  errors 

n^""^"^  c?o^istrw':::dVrd?;  ft  t  ■ '5«^^ 

li.hid  ..  long  as  Kerod  Agrippa  waa  at  Rom;.  I.  e  b^  '  J'"^.-  '';;  **^  ^"^7  '>  <=''''^,  •»  '^«  .">""  "^ 
fan,  the  vear  49.  The  Jew-,  however,  aoon  returned  '•""''  '"  p^l^"'™  "  "P™"''  "'«  Scripture.,  h. 
10  Rome;     Several  famines  occurred  under  Cleudiu.   "/l  ""V^  monarch  when  ""l«f"'.  "■  '''««» 

r™n  nnfavoralJe  harvest  (Dion  Casa.lx.  11 ;  F.useb.  "ITunn  (an  event  vanou-ly  dated  from  814  to  828)  in 
O™.  H  n«*  i.  869,  T.l ;  Tacit.  .1™.  xii,  48).  one  of  '^'^  lonppo'e  the  P«va,ling  lendenTj  to  ima«e.«or- 
.hich,  in  the  fourth  year  of  bis  reign,  under  the  pro-  '  '^^f.'  ^"»  ""=>■  »'■"""  '^'»  ">""  f  """'""yv  T 
™i!o^r,  Cuspius  Fadus  and  Tiberius  Alexander  (JcH '••<"'"«  H!"  ;_""h.P  of  adnts,  of  rebcs,  and  of  the 
■T*  j-t  ,.  9  B.  S  91  e:ictend«l  to  PalKtine  and  (TOSS,  agninst  Uie  al)use  of  pilgrimage,  againsl  the  ns- 
^Ant   XX.  2,8    a,  !i).  extended  to  falestine  anrt  of  tredilion.  prelacv,  and  Ihe  Romish  ace, 

Bvrta.  and  appeiin  In  be  that  which  was  foretold  by ',  "      ....         .  •    ,,  ...       .■■,  l, 

.     L       , .  ^^  -  n^  n-  rt.    .  J         nil  ly/  I  lie  roaintiiined  a  vignrous  and  able  opposition  td]  his 

Aeabos  (Acta  xi,  28;  see  Biscoe,  On  Aelt,  p.  60.  60;  '  .     .7.   ,     „„      ...  "     .  At.  ,. 

t  J         TiZii^i:-'  Vi      v..      n  ■■     D-jj.  ///.  -    '  death  In  833,  with  such  success  and  euch  results  as 

Lardner,  CrrdbHtni,  L  11 ;   Kitto,  D-nu  Bibit  llltal.,  1  1,       ..     j  .1  1. r  1,        .1      ,1      . 

1  ..      ,  &;»  i^a J       -I    ■     I  1  .    nsiialtv  attend  thoae  whose  errors  fall  on  the  side  of 

last  vol.,  p.  IJ9-2S2 ;  compare  Kuinul.  tn  loc. ;  also    .    , ,    ■         ..       ..         ...    , ...         „        „      .    ,  , 

e_,     Ai.     ■     \r  r        a.itr     TK        La  .j     t  ri  ..      Imdnesa  rather  than  of  limldilv.      Pope  Paschal  I  re- 
ueiji,  06#.  rn  Jv.  T.  p.  210).     The  conduct  or  Llau-  ,„,      ,.        ,  i-j.t.       ,  .... 

,  1™..  n.  1  .  J  .  )■.  ^1  7  proved  Claudius ;  he  replied  that  so  long  as  ■■  the  pnpe 

did  the  works  of  on  apostle,  be  recofrniHid  hia  sposluli- 
cal  character,  butotherwlsc,  then  Malt,  xxiii,  2.  8,  sp. 
plied  to  him."  Ilia  writings  are  chiefly  commrutaries 
on  several  Inviks  of  Scripture,  composed  principally  of 
extracts  from  Ihe  fathers,  and  eapecially  tnan  Angns- 
tine.  llany  remain  in  MS.  In  various  French  libra- 
ries. His  Comm,  in  Galalia,  and  excerpts  from  hla 
Coin  of  aandlD<.  ApaU-gnievm,  are  »:iven  in  Bibl.  Max.  Tatr.  xiv.     See 

C4rnw.- Ti  <-ur^<'^Dut'lT•l.p>l.Tll•.v1t1<'rIl^  XT)  iTI-  Neancler,  CiS.  ffut.  Hi.  429  sq.:  Gieseler,  C*. //M.  per. 
h|r|»ils,.tlii.  <Hu>r  A.«n'ln-  I^""**  Maalnm^  TrI-    lii,  div.  i,  §  12;  Hagenlnch,  ffirf.  o/-/).«(ri«M.  il,  423; 


Wnw-  ■  TTlnni|.hr.r.rf1i  .■^Ih'ih S^tri"ir(l'''.  "'""^orh^s  Mosheim.  Cb.  Ilin.  I,  218,  526;  Rudelbacb, 
BdimrDphte'.lurrlliedna'aaiTiHii  (l)e  Brlunnlii.  Clnad.  Taur.  f^piimp.  inf^l.  opp.  sprn'iniRa  (Copenba. 
1™.  n.  ™™™,„™.  in  .«r.r  ..  It  ...  nn. ''"■"■  "-S-l.  8vo);  Schmidt,  In  7(toc*n>l ^r  As  Aitf. 
lunng  his  government,  in  ao  far  as  it  waa  not   '_,    -  -o,*  ^ 

tlM  infloence  of  hia  wives  and  freedmen,  was  ;  "«■'"■"«»■ 
and  popular,  and  be  made  saveml  beneflciat  j      ClandllU,  MattUas,  better  known  nndor  the 


CLAUDIUS  372  CLAY 

■Kri»  ie  pJtfnu  or  Atnat,  or  Da-  H^mulihvler  Bult  (the  '  building  ("  morUT,"  Oea.  xi,  8X  u  fbr  nuklDg  brict 
WiiidslKck  MMwiirfW),  a  Gemwn  wfiter.i™  lK.ni'(Exi>d.  i,  14;  ■'mortar,"  1».  xll,  £5;  Hah.  iU,  14>; 
at  Rheiafeld,  in  Hoktein,  Jan.  2, 17«.  He  itndisd  uIm  imniman  rtreet  "mire"  (Iia.  i,  fl;  Job  itx,  19: 
Uv  at  J>n>,  and,  after  having  beld  for  a  >bnrt  time  "  claj',"  Jab  x,  9).  Other  tartna  ao  rendered  leu  cor. 
an  office  at  DarmBladt,  l-ecame,  in  1778, "  revisor"  at  reelly  are ;  oi^,  m'tJ,  morMr  for  plulering  (Jcr. 
the  SchlMwia-HoUlein  Bank  in  Altona.  He  re.lJed  j,„  „  „d'tba  Chald.  aOn,  AoaaA' ,  Jierd,  at 
•t  th«  rUlage  °' ^»;^'»^\"-f  "^"^  <^^  burnt  cU,.«re  (Dan.  li.  M?    The   werd   37.    ^ 

wna  de  Blume),  vbete  be  spent  toe  greater  part  of  tiia  .,'_,  .     ._        ___..         .,  ,.  ,..  ;       „ 

lifb.  Hedled«ntba21alofJani«ry,l«15^tHam-  ("cl«y,"8Cbron.  It,  17),orrr55?, -waiU  ("cUy," 
bnrg.  In  the  houw  of  hie  ion-ir-law,  the  publiiher,  1  Klngi  Tli,47),denotei  *ir*»ot  onfautfjroTioil,  i.  e. 
Frederick  Perthes.  Claudiua  in  iitill  regarded  as  one  perh.  depth  of  earth ;  and  the  merely  apparent  cotn- 
of  the  most  gifted  popnlar  writera  of  Germany,  and  ponod  0^025,  abtil'  ("thick  cUy"),  in  Hah.  ii,  6, 
his  book,  had  a  very  targe  cireulatlDn  dnring  hit  life-  Bignlflea  rathir  a  phd^  of  goods  to  an  extorlioner. 
time.     He  was  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Vosa,  Her-    ^^  MweitAL0O». 

der,  Jacobi,  Hamann,  I-»vater,  St«llberg,  and  many  ,  „  (,.  ,^  ^  sedimentary  earth,  toagb  and  plartlc, 
other  prominent  literary  men  of  his  times.  In  llie  ^^^[^  ^^  ^  dleinlegration  of  felspar  and  aimilu 
Chnrch  histoTj'  of  Germany  he  beara  an  bonorai.le  ,uin„jg_  „|j  j^^y,  containing  silica  and  alomina 
name  aa  one  of  the  moat  effective  opponents  of  the  j„„y„^  i„  „ri»ble  proportion..  As  the  aedlinait 
volgar  ratmnaliam  which  at  that  lime  thrMtened  to  ^^  ^^^  remaiolnK  in  piU  or  in  streeta,  the  wonl  la 
obtain  absolute  sway  overthe  whole  of  Protestant  ^^^^  freq„ently  In  the  O.  T.  (e.  g.  laa.  Ivii,  SO;  Jbt. 
Germany.  In  hu  earlier  writJng^  be,  on  the  whole,  sj,,(vii|  g.  p,,,  xviii,  48),  and  in  the  N.T.(JobD  bt, 
conHned  bimielf  to  ndlculmg  the  arrogance  and  mtol-  g,  ^  mixture  of  sand  or  dust  with  spittle.  It  is  alao 
eranceoflbeRalionalist«;buthe  steadily  grew  warm.  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  of  poMer'a  clay  (laa.  ili.  86),  the 
ar  and  more  emphatic  In  his  oppo^tion  to  rationali.m,  jij^^t  .nj  u^^,,  fi,rms  assnmed  by  the  rode  m«t<- 
■Dd  in  hla  attachment  to  a  strict  l.utheranlam,  and  on  ,,^,  „j,j,,  ^j,  ^,„j,  aupplying  a  significant  emblem 
that  account  felloutwith8omeofhlsf,o>merfHend*.a«  „f  ^^  Divine  power  over  the  destinies  of  mwi  (laa. 
Voss  and  Jacobi.  Clandin.  began  in  1.6a  a  complete  j^jv,  g;  Jer.  xvili.  1-6;  Rom.  Ix,  21).  The  idluvial 
edition  of  his  work^  nnder  the  dtle  Amiu  nmnvi  m-i  _,_^.j^  ^,  pjesline  would  no  donU  supply  material  for 
NCiMporteu,  8  vols.,  W  which  some  addition  wB  made  ^  manutocture  which  we  know  was,  aa  it  still 

lnlB12  (latest  edition,  18«).  A  biography  of  Clan-  ["^cairied  on  in  tl.e  country  (Jei.  xviii,!,  6);  but  our 
diu.  has  been  written  by  Herbal  (Goth..  ISS")— Her-  ^^o^^dge  on  the  subject  is  ii  small  a.  1^  affi.rd  little 
»og,««ai-/:»r,tfop.  11,7121  Brockhans,  CDBrer«./w™j-  „,  „„  n,„n,  (.f  delermining,  and  the  clay  of  PJealine, 
J-t'ibM,  Iv,  647.  ]i^,  (l„t  of  Egvpt,  is  probably  mote  loam  than  clay 

Clandins  OP  SAVor,  a  Unitarian  of  the  sixteenth  (Birch,  y/irf.  <^  fUfny,  1,  Aa,' 1^2).  See  Pottbrt. 
century,  who,  In  a  dtspntadon  at  Berne,  1634.  main-  Uiiuminons  ahale,  convertible  into  clay,  is  said  to  ex* 
tained  that  Christ  was  •  man,  who  "wai  called  God  1st  largely  at  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  and  near  the 
Inasmuch  as  he  had  received  the  fulness  ofthedlt-ine  Deud  Sea,  alfo  near  Bethshan  (Buix^lhardt,  li,  ^93; 
Spirit  beyond  all  other  beings.  The  Father  dwelt  in  Russegger,  iil,  278,  'J68,  264).  1  he  great  seat  of  the 
him  tiirough  the  divine  Spirit,  and  all  thron;(h  him  pottery  of  the  present  dsy  in  Palestine  is  G^u,  where 
might  be  animated  by  the  Father"  (Neander,  Htttory  ^  «re  made  the  vessels  in  dark  blue  clay  so  frequently 
b/  Do^om,  Ryland's  transl.,  il,  647).  He  was  ex-  met  with.  The  Talmud  (Ahoda  Sara,  ii,  3)  menliona 
pellcd  from  fieme,  imprisoned  at  3traahur^h,  retumeil  ,  peculiar  kind  of  luCaous  material  called  '  Hadrian's 
to  SwitterUnd,  and  recanted  at  Lanaaone.  1687.  See  ^^  .  /^j^^-nn  Din).  The  use  of  dav  in  brick- 
Sehelbom.  De  Miiyi  Celto  et  CimUo  AOobnigr  (V\m.  ■       'l  .  '  «„  i,_„,       inoiher  ■-» 

'I^^'^}L''"^'"'  'i*-^f''  "''  ***'  '^■"'  '^  i  7:^7  ™  ln^Il"^j"b  iTxviii,  h").     The  bri" 

ClaMtnim.     See  Cloistbi..  .  ed  either  with  a  die  or  with  marks  made  by  the  finger. 

ClanaOra  (Ut),  the  enclosure  of  a  monastic  es-  „f  ,1,^  m,|t.,.  Wine-Jara  In  Egypt  were  sometime. 
Ubiishment,  nsaally  square,  and  aurroundW  by  a  ,j^|^  ,[^  ^|  ,  ^ammj-p»»  were  naled  wiih  tiie 
wall.  Ordinarily  monks  or  nune  are  not  allowed  to  go  ^^^  substance,  and  remains  of  cUv  are  still  found  sd- 
beyond  this  apace,  or  to  receive  ■  visit  within  it,  with-  heringto  the  stone  dooi-iambe.  o'nr  Lord",  tomb  may 
out  the  especial  penniaaion  of  the  head  of  the  eatah-  ^^^.^  ,^„  (j,j„  ,^^  ^jlatt.  ixvii,  66),  aa  also  the 
llahment.  earthen  vessel  containing  the  evldencea  of  Jeremiab'. 

Claw  (nB-ng,  panah',  cle/l,  1.  e.  cloven  foot),  purchaae  (.ler.xixii,  14).  Soalao  In  As»yri»,at  Koo- 
prop.  a  haifiai  n.uallv  rendered)  of  a  bifurcated  ani-  yunjlk,  pieces  of  fine  clay  have  been  found  bearing  im- 
mal  (Exod.  x,  26 ;  Mic.  iv,  13 ;  Ezek.  xxxil,  11).  or  of  pressfons  of  seals  with  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Ph«- 
■  aolid-fboted  quadroped  (e.  g.  a  horse,  Isa.  v,  in ;  Jer.  nlcian  devices.  The  seal  used  for  pnblic  documents 
xlvii,  8) ;  hence  for  the  distinctive  mark  of  a  clean  '  was  rolled  on  the  moist  clay,  and  the  taldet  was  then 
(q.  V.)  creature  ("  claw,"  Dent,  xiv,  16),  or  the  sharp  placed  In  the  Are  and  baked.  The  pmcllce  of  sealing 
weapons  of  a  beast  of  prey  ("claw,"  Zech.  xi.  16).  or  doors  with  clay  to  fjcllitate  detection  in  case  of  mal- 
the  taloDS  of  a  predatory  bird  ("claw,"  Dm.  iv,  S3). !  practice  is  atill  common  in  the  East  (Wilkin sou,  .4 ik; 
In  one  passa;^(Psa.  X,  10)  the  powerful,  clawed  paw  '  ^;r^l.  1,15.48;  11,861;  Layard,  A*m.  owf  fini.  p.  168, 
of  a  Uon  (q.  v.)  U  poetically  denoted  by  the  term  158,608;  Herod.i\,SSi  Harmer,(»».iv,  S76)'-(Smith, 
0^B>S3    "  atroaj  ones  "  I  s.  v.).     Norden  and  Pococke  observe  that  the  inspect- 

Clay  is  the  rendering  of  Mveral  word^  more  or  lee.  '  ""  «'  •?"  g~"»fiee  in  Ef^-pt,  after  cloalng  the  d,^ 
.ceu«Wly,in  certJn  pisage.  In  the  Engli.h  Bible:  P"t  their  s»l  upon,  handful  of  day,  with  which  they 
_       .  ■'  .  ,jr^  .   a-.  ,  ,      ,        A        cover  the  lock.     See  Seai„     Clay  was  also  used,  no 

B^J,  Ut,  prop,  mtrf  (Psa.  xl,  2),  1.  e.  mire  (a,  often  ,„       ,^1,;^,  ^i^^  f,„  J^^^  ,„  ^^,^   „„, 

Tendered),  hence  potter  s  cioj,  as  being  trodden  fine  ,j^  f,  emploved  for  both  (Gen.  xi,  S).  Houses  an 
(tea.  xli,  25;  Nah,  ill,  14);  corresponding  to  the  Gr.  (,uj|(  ^f  ^Uy 'mixed  with  sand  in  coontrka  whsie 
m,\ie  (John  ix,  6,  II,  14, 16 ;  Rom.  ix.  21  j  Wi.d.  vii,  ^„^  .re  not  to  be  (bund.  See  M<ibtab.  In  Job 
9;  XV,  7,  8;  Ecclu..  xxxiil,  18j  xxxviii,  SO;  Bel  7),  J,,  19,  it  i.  said  of  mankind  that  they  dwell  in  huta  of 
■a  Bolllngor  plastic;  and  Tah,  olo'mer,  reddish  («m>  clny,  either  alluding  to  auch  dwellin(!s,orto  the  "cliy 
(Job  iv,  19;  xlii,  12;  xxvli,'l6;  xxKlil,6;).  e.  g.  pot- I  tenements"  of  the  body  (compnre  2  Cor.  v,  I).  Qat 
ter's  clay  (lea.  xxix,  16;  xlv,  9;  Jer.  xviii,  4,  0),  aa  '  Saviour  Anointed  the  eyes  of  the  blind  man  with  a 
ued  tor  sealing  (Job  XxxvU^  14),  or  for  oement  of  '  aalve  made  of  clay  and  spltle  (John  ix,  6),  a  atmple 


CLAYTON  37 

piirfMT>ition,  whicb.  It  vod1<I  be  manirut  to  all,  cauld  ! 
lu»B  in  lt»flf  no  curativB  virtue.  The  "  clay  ground"  | 
Qilaally  .tJkklneii  of  mil)  in  wbicb  SolDmun  cauted  | 
tbe  lanm  vbshIj  of  the  Teniple  to  ba  cs»t  (1  KuKi  vii, 
46;  2  Chroa.lv,  17)  wu  >  compact  la«m,  of  «  qiulity 
<«  raUiu  «xtent  (dipth  MDie  38  feet  i  lea  Jackim)  not 
to  be  fooad  elMwhere  in  Palntine,  which  la  gmenlly 
ncky  or  ■andy.     See  Metallvboi. 

Clajton,  KoHEBT,  bom  in  Dublin  in  1095,  was  n 
duciplc  of  Dr.  8.  Clarke,  bourne  bishop  of  Killala,  of 
Cork,  ud  finally  o(  ClDglier,  and  publlthed  seTernl 
writs,  none  of  which  b&<B  gained  luting  celebrity 
bnt  hU  EMKiy  «  Spirit  (1761),  a  treatise  mainUininK 
Arian  views,  of  which,  though  not  actually  his  conipo- 
tition,  ha  bore  the  expense  and  assumed  the  responsi- 
bili^.  A  powerful  reply  from  Jone«  of  Nayland  dhl 
not  hinder  bia  proposing  in  the  Irish  Houm  of  Lords 
(M  Feb.  17&6)themaiM)oDorthaNiceneaiid  Athi 


1  .  CLEFT 

ure  (Lev.  ii,  SJ-M;  Acts  s,  9-10;  xi,  1-28;  Heb. 

x,9-I4).  See  Decree  ('/rA«^;)o(tfM).  Itbasbeen 
observed  that  one  object  of  these  appointments  may 
have  been  to  make  tbe  Jews  susplcioiu  of  Gentile 
customs  and  enlertainmeuta,  and  so  induce  them  to 
alMtaln  from  all  intercourae  with  tbem.  We  find  in 
the  New  Testament  that  tatM^  with  Gentiles  was  re- 
garded as  a  peculiar  aggravation  of  the  i 


w!th  tl 


1  (Ma» 


;  Acts 


i,  3).     It 


also,  that  the  flesh  of  many  of  tbe 
inimala  interdicted  was  unwbolesome,  and  others  were 
jl>)ect9  of  idolatrous  worship  smonit  the  heathen.  Tho 
:hief  design  of  the  regulation,  bowever,  appears  t 


(hich 


m  Creeds  from  the  Hturg}'  of  the  Church  of  Ireland 
and  at  last,  tbe  tbird  part  of  bis  Vindicaliaa  tjftht  Hit 
tvritt  n/t/ie  Old  and  .Vev  TatameiU  gave  occasion  t< 
legal  i^oceedings,  arrested  only  by  his  death  on  Fell. 
3Gth,  175S.  Among  bis  other  publications  are  Tie, 
Cinmologs  of  tie  Hebmo  BOk  Vindleatei  (Lond.  1747,  | 
4to)  J  A  DunrtaHoH  <m  FrofAtcji  (Lond.  1749,  Svo).— 
Kippia,  Itingrapliia  BrUamiea,  iii,  620. 

Clvan  0'"^i  '"i^'i  M^npuc)  ■■>d  Uhclead 

(X'S^,  dau'idco^aproi).  Thesewordaare  of  fluent 
occurrence  and  obvious  meaning  in  the  sacred  writ- 
ing* :  but  it  is  in  their  peculiar  application,  by  the  Ho- 
Mic  Iaw,  to  pereons,  animals,  and  things,  that  they  are 
BOW  to  Iw  considered.  In  order  to  partake  of  the  priv- 
ileges of  tho  Jewish  Church,  and  to  engage  acceptably 
in  ita  outward  urorsbip,  the  individual  must  not  only 
he  circumcised,  but  he  must  l>e  ceremonially  pore  or 
clean ;  that  is,  be  must  be  free  from  uncleanaess. 
How  the  varioua  kinds  of  unclean ness  were  contract- 
ed, what  time  it  continued,  and  what  was  the  proc«s 
of  pniiflcation,  we  find  particularly  described  in  Lev. 
xi-xv;  Num.iii.     See  Pcbii'icatioii. 

The  division  of  animali  into  clean  and  onclean  ex- 
isted before  the  Flood  (Gen.  vii,  3),  and  was  probably 
foonded  upon  the  practice  of  animal  sacriHce.  The 
regnlationa  concerning  clean  and  unclean  animals  are 
chiefly  recorded  in  Leviticus,  ch.  xi,and  Deuteronomy, 
cb.  xiv,  wbera  the  following  animals  are  pronounced 
imclean,  and  are  consequently  interdicted  to  be  used 
aa  food :  (1.)  Quadrupeds  whicb  da  not  ruminate,  or 
which  have  oncloven  feet.  (3.)  Serpents  andcteeping 
,  insects;  also  certain  insects  whicb  sometimes  fly  and 
sonwtime*  advance  upon  their  feet;  but  locusts,  in  all 
tbeirfcurstageeofexistenca,araaccountedclcan.  (S.) 
Certain  spedea  of  birds;  but  do  particular  characters 
an  given  for  dividing  them  hilo  dassea,  as  "  clean" 
or  "  unclean."  Judging  from  those  that  are  specified, 
aa  br  a*  tbe  obecnre  character  of  the  Hebrew  names 
will  admit,  it  will  Iw  found  that  birds  of  prey  general- 
ly are  rfijected,  whether  tbey  prey  on  lesser  fowls,  or 
on  animus,  or  on  fish ;  while  thoee  which  eat  vegeta- 
ble* an  admitted  as  lawful :  so  that  the  same  p  '  ' 
pie  is  observed,  in  a  certain  degree,  as  in  distinicuishing 
quadrupeds.  (4.)  Fish  without  scales,  and  also  those 
without  fin*.  (&.)  Animals  of  any  kind  which  had 
either  died  of  diseaae,  or  had  tteen  torn  by  wild  beasts 
(Exud.  xxil,Sl).    See  Amimau 

Tbe  animal  anbatances  interdicted  to  the  Helirew 
were;  (1.)  Blood (Lavit. xvli,  10 ;  xlx,  SS;  Deut  xi 
ie,2S:  XV,  23).  (S.)  The  Rit  covering  of  the  intei 
tine*,  termed  the  net  or  caul,  (a.)  Tbe  fht  upon  the 
inlestiixa,  called  the  meMnterv,  elr.  (4.)  Tbe  fat  of 
tbekidoey.  (fi.)  The  fatlailor  rumpof  certain  sheep 
(Exod.  ixix,  16,  32;  LaviL  ill,  4-9;  ii,  IS).  ~ 
Fooi>. 

What  waa  the  deaign  of  these  distinctions,  ant 
they  wan  abolished,  may  be  learned  with  sulBciei 
tnuej  tmm  a  compariaon  of  varioua  passages  of  Scrip- 


should  distlneuish  the  chosen  people  fi 
tions.  See  the  treatises  De  oni'moJAiu  au  uilerdiclu, 
by  Danz  (Jen.  1667)  and  MQnster  (in  Mentbenil  Thu. 
iiu.  ii.  477  aq.);  also  Neumann,  Vd>.  d.  Kailet  JVoui 
(Wittenb.  1741).     See  DMcLSAMHEaB. 

Cleanaa.    See  Pebificatidk. 

Cletir-atoiy  (or  Clkbb-stoky),  the  upper  part 
of  the  central  aisle  of  a  church,  raised  above  the  rooh 
of  tbe  adjoining  side  aislaii,  with  windows  to  light  the 
nave  below.  In  many  cases  the  clear-atory  is  evi- 
dently a  subaequent  addition  to  the  original  design, 
especially  when  the  high-|dtched  roof,  which  Included 
the  body  and  aisles  in  Its  span,  gave  way  to  a  flat  roar 
covering  the  nave  only.  The  walla  were  then  raised 
over  the  arches  of  the  nave  (o  receive  tbe  clear-atory 


Inrjr.  {Psrher*!  Cbni*ary.i 
CleaTaloDd,  John,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  lK>m  in  Canterbury,  Conu.,  April  11,  1732.  Ila 
was  expelled  from  Yale  College  for  attending  a  Sepa- 
raUstsV  meeting,  but  his  degree  was  afterwards  given 
to  him,  and  his  name  appears  as  a  graduate  of  1'4A. 
He  was  installed  pastor  over  a  newly-Drganlied  church 
in  Cbebacco,  Feb.  25,  17-17;  acted  as  cbaplain  at  Ti- 
condcruga  In  IT5H;  served  in  the  same  capacity  at 
Cambridge  In  1763,  and  in  New  York  in  1776.  He 
died  April  22,  1799.  Hia  church  at  Chebacco  was 
formed  by  a  secession  from  Mr.  Pickering's,  who  re- 
fused lo  allow  Wbitefield  to  preach  in  hie  pulpit.  Mr. 
Pickering  issued  a  pamphlet  soon  after  Mr.Cleave- 
land's  organisation,  to  which  be  replied  in  A  plain 
jVarraliee  bg  Ike  nea  Church.  Re  also  published  Cie- 
bacco  fi'arralivt  reseued  /ram  the  Chnrge  of  falieiood 
and  rarliaUtg  (1746) ;  an  Eons  to  drfind  nmr  ••/  Oe 
moit  iiapaiianl  Principki  n  Ihr  Protntaia  Rrfonntd 
Sytlnn  of  Ckriitiani^,  more  ftprdalls  Chritfi  Saerifia 
and  Alimeinml,  ngaintl  tht  injuriouM  Aiprrtumi  cait  cm 
Ihi  (one  iy  Zir.  Mnyhev,  in  a  TiHrnl^gtving  Sermon 
(1703),  which  elicited  from  Mayhew  a  pharp  rejoinder 
in  A  LtlUr  "/  Rfproaf  lo  Jo*»  Claaidand;  JtuHJka- 
H-m  of  hit  Chard,  from  the  Strictarn  nflhr  Rn.  S.  Wig- 
glunorti,  of  the  Hamlet,  and  lie  Rep.  Sirhard  Jaquei, 
■f  GhucrUer  (1765) ;  with  several  other  controversial 
pampbleti  and  a  (bw  sermons. — Spngue,  AnnaU,  i, 
458;  Allen,vtM.B/(y./>iWioit.ir5,a.v. 

Cleft  (?*<?;,  btki'o,  a  ^np  in  a  building,  Amos 
vl,  11 :  "  breach,"  laa.  xxll,  9 ;  SVtl,  ihe'ia,  a  tplit  in 
the  hoof  of  an  animal,  Dent,  xiv,  6 ;  tlao  rnpj.ncita- 


CLELAND  374  CLEMANGES 

ra*',  Bjtuu™  In  «  rock,  Ixu  \i,  J!  ;  0"";n,  r*  ^yapim', '  "i"!  CUInungei  «*nt  ■  le«M  of  the  ume  ch>ncl«r  tt 
«>^mlh«c™E.,C.nt.ii.H;Jer,  Ji»;ie;0bj.8).  Avigiioii.  But  U,*  c.rtinnl.  o' Avifc™"  n.™tl* 
or  CuFT  (n^E?,  fiefe.™*  .  m,««  in  .  rook,  Exod.  ^^^  ^^^^  jj^^^j^^  XIII.  Afler  l«m«  .l«t«J,  Ben.- 
sixiii,  22;  ^■'SO,  MipA',  a  rock  .^ifurB,  Im.  Ivli,  5;  did  secursd  reeo^nition  by  Chwlea  V I  and  the  P:Jis 
"top"  of  the  rock,  Judg.  xv,  8,  XI;  I«a.  ii,  21).  See  Universily,  but  ClimmnyM  was  inBtmrtnJ  to  THjuet 
Cav«;  Rock.  I  him  to  do  all  thM  might  bs  in  his  power  to  rod  the 

1..0   Biiu  .cuiu.^i  i^  -,.    1.  ;         h  «  .  '  the  Church,  and  recoro mended lo him hii  fnend  Pkiib 

!"         "rr  ,        .    .    ,' .  „™.h„  .„rf  _„.     Mrninij  of  C16m»nge»,  »nd  prev.ilsl  upon  him  to  ir- 

lto.o«d  Aprtl  14,  l«<i  in.  •«  obw  -">'•»"  iiL  of  F»..o  „d  ,h.  SortooL.  ..ppSS,  i.  1S6. 
"^i      ■    »      S;*^  i>  ™  n.2  ?™  »^,     Ij-  "-  ~.l.li.P  of.  p.llo«,l  o.;..!!,  d«:l.,>l  m »- 

ilod  ovor  New  Providenoe  nod  Cano  Run  (now  Hor-     '      ,         u-    ,■  „  ^  i„,.  ,i,.  „™  r-i.....„._ 

Of  b.  x.iih  ™ii.b,. .™  b.,..  bi.'..^iib  I  j;;^™  ?,^r.:,tr.tTbV!.'r;'s; 
::r.r,"r;™o'h.™",:"KXV/.'l,z'nT."; :  ';•"',■£ 'r;'  r^^rssiLi-r^s 

".,  /.Ti;  ..        J  .  1.-      'it      „  .  „i„,„5  I  nltion  of  Benedict,  whereonon  the  latter  laW  th«  hm 

men  atadled  cLvInity  under  him.     He  was  appointed      ..  .  _J\,„     fTi~.~~.  ...  ^h..- »4  .hi. 

one  of  the  .yoodicl  commtolon  to  the  Cumberland  I  "P?"  ""H  '"'l  """"f?"  /^"J''^^  *"  '^f  'u, 
Prwibvterian  difficulties.  Dr.  Cleland  WM  witbal  a  ,  '"'"^  ,  '  '".  "  ,  ftVi^w,*  „,/?„",  "'J, 
dUigeut  atndent,  end  wielded  U<  pen  with  ilRnal  abil-  ^^'i"^. '"?  '"^"P"  left  hU  po..Uon  at  the  p.p.1  ™rt. 
r«^i„«  th;  N..li^hU  and  Camnbelli^    Hi.  '  '"^  *'t'"^''  »"  ^"«!^:  """tJl''  ""^  '««"  '"»'."•■ 


r  against  the  Newlighta  and  Campbellites. 


ie  opponents  peruit' 


caliing  bim  the  author  of  the  bull  of  » 


principal  printed  vorka,  bealdes  Oeauimil  Srrn"ni,  i ' 

r'^^^^"^''yC'*!^:?,'*^"-r,™-'''"«r'?'l^''nl<^tion;"h8  -a.  accu«d   of  hit,h  teawn,  and 
—The  Sad-ii-Arian  DrUettd  (1815,  p.  101,  limo):—  ,  'n™t*nea  wiin  imprisonmeni.      in  n™"  "  ™M« 
C,irar™™  r^o^  (1.36,  V  I8i,  W ^-A'^ir^  !  «"• '^"'"'l^ 

ti,«,ffthi  Bodily  Ex.r^;\nBVA.Rtp,noryfo,ia\y.^''V*X       ^P™""*^,"^  !.°Z!3,"S).„       l!.  ^.  t^ 
.       *.     ,         ...  ....     I  tirement  he  devoted  his  attention  to  the  Bible,  wbich, 

.e  ststei,  had  until  tben  i«en  neglected  l.y  him. 


nee^g*  anit  revivals,  ex  ten  si 
We'st.     Dr.Cleland  died  jKn.31.1858.  in  the  Eiuhtieth  |  * 


:h  now  became  his  ftivorite  itady.     Beside 


,  r,  n     -I       -     r.- .   n     >  ."1    ■     1-         and  which  now  became  nis  tnvonie  itaay.     ncfiaes  a 

S   iuti;' ™;w1;rt;i  "r^, ' """»" "'  '•»■"  "  I'"  «"'!■  "■*'"•■'.  «•"'"•  •■• 

Spk!:H.i,b™,..dii.C^Thi.H.a.b,nd.        ;*•'»  >;  """  "/•■"'"•^■S'l'L.'jrK"' ^5 

'  "^      ■"  I  full  of  reformatory  ideas  a«  regarded  both  the  prerjil- 

Cl^mangea  ICiammgit  or  Cl-^miuigii),  Xicolas  Ing  corruptions  of  his  Church  and  Bome  of  the  doc- 
DB,  one  of  the  alilest  writers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  :  trlnes.  The  meet  Important  of  these  are  Defivtu 
Church  during  the  Middle  Ages.  He  wai  bom  about  trrni  (on  the  value  of  retired  life)  ;  Ik  fmctu  reran 
1360  In  the  village  of  Climanges,  in  the  province  of  '  adetriarim  Ton  the  spiritual  prolit  to  be  derived  from 
Champagne,  and  educated  In  the  College  of  Navarre  adveniity) ;  Dt  novi4/aHvilalibta  nnm  imtitfOtdu  (com- 
at  Paris.  As  early  as  1.S81  he  nave  public  lecturea  as  I  plaining  of  tlie  eiceasive  number  of  holiday,  whkh 
jVajuMr  ArHum.  In  1386  he  began,  in  the  same  in-  ''  promote  diuipation  instead  of  edification,  and  ciu« 
itltution,  to  study  theology  under  Pierre  d'Ailly,  who  |  the  Bible  to  be  forgotten  over  the  stories  of  salntr). 
exercised  a  great  inSuence  upon  him,  and  always  re-  In  ail  these  works  Cl^manget  recommended  the  Bible 
mained  his  friend.  In  1891  be  became  bachelor  of  the- !  as  the  purest  and  richest  source  of  Chri*lien  knowU 
ology,  nod  began  to  give  theological  lectures.  Being  edge  and  Christian  life.  The  decay  of  the  Chunh  he 
pDeaesaed  of  rare  talenia,  and  thoroughly  familiar  with  attributed  to  the  neglect  of  the  Bible ;  the  council^ 
"  writer*,  he  was  soon  regarded    In  bis  opinion,  could  claim  regard  fur  their  decisioM 


as  the  most  eloquent  member  of  the  Uuii-erslty  of 
Parii,  which  in  1393  elected  him  rector.  Henceforth 
ClAmanges  took  the  moi-t  active  part  in  the  efTorta  of 
the  University  in  behalf  of  a  thorough  refiinnatioa, 
which  constitute  so  important  a  part  of  medieval 
Church  bistort-.  Moat  of  the  letters  addressed  liy  the 
Univenity  to  the  popes  and  kings  of  this  time  emana- 
ted ^om  bia  pen.  In  the  same  year  in  which  he  was 
elected  rector  (1393)  be  addressed,  In  the  name  of  the 
Univeraity,  an  energetic  memoir  to  CharU     —     ■ 


_.ily  If  the  members  were  really  beliei 
they  were  more  concerned  for  the  aalvation  of  aonls 
than  fbr  secular  interests.  His  views  on  general  coon. 
cUs  were  fully  act  ftorth  in  a  little  work,  entitled  Dif 
puUf^  ik  coacili"  ffrnrral^  which  consists  of  three 
letters,  addressed,  in  1416  or  141C,  to  a  profesaor  at  tbe 
Paris  UnivfTsity  (printed  apparently  at  Vienna  in 
1432).  He  not  only  places  the  authority  of  genenl 
councils  over  the  authority  of  the  popes,  but  tin  (o- 
thority  ofthe  Bible  over  the  authority  of  the  coaneilp. 


France,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  put  an  end  to  the  He  dim 
schism  in  the  Church.  In  1394  he  compiled  a  second  ciis  the  Holy  Spirit  really  presided,  as  tbe  Holy  Spirit 
memorisl  on  the  basis  nf  tbe  opinions  of  all  the  pmmi-  '  would  not  assist  men  pursuing  secular  aims.  He  d(- 
nent  members  of  the  French  clergy,  which  had  been  nies  that  a  council  composed  of  ancb  men  represent) 
solicited  by  the  Sorlwnne.  In  accordance  with  these  Che  Church,  and  aaserta  that  God  alone  knows  who  are 
O|dniona,  he  proposed,  in  a  letter  to  Clement  YII,  three  his  people  and  where  the  Holy  Ghost  dwelK  and  that 
measures  for  tbe  reorganixation  ofthe  Church:  first,  there  may  be  times  when  tbo  Church  can  only  be 
tbe  abdicaUon  of  both  the  popes;  secondl)',  the  elec-  !  found  in  one  single  woman  (in  sola  fiofes'  mafifm- 
tlon  of  arbitors;  thirdly,  the  convocation  of  a  gen-  la  per  fmliani  mamre  tedtMiam).  Other  wnrki,  I" 
eral  council.  Another  letter  to  the  pope,  much  more  which  he  exprcMed  himself  even  more  freely,  hire 
severe  in  its  language,  whs  not  rent  off  because  lieen  lost,  and  perhaps  suppressed.  ChieSy  agiuwl 
Clement  VII  died  (September.  1394).  Charles  VI,  the  immoral  life  of  the  hi^rher  clergy  ho  wrote,  aboal 
following  the  advice  of  the  University,  requertcd  the  1111,  his  treatise  i)r  prrtulihai  yimrmiati:  He  •!« 
cardinals  of  Avignon  not  to  proceed  to  the  election  of  |  urgently  recommended  to  the  secular  anthoritlei  rf 
a  new  pope  until  they  had  come  to  an  understanding  his  country  the  teaching  ofthe  Bible  as  the  only  jsh 
with  the  cardinals  of  Rome,  and  with  Boniface  IX ;  I  remedy  against  the  continaal  civil  wars  and  dittBtr 


A]M 


He  alw 


,lh-. 


Tciml  poetical  ptecas,  which  are  tllallngiiitheil 
kr  dM  brUliuica  or  their  Utinitj. 

Of  lh«  Utter  y«av9  of  hla  lift  but  little  U  known. 
The  anoor;  ■!  Langren  he  sxchkai^ed  Tor  one  at  Ba- 
vitax^  Other  flccluiAfltical  dlgnltiM  irhich  wen  of- 
Irnd  In  him  ha  refnaed.  u  his  couKieaoe  did  not  Kllnw 
hha  Id  kccept  mote  beDsllcn  than  ons.  In  1-121  h« 
■Whndad  at  Cfautm  tha  libartiei  or  ths  Galilean 
Church.  In  1425  he  *g>in  bei^n  to  give  tbcoluKlcel 
tKtam  ID  tba  college  at  Ksvarrr,  and  hli  connection 
with  Ibii  Khool  conUnned  until  his  death.  Ths  year 
of  Ut  death  ie  not  known.  Even  bit  epitaph  (which 
wai  dHttoyad  in  1793)  did  not  >Ute  it. 

A  work  entitled  Ik  ruma  tkrletii,  or  Di  cormpta 
Ecdmt  Matm,  which,  ilnce  Trttbamiiii  (fiatid.  Senpt. 
£xfcf.),  is  uiuaHy  clawed  among  Ihe  writingi  of  CW- 
■UBget,  cmaot  be  from  him.  Its  Ungnnge  is  more 
*Ment  than  CUmanget  ever  indul)(ed  In.  It  aboumle 
is  attack*  upon  Itenedjct  XIII  at  a  time  when  Cl£- 
muiKEe  wa*  hia  eecretary  and  eloquent  champion.  It 
*u  undoDbtedlj  the  work  of  Htine  member  of  the 
Paria  ITnivenity.  Equally  certain  ia  the  Bpurlciua- 
neat  of  the  work  ApiMeli  (1.  e.  lUlrrm  dimiuorirrj  rl 
rapnuio  ptr  mationem  gaUiaBiam  djmimM  cardinali- 
faif,  etc.,  which  waa  written  at  CoutUnce  during  the 
aeafian  of  the  council.  Ho»t  of  bin  works  were  pub- 
liitaed  by  Lydhia  (Leyden,  1613.  2  vols.  4to),  bat  some 
of  them  atni  lie  aa  nnedited  MSS.  in  librariee.  See 
Hinng,  RtoLEnrytlap.  li,  '-ll  aq.  ^  U'etzer  o.  WeDe, 
Kirtiat-LaxiJam,  ii,  574  aq. ;  Neinder,  Oi.  tliit.  v,  fiS 
sq. ;  HaahMni,  Ch.  Hitt.  I,  422,  and  a  monngrapb  of 
HOBtl,  yicolat  CirnuaiglM.  la  vie  el  tafcn'ti  (.'^trasb. 
I««,8to);  Gieaeler,  CA.  TFlX.  per.  ui,div.  iv,  §  118; 
Hasr,  Ck.  niMarj,  p.  32S,  814  \  Prab^ian  Quart.  Rt- 
linr.  March,  1857. 

ClBiii«nB,  TiTna  F1.ATID8,  aumamed  Alexaiedhi- 
in,  waa  a  native  oT  either  Athens  or  Alexandria,  and 
■■■riihed  in  the  relgna  of  Sererui  and  CiracalU  (the 
4Ua  of  hia  Urtb  being  placed  about  A.D.  ICO,  and 
that  of  hia  death  tiom  A.D.  21fi  to  220).  He  was  in 
•ariy  lifk  ao  ardent  stndrnt  of  litrrature  and  philoa- 
tfby,  especially  of  the  Stoic  and  Platonic  rcboola,  and 
na'led  hy  bia  atudiea  to  Cbriatianity.  To  maater  its 
UMory  and  doetriDes  be  viaitad  dllferent  countries,  and 
received  instniction  fmm  various  masteni,  of  whom  he 
Unuelf  apaaks  tbna:  "Tboie  vigoroua  and  animated 
diseonrves  which  I  waa  privileged  to  hear,  and  of 
blessed  and  tmly  remarkahle  men.  Of  these,  the  one 
■i  Gnvce,  an  Ionic;  the  other  In  Magna  Grncia;  the 
Itit  of  them  from  Csle^yrla,  the  seitond  from  Egypt, 
aad  othen  in  the  EasL  Tha  one  was  bom  in 'the 
laad  of  Aasyria,  and  the  other  ■  Hebrew  in  raleatine. 
<rhsn  I  came  npon  the  laat  (ba  was  the  flrst  In  pow- 
(r),  having  tracked  him  out  coincealed  in  Ei^-pt,  I 
(cnnd  reat.  He,  the  trw,  the  Sicilian  bee,  gathering 
At  (poil  of  tbe  flowers  of  tlie  prophetic  and  apoMolic 
Madow,  angendered  In  tha  (ools  of  his  hearers  a 
4ctthkM  element  of  krowledi'e"  {Stron.  lib.  I,  ch.  i, 
p.U(.vol.l,of  tranilatioD  in  "Anti-Niesna  Chriatlan 
Ubraiv"). 

TUa  tut  teacber  was  (according  to  Enaebins)  Pan- 
taaooa,  bead  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria, 
by  wbow  influence  anme  suppose  Clemens,  aa  yet  only 
a  dncerc  inquirer,  waa  lad  fully  to  embrace  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  He  i*  called  a  preabyter  by  early  Chris-  j 
tiaa  writera,  having  prohahly  been  appointed  tn  that  | 
silt*  by  tha  Church  at  Alexandria,  and  almut  IflO  Le- ' 
caaM,  according  to  some  the  aaalstant,  according  to ' 

etrt  on  fail  mlaaionary  tour  to  Ihe  Eairt  He  continned 
Inthataflca  nntlltbe  persecution  under  Severoa,  A.D.  ' 
Va. oompelUd  him  to  leave  Alexandria.  The  wrilira  \ 
ofUwuliclea  in  Smith's  OW. -/Crwli  ohIAhb.  AiV^. , 
mi  JlyOoL  and  the  Aew  A  mtr.  Cfdcpaiia  atale  Ibal ; 


5  CLEMENS 

Clemena  returned  to  Alexandria  before  A.D.  Ill,  and 
then  becama  the  master  of  tha  achool  aa  aucceator  of 
Pantaenua ;  but  tba  weight  of  authority  hvors  the  ea> 
tier  date,  and  bia  return  Co  that  place  ia  doubtful.  Vie 
know  scarcely  anything  of  the  closing  years  of  his  life. 
He  appears  to  have  bt'cn  about  210  or  211  in  Jeraaa- 
icm,  far  be  is  mentioned  liy  Euaebius  (lib.  vil,  cb.  ii) 
as  the  hearer  of  a  letter  IVom  Alexander,  bishop  of  Je- 
roaslem,  then  himself  a  priaoner  for  the  Gospel's  eake, 
to  the  Church  at  Antiucb.  Thb  Alexander  and  the 
more  fomoua  OHgen  are  reckoned  among  hla  papils. 

Of  the  eariy  ChristUn  writers,  Clpmcns  was  the 
most  learned  in  the  history,  philosophy,  and  acience 
of  IbanatioDiof  hiaday,  and  the  influence  nf  hisslnd- 
ies  ia  apparent  in  hia  wricinga,  which  dirplay  ralbir 
the  speculative  philosopher  thaji  tbs  accurate  theolo- 
gian—more the  fanciful  interpreter  than  the  careful 
exponnder  of  tbc  Scriptures  on  true  exegetical  princi' 
pies.  Many  of  bia  workahavc  been  lost,  butthnse  ex- 
tant are  the  largest  belonging  to  that  early  period,  anil 
vei7  valuable  for  the  light  they  throw  on  the  social 
condition  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  bis  ilay,  and  fur  the 
Information  which  they  conUin  in  regard  \n  the  tjf. 
tema  of  ancient  pbiloaophy,  the  heresies  and  achltms 
In  the  primitive  Church,  as  well  as  for  the  numeroua 
extracts  from  non-extant  anthers.  His  tbiee  chief 
writings  form  a  aeries,  snd  were  written  apparently 
with  a  common  object,  vli.  to  convert  the  heathen 
snd  edncBle  them  in  tbe  princlplea  and  prsctica  of 
the  Cbriatian  life.  They  are,  1.  Xoyo^  trpntpimnii 
rpif  'EXX^va^.  Giiorlalio  ad  Htllmrt  (Appeal  to  (be 
Greek"),  an  apologetic  work,  in  which  tbe  absnrdlty, 
obscenity,  cruelty,  impostures,  snd  aordidneis  of  hea- 
then worship  ate  cleariy  set  fbrtfa  in  contrast  with  tbe 
simplicity  and  purity  of  Christian  faith  and  practice. 
S,  Wnda-^vyiz,  P<riagrgta  (Instructor),  a  treatise  on 
Cbriatian  educatian,  in  three  books,  addreraed  to  tboaa 
who  bad  been  converted  from  heathenism.  In  Book 
1  we  have  set  fonb  the  function,  tbe  means,  metboda, 
and  enda  of  the  ^'  Instructor,"  who  ia  Chriat,  lauding 
the  believers  "  throujih  paths  of  virtue  and  truth"  to 
salvation,  not  through  fear  aa  he  did  the  laraelites, 
but  by  love,  the  guiding  principle  of  the  new  and  bet- 
ter covenant.  Book  II  contains  rnlea  for  the  regula- 
tion of  life,  emiiracing  minute  details  as  to  food,  drink, 
behavior,  etc.,  recommending  temperance,  puritv,  mod- 
esty, and  frugality.  Book  III  begins  with  an'exam- 
ination  or  tbe  grounds  of  true  beanty,  showing  it  to 
be  intellectual,  and  founded  on  reason  and  love ;  then, 
in  considering  the  various  mode*  in  which  men  ha\'e 
eougbt  to  add  lo  beanty,  strongly  reprobates  luxurious 
dress  and  living,  etc.  Its  satire  of  the  follies  and  vices 
of  the  times  is  caustic  and  humorous.  S.  "ZTpuifiatxli: 
or  IrfHi'riarn.  in  cdgbt  books,  of  which  the  eiglith  ia  loat 
(the  imperfect  treatiae  on  logic,  standint:  at  present  aa 
such,  belonging  to  acme  other  work).  Tbe  word  s'roni- 
nCoi,  meaning  patch-work  ('jiiu  Kirie  confrr'uiii),  Is 
significant  of  the  miscellaneous  character  of  the  work, 
wbicb  is  discursive  and  unmethodical,  and  not  unaptly 
likened  by  its  author  to  "a  Chickly-plaoled  mountain, 
where  fruit  and  other  trees  an  confusedly  grouped  t4>- 
gether,  so  aa  to  baffle  the  plunderer,  while  the  carehil 
husbandman  would  And  and  Iransplantin  fitting  order 
snch  as  were  desirable  for  friiit  or  oraamenti  so  Ihe 
mysteries  of  Christian  bith,  veiled  herein  hum  imper- 
tinent or  Ignorant  curioeiCy,  will  discover  their  rich 
treasures  to  the  honest  and  intelligent  seeker  of  the 
truth"  (Strom,  lib.  vil,  p.  716,  Potter's  cd.).  The  ob- 
ject of  the  work  is  "to  furnish  materials  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  true  gnosis,"  or  "ChrlsBan  pbiloaophy, 
on  the  basis  of  faith,"  for  those  who  bad  been  trained 
for  it  liy  the  precrding  works.  Book  I,  of  which  the 
l*ginning  is  lost,  descants  on  the  utility  of  philosophy, 
us  preparing  the  heathen  for  the  reception  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  Christians  for  the  defence  of  their  Ikith.  main- 
taining that  the  good  in  heathen  philosophy  was  de- 
rived from  the  Hebrews.     Book  II  treat*  first  oT  faith 


CLEMENT  n7tt  CLEMENT  OF  ROME 

and  repentance,  combating  tbe  crron  oflbe  liasilidt  i  Woikt.  vol.  U  (Lond.  1S88,  p  3S0-SS9:  CUrka,  Sat. 
>[U  and  Vslentiniani ,  auerla  tbe  rraedDm  of  mam  /jteradm  (N.  ¥.  183U).  p  109-11B,  EumLiui. //iXor. 
will,  and  preuDtJi  tha  views  of  diSknnt  pliiluMphen  Af cJiu.  lib.  v  et  vi ,  Joanmi  oj  Saend  Lu.  OcL  ]e52.  p. 
in  regard  to  nmrriage,  wbicb  Clement  deteudi  on  the  129 ;  Keinkens,  Dt  CltmtMe  Pmtfttro  Alaoudrimo, 
gniunda  oftfae  Datural  coafonnation  orUu  Hiaa.  tha  ' //omtiK,  Scriplon,  Pkiioiopio,  Tktoioyo  (VratisUv, 
caromaiid  of  God  (Gen.  i,  28),  and  the  mutaal  *>d  in  ISol.  8va)  ^  lloefer  .Vouo.  Biog.  Cm.  t.  t.  ;  Freppel, 
alekneit  and  age  rendered  liv  hoiband  and  wire,  and  CltnnUirAlrx<mdiitiPanB,18ei6);  Ki}-e,  ICrfftv*  "^ 
pusota  and  children,  la  Book  111,  continuing  the  .  t^iuuiu  o/'CbnHou  of  Alexandria  (Load.  IHAS.  Kvo). 
Mme  8nb}ect,  be  candemni  tbe  oplniona  of  the  Mar-  |  ClMnant  (KXqfUfc  for  La-U  dtmau,  narq/U).  ■ 
donitae,  Carpocratians,  and  otber  beretlca  who  opposed  '  penoa  (appareDtlj'  a  Chriatlan  of  Pbilip|ii)  inenciuued 
man-iMce  for  dllTennt  and  ointimdlclory  reaaons,  al- ;  by  Paul  (Phfl.  iv.  S)  at  ona  irhoaa  name  waa  to  the 
leginK  In  aupport  of  it  the  words  or  St 'fan  I  (1  Tim  !  book  of  life  (q.  v.),  A.D.  S7.  This  Clamcnt  waa,  \>y 
Iv,  1-3),  and  (be  examples  of  tha  aposllaa  Petar  and  tbe  andeat  Church.  Idantlflod  with  tbe  bishop  of  Roroe 
Philip,  wbo  were  marriad  and  had  chlldnin.  Unok  IV  of  the  same  name  (Easab.  ffM.  EcehM.  iil.  4 ;  Oxtlitai. 
discourses  of  Cbristian  perfbction  as  axemplJHtd  in  the  '  .ilfKWt  vii,46,  Orlgen,  ToL  1,  p.  £62.  ed.  Lommatzach; 
Christian  mnrtyr,  who  is  led  to  martyrdom  noCthrougb  |  and  Jerame,  Seriptar.  Eed.  p.  17S,  a);  and  that  Dpii>. 
fear  of  punishment  or  hope  of  reward  bereafter,  but  ion  baa  naturally  been  fallowed  bj  Boman  Catholic 
ttota  lore  to  Christ,  and  who  does  not  needleaaly  pro-  eipoaitors.  It  cannot  now  ba  proved  iocacrect;  and, 
Toke  hU  fate,  but  only  accepts  it  cheerfully  when  In  fact, It  la  not  i'nprobable  in  itself.  There  are  ea- 
called  upon  to  be  in  that  way  a  witness  for  tbe  truth,  aayi  on  hit  life,  identity,  and  character  as  a  teacher. 
The  chief  aim  of  Book  V  is  to  prove  that  the  Greeks  b?FeBerlein(Alti>rr,lTS8),Freadenber8er(Lips.l755), 
derived  most  of  tbeir  wisdom  ^m  tboaa  called  by  Frommann  (Cobl.  1768),  Roodhilni  (Rom.  1606).  See 
them  barbariaoa.  and  especially  from  Hoees  and  the   Cleuent  or  Bonk. 

Hebrew  prophets;  but  it  also  entert  upon  a  long  and  '  Clement  OF  Rons  (Clehehs  Roiukhb).  One 
interesting  digression  on  tbe  ongin  and  use  of  aym-  of  the  early  presbylera  of  tha  Church  in  Rome;  prob- 
bola,  and  makes  many  valuable  ttatementa  In  regard  ably  a  presidins  presbyter,  prtnuu  inter  parti,  after- 
to  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  and  the  dress  snd  cere-  wards  called  bbbop.  Irenvup.  In  bit  adv.  I/»r.  (iii,  S, 
menial  wrvlces  of  the  Hebrew  priests.  This  episode  S},  writtan  between  182-IB8  A.D.,  makea  him  tbe  third 
ii  one  of  the  most  cnriooa  relics  of  andquity,  and  the  In  order  after  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  Linus  being 
book  abounds  In  quDtations  from  andent  antbors.  tbe  lint,  and  Cletoa  or  Anaeletus  tbe  second.  The 
Books  VI  and  VII  portray  the  true  Gnostic,  the  per-  Clemmtimti  give  a  diflbrent  oidar,  whkh  waa  followed 
Act  Christian,  who  ia  presented  as  a  "  complete  model  by  Tertulliao.  Bnt  Euaebius,  who  appears  to  have 
of  moral  conduct,"  not  so  much  desirous  of  living  aa  taken  gnat  pains  to  be  accarale,  and  bad  acceaa  to  an- 
of  living  rightly,  controlling  his  passions  and  regula-  tborlties  no  longer  extant,  preferred  tbe  ordei  of  Ire- 
ting  his  desires  in  conformity  with  the  btws  of  Christ,    nieus.     He  also  adde  tbe  date*.     Clement,  he  aayi 

A  small  work,  Ti^  u  at^Z^iuva^  nXoiaias  i  (ITjbU  (»ul.  iii,  S4),  died  in  tbe  third  year  of  TrB)an,  <■  hav- 
noi  man  nay  be  eaerdf)  is  also  attributed  to  Clemens,  Ing  for  nine  years  anperintended  the  preaeblnK  of  the 
Tbit  treatise  is  an  examination  of  tbe  words  of  Christ  Ulvine  Word."  At  Trajan  became  emperor  on  tbe 
(Hatt.xii,24;  Luke  xTlii,9S),  and  aims  to  showthat  death  of  Nerva,  Jan.  S3,  98  A.D., the  to-called  epiaco- 
tbese  words  do  not  require  tbe  renunciation  of  worldljr  pite  of  Clement  will  have  for  ita  termini  91  or  93^1M 
goods  aa  a  condition  of  sal\-ation;  that  tbe  dispoeition  or  101  A.  D.  Irenms  speaks  of  him  as  "  having  ae«B 
of  the  eonl  is  tha  eeeenlial  thing,  and  that  riches  ma;  ,  and  conversed  with  tbe  blessed  apoatlea"  who  "  found- 
tie  the  malarials  and  inttrumentt  of  good  works  for  ed  tbe  Cfaurch  In  Borne,"  1.  e.  F«ter  and  Paul.  Ori- 
tboee  wbo  rightly  use  them.  |  gen  (Coauunl.  w  Jaun.  vi,  86)  Identiflea  him  with  tbe 

The  following  works  of  Clement  are  not  extant  Clement  of  PhilitH<iani  iv,  S.  Thii  may  have  been 
(tbe  fragments  which  have  been  collected  are  found  in  only  a  conjecture,  or  it  may  have  been  a  tradition.  It 
the  edition  of  Potter,  vol.  ii .  in  Fabricius's  ffippolftut  was,  at  anv  rate,  tbe  opinion  of  Eosebins  and  the  early 
at  tbe  end  of  vol.  Ii ;  and  in  Galland's  BibHolh.  Patr.  writers,  and  is  in  ittelf  not  at  all  Improbable.  Thirty 
and  MIgne'e  Patroiogia):  'YicoTviriaatit;  ritpi  roC  years  would  certainly  t>e  time  enough  for  a  prominent 
vairxa;  ntpiNqirriiac;  lltpi  mraXoXioc;  Ilporpiw  Pbllipplan  (o  become  a  prominent  Roman.  Modem 
rucAc  c'c'TrofWvqv;  Kotnui' 'BnXqiTinrTriicoc  i  i''c  ruv  attempts  to  make  out  his  origin  from  the  epistle  which 
llpupiin|f  'Afiiuci  Uipi  wpoj'oiacj  "(ipoi  Siafvpot.  bears  his  name  have  biled.  Judging  ft™  the  epii- 
Clemens  refers  to  some  other  treatises  at  either  wrlu  tie,  he  may  have  been  either  a  Jew,  ae  Tjllemont  ar- 
ten  or  intended  to  be  written  by  him,  but  we  have  no  guea,  OT  a  Roman,  as  Upeius  ar^fuee,  and  tbe  oue  aboat 
mention  of  them  elaewbere.  as  probably  as  the  other.    HuAnns,whodied4I0  A.D., 

The  fint  edition  of  tbe  three  principal  works  of  was  the  flrtt  to  call  him  a  martyr.  Tbe  langnaire  of 
Clement  was  made  by  Petrus  Victorlus  (Florence,  Eusebius  implies  that  he  died  a  natural  death,  which 
1»0,  fol. :  a  Lutin  translation  In  1551).  It  was  fol-  Is  altogether  likely  to  have  been  the  case  if  bia  dstei 
lowed  by  an  edition  by  Fr.  S^lburg  (Heidelberg,  1G93,  have  been  corrpcily  given.  The  Mar^yrdmt  a/St. 
fol.).  A  Greek-Latin  edition  was  published  by  D.  Clenau,  In  tbe  (iri>t  volume  of  the  Patrtt  ApottoUd  of 
llelnsins  (Levden,  1616.  fol- ;  reprinted  Paris,  1629,  Cotckrius,  is  a  puerile  fabrication  of  no  great  antiqnj. 
Paris,  1641,  Cologne,  1688).  The  best  edition  of  all  ty.  Ita  story  Is  that  Clement  was  flrst  banished  by 
the  works  of  Clemens,  genuine  and  doubtful,  is  that  Trajan  to  Cheiwnesus,  and  afterwards  drowned  In  tbe 
by  the  Anglican  Bishop  Potter  (a  vols.  fol.  Oxford,  |  Black  Sea.  On  reaching  his  place  of  exile,  he  found 
1715,  with  valuable  notes  and  a  commentary  to  C!lem-  two  thousand  Christians  condemned  to  work  in  a  mar- 
ens  by  Gentianun  Mervatusj  reprinted  at  Venice.  I'&T,  ble  quarry.  As  the  water  they  used  had  to  W  felcbed 
3  vols,  fol.,  and  [without  ttie  notes  and  the  comment-  |  six  milei,  Clement  caused  a  spring  to  bnak  forth  close 
ary]byOI>crholier,atWnTXburg,177B-T9,8vols.8vo).  to  the  quarry.  This  ledto  tbe  conversion  ofagnat 
New  edilion«areliy  K1otz(l.eip>.lK}t-34,4  vols.evo)  mnltitude  In'the  province,  and  tbe  building  in  one  rear 
and  by  Abbj  Migne  (in  his  Palrohi-iia).  An  excellent  of  teventy-Ave  churcbea.  And  thia,in  its  turn,  led  to 
translation  in  English  of  the  Appr-il,  the  Ptningegait,  Clement's  martyrdom.  An  anchor  wa«  fastened  to 
and  tbe  iirst  book  of  the  .Slnimalrii  (tlie  remainder  of  his  neck,  and  he'  was  cast  into  the  sea.  The  people, 
the  work  to  follow  in  a  subsequent  volume),  l>  found  liewailing  him,  prayed  Cod  to  discover  to  them  bit  rt- 
In  vol.  iv  of  the  ABl^Xiane  Chrieliai  LU,rary  (Edinh.  mnlni^  In  answer  to  their  praver,  the  sea  receded. 
1867).— Schaff,  Ch.  Ifitt.  i,  305  et  al. ;  Xeander,  Ci.  ,  and  the  people,  going  In  on  dry  ground,  fonnd  the  body 
Bill,  i,  631  eq.,  and  Hut.  Dagmai,  i,  l»  et  al. ;  Giese-  of  the  holy  martjT  buried  with  the  anchor  in  a  marble 
ler,  Ch.  Hill,  per,  i,  div.  ii,  uliap.  iii,  §  til;   Liirdnar,  i  tomb,  but  welo  not  permitted  to  ramova  U.     Eroy 


CLEMENT  OF  ROME  3; 

jtmr,  an  tbe  uiniversaiy  or  the  nuitjTdom,  the  ua 
np«iU  tUi  minde  of  ncediog  for  uven  day*.  An- 
other ftbl*  conttounda  Clemeot  lbs  presbyCer  with  T. 
flawm  CUmaa,  the  eooBul,  and  caniln  to  tbe  empBror 

Donitian,  bj  wbom  he  waa  put  to  daath  on  a  cliarge 
of  "alheUm,"  one  or  tbe  chari^a  then  current  againM 
Chiutiani.  Sach  falilea,  in  the  absence  of  Bathentic 
meniDTiala,  are  not  to  be  wondered  at.  The  wonder  u 
that  tbe  aDtbentic  memorials  are  so  meagre;  that  of 
tbe  real  Clement — a  man  so  canepicuoiu,  able,  and  in- 
floentisl — there  ia  m>  little  known. 

Of  the  writinga  falnely  ascribed  to  Clanient  of  Rome 
notice  ia  taken  in  another  ■rticle.  See  Clbhehtineb. 
The  odIj  genuine  document  ia  bit  EpitlU  lo  Ikt  Corin- 
IMdu,  eommonlf  called  the  Firil,  bat  improperlf ,  since 
the  so-called  Second  EfnttU  ia  not  his,  and  ia  not  an 
cpiitle,  bnt  only  tbe  fragment  of  a  homily,  later,  per- 
haps, by  nearly  a  hundred  years.  The  only  known 
manuscript  of  this  epistle  Li  tbe  one  appended  to  tbe 
Alexandrian  Codex  of  tbe  Scriptnres  sent  by  Cyril 
Lncu  to  Charles  1  in  1628,  and  now  tbe  proper^  of 
the  British  Mu»uin.  Throughout  the  maniiscript  are 
many  lacntm,  generally,  howeTer,  of  only  single  words 
DT  syllables.  Tbe  only  considerable  gap,  occasioned 
apparently  by  tbe  loss  of  a  leaf,  Is  near  tbe  end  of  the 
epistle,  between  chapters  bl  and  &S.  Here  may  have 
belonged  certain  ancient  citations  from  Clement  which 
cannot  now  be  verified.  Some  expressions,  like  \m~ 
CDC  in  the  10th  chapter,  hare  a  suspicioDi  look;  hut 
of  the  snbstantial  integrity  of  the  epistle  there  ia  no 
good  reason  for  serious  doubt.    That  it  came  from  tbe 

ia  now  generally  conceded.  It  appeara  to  have  been 
In  the  hands  of  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  when  writing  to 
tbe  Philippiana  as  early,  perhaps,  as  116,  certainly 
not  much  later  than  loD  A.D.  It  is  referred  to  as  the 
work  of  Clement  by  Dionyslns  of  Corinth  in  a  letter 
to  Soter  of  Rome,  which  moat  have  been  written  be- 
tween 170-176  A.D.  Irensna,  hi  tbe  section  already 
cited  (ode.  Ilcrr.  iii,  S,  8),  apeaks  of  it  as  a  very  able 
epistle,  sent  to  the  Church  in  Corinth  liy  the  Church 
in  Some  under  tlte  episcopate  of  Clement.  Origen, 
who  died  254  A.D.,  speaks  of  it  as  written  by  Clement 
So  also  Clement  of  Alexandria  [f  !!0].  who  frequently 
and  fteely  quotes  from  it,  and  even  calls  the  aathor 
of  it  "the  opostfa  Clement."  Enseblus, whose  Hiatoiy 
was  written  about  325  A.D.,  ascribes  it  to  Clement, 
and  apeaks  of  it  aa  having  been  "  publicly  read  in  very 
many  churches  both  in  former  times  and  in  our  own" 
{Hill,  ill,  IS).  Jerome  (f  430),  in  bis  .De  Vhrii  IButn. 
ina,  S  16,  reports  it  as  still  "publicly  read  in  some 
place*."  But  no  one  of  these  writers  anywhere  spcakg 
of  It  as  an  inspired  bonk.  Though  highly  priied, 
neiriier  this,  nor  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  nor  the 
Shepherd  of  Hennas,  was  ever  included  in  anv  ancient 
list  nf  anthoiiUtive  books.  (See  Westcott,  Canon  of 
tke  .Vets  Tatament,  Appendix  B.) 

This  epistle,  ai  we  now  have  it,  consists  of  fiffy-nina' 
short  chapters— «ome  of  them  very  short — whose  total 
bulk  is  about  one  third  greater  than  that  of  the  six- 
teen chapters  of  St.  Psnl's  First  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians. Presbyten  of  tbe  Church  in  Corinth  had  been 
nnjnetly  depoeed  frma  office ;  a  bitter  dissension  hart 
broken  oat,  and  this  epistle  was  written  by  Clement 
in  the  name  of  the  Church  in  Home,  in  order,  If  possi- 
ble, to  end  the  strife.  It  was  sent  by  tbe  hands  of 
three  messengers,  Claudius  Ephelnis,  Valerius  Biton, 
and  FortunatuB,  who,  it  waa  hoped  (chap,  lix),  might 
bring  back  the  good  news  of  peace  and  harmony  re- 
stored. In  tarai  it  resembles  tbe  Canonical  Epistles, 
beginning  with  a  salutation  and  concluding  with  a 
benediction.  In  t>ie  Hrst  three  chapters,  the  Corin- 
thians an  first  praised  for  their  former  virtues,  and 
then  sharply  rebuked  for  the  scandals  which  had  oc- 
curred. The  next  nineteen  chapters  are  devoted  to 
histarical  Ulustratioas,  drawn  trvm  the  Old  and  Kew 
Teatamenta,  of  the  evils  flowing  from  jealousy  and 


CLEMENT  OF  ROME 

envy ;  followed  by  exbftrtations  to  repentance,  bamll- 

the  exhortations  are  continued  in  view  of  the  prom- 
ised coming  of  Christ  and  their  own  reaarrection ; 
laivation  by  grace  through  faith  is  tanght ;  and  good 
worka,  in  their  proper  relation  to  faith,  are  strongly 
insisted  upon.  Twenty-one  chapters  are  then  devoted 
lo  the  special  purpose  of  the  episile,  discussing  the 
genera)  subject  of  ecclesiastical  organization  and  or- 
der, and  urging  the  Corinthians  to  put  an  and  lo  their 
grievoua  aeditjon.  The  last  two  chapters  contain  a 
prayer  for  helping  grace,  with  a  Imnediction. 

As  to  tbe  dale  of  this  epistle,  Kefele,  who  agrees 
with  Cave,  Dodwell,  Flear}-,  and  others  in  assigning 
the  episcopate  of  Clement  to  the  years  68-77  A,D.,  re- 
fers it  to  the  time  of  Nero  But  tbe  mention  made  in 
tbe  first  chapter  of  "sudden  and  successive  trials" 
which  had  befallen  tbe  Roman  Church  seems  lo  re- 
quire a  later  date.  The  Titbingen  school  put  it  into 
the  second  century.  But  recent  critical  authority 
preponderates  decidedly  in  favor  of  96-98  A.D.  Fall- 
ing thns  within  the  apostolic  age,  and  yet  of  consider- 
ably later  date  than  the  great  bulk  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, special  interest  attaches  to  this  epi«tie.  It  may 
be  conridered : 

1.  In  compaiiaon  with  the  canonical  Ixioks.  It  is 
evidently  modelled  after  the  canonical  epistles,  and 
yet  is  decidedly  interior  to  them.  In  regard  to  lan- 
gua^  three  words  used  by  Clement  are  found  only  in 
the  First  Epistle  of  Peur;  eleven  only  in  the  e|iist)es 
of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  twelve  only  in  the  eplsUea 
of  Paul.  (See  Westcott,  p.  BO.)  The  book  of  which 
it  most  reminds  us  is  the  Ejuatls  lo  the  Hebrews. 
Hence  an  ancient  tradition,  reported  by  Eueebius 
(//id.  vi,  23)  on  the  anthori^  of  Origen,  that  Clement 
was  tbe  author  also  of  that  epistle.  But  besides  tbe 
many  points  of  dissimilarity  which  dlecradit  this  par- 
ticular tradition,  there  is  a  marked  inferiority  pervud- 
ing  the  ejdstie  of  Clement  as  compared  not  only  with 
the  Epistle  to  tbe  Hebrews,  but  with  all  the  rest  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  nacle  powerfully  as  an  argu- 
ment for  the  Inspiration  of  the  canonical  books.  The 
Old  Testament  quotations  are  more  extended;  fanciful 
Interpretations  are  given,  as  of  the  scarlet  cord  let  down 
by  Robab  typifying  tbe  blood  of  Christ ;  bbles  are  in- 
troduced, aa  of  the  phtenix  in  treating  of  tbe  leeur- 
rection;  attempts  are  made  at  line  writing,  as  in  tbe 
twentieth  chapter,  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  or- 
der and  harmony  of  nature  ;  with  a  tendency  through- 
out to  expatiatlon,  which  stands  in  strong  omtraM 
with  the  soberness,  simplicity,  terseness,  and  vigor  of 
the  apostolic  epistles.  A  line  has  thus  been  deeply 
drawn  between  the  inspired  and  uninspired  documenU 
of  the  early  Church. 

2.  With  respect  to  the  canon  iteelf.  Of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament but  little  needs  to  be  said.  In  the  way  either 
of  express  citation  or  of  marked  resemblance,  nearly 
every  book  is  recogniaed.  Two  at  least  of  the  apoc- 
ryphal books  are  quoted.  Clement  made  use  of  tlie 
Septuagint,  and  quotes  more  accurately  than  some  of 
the  fathers,  Indicadng  that  be  either  referred  to  a 
manuscript  or  had  a  l«ller  memory  than  common. 
The  text  employed  by  him,  Hilgenfeld  says,  accords 
neither  with  the  Alexandrian  nor  the  Vatican  Codex, 
but,  where  these  are  at  variance,  steers  between  them, 
agreeing  somdimes  with  the  one,  sometimes  with  the 
other.  In  quoting  from  tbe  New  Testament,  Clement 
never  calls  it  "  Scripture"  or  "  Scriptnres,"  aa  be  does 
tbe  Old  Testament ;  but  Individual  writers  are  either 
quoted  or  referred  to,  and  in  a  way  which  implies  his 
belief  that  they  had  an  authority  above  his  own. 
ApoloKiiing  for  the  attitude  he  assumes,  be  exhorts 
tbe  Corinthians,  aa  thoUKh  that  must  end  ail  contro- 
venv,  to  "take  In  their  hands  the  epistle  of  tbe  bless- 
ed apostle  Paul."  Besides  the  Gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Lake,  tbe  books  indicated  are  Romans,  I  Corin- 
thians, Epbeelans,  Qebrewr,  and  James;  perbapa  also 


CLEMENT  3' 

1  Hmoth}'  and  Titni.  In  short,  tb«  Hugo  is  preciae- 
Ij  what  we  aboald  expect  wbik  the  caDon  vroa  not  yet 
Ibnaed,  but  only  eilenily  IbnnidK. 

a.  With  respect  to  the  polity  of  the  early  Church. 
The  object  umed  at  in  the  epistle  called  (or  certain 
definite  atatementa  on  thii  point.  And  these  are  in 
cornpleta  accordance  with  the  representBliuns  of  lbs 
inspired  books.  In  Clement,  as  in  the  Acta  and  Epis- 
tlea  of  the  New  Tesbiment,  aeveral  features  are  pel|iB- 
ble.  No  distlaclion  in  made  between  bishops  and  pres- 
byten.  For  the  local  Charch  only  two  orders  are  rec- 
ognised ;  presbyter-bishops  and  deacons.  And  thev 
were  appointed  at  tirat  by  the  *  loatlee,  afterwardl  by 
these  rulen  thamselvea,  thoU)th  not  to  the  excluainn 
of  the  brolherbDod.  The  Mliativt  waa  not  with  the 
congregation, but  with  ita  elders,  "the  whole  Church 
comaiHBg."  Such  is  the  representation  in  the  forty- 
fourth  chapter ;  and  it  accords  with  what  ia  related  of 
Panl  and  Barnabas,  who,  instead  of  merely  ordaimag, 
■a  our  veraion  appears  to  teach,  "  had  appoinitid  them 
elders  In  every  charch"  (Acta  xiv,  2S).  The  N'ew 
Testament  repreaentatioua  are  thus  not  only  corrobo- 
rated, but  alio  elucidated. 

4.  In  relation  to  doctrine.  The  orthodoxy  of  Clem- 
ent, u  of  the  earlier  fdthera  in  general,  has  been  re- 
peatedly called  In  question,  but  without  good  reason. 
Doctrinal  discuBsion,  in  the  style  of  the  Epiatle  to  the 
Ronuna,  ia  certainly  not  attempted.  But  the  leading 
features  of  the  Gospel  ecanomy  come  clearly  out.  The 
divinity  of  Christ  ia  taught  quits  as  distinctly  as  in  the 
E[ustlea  to  the  Colosaiana  and  Hebrews.  And  so  like- 
wise are  the  atonement  and  jastilication  by  faitb.  If 
good  worka  are  strongly  einphaaiied,  so  also  are  they 
Btrongly  emphasiied  not  only  by  Jamea  in  his  epistip, 
but  by  Paul  himself.  And  as  there  ia  no  contradic- 
tion between  Paul  and  James,  there  is  none  between 
Paul  and  Clement. 

The  IJteratvn  of  the  subject  ia  abundant.  Of  the 
telt  there  have  been  three  recenaiorn.  The  epiatle 
ma  first  published  by  Juniua,  at  Oxfurd,  in  liSS; 
again,  more  accurately,  by  Wotton,  at  Camtirid)^,  in 
1718;  and,  lastly,  by  Jacobson,  at  Oxford,  in  four  suc- 
cessive editioaa,  1838,  1<U0,  1H47.  and  IWti.  Jacob, 
son's  text  is  now  the  standard,  and  is  as  nearly  per- 
fect aa  critical  acumen  and  diligence  could  make  it. 
Of  earlier  editions,  embracing  all  the  apoatoliciil  fa- 
thers, the  best  are  those  of  Cotelerlus,  Piris,  16T3,  as 
improved  by  Clericus  (Antwerp,  1698),  and  again  im- 
proved (Amaterdam,  1734),  and  of  Itti  cins,  with  a  val- 
nible  dissertation  (Leipsic,  1G93).  Of  later  ediUons. 
the  beat  are  those  of  Jacobson,  already  named;  of 
Helele  (TDbingen,  1839,  1842,  1847,  I8a&):  and  of 
Dreasel  (Leipsic,  1866, 1863).  Of  treatise^  the  most 
valuable  are  those  of  Lechler,  Du  apvlnliteie  and 
dai  nadtofOMto^che  Zeilaller  (Haarlem,  THol ;  Stntt- 
((»rdt,  1867);  HUnenfeld,  ApoHolitcie  Voter  (Hallo, 
1S£3) ;  Lipsiua,  Dt  Clemmlit  Ronriw  Epi^ala  ad  Cii- 
rinlHia  Priore  DitguiMilio  (Leipsic,  l>'bb) ;  and  Dnnild- 
son,  Crilieal  ffitloiy  of  Chritlian  IMemlure  and  Doc- 
tritK/romlit  Death  of  tht  Apnmla  lo  Ike  S'icttte  Cmn- 
eil  (vol.  i,  London.  1864).  Of  Ent'lish  tnnalaliona,  the 
earlieat  was  by  Burton  (London,  1647) ;  the  next  waa 
that  of  Archbishop  Wake  (London,  ]B9S,  frequently  rc- 
pnbliahed;  admirably  though  inaccurately  done);  the 
nextwaaanonvmoua  (Aberdeen,  1768);  then  Cheval- 
lier  (London,  1833, 1861,  on  the  basis  of  Wake) ;  and, 
laatlv,  Ruberti  and  Donaldson  (Edinburgh.  186',  vol. 
i  of  the  "Anie-Nicene  Library").  This  last  has  not 
the  ecriptural  tone  of  Wake,  lint  is  greatly  superior  to 
it  in  accuracy  of  rendering. 

Clement  I.     See  Clshent  ar  Romk. 

H,  Pope  (Saidgtr,  biabop  of  Bamberg),  was  placed 
tn  the  papal  see  Dec.  26. 1046,  alter  the  Synod  of  Sutri, 
by  the  Emperor  Henry  111,  In  the  room  of  Gregory 
VI,  who  abdicated,  lie  crowned  this  emperor,  and 
heldin  Jan.  1047,  a  synod  at  Rome  fur  the  suppteaaion 


8  CLEMENT 

of  simony.  Ho  dieil,  as  some  think,  by  poison.  Oct. 
9, 1047.  He  was  the  Snt  of  the  German  popes,  anil 
retained  the  diocese  of  Uambeig  even  during  hie  pon- 
tilicatfl.  He  put  the  city  of  Beoevento  under  the  in- 
terdict because  it  bad  refuacd  to  receive  the  Empemr 
Henrv.-Neander,(7iL  Hiit.  iii,S78;  Gieseler.rA.  fftt 
per.  iii.  di  v.  ii,  $  22 ;  Hoetler.  Tn/tdte  PdptU.  1  A  frrkaf 
233-S8e;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  A'miUa-Za  ii,  BM. 

Ill,  Anti'Pepe  (Gviberl,  archbishop  of  RaTOUDa), 
was  chosen  pope  at  the  Svnod  of  lirixcn  in  1080,  bv 
the  party  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV,  with  the  view  oV 
supplanting  Gregory  VII.  After  bein^  repeatedly 
pkced  in  the  Roman  see  by  violence,  anri  expelled 
from  it  by  the  same  means,  be  submitted  to  Paschal  II 
inl099,  and  died  in  the  following  year.— Meander,  C*. 
tin.  iv,  118  sq. ;  Gieseler,  Ck.  Hitt.  per.  iii,  div.  iii, 
chap.i,§17,48, 

III,  Pope  (PaoUi,  cardinal  bisbop  of  Rome),  was  ■ 
native  of  Rome.  He  waa  choHU  pope  at  Piaa  .on  the 
lUth  of  Dec.  1187,  in  the  place  of  Gregory  VIII,  who 
hud  died  in  the  same  city  two  days  before.  The  chief 
concern  of  the  new  pope  was  the  speedy  organizatiiMi 
of  a  third  crusade,  as  the  news  of  the  conquest  of  Jera- 
salem  by  Saladin  (Oct.  3d.  1187)  had  juat  lieen  re- 
ceived. He  wrote  at  once  to  all  the  Christian  princca, 
and  succeeded  in  calling  forth  an  unprecedented  eo- 
thusiasm.  The  aged  empemr  Frederick  Barbarafai 
(07  years  old),  who  had  had  a  violent  conflict  with  tite 


of  Clem 


.  of  the 


peace  with  the  pope 
also  restored  between 
Venice  and  the  king  of  Hungary,  and  between  tbe 
king  of  France  and  tbe  kinit  of  England,  and  all  tbeae 
ptatei*,  joined  by  Leopt^d  of  Austria  and  otber^  were 
induced  to  take  part  in  the  crusade.  Tbe  pnpe  had 
the  griefof  learning  the  death  of  Frederick  in  the  Riv- 
er Kalicadnus,  and  the  diesenaiona  between  the  princes 
beaieging  Acco,  but  he  did  not  Uve  to  see  tbe  aofor- 
lunate  end  of  the  cruaade. 

Clement  again  secured  for  the  popes  tbe  secular  rule 
over  the  city  of  Rome,  which  during  fiirty-nine  years 
had  been  left  by  tbe  popes.  Tired  of  their  civil  wan, 
the  Romans  conceded  to  Clement  the  right  of  sover- 
eign. A  conflict  with  the  king  of  Scotland,  who  had 
appointed  of  hia  own  accord  a  biahop  for  St.Andniw'>, 
terminated  favorably  to  the  pope.  The  king  yielded 
when  the  pope  threatened  with  tbe  interdict.  In  re- 
ward for  this  concession,  tbe  pope  (by  a  bull  of  Mardi 
13.1189)  exempted  all  Scotland  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  archbishop  of  York,  made  it  an  immediate  de- 
p:ndency  of  the  papal  see,  and  provided  that  henoe- 
I'orth  no  one  ahould  be  a  papal  legate  in  Scotland  who 
waa  not  either  a  Scotchman  or  an  otiiccr  of  the  Church 
in  Rome.  On  tbe  death  of  King  William  II  of  Sicily 
(Nov.  1, 1189),  a  dangeroua  conflict  arose  between  tbe 
eon  of  Frederick  Barbaroaaa,  Henry  (subsequently  em- 
lieror  Henry  VI),  whose  wife  was  the  nearest  relation 
to  the  late  king,  and  the  pope,  who  claimed  feudal 
rigbla  over  Sicily,  and  luatened  to  invest  with  ita  gov- 
ernment Tancred,  an  illegitimate  son  of  duke  Itoget 
of  Sicily.  Henri-,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  waa 
inarching  upon  Rome,  when  Clement  died,  on  Usrtb 
2b,  1191.  The  personal  life  of  this  pope  is  said  to  have 
been  blameless.  Seven  letters  and  many  decrees  ia- 
aui^  bv  Clement  are  given  liy  Mansi  (xxii,  643-674). 
— Herzog,  Rrai-ljie^tiop.  11,  730;  Wetier  u.  Welle, 
Kirrim- Lexicon,  ii,  691;  Neander,  Ch.  HI.  iv,  417; 
Gieseler,  (X  Uitl.  per-  iii,  div.  iii,  chap,  i,  S  63. 

IV,  Pope  (Gid  Fvleodi,  according  to  others,  (TbMd 
Fnul^ioi*  It  Grot),  was  a  rtative  of  France,  first  a  sol- 
dier, then  a  lawyer,  married,  and  on  hia  wife's  death 
entered  the  Churrh,  and  liecame  in  sncoession  biiJiop 
of  Puy,  archbi.bnp  of  Narbonne,  and  (J261)  cwTlinal 
bishop  of  $*binn.  He  waa  chosen  pope  at  the  begin- 
ning of  less,  while  he  was  alwnt  trom  Italy  aa  papal 
legale,  and  aoleninly  crowned  on  the  2H  of  Pehruaiy, 


CLEMEKT  379  CLEMENT 

It  Vlter^  when  he  took  op  hb  nstdence  on  recount  poaauaioiu  of  the  order  by  Philip,  and  lo  tha  linmiDg 
of  tfa(  dintiirljaiices  provailinK  in  Home.  L>aria({  the  of  the  gnni  mHster  and  of  many  leading  memberB. 
vbola  lime  of  bis  pontilicute  Jie  was  ocrnpied  with  Ihe  ,  Clement  waa  the  first  pope  who  Hxed  bla  naldence  at 
mitiul  cHnccrnlnt;  the  )^>rcrnnieat  of  bicily.  His  Avitpion,  thtu  beginning  whst  has  been  itj-led  the 
pndccDSMT,  Urban  IV,  has  iutiCed  Charles  i^  Ai^}au  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  popen.  He  published  a 
In  Lite  poasesuon  of  Sicily,  which  was  then  ruled  by  ,  lari:e  number  of  constitutions  based  upon  the  decrees 
Uaofred.an  illegitimate  ton  of  Emperor  Frederick  II. '  of  the  Council  of  Vienna,  which  sdll  form,  under  Ihe 
WbcD  Charles  aiipeared  in  Rome  (May  Sr,  r2e&>,  five  naoieof  "Clementines"  (q.  v.),  Ihe  seventh  book  of  the 
wtfinala.  In  the  name  of  the  pope,  concluded  between  !  Decretals.  He  diud  April  20,  1314.  The  contempo- 
faiiB  and  the  papal  see  a  treaty  wbicb  gave  to  Charles  i  raneoua  writers  ace UM  him  of  licentiouBnese,  nepotism, 
Uh  whole  of  the  Apnlian  Empire,  while  Charles,  on  |  simony,  and  avalice.  See  Wolier  n.  WelM,  A"irrA*n- 
tbe  other  liand,  pledged  himself  to  pay  a  certain  trib-  Lrx.  u,  594  >q. ;  Herzog.  Sad-Encgldop.  II,  732;  No- 
ne, and  to  abolish  the  ecclesiastical  decrees  of  Krcder-  snder,  Ch.  Hiil.  iv,  TO,  S41 ;  Gie«ler,  Ci.  Bill.  per.  iii, 
ickll.  ThearroganceofCharlef,  his  wantofmone.v,  iliv.  ill,  cb.  i,  §  59,  and  dlv.  iv,  ch.  i,  §  95;  Landon, 
and  the  outrages  committed  by  French  soldiers,  dig-  ,  iJanuiil  ifCoundli.  s.  v.  Vienne. 

poMd  the  pope  favorably  toward  llanfred,  but  the  lat-  !  VI,  Pupe  (Pitm  Rogtr^,  was  a  netive  of  Limousin, 
ter  died  before  the  reconciliation  bad  taken  place, '  in  France.  AfUr  having  been  a  Benedictine  monk  in 
The  cruelty  of  Charles  oguinet  the  family  and  the  ad-'  Chsioe-Dleu,  profesf  or  at  Paris,  bishop  of  Arrw,  arch- 
hirents  of  Manfred,  and  his  violation  of  the  treaty, ,  bishop  of  Sens  and  Konen,  and  (IB3B)  cardinal,  he  was 
filled  the  pope  with  Indignation.  Naverlhelrsg,  when  elected  pope  on  the  7th  of  Usy,  13J2.  He  had  a  pro- 
young  Conrudin,  the  grandson  of  Frederick  II, appear.  tracl«d  qnarrel  with  Edward  111,  king  of  England,  on 
edln  Ibily,  the  traditional  boxtilitiea  ofthe  popes  lowunl  the  subject  of  eccle!i»!tical  benefices,  ovor  which  Clem- 
tbe  Huheuatjufuns  induced  the  pope  to  eicommuni-  cut  claimed  an  absolute  tight.  He  issued  a  frightful 
CBlebini.  Conmdjn  wa>  received  with  enthuuasm  by  liullofexcommUDiCBliDD  again  at  Louie  IV  of  Germany 
the  GhiLelline  opponenta  of  the  pope,  and,  in  particu-  (see  Raynald,  ad  am,um  1S4G),  when  the  latter  and 
lar,  by  the  people  uf  Home,  and  the  pope  naloraUy  re-  the  German  Diet  refused  to  promise  that  the  king 
juiced  at  his  defeat  and  capture.  It  cannot,  however,  should  do  nothing  without  tho  consent  of  the  pope, 
be  pmved  that  ha  knew  of,  and  much  leaa  that  he  ap-  and  induced  five  of  the  German  electors  to  elect 
proved  of  hla  execution.  Clement  survived  exactly  Charles,  Ihe  son  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  as  German 
one  month  after  the  last  acion  of  the  Hohenslaufens  emperor.  Bya  contract  of  June  9, 1348,  he  purchased 
Conradin  was  beheaded,  dying  at  Viterbo  Kov.  £9,  from  Joanna,  queen  of  Naples,  the  city  of  A^'ignon 
1268.  He  was  on  able  ruler,  and  resolutely  hostile  to  and  some  adjoining  territory  for  80,000  gold  florins, 
nepotiim.  Hany  of  his  letters  have  been  published  which,  however,  were  never  paM.  Previously  Ihe 
by  Martcne  and  Dnrand  in  their  Thuaujiit  Natiu  An-  queen,  who  personally  appeared  before  him,  had  been 
ttdotaram  (Paris,  1717,  6  vols,  fol.},  end  by  D'Achery  acquitted  of  the  charge  of  having  murdered  her  hus- 
in  his  HpicUt^im.  Be  wrote  scverul  works,  among  hand.  An  urgent  Invitation  from  Ihe  Romans  (among 
which  was  a  life  of  St,  Hedwig,  duchess  of  Poland,  whose  ambassadors  was  Petrarch)  to  return  to  Rome 
who  was  canonised  by  him  in  1S67.  On  works  r.,l>e-  was  sent  to  the  pope,  bnt  he  continued  at  Avignon. 
1y  attri1>ut«l  lo  Clement,  see  Cave.  Hiil.  Lit.  ad  aa-  By  a  bull  of  April  10, 1349,  be  reduced  the  Inten  al 
■■■  1265.  A  special  work  on  Ihe  life  and  writings  of  Iwtween  the  years  of  jubilee  [see  Jcbilee]  from  100 
Clement  was  published  in  1023  at  Lyons  by  the  Je^u-  to  60  yeara,  and  celebrated  the  jubilee  in  13&0  with 
it  Claudius  Clemens.  See  Hemv,  Rnd-Enrgtlop.  li,  extraordinary  pomp.  In  the  ball  of  Clement  the  an- 
ItS;  Wetier  n.  Welte,  JTircJleo-Jlaicon,  li.  594'j  Nean-  gfls  are  commanded  to  introduce  Into  Paradise  wilh- 
der,  OurcA  BM.  iv,  2«9,  iU ;  Gleaeler,  Chiarh  Hut.  out  delay  any  one  who  should  die  during  his  stay 
per.  iii,  dir.  Iii,  chap.  1,^57.  at  Rome.     Hla  eflbrU  to  bring  alout  a  union  ofthe 

V,  Pope  (Bfrtrimd  d'Asfmii),  was  bom  at  Uieste  Greek  Church  with  the  Roman  were  fruillesf,  althcngh 
aboot  1264.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Comminges  the  emperor  Johannes  Cantacuzenus  declared  in  favor 
by  Boniface  VIII  In  1395,  and  was  one  of  the  few  of  the  union.  More  successful  were  similar  eHbrts 
French  ttishops  who  obeyed  the  rammuns  of  the  pope  with  regard  to  the  Armenians,  who,  at  a  council  held 
lovMt  Rome,notwithtlandingtheprohlbidoirofPhil-  in  1342,  condemned  those  heresies  with  which  they 
iptfae  Fair.  In  1299  ha  was  appointed  arrhhishop  of  were  charged.  In  1346  Clement  brought  about  a  new- 
Bordeaux.  During  the  conclave  following  the  death  crusade  ai^alnst  the  Turks,  in  which  the  king  of  Cy- 
of  Boniface  VIII  in  1805  he  was  gained  over  by  Philip  pros,  the  grand  master  of  Rhodes,  and  the  republics 
the  Fair,  and  when  a  rompromice  had  heen.'adopled  Veniceof  and  Genoa  look  part,  which,  however,  ledto 
between  the  party  of  Boniface  and  the  French  party,  no  result.  Ho  showed  a  great  severity  sgsinst  the 
In  virtue  of  which  the  French  cardinals  had  to  chnnee  Flagellants.  See  Fi^oeli.antb.  Meat  of  the  new 
the  pope  amoni;  three  candidates  proposed  by  the  party  cardinals  created  by  this  pope  were  Frenchmen,  and 
of  Bonibce,  he  was  elected,  being  still  regarded  as  a  among  them  were  a  considerable  number  of  his  own 
friend  of  Boniface.  At  a  secret  interview  which  he  relatives,  who  scandalized  the  Church  by  their  licen- 
hod  had  with  Philip  before  the  election  he  had  prom-  tious  lives.  Clement  died  In  IZ&i.  Petrarch  praises 
laed  lo  reconcile  the  king  with  the  Church,  to  leave  lo  Ibe  generosity  aiMl  eloqueoce  of  this  pope;  but  he 
him  during  five  years  the  tithe  for  military  wants,  lo  gave,  on  the  other  band,  great  offence  by  his  extrava- 
eondemn  the  memory  of  Bnnlhce,  and  to  create  a  gnnce  and  by  his  privets  life.  Of  his  writings  there 
number  of  new  French  cardinals.  All  Ibese  condi-  ara  still  exCsnt  several  sermons,  a  treatise  on  the  pov- 
tiDDs  were  promptlv  fulfilled  except  the  one  relating  ertv  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  a  volume  of  letters, 
10  Boniface,  whirb  the  pope  tried  to  escape.  He  insti-  etc'  See  Wetier  u.  Welle,  Kirdm-Lrx.  ii,  596  6C0j 
tuted  a  committee  to  investigale  the  charges  brought  Hcraog,  Btnl-EncyUiji.  ii,  733,  784;  Hoefer,  Bt^.  Gi- 
against  Boniface,  but  ultimstelv  (Inll)  declared  him  n^alf,  X,  765;  Neander,  Civxi  Hut.  x.  41,  43,  412; 
tree  frvm  the  sUin  of  heresy.  On  the  other  hand,  be  Gieseler,  Ch.  Eit.  per.  ili,  div.  iv,  ch.  i,  g  97. 100. 
yielded  to  the  demand  of  Philip  for  the  abolition  of  the,  VII,  Anti-pope  at  Avignon  (tteb^  of  Gateea), 
order  ofthe  Tem^dsrs,  He  summoned  Ihe  grand  mas-  with  whom  the  great  papal  schism  commencsd,  took 
ter  of  Uia  order,  imder  false  prtlexls.  to  his  court;  this  title  on  his  election  in  U78.  He  resided  at  Avig. 
lasoed  in  1308  a  bull  against  the  order,  in  which  he  non,  was  acknowledged  at  once  in  Naples  and  Pranoe, 
broDght  against  it  the  moat  unfounded  and  absurd  and  at  a  Ut«r  period  by  Scotland,  Savoy,  and  Lor- 
chnrges;  and  finally,  at  the  General  Council  of  Vi-  rninc,  as  well  as  by  (^igtile,  Arsgon.  and  Navarro, 
nine  (in  1312),  pronounced  its  abolition.  The  pope  He  died  without  reputation  In  1304.— Neander,  Ckurtk 
itiiei  no  objectiun  to  the  i^propriadon  of  moat  of  the  ' //«(.  V,  475,665,  164,  232;  Giessler,  C^.  £Ks(.  per.  lU. 


CLEMENT  380  CLEMENT 

div.  Ti,  ch.  I,  S  101 ;   Hue,  p.  27ii.    Se*  Avlonon ;  na  Uie  othsr  bind,  the  pope  ibsuined  tmm  openly  op- 

UbbaB  VI.  pusinKUenry'sedictofUileratian.     During  hU  pontifi- 

VII,  Pope  (fiiu/io,  illegidniite  xm  of  Giuli«no  de  "^  ''"  ''"'«  "^  ''"'■"^  prev-iled  upon  tbe  nietiopoli- 
MedicLs),  became  pope  in  1628;  one  of  ths  weak  and  Wnof  Kiev  .nd  •even  of  the  Kutheniin  bishops  to  unite 
wavering  men  «boM  lelrish  policy  in  critical  times  **'•>  ">•  Lliurch  of  Home,  and  ■ml.aaudura  •mv.d 
makea  their  prominence  in  hi.tory  ■  prominence  of  '^  "™«  '""°  ""  CoP"=  P^'^l^l'  "f  AleK.ndri»  to 
diwrace.  He  entered  the  Maltese  order,  and  became  n^twti^te  a  union  of  the  Copta  wllh  the  Church  of 
grand  prior  ofCapra.  When  his  couiin  Leo Xawend-  """le-  He  iMUed  neweditiona  of  theTnlgale.  the  Bo- 
ed  the  papal  thn>ne  he  wai  at  once  appointed  anhbish-  """  Breviary.  MiMal,  and  of  tbe  Index.  In  order  tn 
op  and  cardinal.  Subsequently  he  aeWd  at  cardinal  ""l*'  "■«  dogmatical  controveriy  betwMn  Jesuits  ancl 
legate  of  TuBcanv.  He  waa  elected  pop*  on  the  ISrth  ^omin.caiu  on  divme  grace,  be  loiUtuted  in  1597  the 
of  Nov.]o2a.  On  May  2,  li*J.  he  iisued  a  bull  for  tunjirfjiKw  de  auiW.M  itnim  yrafw.  A  dinputo  with 
the  reformation  ofaLusBa  prevailing  in  luly.  lathe  ""■  "PoWic  of  Venice  waa  amicably  aettlod.  Ha 
aame  year  he  eent  a  legale,  Campegglo,  to  the  Diet  of  '*'«'  ""  *'•"''  ^i  "™'  Baronlui  and  Bellannin  were 
Nuremberg  in  order  to  bring  ai-out  a  suppression  of  ""ong  the  cardinais  appointed  by  him.  One  buodred 
the  Reformation  in  Germany,  The  pope  and  hit  leg-  »"<'  twenty^hree  constitutiona  and  decrees  of  tbi«  pope 
ate  greally  offfended  the  German  princes  by  thdr  ar-  '"  contained  m  huilar.  *™.  Magma,,  torn.  ui.  1-1-0. 
fogan«,  but  succeeded,  neverthelat,  in  effecting  an  Hi.  life  was  wntten  by  Cic.relhi.-IUnke,  Oui.  Pap. 
alliance  against  the  Proteslanta  between  Aurtria,  Ba-  '■■.^■' ;  "»"■  «■  ""*■  P*".  ^'^  "I-  =  ^etaer  u.  W  el«, 
varia,  and  twelve  princea  of  Sonth  Germany.  Not-  «i't*«»-i"-  ",  «»-«0;  HetMg,  Jtaat-Ouyilop.  li. 
withstanding  the  zeal  of  the  emperor  fur  the  defence 

of  tbe  Cburcb  of  Rome,  the  pope  was  prevailed  upon        IZ,  Tipe  (Cwlw  Bapiglioti),  «u  bom  In  1600  at 

by  the  king  of  France  to  Join  the  alliance  of  France,  Pieto>.     He  waa  In  sueceMion  auditor  of  tbe  Bota, 

England,  Venetia,  and  other  Italian  atatee   against  secretary  of  Slxtoa  IV,  and  cardinal,  and  was  elected 

Charles.     After  the  siege  and  capture  of  Kome  )jy  the  pope  in  16fi7.     He  mediated  a  peace  tietweeii   Lmit 

Imperial  army,  the  pope  was  conipellpd  to  capitulate  XIV  and  Spain,  at  Alz-b-Chapelle,  in  1668.      He  waa 

(Jan.  5.  15S7);  but,  being  unable  to  fullll  the  cundi-  npriKhtinhis  bilentjoni,  bnt  easy  in  disposition.      U* 

tlons  of  the  capitulation,  he  escaped,  disguised  aa  a  left  his  name  to  the  CUmtnline  Peact,  a  brief  panae  la 

merchant,  on  Due.  9,  lfiS7,  and  fled  to  Orvieto.     Soon  tbe  struggle  between  the  Jansenlsts  and  Jesoits.      Ha 

after  be  concluded  a  peace  with  Charles  (16?9).  and  is  said  to  have  died  ofgrief  at  the  taking  of  Candia  bv 

crowned  him  emperor  at  Bologna  (1530) ;   while,  on  Ibe  Turks.  1669.— Ranke,  EiM.  Pt^.  b.  viii  i  Haae,  Ck. 

the  other  hand,  Chartes  restored  tbe  papal  poaseuions.  Hill.  p.  612,  ai8 ;  WeUer  n.  Welte,  Kirdia^-Leaatom, 

and  made  Aleaaandro  of  Hedlcia  (a  reputed  son  of  the  ii,  60a. 

pope)  sovereign  of  Horence.     The  demand  of  Ch.rU,        ^  j.        ,^„^„  ^^^-.  „„  ,^  ,j  g^,  „„  j^e 

Uid  the  German  princes  for  the  convocation  of  an  (««.  jgj^  (,f  j^jv,  1690,  and  held  the  papal  chair  from  1670 

menlcal  council,  which  was  to  reform  abuses  in  the  „  ,«-„      jti^i,,,  „„„  „ij  .,  hi.  acHHsion    ba  was 

Church  and  re.tore  its  unity,  he  did  not  ft.lfil,  ™.kin«  ^om  iTtelyT-'eT  by"ii  'il£;io::r^;e  -^f  ^bT" 

bla  consent  contmgent  upon  condiUoiu  which  he  knew  {..,din j  p„i„„i   »„  „ii^  by  the  Ronuins  pope  d< 

to  be  unacceptable  to  Chartes.     In  the  suit  of  Henry  ,„„„      ^^  ,„  '  ,^,       eaaer  to  mediate  pewTbe- 

VIII  of  EngUnd  for  di>^rce  f^m  hi,  wife,  Catharine  /,^,;  ^^  „„„,;  Cathol^t«,  and  aupi^^  the 

or  Aragon,  the  pope,  after  long  hesltaOon,  decided  p„,„  ^■,^^  ^  ,^„,t  j^e  Turks.     In  hi.  t«ign 

.gabist  th"  k'"B.  and  therei^precipitated  the  separa-  „„„,„^  the  dipute  with  Logia  XIV  of  France  con- 

Won  of  tbe  Anglican  Church  from  theChurch  of  Rome.  ,,„„!„    (^^  ^ghta  claimed  by  the  French  kings  -1"- 

"k1  ""f  "-^  the  new  monastic  ordera  of  tbe  C.pn-  ,       ^^^  „^  ^^^  „,      j^^,  ^  dispose  of  tb. 

^insTbeatmes  Somaskians,  ajd  Recollects,  enlarged  „*^,i„y„i  benefices,  and  W  receive  the  revenue.- 

the  library  of  tbe  Vatican   and  wsa  >»  genend  a  pa-  r,„^      f,^   p       ,,   ^i,;     f^         ^i.  Bi^<^,  p.  SIl; 

tron  of  literature.     He  died  Sept.  25, 1534.     The  fluL  w..,..!  „  w.u.   r.v..i_!/™iJ.  ii  cna 

■     -        Ti  ,   t    w       t  ^^k..  -   .-«..  ™.v  WetKer  u.  Welte,  A<rcfte»-L*«*on,  ii,ow. 

lunun  Sormimm  (ed.  Lngd.  169-J,  I,  636-694)  contains  ' 

ilconsUtutions  and  decrees  of  this  pope.     The  life  of  '      S3,  Tope   (Cioomwi  FramrtKO,  emmt  «/ AOamy 

Clement  baa  been  writUn  bv  OnuWo  Panvlnl  and  Ja-  "» '»"'  ■'  P™"  ■'"'y  ».  1649.    He  was  secretary  of 

cob  Ziegler  (in  Schelbom,  .4™™.  *W.  ea-l.  lom,  ii).  f"*  """et  briefs  under  Innocent  XI,  Alexander  VIII, 

See  Wetaer  n.  Welte,  Kirchta-Uz.  Ii,  600-602;  Het-  ""l  Innocent  XII,  and,  as  snch,  wrote,  among  othen, 

log.  BttO-EttfyU.  ii,  784-T36;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Gmfrale,  f""  celebrated  bull  of  Alexander  Till  (1691)  againN 

X.  766  [  Ranbe,  Hul.  Papacy,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii ;  Base,  Ck.  *'"  O'llio*"!  liberties  adopted  by  a  national  conveD- 

Buton,  p.  876, 890,  421, 460.  *"*"  "f  f""  '^"c''  bishops  in  1683.     He  became  car- 

'n-rrr    i    .,  ,  i-  -j-      i.  ,    ^  .    i.  >.<     ■  .    .  "l'"'  dcacoB   in  1690,  and    cardinal  priest  in   170O. 

„»T^"L'^""'fP'\"f*^"*"1?^'^'^'* ',"'",'"  He  wa.  rai.«l  to  the  popedom  in  KM  on   account 

1421  on  being  elected  by  liree  cardinals  at  Peni«cola,  „(  j,^  ,„  ,^  abilityrajid  diapUywi  abundance 

after  the  death  of  Benedict  XIII.     He  resign^  to  ^.f  ^  fo^",        u„.   ^^jj  ,5,^  S„^i„  ,„(  „f 

MartinVinl4M,andthuaterminatedtb.greatVlcst.  ,„,,,,„_     „,  ^  ^^  el„.tion  of  Prm»i*  to  a 

m  Khlsm—Migne,  i)«(.  flWff.  s  v  Mngnoz ;  Giese-  ki„^^   .„d  jhus  made  himself  ridiculous  in  Ge.- 

ter,  Ch.  /lul.  per.  m,  div.  v,  ch.  1,  §  130.  ^,._     ,„  ,he  war  of  the  Spanbh  succession  be  rol- 

VIII.  Pope  (Ippolilo  Aldobraadint),  was  bom  In  untarily  acknowledged  Philip  V,  the  grandsun  of  Loa- 
I5S6,  at  Fano ;  became  fitat  a  Uwyer,  sabsequently  Is  XIV  of  Fiance,  but  was  compelled  bv  the  Imperiil 
couisturial  advocate,  auditor  of  the  Kota  (see  Kota).  forces  threatening  Rome  to  recognise  Charles  III,  lbs 
daUriui  (q.  v.).  and.  In  1685,  cardinal,  and  legate  in  brother  of  JoKph  I  of  Aastria,  aa  king  of  Spain.  He 
Poland.  He  was  elected  pope  Jan.  30,  I6112.  He  lo«t  Parma  and  Placentia,  and  was  loUliy  disregarded 
was  a  cautious  and  politic  ruler.     He  mediated  the  at  tbe  peace  of  Utrecht  (1718).      By  thla  peace  Sldl.T         , 

«  and  Spain.     In  tbe  was  given  to  Duke  Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  who 


civil  war  of  Franca  he  sided,  Uke  hb  predBceSBor^  with 

denied  the 

papal  cUlm  to  Sicily,  and  when  the  pope 

the  league  agaln:-t  Henry  IV.      E>en  after  the  Utter 

badrecou 

•e  to  ban  and  interdict,  expelled  nearly  all 

had  joined  the  Church  of  Rome  tbe  pope  hesiUted  f. 

the  pri«t 

fti.m  Sicily,  and  transported  them  to  tbe 

recognise  him,  and  It  was  not  until  neariv  tbe  whole 

papal  Mnit 

V     Tbe  pope  did  not  repeat  ban  and  iatti- 

of  France  had  reco--nie«d  him  (list  the  pope  consented 

diet  until 

719.  when  Sicily  fell  to  the  power  of  tbs 

to  a  solemn  absolution  of  Ilenry  (Dec.  17. 1537).    Hen- 

ry supported  the  annexation  of  Ferrara  to  the  papal 

the  Domi 

autes,  and  reintroduced  the  Jesuits  into  France,  while, 

anceofth 

B  pagan  ciutoms  of  China  by  converts,  b 

CLEMENT  3i 

whtcb  Innocent  X  bad  decided  in  favor  of  tbe  Domin- 
kasi,  ind  Alsiinder  VII  in  Uvot  of  ths  Jesuits,  Clem- 
ml  •giin  declared  againn  tbe  Jeanit9,  wbo  appar- 
•nlij  rabmitted,  but  continned  tbe  CDQlraverKy.  In 
tbe  JaoHDitlic  contmveniy  this  pope  took  very  deci- 
■ire  iction  by  tbe  ball  Vuuam  Domini  (July  IG,  170G), 
which  demanded  ■  atricl  adherence  to  tbe  decreei  of 
Innocent  X  and  Alexander  VIII  against  the  liook  of 
JasKnint.  Of  etiU  greater  importance  was  the  cele- 
bnted  bull  Unigaatut  (Sept. »,  1713)  againet  Qiiesnel'i 
(q.  t.)  work  on  tbe  Mew  Teilamant.  vhicb  produced 
■n  eztnortliDary  commoUoD  in  tbe  Oallican  Churcb. 
The  Btdlar.  Bom.  Orntm.  P.  II  (1727),  contain*  123 
boJU,  conttitutloni,  tetters,  and  briefs  of  Clement :  and 
Cwlia.  P.  VI  (1739),  183  conetituliona.  Tbe  litis  of 
Clement  XI  vas  written  by  Polidoro  (Urbino,  17^7), 
'  LaAleau  (Pad.  1753,  i  vols.).  Reboalet  (Avienan,  nb2. 
i  Tola.),  and  br  the  Proleetanl  Buder,  Ltben  u.  Thaltn 
4rt  Uugm  Papttu  CUmnUU  XI  (8  vols.  Fiaokf.  1720). 
He  died  1721.  His  works  (Homlllet)  were 
(S  Tola,  fill.)  in  Kome,  I72S.— Ranke,  Hut.  pilp. 
Haw,  Ck.  UiM.  p.  51S,  618 ;  Wetxer  a.  Welte,  Kirdtit- 
La.  11,  ta3,6Vi ;  Uenog,  Rtal-EmegUop.  1),  7S7. 

Xn,  Pop*  {Lonmto  CortiiH).  was  bom  at  Florence 
In  1663.  He  was  appointed  cardinal  May  17,  17U6, 
cardinal  binfaop  of  Fnucati  la  1726,  and  became  pope 
July  12, 1730,  when  78  yean  old.  Immediately  apon 
M)  accession  to  tbe  papal  chair,  he  instltnted  a  trial 
•Kainst  (;oscta,Ibe  farorita  of  hU  predecessor.  Benedict 
Xtll,  for  extortion.  Coada  vaa  sentenced  to  eight 
yeati'  imprisonment,  and  a  fine  of  40,000  ducats.  la 
IJSl  be  issued  a  papal  "  constitution"  for  a  better  reg- 
nlalion  of  tbe  conclare ;  by  a  brief  of  17B8  be  eup- 
presMd  the  sect  of  the  Coccblarl,  and  in  1788  be  con- 
demned tbe  Free-masoas.  He  look  a  apecial  intereet 
in  the  nnion  of  the  Greek  Church  with  the  Roman, 
and  in  17S4  foanded  the  "Conlnian"eocleiiaaUcal  sem- 
inary Ibr  young  Greeks  at  Biialgnano,  in  Calabria  j 
bat  the  endeavon  of  the  Jesuits  to  gain  over  the  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople  were  fmitleu.  Equally  In- 
eAcient  were  ipecial  eRurta  made  Ibr  winning  ovei 
the  Protestants  oTSaxony  and  Slleaia.  His  relations 
to  the  Boman  Catholic  states  were,  in  general,  nut 
friendly.  Parma,  which  he  claimed  after  tbe  death 
of  the  last  Famese  (1781),  was  occupied  by  Austria. 
Spain,  against  the  consent  of  tbe  pope,  made  enlist- 
ments in  the  papal  slates,  and  placed  garrisons  in  seT- 
enl  towns.  Portugal  claimed  the  cardinal's  hat  For  a 
tBTorite  of  the  king  (BIcehl),  and  the  pope.  In  1731, 
yielded.  Charles  Emanuel  of  Sardinia  was  threatened 
with  tbe  ban  for  iKcupying  seTcral  places  in  Pled. 
mont  which  the  pope  claimed  as  flef.  The  little  re- 
pnblic  of  San  Marino,  which  Cardinal  Alberonl.in  I7S0, 
had  raahly  annexed  to  the  papal  statea,  aoon  recoTcred 
its  independence.  He  supported  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria wHh  money  in  bis  war  against  the  Turks.  He 
pnnnated  the  study  of  Oriental  isngnagea,  eapecially 
tbe  Syriac,  and  sent  AssemanI  on  his  second  }oumey  In 

-'    " ^  ■     .  .  .scripts  for  the  lihra- 

ife  was  austere,  and 


I  CLEMENT 

order  in  those  three  Mates.  But  in  vain.  Tbe  Por- 
tugncse  government  suppressed  alt  the  convenl*  in 
I7G9  and  1760,  imprisoning  a  number  of  memliera  un- 
der the  cliarge  of  being  accomplices  of  a  plot  against 
the  life  of  the  king,  and  trauaporting  most  of  them 
into  the  papal  statea  "as  a  present  to  St.Petar."  In 
17G4  tbe  Jesuits  were  exiled  from  France.  In  reply, 
Clement  iaiued  the  lull  ^' Apottoliann  patctndi,"  in 
which  he  again  conSrmed  tbe  order ;  bnt  the  French 
Parliament  Ibrbade  the  pnblieatlan  of  tbe  bull.  In 
April,  1767,  tbe  Spanish  gOTemment  embarked  all  the 
memljen  nftlie  order  in  Spain  in  order  to  transport 
them  to  the  papsl  states.  On  tbe  SOth  of  January, 
1768,  Ihe  pope  iuued  a  brief,  in  which  he  annulled,  aa 
head  of  the  Church  and  aa  feudal  aovereign  of  Parma, 
a  number  of  refbrmator)'  measares  which  the  duke  of 
Parma  bud  issued  In  1765  and  17G6,  pronoandng  the 
Chnrch  agalnat  all  who  had 


■ided  in  the  dra' 


publics 


IbeEuA. 

ly  of  tbe  Vatican.     Hla  prii 

be  waa  rigid  in  the  enforcement  oi  eccje^is^iicai  nis- 

cipline.     He  died  Feb.  6, 1740,     The  gnff-rivm  Ana. 

0ml.  P.  VIII  (Luxemh.  1740),  contain!  277  conslltu- 

tiana  of  this  pope Hase,  Ch.  Hillary,  p.  iU  ;  Ranke, 

Hill.  ftv.  b.  viii;   Wetier  u.  Welle,  Kirchn-Lrx.  U, 
ea  :  Horfer,  Biyr.  GineraU,  z,  769. 

XUX  Pope  [Carlo  delta  Tom  iN  BtivmUo\  waa 
Wm  at  Venice  March  7,  1698 ;  became  governor  of 
Fano  In  1721,  auditor  of  the  KoU  in  17!i9,  cardinal- 
deacon  in  l'i<7,  bishop  of  Padua  In  1748.  cardinil-priest 
In  1747.  He  ascended  tbe  papal  chair  July  n,  I7&8. 
He  owed  bis  elevation  to  the  Jesuiti,  whom  he  sup- 
p«ted  with  an  eamBatnesa  and  peraeTerance  tltat  fally 
dlaplared  the  feeblenees  of  the  popedom.  By  antn- 
Itrapb  letters  to  the  kings  of  FrniKe,  Portugal,  and 
Spain,  be  endeavored  to  avert  the  deslructicn  of  tbe 


;reea,  and  releasing  tbe  snbjects  of  the  duke 
from  the  duty  of  obeying  them.  This  bull  produced 
the  gfeatesi  indignation  at  all  the  BonrboD  courts. 
Parma  expelled  tbe  Jesuits  (in  1768).  France  occupiid 
Avignon  nud  Venaisaln,  end  Naples  took  pueaea^n 

troulilo,  a  conflict  arose  with  the  republic  of  Venice, 
which  had  Issued  some  la«e  rwlricting  the  privileges 
of  the  clergy,  and  in  particular  that  of  accumolating 
property.  The  republic  of  Genoa  offered  a  reward 
of  6000  acudi  for  the  capture  of  a  papal  delegate  to 
tbe  Island  of  Corsica,  which  had  risen  in  Insntxection 
against  the  Genoese.  In  Jannar}-,  1768,  tbe  pope 
proteated  agalnat  the  resolution  of  tbe  Polish  Diet, 
which,  although  recognising  the  Church  of  Rome  as 
the  state  Church,  made  some  concessions  to  tbe  dis- 
sidents. Deeidea  these  conSicts  with  the  slate  gov- 
ernments, Clement  bad  a  hard  struggle  against  an 
Episcopu!  movement  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  which 
demanded  a  restriction  of  tbe  papal  prerogatives  and 
<  an  enlargement  of  tbe  powers  of  tbe  metropolitans, 
1  and  tbe  chief  representative  of  which  was  the  Ger-  ' 
men  bishop  Falinmiaa  (q.  v.).  The  CoHgrrgatioH  of 
Ihe  InJrx  forbade  Ihe  poiaession  and  circulation  of  the 
book  under  penalty  of  the  galleya ;  bnt  this  rigonras 
measure,  ii  well  aa  letters  to  the  bislKipa  of  Germany 

dangerous  Vook,  remained  useless.  Some  of  the  bulls 
iirncd  by  Chmeot  {et  Aifmamm  St^uH  and  AIM  ad 
Apatolaliii).  in  vindication  of  Ihe  claims  of  the  papacy, 
offended  even  the  most  leslous  partlstna  of  tbe  pope. 
Even  the  cardinals  became  diaaalisfled,  and  a  cbani^ 
of  policy  was  serloasly  contemplated  when  ttie  pope 
died  on  Febmary  8, 17OT,  Clement  restricted  the 
right  of  aarlnm,  forbade  tiie  clergy  from  engaging  in 
mercantite  punuita,  and  confbrred  upon  Haria  Thereaa 
the  title  of  apostolic  ms}esty.— Rsnke, //ut.  Pap.  bk. 
viil;  Hare,  TAkrdl  fiiC  p.  624  sq.  i  Wetier  u.Welte, 

I  A'ircJIns-Ien'ivB,  11,618-618;  aeTzog,ntal-Enrylitp.ii, 

I  7i8-740. 

I  ZIV,  Pope  (Giavamti  ViHanlt  Anloino  Gangand- 
It),  WIS  bom  at  San  Arcangelo,  near  Rimini,  October 
SI.  1705.  After  receiving  an  education  In  Ihe  insti- 
tnlinns  of  the  JesuiU  at  Rimini  and  the  Piarisli  at 
Crbino,  be  entered,  on  May  17, 1728.  tbe  order  of  tbe 
Minorites,  exchanging  his  baptismal  Chriatlsn  nsme 
for  that  of  Lorenzo.  He  loon  distingnisbed  bimaelf 
both  aa  a  pulpit  orator  and  as  a  tbeologlan,  and  Uught 
theology  in  several  of  the  Inatilutions  of  bis  order. 
When,  on  May  20, 1741,  Pope  Benedict  XIV  presided 
at  the  general  chapter  of  the  Minorites,  *hich  was  to 
elect  a  new  general  of  the  order.  GinganelU,  in  Ibo 
name  of  the  chapter,  addr^aaed  the  pope  in  a  apeech 
which  gained  to  him  the  full  confidence  of  Benedict. 
He  waa  in  174fi  appoinlad  asaistant.  and  In  1746  con- 
suitor  at  the  Sant' Uffliio  (the  CongreeaUon  of  tbe  In- 
quisition), and  In  this  office  won  general  respect  by 
his  moderation,  amiable  charrcter,  and  achalarsbip. 


CLEMENT  31 

Od  Sfiplemlwr  !4, 1TK>,  be  «u  *ppaiDt«d  cirdlnal- 
priest  by  Clement  XUl  apon  the  rvcommeJidatiaD  of 
the  general  of  tbe  JwuiU.  Tbe  pope  iatnisted  to  him 
MvenJ  impottaat  miuionaj  but  wben  it  wu  found 
that  be  diupprovsd  the  uncompromteing  opposition 
of  the  pope  to  tbe  Bourbon  courts,  he  fell  into  dis- 
favor, and  was  deprived  of  all  intlaence.  The  con- 
clave, after  tbe  death  of  Clement  XIII,  lasted  over 
three  months.  The  Bml>Bssadors  of  the  Bourbon 
courts,  aided  by  the  youthful  Archduke  Joseph  of 
AuBlriu  (enbuquentlj  Joseph  II),  made  the  utmost 
ezettioDR  to  secnre  the  election  of  a  liberal  pope. 
GangsnelU  finally  was  a^ed  upon  by  a  coinpromiae 
of  the  two  parties.  Tbe  one  rdjartled  him  aa  snffl- 
ciantly  flexible  and  lilwml,  while  tbe  Jesuita'  party 
held  that,  though  opposed  to  the  lata  pope's  policy,  hie 
was  not  hostile  to  the  order  of  the  JeiulEs.  Thus  he 
woe  elected  by  both  parties  on  May  ID,  ITG9.  As  be 
was  not  yet  a  bishop,  he  received  the  episcopal  conse- 
cration on  the  S8th  of  Uav,  and  was  crowned  pope 
on  the  4lh  of  June.  He  opened  his  puntiflcate  by 
making  refbnns  in  the  admin islration  of  the  papal 
ttaten,  showed  himself  a  pitrun  of  science  and  art,  and 
endeavored  to  gain  the  contldence  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple. But  bis  chief  care  was  to  restore  the  good  re- 
lations between  the  papal  and  the  Boorbon  coorta. 
He  opened  a  peraanal  correapondence  with  the  Bour- 
bon princes,  and  carefully  avoided  everything  that 
cnuM  give  olTsnce.  He  abandoned  tbe  papal  claims 
to  the  duchy  of  Parma ;  oOered  himself  lo  the  court 
of  Madrid  aa  godfather  for  the  new-bom  aon  of  the 
princeM  of  Asturis;  conciliated  the  king  of  Fortn- 
gal  and  his  prime  minister  Pombai  (who  threatened 

of  Rom")  by  appointing  Pombal's  brother  n  cardinal, 
and  confirming  the  episcopal  nominations  which  hail 
besn  made  by  the  king.  This  conciliatory  policy  se- 
.  cured  the  restoratiun  to  tbe  pupal  government  of 
Avignon.  Venaissin,  Bencvento,  and  Pontecorvo.  But 
the  chief  demand  of  the  Bonrbon  courts,  the  suppree- 
■ion  of  the  onler  of  tbe  Jesuits,  be  tried  to  escape  ns 
long  as  possible.  He  had  held  bimaelf  aloof  fnrni 
tbe  Jesuit*  from  tbe  first  day  of  hi*  pontificate,  and 
had  forbidden  the  admiesioD  at  the  General  of  the 
order  to  tbe  Vatican.  He  appointed  a  committee  of 
jurists  to  examine  the  subject;  acquainted  himself 
personally  with  all  that  bad  Iwen  wrltleo  for  or  against 
the  order ;  and  took  great  care  to  prepare  public  opin- 
ion gradually  for  its  suppression.  In  a  letter  to  the 
king  of  Spam  be  publicly  admitted  the  necessity  of 
suppresshig  tbe  order,  as  the  members  had  deserved 
this  fate  by  their  intrigues.  The  bishops  ot  tbe  pa- 
pal state*  were  authorized  to  examine  the  houses  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  Co  secularrie  thoae  membera  who  de- 
sired it.  On  June  25, 1773,  the  seal*  were  put  on  the 
archive*  of  the  novitiate  of  the  order  at  Kome,  and 
the  cardinal  of  Aragon  waa  directed  to  poese**  him- 
eelf  of  all  their  posseseions  within  his  legation.  A 
aimilar  order  wa*  given  to  the  bishop  of  Uontallo. 
Finally,  on  July  21, 177B,  the  famou*  brief  "  Odmum 
ac  S^demptor  NaUer,"  by  which  the  whole  order  was 
snppressed,  was  signed.  It  waa  published  on  the 
l!}th  of  August.  On  the  whole,  tbe  decree  wa*  car- 
ried out  with  great  regjrd  to  the  Individual  mem- 
bera,  but  the  general,  father  Ricci,  wa*  anegted.  The 
brief  sisteii,  as  a  reoaon  for  the  suppreasion,  that 
the  Church  no  longer  derived  from  the  order  the  ad- 
vantages wlilch  were  expected  from  it  at  the  time 
of  It*  foundation  ;  it  ref<'rs  (o  the  sappreaslon  of  oth- 
er monnstic  orders  by  former  popes;  claims  for  the 
pope  the  right  of  snppre^tiing  an  order  without  pre- 
vious trial,  and  explains  bis  loni*  hesitation  to  take 
tbl*  sti>p  from  bis  eomest  desire  of  tlioraughly  consid- 
ering the  matter.     The  nieaeure  naturally  produced 

submitted,  but  tome  violent  books  against  the  act*  of 
tbe  pope  were  published  by  the  members  or  friend*  of 


!2  CLE3IENTINES 

the  order,  and  prophecIesfhxD  a  Dominican  onn,  Aona 

Theresa  Poli,  and  from  a  certain  Bemardina  Rcmxi, 
announcing  the  imminentdeathof  the  pope,  were  wide- 
ly circulated.  Some  moDtha  after  tbe  suppreaaion  of 
(be  order  the  health  of  the  pope  began  to  &il,  and  ba 
died  September  22,  ITT4.  An  opinion  that  be  had 
tieen  poisoned  found  many  beliavera,  and  ia  still  de- 
fended by  a  number  of  writers,  Lnt  a  majoritv  of  the 
best  historians  have  decUred  it  not  suScimtly  su]>- 
ported.  Special  works  on  Clement  are,  Canccloli.  Vr 
de  CIrmml  XIV  (I77fi;  GennMn  tnn*lati>m.  Fnnk- 

Ifort,  1776);  LebtK  da  P.  Chmt-  J/r(Berlin,  1TT4- 
76,3  vols.};  Cnitinean-Joly,  OnanK  T/r  e( /ra -/oa- 

\il€t  (Paris,  l»i;,  on  tbe  side  of  tlie  Jeanits);  Gauga- 

Ifwffj,  Pi-pil  Ctant't  XIV t  fine  Britfe  imd  teiite  ZtU 
(Berlin,  1M7):  Theiner,  llittoin  da  PunSfieat  de  CW- 
metU  Ji:/r(Paru>,  1863,8  vnlt.;  German  edit  Leipii|t> 
Father  Theiner.  who  waa  a  prefect-coadjutor  ot  the 
archives  of  the  Vatican,  connillur  of  the  Congregataoa 
of  the  Index  and  other  congregations,  a  memb^  of 
the  fpecial  Congregation  on  the  Immaculalr  Coocep> 
tion,  etc.,  at  Rome,  made  use  of  many  unprinted  doo- 
um^nts  in  tbe  archives  of  the  Vatican.  He  tried  to 
exilt  Clement  as  one  of  the  greatest  pope*,  and,  in 
order  to  achieve  this,  came  oot  very  severely  aealnat 
the  Jesuits  of  thM  time.    His  work  led  to  a  lively  con- 

'  troversy.  The  French  biatorian  of  the  order,  Cretl- 
neau.luly,  undertook  the  defence  of  the  Jesnits.  but 
his  bonk  was  pat  on  the  Index,  The  general  of  the 
order,  P.  Roothan,  fearing  that  Uie  controversy  mi^ 
turn  nut  Ixully  for  the  order,  declined  all  re*pon*ibilitj 
for  Cretin  eau-July's  work,  but  at  the  same  time  In- 
duced P.  de  Ravignan,  tbe  celebrated  Jesuit  preacher 
Ht  Pari*,  to  take  up  the  defence  of  the  order.  Ravi^ 
nan  accordlnglv  wrote  and  pubtlabed  CUmmt  XIII  et 
Clfm-til  XIV  (Pari^  1864,  2  vnls.,  p.  674  and  502).  m 
which  he  trie*  to  justify  both  tbe  Je*niti  and  the  pi^ 
■ho  suppressed  them.  See  Uenog,  Rrat-Eargtliip.  ii, 
740-742;  Wctxer  u.  Welle,  il,  618-K!;  Hoefer,  Wy. 
«.ViMra/r,x, 770-776;  Ranke,  Au(.  Pap.  bk.  viiij  Ha*e, 
rimrth  Bill.  §  &2S;  Hook,  Ecdei.  Did.  s.  v.  Ganga- 
nelli. 

Clem«Dtlnea,  I.  (KXiifJina,  JAtinimim,  or 
pseudo-Clementines),  are  the  several  writingii,  partly 
orthodox,  partly  bereUcal,  falsely  ascribed  to  Clement, 
one  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  and  bishop  of  Rome  from 
A.D.  92-102,  flir  the  pu'pose  of  giving  them  gnatir 
weight  and  currency.    These  works  are 

1.  A  SECOND  Epistlb  to  the  Con[irnfiA>iB,  ex- 
tant only  in  fragments.  These  fragments  arc  found, 
together  with  Clement's  genuine  or  first  Epistle  to  tbe 
Corinthians  [see  Clbmrkt  of  Rome],  at  the  clo«e  of 
the  Alexandrian  Codex  of  the  Bible  (called  Cod.  AX 
datin.C  from  tbe  fifth  century,  and  preserved  in  the 
British  Mueeom.  The  earliest  mention  of  each  an 
epistle  we  meet  in  Eusebius,  who  says  {IJut.  Eed.  iii, 
3H).  >'  We  must  know  that  there  is  also  a  second  Epiatle 
of  Clement;  but  we  do  not  regard  it  aa  l-eing  equally 

ancients  that  have  made  use  of  it." 

The  catalogue  of  writings  contained  in  tbe  Alexan- 
drian MS.  ascribes  it  to  Clement;  but  this,  in  tbe  ab- 
sence of  other  evidence,  external  and  iDtemal,  is  not 
of  great  weight,  since  Codex  A  cannot  be  traced  be- 
yond the  fifth  century.  A  closer  exadiination  of  tbe 
fragments  shows  that  they  are  not  an  epistle,  but  a 
homily,  containing  general  exhortation*  to  active 
Christianity,  and  to  fideli^  in  peraecntion,  with  po- 
lemical references  to  the  Gnostic  denial  of  the  rMur- 
rection.  The  docnment  differs  so  much  in  style  and 
doctrinal  importance  from  tbe  genuine  epistle  ofClent- 
ent  that  it  has  t«cn  eenerally  assigned  by  critif*  to 
a  later  date.  It  ia  orthodox  in  sen^ment.  The  my 
lieglnning  contain*  a  distinct  confession  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  who  ii  called  "  God,  and  the  Jndge  of  the 
living  and  tbe  dead."    Olberwise  it  ii  of  no  ipedal 


CLEMENTINES  383  CLEMENTINES 

S.  Two  encyclic*)  Lkttebb  to  Tiuqiks,  Ant  Ai>-  I  chdnpion  of  pun,  primlUve  Cbristianit}',  In  nontriut 
sorned  t^  Wetnteio  in  176:2,  In  &  Syriic  (niulation, '  witb  Simon  Ho^s,  the  ({rut  deceiver  und  sTch-heri)- 
and  ippended  Co  his  edition  of  the  Greek  'le^tameDt-  tic,  Ibeapofltle  Paul  is  not  mentioned,  but  is  perliape 
Tber  ronimend  celibacy,  and  Gontoin  exbortations  biul  attacked  under  the  n^me  of  Simon.  Tlie  doctrinel 
nJia  of  diacipline  for  monlis  and  nuna.  tyateiu  nlilch  it  Bliilfully  interworen  Hlth  tbie  narnh 

3.  FiTc  DscaerAl,  Lbttkbs,  whitli  peeudo-Isldore  tive  standa  bv  it»elf  as  a  peculiar  and  confused  mix- 
hai  jdaced  at  the  bead  of  bia  collection  of  decretula  tnre  of  Ebloniatlc  and  Gnoatic  Ideas  and  ftncies.  It 
of  Boman  popea.  Two  of  them  are  addreaaed  to  la  a  apeculatiTe  fbrm  of  Ebioubm,  ratber  than  (cs 
Jarnea,  biahop  of  Jenualeni,  and  are  older  than  tbe  Baur  treats  it)  a  school  of  Gnuaticiam.  It  is  eeacn- 
pKada-Iaidare  of  tbe  eigbtli  or  ninth  centur}-;  the  |  tially  Judaiiint;  in  npiiit  and  aim,  though  influenced 
three  otfaen  were  fabricated  bj  him.        *  l>y  heathen  pbiloaopby.     It  is  liitterly  hoatiie  lo  tbe 

4.  The  ApohtoUCAl  Combtitdtfobb  and  Cak-  [  theology  of  Paul,  and  forma  in  this  respect  the  oppo- 
OM.  inclnding  tbe  Litcrot  of  St.  Clement,  wbicbia  ait«  extreme  to  tbe  Gnoaticism  of  Marrion  and  hia 
a  part  of  the  alghlh  book  of  the  ConatitutionB.  1  bis  fchool.  It  presenla  Chriitjanity  aa  tbe  rertoration 
it  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  lawe  and  usages  which  simply  of  tbe  pritnitlve  reli^^n  of  Adam,  Enoch,  Ko' 
grev  up  graduaJy  during  tbe  first  four  centuriea,  and  ah,  Abraham,  and  Moses,  which  was  corrupted  bj 
li  nlnahle  chiefly  a*  a  rich  source  of  information  con-  diemons,  until  Chriat  pur^  it  of  all  false  additions, 
aming  ancient  Cbntch  government,  worship,  and  ^  The  apoatle  Peter  defended  it  against  tiie  new  cotrup- 
pticlice.  The  work  prufessea  to  be  a  bequeat  of  all  tiona  of  Simon  Majfus.  James,  the  lin>ther  of  Christ, 
the  apostles  handed  down  through  the  Roman  bishop  is  made  Che  general  vicar  of  CbrJEl,  (he  pope  to  whom 
Ciemant,  or  dictated  to  b)m.  tt  bepns  with  tbe  wordx,  ,  even  Peter  is  amenable,  and  Jernsalem  is  tbe  centn 
"Tbe  apoatle*  andeldento  all  who  among  tbe  natiuna  of  Christendom,  The  Epilonf  is  only  a  poor  oltridg- 
hiTc  believed  in  Che  Lord  Jeans  Christ.  Gnce  he  (o  '  ment  of  tbe  Homilies.  The  Reiognilioiu  of  Clement, 
yao  and  peace,"  etc.  tC  contains,  in  eight  books,  a  in  10  books,  are  an  orthodox  recennlon  of  tbe  Homi- 
nilection  of  moral  exhortations,  eccieslBSticai  iawis  lies,  and  were  probaLly  written  in  Rome.  They  exist 
and  liturgical  formDlariea.     The  ol)JecI  of  the  compiler    onl)'  in  a  Latin  translation. 

was  to  eatablisb  the  episcopal  hierarchy,  and  to  for-  '  'iho  HomSia  and  JtecognUioni  are  Incorporated  in 
niah  the  clergy  with  a  convenient  guide  in  wonhip  the  targe  editions  of  the  apostolic  btbera  by  CoCeiier 
and  discipline.  The  first  six  liouks  were  written  at  and  Clericos.  Tbe  former  were  sepaialeiy  edited  bj 
theendoftlie  third  century,  tbe  remaining  two  at  the  Schwegicr,IS4T  (incomplete);  better  by  Alb.  Dresaei, 
beginning  of  the  fourth;  at  all  events,  before  theConn-  vho  flrst  discovered  the  20th  homilv  in  the  Vatican 
cil  of  NicBa  (326).  Tbe  Apostolical  Canons  are  lilirary  (Gfitt.  1B5S};  and  by  P.  de  Lagarde  (Lelpeig, 
appended  lo  the  eighth  book  of  tbe  Conatttutjons,  and  l^Gfi).  Onthesyalem  of  the  peeudo-ClementineUom. 
pretend  to  be  likewise  of  apostolical  origin.  They  ilies,  comparethe  works  of  Neander  and  Dauron  Gnoa. 
conaist  of  85,  or,  in  other  copies,  60  brief  rules  for  tbe  tii.'iam,thelearnedmDnogniphof  Sc1lliemann(i>ir(?i'lll- 
coDducCofthe  clergy  and  laity,  borrowed  in  part  from  tntintn  vHal  dm  Tmcandim  Bikri/t-ii,  Usmh.  1814), 
the  Paatonl  Epistles,  partly  from  decrees  of  early  Hilgenfeld  {Dit  Clemtminu' km  RrCfgHitioaen  tmd  Ha. 
councils,  and  partly  from  oral  tradition.  Tliey  are  also  milun,  Jena,  1848,  and  alao  hla  work  on  the  a|>cBtollc 
found  separately  in  Greek,  Syriac,  Ethlopic,  and  Ar-  j  fathers.  185S,  p.  289-S06).  Uhlbom  (Die  llomiKm  md 
alnc  nunuscripts.  Hey  were  collected  by  some  un-  Rrc^iHonti>  Jet  Cltment  Rom.,  Gattlngen,  18E4,  and 
known  hand  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  ]  an  article  by  the  »ame  in  Henog's  £ni^L  il,  744), 
The  Greek  Church  In  692  adopted  the  whole  collection  ,  Schafl"  (CAarfA  HiHary,  1,  SIS  sq.),  and  an  article  of 
of  85  canons;  tbe  Latin  retained  only  SO,  which  Die-  SleiCz  tn  tbe  i}Mi<n  tmd  A'n'tiin  for  1867,  No.  Ill,  p. 
nyilus  Exiguns  transUted  into  Latin  about  A.D.  SOO.  I  W5  «q.  Dr.  StelU  derives  the  German  slorj'  of  Faust 
The  Apostolical  Conatitutions  and  Canons  are  found  frnm  Che  pseodo-Clementine  Action  of  Simon  MaRoa. 
tn  tbe  larger  editions  of  the  works  of  the  apostolic  fa-  There  are  some  points  of  resemblance,  but  nolpufRcient 
there,  by  Cotelier  and  aericus  (1673,  ICB8, 1700, 1724). ,  lo  eatablisb  such  a  connection,  A  translation  of  tbe 
in  the  first  volume  of  MsnaiX  and  also  tit  Hnrduin's  |  Ifnr^iHtmt  (l<7  the  Rev.  T,  Smith)  la  given,  wiih  an 
CailtxHon  nfComtriii,  and  have  been  scpamtely  edited  Introduclkin  on  the  literature,  in  Ibt  Anle-S'ictnt  Li- 
by  Goil.  Ueltien,  Cenutitutioiut  apotlalim  (Eostochil,    hrary,  vol.  Hi  (Edinburgh,  1867). 

isas),  andbv  P.  A.  de  I^garde,  CLiuHUitiona  opoilo-\  II,  A  part  of  tbe  canon  law  prepared  by  pope  Clem- 
br«M  (Lip*.  1862).  Amons  the  many  treatises  on  tbe  enC  V  (tS0fr-]S14),  and  consUting  of  the  decrees  is. 
Apoel.  Conit.  we  mention  Krablie,  {^«6eriini  rr^infi^  >ued  by  tbe  Council  of  Vienna  (1311-1812),  as  well  as 
widlHluiUikrapoii.C<imlil«ti'>nrtk{m9)\?,.voriX)Tty,  his  own  consCitDtions.  This  cullectton  was  to  follow 
AVua  Untermdumgm.  etc.  (1832);  Chase,  CixuIiCvfioiu  '  tbe  Ave  books  of  decretals  collected  by  Gregoi^'  IX  in 
•tfllu  koly  ApnlUt,  including  Iht  Cimont  (1^48) ;  comp.  1284,  and  the  fiSer  lixtui  prepared  in  1238  by  Boni&co 
Hefelr,  CanciUngachiihlt,  i,  7CT  rq.;  SchalT,  Churrk .  VIII,  under  the  name  of  ZtArr  lepHnaa;  it  Is.  how- 
Bitlary,  i,  440  sq. ;  Bunsen,  Ilippal.  1,8:9  Fc|.  <  ever,  more  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Clem. 

5.  The  pseudo-Clementine  HoMiLira,  lo  which  the  entlnes.  Like  the  two  previous  collecfinns,  il  is  dl- 
tille  aemfnlmtt  (id  Winiivrta,  Cltamtlna')  Is  more  vided  Into  five  books — Judrr,  Jndicivm,  CItna,  Con- 
particularly  applied,  and  the  Recoomtioss  CAi'n-  '  nnbia,Cnmmt  and  even  the  aeriea  of  titles  and  the 
yyaipiOfioi,  fiteo^nitioMi  CltniniU  Rom.\  which  re-  liendinga  fUllj  correspond  with  tbose  of  the  collection 
stmble  the  former  in  form  and  contents.  To  these  of  Gregory  IX.  Clement  made  his  collection  known 
must  be  added  the  Epitome  tiE  qebtis  Petri,  which  to  the  consistory  of  cardinals  tn  131S,  and  in  the  foi- 
ls a  summary  of  the  Homilies.  The  Homilies  are  ^  lowing  year  sent  It  to  the  University  of  Orleans, 
twenty  in  number,  but  the  last  has  only  recently  been  ,  His  successor,  John  XXII.  sent  ic  also  lo  the  nniversi. 
discovered.  They  fiiture  very  prominently  in  the  ,  lies  of  Paris  and  Bologna.  Tbe  first  glioa  (commen- 
hislory  "f  the  ancient  heresies.  They  are  a  moat  cu-  Urj)  to  it  was  written  about  1326  by  Joannes  Andreie, 
tioQs  philosophico- religious  romance.  Clement,  an  and  It  soon  obtained  the  antboriCy  of  a^ostu  i.nf.'aa. 
edocateil  Roman,  and  kinsman  of  the  emperor  Doml-  j  rid.  It  was  revised  by  cardinal  Zabarella  (t  1417). 
tian,  dissatisfied  with  heathenism  and  thirsting  after  The  first  editinns  of  Ibe  Clementines  were  published  at 
mnb,  travels  to  Judica,  meets  tbe  apostle  Peter,  and  .  Maim  in  1460, 1487,  and  1471.  See  Wrtieru.Wehe, 
t*  converted  by  bim  to  the  Christian  faitb.  He  ac  |  Kircheo.jMr.  ii,  628;  Ilase,  Ck.  I/itl.  §  286.  See  also 
companies  bim  on  bis  missionary  Journeys,  and  takes  '  Canon  Law. 

'    writing  the  sulMtance  of  tbe  sermons  and  dis- 1      IH.  A  sect  wboee  members  reject  most  of  the  fbrms 

m   with    atmnn    Wairnm         fiimnn    T*#fw    !■    thiifl     nn,l  iwiwmnnlH    Aftlut  Rnmf*h  PKiin-h    hut-    mAht^wa   »n 


CLEOBIAXS 

BUU,  the  DMcisitf  of  confeuion,  etc.  Tbfir  nann 
laid  to  bo  derived  ftom  tbat  of  it  |iriest,  tbcir  first  le 
er.  The  sect  hu  never  been  ounieroot;  but  ■  : 
membert,  it  ii  thoU({ht.  may  still  tl867)  b*  found 
tbe  Pyreiuean  [iroTii^cea  of  Frince. 


184  CLEOPATRA 

,    (cixxix,  1)  represent  her  as  only  nfluing  to  rwrire 

' '  him.     She  also  nmrdered  Selencus,  her  aon  by  !ilc>b 

I    without  her  cunwnt(Appun,5yr.6S).    Der  other  H>n 
^  byNicator,  ADtii>cbuiVlII(Gr}'par),nicoeedcdledi* 


Oe'fipas  (KJif.iirnc-  C"ntr.  for  KXtvmirpocv  ^  a 
rtmmimrd  falirr),  one  of  tbe  two  diaciples  who  were 
going  to  EmmauB  on  the  day  of  the  nsurrec  Hon,  when 
Jeaug  hinuelfdrsw  Dear  and  talked  with  them  (Lube 
xxiv,  18),  A.D.  29.  Eosebius  ind  Jerome  {Onomtul. 
I.  T.  'Bfi/iaoiii',  Etaatit)  make  bim  (KAfurac  Cl-o- 
pliat)  ■  native  of  Emmaun.  It  l«  a  question  whether 
this  Cleopas  b  to  be  conaldered  as  identical  with  tbe 
ClEoPhab  (q.  v.),  or  rather  Clopat  of  John  xin,  33, 
or  tbe  Alphacb  (q.  v.)  of  Matt,  x,  8,  etc.  Their  j 
Identity  was  aaaumed  by  tbe  later  fulbers  and  Church 
hislorbaa  (Tbiesa,  ConmMf.  il,  2»0  K|.).  But  Kuse- 
bius  {H.  E.  lii,  11)  writes  tbe  name  of  Al|>haui'.  Jo- 
■epb's  brother,  Clopas,  not  CIcopae ;  and  Chrj-aostom  I 
and  Theodoret,  on  the  EpUtle  to  the  Galallans,  call 
Jamei  tbe  J  nat  the  aon  of  Clopaa.  Besides  thia,  Clo- 
paa,  or  Alphsua,  I*  an  Aramaic  name,  whereas  Cle-  I 
opaa  is  apparently  Greek.  Again,  aa  we  find  the  wife 
and  children  of  Ctapaa  conatuntly  with  the  family  of 
Joseph  at  tbe  time  of  our  Lord's  mioiatry,  it  ia  proba- 
ble thst  be  himaelf  waa  dead  before  that  time.     On 

Cleopaa  with  Clopas,  aotwitbatanding  the  aimilurily 
of  Dimea.  (See  Rub,  Baroum.  rsamg.  Ill,  ii,  ir.2  >q.  -. 
Wieseler,  Chrtnol.  S^iupt,  p.  431 ;  Clemens,  in  the 
Ze-Uchr.f.  aia.  Tkeol.  iii,  BM  Bq.) 

CleSpa'tra  (atrictly  Clcop'oin,  K.\(o«-rrpn,  o/a 
TTtvueitd  falitr).  a  Greek  female  mime  occirring  aa 
early  te  Homer  (//.  ix,  656),  and  Lorae  especbilly  by 
tbe  Egyptian  princesses  aftar  the  times  of  Alexander 
(see  Smith's  Did.  of  Ctam.  Biog.  s.  v.).  Tbe  fbllow- 
ing,  being  members  of  the  line  of  tbe  Ptolemies,  who 
frequently  intennarried  with  the  Selenclda  of  Syria, 
are  mentioned  In  the  Apocrypha  and  Josephus,  or  al- 
iDded  to  in  the  Scriptures. 

1.  A  daughter  of  Antiocbna  III  (the  Great),  who 
waa  married  to  Ptolemy  V  (Epipbanea),  B.C.  198  (see 
Dan.  xl,  13,  IG),  CfBle-Syria  being  given  as  her  dower 
(JoBephua,.iln'.xii,4,li  Appian,  ii>r.  6;  I.ivy,  xxxvii, 
8),  thuu)ih  Antiochns  afterwards  repudiated  thia  ar- 
rangement (Polyb.  xxviii,  17).     See  Antiochcs,  2. 

2.  A  daughter  bv  the  preceding  match,  who  he- 
came  "the  wife  of  Ptolemy"  (Eath.  xi,  1)  VI  (Phil- 
ometor),  her  own  brother,  on  whose  death  (B.C.  146) 
she  waB  violently  persecuted  by  hia  aDCcesror  (her  own 
brother  likewise,  and  for  a  time  husband)  Phvscon, 
or  Ptolemy  VU,  or  Euergeles  II  (Justin.  XKXviii,  8, 
9;  xixix,  1,  2:  Livy,  tp.  69;  Died.  Sic.  11,  6ns.  ed. 
Weaa.)  She  Is  mentioned  by  Jnsepbas  as  having  join, 
ed  her  flrst  husband  in  the  letter  adilressed  to  Qnias 
(q.  V.)  In  favor  of  reconstructing  tbe  Jewiab  temple  at 
Leontopolis  {Ant.  xiii,  S,  2),  and  as  befriended  in  her 
distreaa  by  OuUb  (^pi'on,  ii,  &).    See  Ptolemt  Phii^ 

3.  A  daughter  of  the  preceding  br  her  Hrst  hus- 
band ;  married  first  (B.C.  160)  to  Alexander 
(q.  V.)  Balas,  the  S.i-riaa  usurper  (1  Mace  x, 
58:  Joseph  us,  .4  nj.  xiii,  4, 1  and  5),  and  on  bis 
death  (B.C.  146)  to  Demetrius  (q.v.)  Kicatot 
(1  Mace,  xl,  12;  JoBepboB,  Ami.  xiii,  4,  7). 
During  tbe  captivity  of  tbe  latter  in  Farthia, 
B.C.  141  (1  Mace.  :tiT,  1  sq.),  she  married  his 
brother  Antiochns  (Joaephus,  AnI.  illi,7,l)  VII 
(Sidetes),  out  of  jealousy  on  account  of  Dcmo- 
trius'a  connection  with  tbe  Parthian  princesa 
Rhodogune,  and  also  murdered  Demetrius  on 
his  return  (Appian,  5jn-.  68 ;  Livy,  Ep.  GO),  al- 
tfaongh  Josepbns  (Ant.  xiii,  9,  S)  and  Justin 


CJn  of  UltoiBtra  and  her  ton  AaUochd.  Gryyoa 
throne  (B.C.  125)  thnmgh  her  InSoenee ;  but  after- 
wards, finding  hini  not  disposed  to  yield  her  all  the 
power  she  desired,  she  attempted  to  poison  bint,  but 
waa  antlcipeted  bv  him,  and  compelled  to  drink  the 
poison  herself  (Juetin,  xxxix,  2),  B.C,  120.  See  Ajin- 
iiCHoa,  G  and  7. 

4.  A  sister  of  the  preceding,  and  the  rival  of  her 
own  mother  (No.  S)  in  tbe  affections  of  Ptolemy 
Physcon,  by  whose  will  she  waa  left  In  supreme  pow- 
er, in  connection  with  whichever  of  her  own  sons 
abe  mt^bt  choose.  She  was  compelled  bv  her  peo|4r 
10  set  np  the  eldest,  Ptolemy  Vlll  (Lathyrus);  but 
Fhe  soon  prevailed  upon  them  to  expel  him,  and  make 
room  for  her  younger  and  favorite  son  Alexander 
(Pauaan.  viii,  7),  and  ahe  even  sent  an  army  again.<l 
■.athyrus  to  Cyprus,  an  elfort  in  wbicb  the  Jewa  be- 
came involved  (Josephua,  AiU.  xiii,  12,  3  sq.  j  13, 1) 
through  the  intervention  of  Alexander  Jannscus  Iq. 
v.).  Her  son  Alexander  retired  ihrongh  fear  of  hei 
cruelty,  but  was  recalled  by  his  mother,  who  atlempl- 
ed  to  assassinate  him.  but  waa  herself  put  (o  death 
(B.C.  ^)  before  she  could  efl'ect  her  object  (Justin. 
xxxix,  A).     See  Ptoi.eiit  LATHTRrs. 

5.  Ihe  second  daughter  of  the  name  by  tbe  preced- 
ing marriage,  and  married  to  hor  own  brother  Lathy- 
rus after  her  Bisler'a  divorce,  from  wbnm  she  is  oanal- 
ly  distinguished  by  tbe  surname  of  &  inw  (riX^M,,  th- 
bhxib).  After  his  exile  ahe  married  Antiocbos  XI 
(Epipbanea),  and  on  his  death  Antiochus  X  (Eusebes). 
She  was  besieged  by  Tigranes  in  Syria  or  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  either  taken  and  killed  by  him  (Straljo. 
xxi,  p.  749),  or,  accordnig  to  JosephuB  {.Jb/.  xiii,  16. 
4  ;  comp.  War,  i,  6,  t\  relieved  by  Lncullufl's  invaiioii 
of  Armenia.     See  ANTincHus,  9  and  19. 

6.  The  last  queen  of  Egypt,  was  the  daaghler  rf 
Ptolemy  AuleleB.bomB.C.'eg,  and  celebrated  for  her 
twanly  and  accomplishments,  aa  also  for  her  voln|«B- 
ouaneas  and  amliition.  She  bad  various  amaroaa  and 
political  intrigues,  first  with  Julius  C«»ar  (Dion  Casi. 
xliii,  27 ;  Sneton.  Cm.  85),  wbnm  she  even  accompa- 
nied to  Rome;  and  finally  «-ith  Marc  Antony  (q.  v.X 
who  became  bo  completely  enamored  of  her  as  to  fom- 
mit  auicide  when  falsely  informed  of  her  death,  which 
she  presentlyactually  accomplished,  it  ia  saidliytms- 
in«  herpelf  to  be  bitten  by  an  asp,  on  the  capture  of 
Alexandria  by  Octavianus.  afterwards  called  Au([iif- 
tUF,  B.C.  BO  (see  Liddell's  Biit.  of  Rame,  chap.  lii). 


CLKOPHAS 


385 


CLEItGY 


Jaeptu  oftra  reftn  t«  bar  profligate  eondnct  (ue  :  rolvcd  Um  In  m  coMrovtrry  with  B«j-la  which  )a«t«d 

.l>r.  liv,  13, 1)  at  nell  a*  bar  artful  cinelty  (Am.  xv,  \  nntil  the  daith  of  tha  latter.     Ue  prepared  sa  sppen- 

1,11  (w)  H;  War,  i,  19. 1),  and  narrate*  ber  uniuccea«-   dix  to  the  Anialerdain  reprint  of  die  Mnuritie  edttinn 

fil  ittempt  to  dnw  even  Herod  Into  in  amour  (^af.  |  of  the  Morks  ot  St.  Auguttla»  (_App(iida  AugmtM-oiui, 

It,  ().  Amatard.  1702) ;  puUiehed  u  French  tranalaticn  of  tha 

7.  Ow  of  Herod'a  wire*,  a  native  of  Jeruaalem,    Ke«  Ta»t.  (Amnterd.  1T03,  !  vols.).  wiUi  nole«,  which 

tmi  OMMber  of  hi«  aon»  Herod  and  Philip  (Joeephoa,    again  Ln.n^ht  him  into  the  .OBpickra  of  SocinUniim, 

.M.  ivi{,l,3;  IVar,  i,  !8, 4).  ,  ■ndpuhlished  new  editiunii,  with  noCer,  of  rrtaTiua.Ai 

'  a  The  wifo  of  Gawu.  ttonw,  procurator  of  Jud»i ;  '  '^'^«g''U  Asmo/iiw  (6  Tohi.  f„l.  Anii>l«nJ.  IT(X)),  and 

.be  wu  a  btoritfl  with  NeroB  wife  (Josephll^  Anl.    ^Kftwa  t^porton  (Ainaterd.  170a,  3  vol*,  fol,).  i>f  Ibo 

,,  ]]  ]v  -I  complete  wuika  ofEr^amaa  of  Rotterdam  (LuRd.  Bat 

'     ',_    ^  ,      ^  ,^,       .,.,,.         lOvola.  ful.  1703-6),  of  Hugo  Grotiua,  Be  VeriUitt  He- 

Clo'opbW.  or  rather  Ci^pa.  (KX«xa,)  ti.e  hut-    j;^^;  c*,i,.i™,r  (Am.terd.  1709).  wd  of  many  oth- 

•«*  "f  »fa'V  (1-  "■).  the  "a.et.r    of  Chn-  .  n.other  ^^  „,  „,^  e-ntinued  hi.  literal,-  Journal  und'r  the 

{Mni.i,to);  prol«bl:i;a_G™««ed_fon.ioflhena™    ^^a^  BOAxIkfgtt  cA«««  (1708-13,  ^  voU.).      In  171?, 

the  death  of  Ijmlnirch,  he  wai  appointed  his  »uc- 

ceasor  sb  profefMir  of  Cburch  HIptory  at  tbe  college  of 

Amalerd.m.     Hie  new  office  induced  him  to  write  a 

ChnrcbHiKlcry  ofthe  firat  t«o  centuTiea(Aij(.  AVeJia. 

prim,  lac,  Anialerd,  ITIG).     He  aire  prepsred 

ravcrai  editiona  of  Ijitin  and  Greek  clauice,  a  hirtoi? 

of  the  XetherlantlK,  and  carried  on  a  very  extentiva 

corrwpindcnce  wilbrcbolarain  variona  countries.     In 

17S8  he  rnddenly  loet.  in  coneequence  of  a  pari>lyt)c 

UBe  of  language,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  hia 


1;  Uarkiii.ISj  Luke  vi,  16;  Acta 
L  ]}j  comp.  Uark  xv,  40)  called  Ai-vaMVa  (q.  v.),    , 
icriupi  in  imitatioit  oftlie  name  fln>rNU(q.  v.).    Soe 
Uh  TttaL  ainJ.  >.  KiiL  ItMO,  iii.  «49. 

ClOTC  I>9  (CLcniccs).  Jr.im,  a  learaed  critic  ■ 
ml  thHlogiiiD,  wu  bom  at  Geneva  Harcb  19, 1G37. 
He  Kodiwl  tbeologr  at  bia  natir*  town,  and  in  IG79 
paand  a  brilliant  examination  for  admiuion  into  Che 
nifliArT  ofUeaeva,  liutbad  before  this  fallen  out  witli 
itrict  C^vinL'ni,  cbieRv  under  (he  influence  of  Ibo  Suu-  i 
BUT  tlieaeii  {Sfmlagmk  dei.'n  litoL  Salnuirii,  1056), 
wdiho  writinga  uf  tih>  j^nd-nncle  Curcetlnug  and  of  new  at'tiirk  in  173?.  lie  died  January  g,  17K6.  Le 
EciKopioB.  Aa  early  ai  1079  ha  puUiahtd  a  pseudo-  i  CIcrc  was  one  of  the  moal  prolilie  writera  of  modem 
BjmwiB  work  on  the  difference  tietween  KtrJct  Calvin- 1  timea,  but  more  crJlKal  than  pioductive.  Though  bt- 
iil>  and  Remonttranta,  in  fiiror  of  the  latter  (Lilierli  ,  wbvb  in  HcleaiaBtical  communion  with  tha  Kemen- 

^naeto  amort  tp'tiola  liralegica,  Saumur,  1079).    In    ptranta,  he  undoul^tfdly  leaned tonarda  Eocinitnifm 

tSSi  ne  openly  Joined  the  Remonatranta,  and  in  1GP4  I  See  Metier  u.  Weite,  Klrdnn-Iyfx.  11,  680  fq. ;  Her< 

Om  Rottenlsin  Synod  gave  to  him  tin  profearonbip  '  tog,  Aeol-ijiryrtiap.  Ii,7[£;  Ench  n. GTober,  Enf^iAi)). 

of  phikiaophj  and  ancient  ianguagea  ot  (he  Arminian  j  vol.  xvfii,  a.  v. 

nncKC  of  ArattFTdam.     Hera  he  at  once  liegsn  to  ex-        Clerevtory.     See  Ci.ear-stobt. 

Iiitit  hia  mmrvelluus  literary  activity.     After  puLliBh-        Cl«Tg7,  the  general  name  given  to  thoK  who  are 

leg  tome  eitegetical  traatiaea  of  bla  uncle  David  Is    ret  apart  by  ordinolteK  (q.  v.)  fbr  the  perrormance  of 

Cln.  and  bia  father  SIrpben  le  Clerr,  and  a  dogmtt-    ChriMian  wonhip  and  teaching,  and  who  are  (berefore 

iol  (rsatise  on  predestination,  and  the  nature  and  llm- !  uid  to  be  in  ordrrn  (q.  v.). 

id  of  human  kneoledge  ^tn're/irti  nr  dittii't  ma-  '       ].  Origin  end  Uetming  n/lit  Word. — Tbe  word  la  by 

■tra  di  Ikrolagir,  Amsterdam,  1086),  be  altractnl  gen-  '  some  euppoaed  to  be  derived  IVtm  tdt^pm  (hi),  aa  if  tlia 

ml  attention  by  hia  literary  controversy  with  the  '  minlater  were,  in  a  fpeclal  lenfe,  rtSpoj  roti  ami; 

Imaedoraturian  tticliard  Simun  ((M^eat  i^iWuBitna   rpeclaliy  coDKcraled  to  God.     Othrra  (Augnttine, 

fVaifciiM  Wrrapo'>'aM((,lBe4,paeudon}m.:  Siniimiu  I  Arp-r.  in  TV.  07;  laidor,  i^e  Off.  Ercla.S,  c.  i)  main- 


IV  fitut.  eritfw  da  V.  T.  am^otit  par  It  F.  R.  Simim, 
AbMbi).  1686,  amd  lUfiita  dri  Jit^tHmrm.  etc.  Ain- 
urri.  1C8o).  In  the  aume  ynar  be  eatabllahed  with  F. 
Cinund  de  la  Croie  a  litemiy  ioumol,  under  the  title 
BUtaAeqiie  matrritUe  H  titkniqiit.  which,  liraidefl  re* 
rievt  and  oitracta  from  now  Looks,  containa  many 
ta«Ta  by  Le  Clerc  (S5  vnia.  l£86-ie!«).  He  aliio  took 
la  active  part  In  the  pulilication  of  the  fonr  editions 
of  Uoml'a  DietiBimairt  (4  rola.  fol.  IGPl-tTO!).  He 
defaided  Epiacopiua  agalnat  tbe  charge  of  Sodnlan' 
iw  {/.rttrr  a  JU.Jarim  aur  lii  manitrt  dimt  il  a  traiti 
tfiterjiiaM,  1S90),  and  traiwlaled  three  works  of  Bur- 
nt inln  Prnich,  and  part  of  tbe  biston-  of  ancient 
pUkiwiihy  by  Th.  SUnley  into  Ijtin.  From  160*- 
ini  be  wnte  Mveral  cnmpenda  otphilorophy  (fiprra 
tiilim^ioi,A'"At.\SB»;  later  editiona  eonUrn  a  tith 
nlame,  whb  ■  life  of  tbe  ■uthm').  In  1G93  he  began 
tkr  publieation  of  bis  l^alin  translation  of  and  com- 
n  tbe  Old  TesUment  (GencaU,  160S; 


Uin  that  it  indicate*  tbct  the  kt  by  which  Mutthlaa 
wc*  eboam  cpottle  gave  the  f.rpt  general  name  fir 
the  chiefs  of  the  Church  as  a  clarj.  Jerome  raj-«  Ibey 
wire  called  clrrg)',  either  btcaufo  Ibey  were  choten 
by  lot  to  le  th<-  Lord'r,  or  L>ecauFe  the  Lord  is  (heir 
lot  or  heritage  (Deut,  iviii,  1).  More  recently  Uth 
thete  derivation*  have  been  al«ndi>ned,  and  one  pro- 
poacd  by  Baur  (L'rifrmg  dti  Epurepali,  p.  !S  iq.; 
D.  OriHnHhim  B.  die  ehrinl.  Kirrit  der  drei  mlin 
Jakiami.  p.  946}  and  by  Ritrcbl  (faMei.  drr  atihalk. 
Kirtht.  p.  !<B)has  met  *ith  general  favor.  According 
to  it,  the  word  ic>ii(»c  i*  m  the  N,  T.  (Acts  1, 17,  ib  \ 
1  Pet,  V,  S),  aa  well  a*  In  tbe  language  of  tbe  ancient 
Cburcb,  commonly  used  In  tbe  algnllicfation  of  "rank," 
"degree."  The  "faitbrul"  (_*fcl.a)and  calecbumena 
were  called  cMtpoi  (ordlnei,  ranks),  Juet  ae  well  aa 
bisbnpe,  presbyters,  deacons.  Gradually  — the  ixaci 
point  of  time  cannot  be  Hxcd— the  ecclesiastical  offi- 
cers were  exclusively  called  "ikt  rank."  cXii^iDC,  a 
(lU  last  books  of  the  Pentateuch.  1390 ;  the  other  his-  '  transition  which  woo  very  natural  when  the  dllTerenco 
inrial  liooka,  1706:  tbe  remainder,  17SI),  in  which  he  |  between  tbe  officera  ot  the  Church  and  the  bulk  oflba 
devilnpnl  soma  latltudinartan  views  on  Biblical  mir-  -  people  waa  empbaeiied.  The  eariieel  writer  in  wbli-ti 
■cWa  and  acriptnral  interpretation.  In  ISC6  be  pnh.  |  the  name  "clergy"  (cXTpot)  in  lite  rectricted  sense 
labad  UtAn  Critica  (2  vols.  Amatard.).  one  of  his  occur*  is  Clement  of  Alexandria.  "It  ia  clei^r  froni 
■0^  inportant  woriis,  of  which  the  KpitUibr  Oilirai  the  N.T.  that  (bero  were  men  separated  to  (ha  woik 
•t  Eeelraailira  (1700,  against  Cave)  are  a  contlnufl- '  of  the  Christian  ministry-.  Some  of  there  appear  to 
tioi.  Me  translated  Into  Latin  aiid  added  valuable  have  been  rxlraordiiinry,  such  a«  aprill'i,  who  had 
"*»  to  Hammond's  New  Testament  {I09P,  2  vols.  l*cn  selected  by  Christ  himself  without  any  inter- 
U.;  9d  edit.  Frankft.rt,  1714),  and  In  the  Hme  year  mediate  authority;  rnn^.afi,  snch  as  Timcithy  i.nd 
IMblisbedaiMwedition  ofths/^rfm^jHsto/irihyCo-  Tnnti  propKtU.  See  1  Cor.  xiv,  fl,  }i-;4.  These 
flier,  viib  note*  and  additions  (Amsterd.ingS:  2ded.  probably  continued  only  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
1^4 1.  A  work  aininst  some  anti-ChristlHU  views  in  npostlca  and  those  on  whom  thry  laid  hande.  Olb- 
Bayle'i  ttielicmarg  {FarrhanniKi,  Amaterd,  1699)  in-  era  were  onttwry  mlnlitera,  denominated  eMerLor 
II.— 18  H 


CLERGY  38fl  CLERGY 

I>rMb7tOT>,  putoTi,  biaho|M,  and  tcachen.  Btt  1  Pet. '  of  Ruula  Ute  eommini  nune  or  tha  n^lar  elmrgy  it 
v,l-l;  AcU  xlv,  !3;  xv,  G  i  Titui  i,  fi.  Then  Wen  lbs  Uicl  clergy,  out  of  which  Uis  bi)[hercccl«tsMMiJ 
divinelj  culled  tad  appdnted  tntbeli  work  (Act*  xx,  dit(iilUrie<arei;hoii«D,wbiletheMicaUrcler|{j-^fisit*, 
S8)i  tbey  were  lolamnlj  »t  iput;  they  wen  enli-  deacon*, rsden, end s*cri«tai]f) >ra called icAite cler,C7. 
tied  to  be  jupported  by  the  churahe*  tA  Hhom  (hoy  4,  £xemptj>nt  foul  Priiilrga. — "By  Uwi  made  by 
niliiuteiisd ;  the[r  datiee  were  to  feed  tha  flock,  to  take  CoDitiDtlne,  *nd  conllnned  by  V«lentiniui  I V,  Gra- 
care  of  and  navem  the  Church  of  God,  and  to  witch  tian,  end  Theodaeius  tfae  Gnat,  the  clergy  ware  ex- 
fbr  •aula  (1  Thesa.  T,  12,  IS ;  Heb.  lili,  7,  IT)"  (Calls  empled.  (1.)  From  all  civil  and  municipal  oSce^  that 
man,  (7Aniffini  ^  atu^intMf,  ch.  iii).  they  nil|[ht  give  tbetnaelvee  to  thafr  religioui  dutiei. 

3.  Didindim  of  Clergy  and  Laity la  tha  apoetol-    (2.)  From  (vntiibatloni  to  public  work*.     (S.)  From  a 

ical  Chnrch  no  abatract  diatinction  uf  clergy  and  laity,  varieti'  of  taiea  and  inipoata.  (4.)  Finm  militaty  mt- 
H  to  pnviiege  or  aanctity,  was  known  ;  all  believera  vice,  thoui{h  tbit  U  not  stated  in  *a  many  worda.  (L) 
were  called  to  the  prophetic,  priestly,  and  kingly  offl-  From  appearance  in  civil  courts.  A  bishop  conld  net 
cm  in  Christ  (1  Pet.  v,  3}.  The  Jewish  an^Itaesla  of  be  forced  to  gin  pnblic  testimony;  but  it  miffht  it 
clergy  and  laity  waa  at  lirst  unknown  among  Chri»-  taken  in  private,  tbimgh  the  bishop  was  not  obligBd  to 
tians;  and  it  was  "only  as  men  (bll  back  ttma  the  .  take  fbrmai  oath, but  only  hsdilie  Go'pels  before  hlin. 
•van^iical  to  the  Je«lsb  point  of  view"  that  the  idea  Scourging  and  tortnre,  which  mlKfat  lie  applied  to  otb- 
of  the  general  Christian  piieatfaood  of  all  beliaven  '  er  witneaies,  could  not  be  inflicted  on  the  clerf;r.  Ner 
gave  place,  more  or  leas  completely,  to,  that  of  the  '  could  the  civil  courts  take  rogniiance  of  purely  et«l»- 
special  priesthood  or  ciergy  (Neander,  Ckurch  Hutmj,  slaatical  esoses  (Theodoe.  CW..  Ub.  xvi,  tit.  2,  leg.  13; 
Torray's  rd.,  i,  194  sq.;  SchilT.  ItitUry  eflkt  Cluv.  Jostlnlin,  A'oorf.  BS),  Ibongfa  tbey  could  interfetv  ia 
Hm  Chunk,  I,  ch.  * ;  GleseUr,  aural  fliHory,  I,  $  GS).  '  criminsi  matters,  and  in  caaea  between  a  clpntyman 
So  Tertullian,  even  (Oe  Baplumo,  c.  17,  before  he  be- 1  snd  a  laymau  ;  for  the  laj'man  was  iKt  bmnd  to  oiitj 
came  a  Montanist) ;  "  The  laity  have  also  the  rlgbt  to  |  an  ecclesiastical  tribanal.  BisJiopa  were  ofl(o  arbiters 
administer  the  sacrament*  and  to  teach  in  the  com-  i  in  disputes,  bnt  only  when  both  parties  agreed  to  lay 
munity.  TTie  Word  of  God  and  tha  sacrament*  were  I  the  matter  before  them,  and  then  the  e^dscDpa]  sn- 
by  tha  grace  of  God  communicated  to  all,  and  may  I  tence  could  be  put  in  force  by  the  dvil  power.  In 
therefore  be  communicated  by  atl  Christians  as  instrn-  !  cases  of  life  and  death,  clerical  intervention  waa  strict- 
ments  of  the  divine  grace.      But  tiM  qnestioD  here  re- '  ly  prohibited." 

lates  not  barely  to  what  is  permitted  in  general,  but  |  The  privileges  which  the  clergy  enjoyed  under  Um 
also  to  what  is  expedient  under  existing  circumstan-  I  ancient  municipal  laws  oT  EB|;laiid  were  nnmttwis; 
ces.  We  may  here  use  the  words  o(  SL  Puol, '  All  hut  being  much  abused  by  tlw  popish  cks|ry,  tbey 
tbinis  are  lawfni  for  men,  but  all  things  are  not  ex-  i  wore  greatly  curtailed  at  the  Reformatirai.  "  Tbeaa 
pedicnt.'  If  we  look  at  the  order  necessary  to  be  '  which  now  remain  are  peraonal,  «ach  aa  clergymen 
maintained  in  tha  Church,  the  laity  are  tberefDre  to  not  being  compellsd  to  serve  on  Juries,  or  to  appear  at 
axerrise  their  priestly  right  of  adminiatering  the  sac-  '  the  sherifTs,  or  consequently  at  the  conrt-leel,  or  view 
raments  only  when  the  time  and  circumstances  require  offTanlipttdgo.  Clergymen  are  exempt  akofVaa  trm- 
It."  From  the  time  of  Cyprian  (t  268),  tha  father  of  .  poral  ofBces,  in  regard  to  their  continual  attendance 
the  biararcbicsl  system,  tha  distinction  of  clency  and  on  Chair  sacred  functinni.  While  attending  dirina 
laity  became  prominent,  and  very  soon  was  nnli-eraal-  '  sen-ice  the]'  arc  privileged  from  arrest  in  civil  toit, 
ly  admitted.  Indeed,  from  the  third  century  onward,  stst.  60  Edward  II  I.  chap,  v,  and  1  Richard  I  [.  ch.  it. 
tha  term  elmu  (lAqpoc,  ardo)  was  almost  exclusively  '  It  has  been  adjudged  that  this  extends  to  the  going  te. 
applied  to  the  ministry  to  disCingaish  it  frotn  the  \tity,  \  continnlng  at,  and  ratnming  from  celebrating  divine 
As  the  Boman  hierarchy  was  developod,  the  clergy  I  service.  The  ecclesiastical  goods  of  a  clergyman  csa- 
came  to  tie  not  merely  a  distinct  order  (which  might  |  not  be  levied  liy  the  sherilT;  but  on  his  making  hb  n- 
condst  with  all  the  apostolical  regnlations  and  doc-  ,  turn  to  the  writ  of  Jieri/adat,  that  the  party  is  ■  cler- 
trines),  but  also  to  be  recognised  as  the  only  priest- '  gj-man  btiirficed,  having  no  lay.fee,  then  the  suLce- 
hood,  and  the  essential  means  of  communicatdon  be- '  qnent  process  most  be  directed  to  tho  hiahop  of  the 
tween  man  and  God  (Vinet.  Post.  Tkeol.  Introd.).  I  diocese,  who,  by  virtue  thereof,  sequesters  the  same- 

8.  Ctaw{;{n>hiM.~  Simultaneously  with  the  intt«-  So  in  an  action  against  a  person  in  holy  iirder*,  where- 
duction  into  the  Church  of  a  distinction  between  clei^  in  a  eo^itas  lies  to  lake  hie  person,  on  the  shcrilTs  mak- 
gy  and  laity,  a  division  of  tha  clergy  into  classes  of  i  ing  the  same  return,  f^irtbar  process  must  issue  tu  the 
diflbrent  rank  waa  gradually  developed.  The  earliest  |  bishop,  to  compel  him  to  appear  i  it  la  otherwise,  bow- 
and  most  important  of  those  dlMinctlons  was  that  be- ;  aver,  nnlass  tba  cleiKyuan  is  bmrfitrd.  In  cases  of 
twean  bisbop  and  presbyter  (see  Bishop).  To  these  {  felony,  benefit  of  clergy  b  eitendod  to  them  without 
were  added,  in  the  course  of  time,  deacon,  subdeacon,  |  being  branded,  end  they  an  entitled  to  it  more  than 
arcbbisbop,  primate,  pstriarch,  pope,  and  a  number  of  ;  once.  Clergymen  labor  also  under  certain  disaUli- 
oSlc«rs  preceding  the  snbdlaconat*.  Each  class  was  :  ties,  such  as  not  being  capable  of  sitting  as  memben 
initiated  into  office  by  a  special  ordination  (see  On- 1  in  the  Hoose  of  Commons.  This,  however,  though  a 
pans).  In  geneni,  the  varloua  classes,  according  to  received  n^nion,  was  not  restricted  by  law  till  so  lata 
the  higher  and  lower  dignity  of  the  orders,  were  dl- 1  as  the  41  George  III,  chap.  Ixlii,  which  wai  paaaad  in 
Tided  bito  the  iu/htr  and  loiorr  clergy,  the  lstl«r  am-  '  conscqnencs  of  John  Home  Tooke,  then  In  deacon's 
bracing  the  utuiru,  Itctoret,  rxorcula.  and  wv^yUi,  the  orders,  being  returned,  and  sitting  in  Parliainent  tat 
former  the  subdeacons,  deacons,  priests,  bishops.  Up  Old  3anim.  It  was  then  enacted  that  no  priest,  nor 
to  the  13th  century  the  tubdoscons  were  counted  among  deacon,  nor  minitter  of  the  Scotch  Chnrch,  sball  be  ca- 
tha  lower  clergy.  The  canon  law  very  fluently  ap-  pable  of  serving  in  Parliament ;  that  their  etedion 
plies  the  name  deriti  eiclnsively  to  the  lower  classes  shall  be  void,  and  themsalvta  lialile  to  a  penally  ef 
of  the  clergy,  designating  each  higher  class  (snbdea-  '  £600  a  day  in  the  event  of  thalr  either  altUsg  or 
cons,  deacons,  priests,  bishops)  by  its  special  name.  |  voting.  It  would  seem,  thetefbre,  a*  in  the  caae  ef 
aiphrr  (or  %A)  clergy  is  commonly  understood  to  j  the  bisbop  of  Exetar  against  Shore,  that  no  one  can 
mean  bisbopa  or  prelates  (q.  v.),  and  Imeer  (or  bw) :  denude  himself  of  hoiv  orders.  Varions  acta  ofPar- 
Clerg}'  the  others.  ;  lisment  have  also,  from  the  time  of  Heniy  VII],  bem 

In  those  churches  which  have  monastic  institutions,  passed  to  prevent  clergymen  finm  engaging  In  trade, 
the  clergy  are  also  divided  into  rtgular  and  itaitar  hnldingfarms,  keepinglan  orbrew  hou*es,nllaf  whidi 
clergy,  regular  being  members  of  orders  and  congre-  are  slated,  e.iplained.  and  consolidated  by  tha  57 
gations  who  bind  themselves  locommon  rules,  and  sec-  George  III,  ch.  xcix"(Esdie,£ocfai.  Ak<.  b.  v.).  For 
ular  those  who  hare  charge  of  parishes.    In  the  Church   a  peculiar  {vivilege,  tee  CIXSQI,  BEnriT  of. 


CLERGY  3 

In  t)ia  4th  emtoTj  it  becime  ■  Uw  that  clergTinui 

vcn  to  Mag  suiU  only  in  ecdoluticaJ  court*  (i.  a. 
thdbre  tiiabop*  ur  lynodf).  JuBtinUn  ordalnsd  thU 
mn  Ujinm  Jhould  bring  Buit  igainat  clergymen, 
Donkt,  ind  nuni  only  before  tbe  biihop  of  tbe  dincete, 
and  igsinit  s  bishop  onl}'  berore  hit  metropolitan. 
Thna  the  priTilcged  juriHliction  or  the  cler)^  cioie  to 
be  ■  gnieral  law,  which  vu  ■auctioned  and  more  fully 
defined  by  many  imperial  and  cBDOnioal  decreet,  and 
which  no  individuHl  member  bad  a  right  to  renounce. 
The  priTile)^  jurisdiction  referred,  however,  to  per- 
•ooal  nitt  only,  not  to  real  and  feodal  (eee  Wetier  a.  I 
Welte,  Kirrtat-lxxibm,  iv,  460,  a.  v.  Gericbtabarkeit, ' 
GeiMlklio).  I 

A  peculiar  privileim  of  Ihe  clergy  of  tbe  Roman 
Chnrch  ii  tlia  one  cjlled  prmiefiam  caumt.  It  cm-  | 
(tat*  io  a  UDoniul  proriaiun  that  every  one  who  in- 
flicts  upon  *  clergyman  (including  monk*  end  nun^)  a 
bodily  iDjiuy  (embracing  apitcing,  kicking,  etc.).  in- 
con  hy  the  fact  itself  excnDimunication.  It  wae  lirst 
nucled  by  the  Couni:'d  of  Rbeima  in  113]  (in  the  canon 
wblcb  Ixidni  Siqii*  laaJmtf  d'atolo  elertaiM  ptrrvt- 
arrfl,  "  if  any  one,  Ht  the  InMigHtion  of  the  devil,  shall 
■trike  a  clergyman"),  and  wo*  made  a  general  Church 
hw  in  1139  by  Innncrnt  II.  It  provided  that  aliaolu- 
thm  fnim  the  excommunication  thus  incurred  ibould 
only  be  given  in  tho  hour  of  death,  or  if  the  culprit 
ahall  personally  go  to  Rome.  The  law  etill  exists,  Imt 
if  the  ln}aiy  l>e  a  amall  one,  the  bidiop  may  diipenie 
ftwn  the  Roman  journey  (»e«  Wetier  u.  Welte,  Kirth- 
m-Ler,  viii,  7B^,  a.  v.  Privileglnm  Canoni-). 

5.  Sptriid  Diteipline,  DutitM,  DiMabU  tin.— "  In  tbe 
eariy  Chnrch  the  clergy  were  placed  under  eirict 
difriplinc.  Tho  crime*  leading  to  punishment  were 
ainxniy,  hereny,  apo»ta*y,  ne^ilect  of  duty,  immoT"!- 
ity,  and  violation  of  clerical  etiquette.  Punishnicnta 
■ere  varionn:  (1.)  Corjioreal  riuHgaliaii,  which  Au- 
gnitlne  apealu  of  a*  not  unfrequent,  the  dcJinqnent 
buDg  Hnt  deprived  of  hi«  clerical  rank,  and  then 
■coDTged  a*  a  Lyinan.  Decofivn,  or  pHBonp,  were 
attacbed  to  many  <7harchei>.  (2.)  DrgraJalkm—ibtt 
a,  the  offender  woa  put  do*n  to  a  lower  rank  or 
grade  of  otBce,  and  that  to  all  appearance  perma- 
nently. (3.)  Aupeaaiai — either  a  bcnffiein,  from  bia 
neome,  or  at  ^cio,  tma  hia  office.  (-1.)  Depriea- 
liim — either  forbidden  hiim  the  Lord'a  Supper  alto- 
gether, and  Ireated  aa  a  stranger  (Mmniiiiiu  fMrt^riiia], 
or  allowed  to  cninmanlcalc  only  with  the  lally  (<«nt- 

eir  of  the  olTeDder  fVom  eleriul  office,  and  the  denial  I 
•fall  hope  of  mlcntkin  to  il,  even  ihough  he  ahnuld 
ha  realored  to  tbe  feltowiihip  of  the  Church.  We  auh- ) 
join  I  hw  of  the  more  chamcteriatic  of  the  ancient  | 
caaoa*  concettiing  tbe  clergj-.  u  abowing  the  apitjt  of 
the  age,  and  revealing  some  of  it*  tendencies  *nd : 
uage* :  Thus,  in  tbe  Apoetollcal  Canonx,  ■  6.  Let  not 

■  bi*bop^  presbyter,  or  deanin  turn  away  hi*  wMe.  un- 
der pretence  of  religion ;  If  be  do,  let  him  lie  snaprnd- 
ed  from  tbe  comnnnkm  (rifopij^foflw),  and  depooed 
(taAn^<'a0«>lfhepenial.  &  1^  not  a  Uahnp,  pre*- 
l^ter,  or  deacon  undertake  any  secular  employ,  upon 
(■in  of  depoeition.  IT.  He  who,  after  his  being  Imp- 
Died,  ha*  been  involved  in  two  marrlagea,  or  ha*  kept 

■  concubine,  cannot  be  a  bUbop.  or  a  presliyter,  or  a 
deacon,  or  at  all  belong  to  the  skcerdotat  calalogus. 
IS.  He  that  mairies  a  widow,  or  one  that  it  divorced, 
or  a  harlot,  or  a  servant,  or  an  ectreai',  cannot  be  a 
hiabop,  or  a  presbyter,  or  a  deacon,  or  at  all  brlonfi  to 
the  sacerdotal  caUlogne.  19-  He  that  marries  [wo 
■iater*,  or  hi*  niece,  cannot  be  a  clergj'inaD.  10,  l^t 
Ibe  clergyman  who  gives  security  fur  any  one  be  de- 
posed. Gl.  It  any  bishop,  presliyter,  deacon,  or  any 
gf  tbe  semdotal  calaloEue.  do  abstain  from  marriage, 
sad  flesh,  and  wine,  not  for  mortification,  hut  out  of 
ibhorTCDre,  •)  havlnic  forgotten  that  alt  things  are 
very  KOori,  and  that  Ood  made  man  male  snd  ^niale, 
lod  blMpboDDDsly  reproaching  tbs  workmanship  of 


17  CLERGY 

God,  let  him  amend,  or  else  be  deposed,  and  cast  ont 
of  the  Church;  and  so  also  shall  a  layman.'  In 
the  Canons  of  Laodicaa, '54.  That  Ibey  ofthe  priest- 
hood and  clergy  ought  not  to  gaze  on  line  ahowe 
at  weddings  or  other  feasts ;  hut  before  the  masquer- 
sdee  enter,  to  rise  up  and  retreat.  5a.  Thut  they  of 
the  priesthood  and  clergj^,  or  even  laity,  ought  not  to 
club  tojetber  for  great  esticg  and  driokbig  bout*.' 
The  duties  of  the  vsrioos  ranks  of  the  clergy  wen 
strictly  defined,  and  finn  law*  kid  down  for  their  guid- 
ance. They  were  not  allowed  to  leave  their  etatiOH 
without  permiaaion,  but  were  to  reside  in  their  cure, 
bebig  condemned  liy  a  law  of  Justinian  to 


forfeit  their  estates;  but  thei'  could  rt 
circumstances,  and  a  retiring  or  canonical  pension  was 
Hmelimee  granted.  They  could  not  remove  from  one 
diocese  to  another  without  letters  dimiesori',  nor  cnuld 
they  posaea*  pluralitiea,  or  hold  office  in  two  dioceses. 
It  was  forbidden  them  to  engage  in  secular  employ- 
menta,  or  attend  fairs  and  msiliela,  nor  could  they  be- 
come pleaders  in  coarta  of  law.  They  were  expected 
to  lead  a  studkiDS  life,  tbdr  principal  book  being  the 
Scriptures,  while  heathen  and  heretical  treatites  were 
only  albwed  tbem  as  occasion  served.  Bisbops  could 
not  Iw  'tuturs  and  i  ovemors.'  but  the  inferior  clergy 
might,  under  certain  limitationo.  After  the  eximple 
of  I'Hul,  some  of  tbe  lower  derg}-  might  support  them- 
selves, or  fill  up  their  leisure  by  some  secular  occupa- 
tion. Severe  lawa  were  passed  against  what  are  call- 
ed wandering  clergy — raamtiri,  who  appear  to  have 
been  often  fugitives  from  disciplhie,  withoet  character 
or  certificate.  If  a  clergyman  died  without  heirs,  hie 
eetutea  felt  to  tbe  Church,  so  the  Council  of  Agde  in 
500  mlcd.  By  a  law  of  Tbeodosiua  and  Valentinisn 
1 1 1,  the  goods  of  any  of  the  clergy  dying  intestate 
went  in  tbe  mdm  way"  (Eadte,  s.  t.> 

6.  Kerlim  of  the  CUrss.—"i!xait,  anrnne  that  in 
the  early  (  hnrch  tbe  people  had  no  other  powCT  than 
to  give  Ibeir  testimonials  to  the  pemins  elected,  or  to 
make  exceptions,  if  Ihey  had  any  just  and  reasonable 
nljectione  to  urge;  otbera  say  that  the  people  were 
sbeolute  snd  proper  elwtors,  and  this  {ram  apostolical 
right,  and  that  they  cnjoj'ed  this  for  a  succession  of 
ages.  That  the  people  bad  a  voice  in  tbe  elections  Is 
evident  from  several  circumstances.  No  Ushop  could 
be  intruded  opon  a  ('burch  against  the  consent  of  Ihe 
memliera :  fn  <x/e  the  majority  of  a  Church  coniisted 
of  heretic*  or  schismatics,  Ihe  practice  differed.  In 
many  instances  recorded  in  eccteaiastical  bittirry  the 
^■oicea  of  the  people  prevailed  against  tbe  bishop* 
nreives.  In  addition,  we  have  the  word*  nied  ^ 
people  in  the  decision,  auch  oa  oEiOf  or  avUiat, 
itigniu  or  imdigiau:  and  instance*  in  which  ptrFOU 
were  brought  by  force  to  the  bishop  to  be  ordained,  or 
were  elected  to  Ibe  office  by  acclamatiou.  It  waa  d^ 
cidrd  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Cartilage  that  aa  the 
bishop  might  nnt  elect  clrrke  without  the  advice  of 
bia  clergy,  h>  likewise  he  should  secure  the  consent, 
cn-opemtion,  and  testimony  of  the  pe^^le.  Tbe  popu- 
lar elections,  however,  l«came  scenes  of  great  disor- 
der and  abuse.  A  remarkable  posraife  from  Cbrytos- 
tom  (Z)e  Saettd.')  baa  been  frequently  quoted,  and  ap- 
plies more  or  less  to  such  elections,  not  only  in  Con- 
-      "  loplc,  but  also  in   Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch, 


iBrgo  c 


lie 


public  festivals.  In  which,  more 
especially,  according  to  established  rule,  the  elections 
of  ccclexisrticsl  officers  take  place.  You  will  find 
there  compbiints  raised  against  ttie  minister  aa  numer- 
ous snd  as  various  in  their  character  s>  Ibe  multitude 
of  those  wbo  sre  tbe  subject  of  church-government. 
For  all  those  in  whom  the  right  of  election  ia  vested 
split  into  factionB-  It  ia  evident  (hat  there  is  no  good 
undersunding,  either  among  themselves,  or  with  Ihe 
appointed  president,  or  with  the  presbytery-  One  pup. 
ports  one  man,  and  one  another.  And  tbe  reason  of 
this  ia,  that  they  sit  neglect  to  look  at  that  point  which 


CLERGY  3B8  CLERMONT 

fhey  onglit  to  consider,  namelf,  the  intellcctiul  aod  to  tba  clerjiy  that  lentcnca  of  duth  caonot  be  p«mi1 
moriil  qiuliHcitloiu  of  the  penon  to  be  elected.  There  upon  them  for  any  number  of  c1er)(7*l.lB  oflcDces  ccm- 
■re  other  poinla  by  which  their  choice  La  detanuincd.  milted  by  them  (Blaclutooe,  Cunua.  It,  871)." — Eadie, 
One,  for  Inatance,  asya,  "  It  it  neceaaarj'  to  elect  a  per-    Etda.  Did.  i.  v. 

*.nwholaof.BO«l"f-mily."     Another  would  chooeo        Clerfci  Reouijbm  et  SBCBU.Bn.     Sm  CakoM 
a  wealthy  peraon,  because  be  would  not  require  lo  be    ,„j  Rkouuam 
•upported  outoftbe  rerenneaofthe  Church.     A  third        «,   _,  an.  , 

ToK.  f.»  a  peraon  who  ha.  come  over  ftom  some  oppo-  Cl'^CU..  Sm  Clmc,  Le. 
Bite  party.  A  fourth  uses  bit  influence  in  favor  of  a  Clark  (Acta  lU,  86).  See  Town-clerk. 
relative  or  Mend.  While  another  lends  his  inHaence  I  CLERK,  origlnall/  and  properly  the  name  for  «M 
to  one  who  has  won  upon  him  by  f^ir  tpeechea  and  of  the  cler^  (q.  v.),  and  ttlll  the  common  appclUtion 
plausible  pretenslona.'  In  order  to  set  aaUa  these  by  which  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  EasUod  distin- 
abases,  some  bishops  claimed  an  exclurive  right  of  gulsh  themeelvoa  in  signing  any  legal  Inatrumrut.  It 
appointing  to  tpiriWal  office*.  In  this  waj-  they  gave  came  afterwards,  by  an  obvious  transition,  to  ngnifr  a 
offencB  (o  the  people.  In  the  Latin  and  African  "learned  man."  Ita  moat  usual  application  in  EDgUiKt 
churches  an  attempt  wai  made  to  secure  greater  sim-  isto  that olBeer,  nowa  layman,  hutonce.in  all  pr»b*lol- 
ptlcity  in  election!  by  introducing  rintort.  Thia  did  itv,  an  ordained  functionary, who  leadstherosponseeoT 
not,  however,  long  continue.  Another  plan  was  to  the  congreaation.  Properly  B|>eaiilng,  in  the  ChBtrh 
vett  the  election  In  mcmbera  of  tlie  lay  arlrtocracy.  of  England,  the  clerk  is  not  an  original  functionary  of 
But  the  determining  who  these  should  bo  was  left  to  the  CDngregatlon  in  the  eye  of  the  Church,  which,  in 
caprice  or  accident  t  and  the  result  was  that  the  ri.-bl  her  rubrics,  speaks  mostly,  if  not  alwavs,  of'clFrkt" 
of  election  wa»  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people,  (ordained  persons) ;  snd  it  is  certain  (hat  ««ver>l  du. 
and  vetted  partly  In  the  hands  of  tiie  ruling  powers  u„  ,„,  by  custom  yUlded  to  the  clerk  which  properiy 
and  partly  with  the  cler<j-,who  exercised  their  ri^t  belong  to  the  clergyman,  such  as  the  giving  out  of  tba 
eithst  by  the  Uthopt,  their  saAlgans  and  vicars,  or  Psalms  to  besonj,  and  the  pnblication  of  noticM,  (Sec 
b>-  collegiate  meeting  and  this  very  often  without  Rubric  after  Nkene  Creed.)  The  appointment  «.f  par- 
paying  any  regard  to  the  Church  or  diocese  Immo.  i,h  clerks  property  belongs  to  the  Incumbent.  Thrv 
dlately  concerned.  Sometimes  the  extraordinary  mode  «honld  be  Ucensetl  by  Iho  ordinary,  and  take  an  oath 
of  a  bishop'a  designating  his  s^cce^WJr  was  adopted ;  |  to  oliev  tho  minister,  with  whom  property  ntU  the 
or  some  one  unconnected  with  the  diocese,  to  whom  a  power  of  removln.;  the  clerk  from  his  office,  though  if 
doubtful  case  had  been  referred  for  decision,  was  al-  he  be  displaced  without  sufficient  cauae  a  "manda- 
lowed  to  nominate.  But  in  these  cases  the  consent  of  mus"  may  mtora  him.  By  the  Church  Temnorali. 
the  people  was  presupposed.  Patronai^e  has  prevailed  ^  ties'  Act  for  IreUnd,  tho  parish  clerk  is  removable  for 
rincB  tba  fifth  century ;  l)ut  the  complete  develupmrnt  (ny  misconduct,  by  the  minister  with  the  conaent  of 
of  this  system  was  a  work  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  '  the  biahop, 

centurlea"CseBpATROSAoe).-a.lemBn,aW«/D«.li.-|      CLKRiiB.Apoaroi.tCAi.     Sm  JniTTmi 
HqiMeM,  ch.  ill ;  Farrar.  Eeclu.  IHelimarg,  s.  v.  Elec-       *^''"""«'  /^r^roucAL.     See  JB8irn». 
tlon  i  Bingham,  Orig.  Etbi.  bk.  iv,  chap,  ii ;  Henry,  |      Clbrks.  Mihob.     See  FnAHCtacAica. 
Ch.  A  mtij.  bk.  ii,  ch.  1 ;  Wetaar  u.  Welte,  Kirchai-I^. '      Clsbkb  or  St.  HaJOLOB,  a  religious  arderaftbe  dz- 
L630;   Hwiag,  ReaUKiu^'op.  t.  T.  GvMishe.     See   teentlicenturylnltaly,  founded  liyJeromeXmilianna. 
EcCLRSiAsncAL  PoLiTY.  and  approved  by  Paul  III  Id  1510  aad  hy  l^al  17  in 

CLERGY,  BENEFIT  OF,  an  aadent  privilege  1642.  They  gave  themselves  to  the  Teligioas  Instruc- 
whereby  the  parsons  of  clergj-men  were  exempted  tlonoftbeyoungandtbsignorant.  SeaSoMAacuiAitt. 
from  criminal  process  before  tbe  secular  judj^  in  par-       Clerks  or  St.  Pauu     Sea  Babnabitks. 

«s.  and  mnsecraWd  placra  were  exempted        Clbhk«,  Bboolar.     See  Cahokb  and  BbodlAb*. 

Cl-UIKS.  TUEATIHE.       See  TreATIXKB. 

^"'•""'*"  ■  '^^y  "'  Anvergne,  IVaBce.  whoe  a 

„  0  thut'^r    «■"«:"  *"  '•"''^  '"  ^•'SS  ■"''  l***"-  eonfltming  the 

the  di^Vminltron'of  Ui'riiiny  by'thVlnvcnlinn  of  councils  of  Pope  Uri*n.  A  crosado  was  also  rccom- 
wintlng  it  was  found  that  as  mimv  laymen  a>  divinea  mended,  andKingPhilipcxcommunltated.  Tfacmnn- 
were  admitted  to  this  privilege,  „n-l  therefore  the  lUt  ="  "*"  ""^nded  by  1  archlilahops,  225  biahops,  and  an 
i  Henry  VII,  ch.  liii,  dlstlngui-hps  between  lov  schol-  '  Immense  number  of  lower  clergy  and  laity. 
•Ts  and  clerk)  in  holy  oidsrs,  snd  directs  that 'tho  for-,  CLEXiMONT  MANUSCRIPT  (Codkx  Clabo- 
mer  should  not  claim  this  privilege  mora  than  once, !  kostanus,  known  as  Cod.  D  of  tho  Pjulino  Epiatlt*. 
and,  in  order  to  their  being  afterward*  known,  they  j  No.  107  of  the  Imperiul  I.ibnry  at  Paris),  an  unciil 
•hnuld  be  marked  with  a  letter,  according  to  their  |  MS.,  with  the  Greek  and  Latin  on  ogipoeitc  pag»,  oeo- 
olFanco,  on  the  bnwn  of  the  left  thumb.  After  this  |  tainlng  Paul's  fourteen  epistles,  with  a  few  hiatns, 
hnrning,  the  bity,  and  beforo  it  the  real  cicrgv,  were  i  most  of  which  have  been  supplied  at  various  dates. 
dischat  ,'ed  from  the  sentence  of  the  law  In  the  king's  |  Tbe  Epittlo  to  tho  Colosaians  stands  beforo  that  to  tho 
court,  and  delivered  over  to  the  ordinary  for  canon-  i  Philippians,  and  Hebrews  after  the  Pastoral  F.pisUra. 
leal  purgation.  Thia  purgation,  having  given  rise  to  '  The  MS.  is  stichomatrically  arranged,  wllb  twcntV'OiM 
Tarioua  abuses  and  prmtltulion  of  oatlis,  was  abolished  Unit  on  almost  every  page.  Tho  citations  ftora  the 
at  the  Reformation  j  and  uccordin^y  by  tho  stjt.  18  ,  0.  T.  arc  written  In  rod,  except  in  Hebrews.  It  seens 
ElUalitb,  ch.  vii,  U  waa  cnacUd  th.it  every  pirson  !  to  belong  to  the  sixth  century.  It  probably  cam« 
having  benefit  of  clergy  should  not  bo  delivered  over  [  ft«m  a  Latin  acribe,  with  a  Greek  copy.  The  original 
to  the  ordinary,  but  after  burning  in  the  hand  should  writer  made  several  alterations,  then  tho  whole  of  the 
bedoliveredoutofprison.nnless  the  judge  thought  it  Greek  text  was  corrected  (apparently  in  the  seventh 
axpadiant  to  detain  him  there  for  a  limited  period.  It '  century)  liy  tho  flmt  reviser.  Two  others  (in  different 
will  be  collected  from  the  alwve  statement  that  the  par-  handwriting)  made  a  few  changes,  one  of  them  only 
ties  entitled  to  Ihb  prii-ilege  are  clerks  in  holy  enters,  in  tbe  Greek  text.  But  the  fourth  C0TT«tar  went 
withont  branding,  or  any  of  tlio  punishmrnt*  aul<ae-  over  the  whole  text,  adding  tho  breathings  and  aecent^ 
Jiuontly  introduced  In  Its  pl.iie  ;  lords  of  P.irtiament,  and  erasing  whatever  displeased  him.  Berides  thnt 
peers,  and  peeresses  for  the  first  offence ;  commoners  there  are  occasional  alteralioni  and  mlomtioiu  by 
not  In  orders,  whether  male  or  female,  for  cli'r^i'able    later  hands. 

felonies,  upon  being  burnt  in  tho  hand,  whipped,  lined,         peza  iiaya  that  he  procured  this  MS.  IVom  Clennoal, 
Imprisoned,  or  transported.    It  it  a  privilege  pecnliar   in  tho  dioccio  of  Beauvals  (whence  Its  nameX  a  stau 


ftt«n  criminal  arrests.  See  Saxctuart.  "Thispriv. 
ilege  was  otiffaiWy  confined  to  Ifaose  who  had  tbe 
kibilam  el  tamurain  cUrieilfm,  hi  '  ' 


BwM  which  WetitFin  uanonMBrilr  Impugns.  After 
IWa'i  death,  it  p«i»eil  Into  tho  library  of  the  btolhets 
J»«|n«  MDd  Plemt  du  Puv,  tho  former  of  whom  beln 
libnriin  to  the  kin|;  of  Krmncr,  and  driDR  In  tG66, 
>u  pimhaMd  and  deposited  in  tho  Roysl  Library  i 
fWb.  In  tba  early  part  of  tbe  elgbUenth  centur 
MlwTMwerocotout  ofthiiMS.  by  John  Aymon,  n 
aportMa  iirieat,  who  aold  one  of  them  to  Stoech  in  Ho 
l*nd,  ud  the  others  fell  iata  tba  banda  of  tbe  bibllo- 
(raphkal  Eerl  of  Oiford.  Both  these  porchasen-.  or 
Icamiiig  the  thelt,  reitored  the  Iwrea  to  their  propei 
|iUce. 
Ben  made  HSie  ate  of  this  docamentr  IValton'i 


CLOAK 

Poljigloa  iiuerted  3!46  reidbga  wnl  b<r  the  Da  Pan 
to  U«lier  (MUl,  N.  T.  proleg.  g  12«4) ;  WeMtein  col- 
Litod  it  tnica  (i;i5-16J ;  'I'resellea  examined  it  in 
ISJDl  and  Tbchendorf  published  tbe  text  entire  in 
1852.  It  ia  one  of  the  most  valDsble  in  aacred  criU- 
ciim.  — Scrivener,  Jmlnd,  to  N.  T.  p.  130  aq.     See 

UAHIISCniFTS,   UlHLlCAL. 

Clatus,  the  name  of  one  Mid  to  have  been  «  hiabop 
of  Kome  in  tbe  tirat  cenlorr,  but  whethar  the  now 
with  Anacletua  or  not,  and  what  bia  poaition  in  the 
order  of  sacceaaloD,  are  points  wholly  nnaettled. — 
Higne,  a.  v.Anaclet. ;  Wetier  a.  Welte,  £tr(Am-/.<z. 
ii,6i5i  EIenag,£«i/-£kcyi.ii,157;  Gleaeler, Ol. //<'«!. 
per.  i,  div.  i,  cb.  iii,  £  H,  n.  10.    See  Anacleius. 

CUft    See  Cum. 

CUmaona,  John.    See  John  Climacdb. 

Climate.    See  FALKsnitBi  Wkathier. 

Cliulo  BAPTISM.  Biptiam  on  s  aick-bed  wae  ta 
called,  hom  cXi'n],  a  bed,  and  waa  allowed  in  the  cau 
of  one  already  a  candidate  for  baptism  wboce  life 
waa  endangered;  but  If  he  recovered,  he  waa  net 
held  eligible  to  ordera.  The  Unt  inaUnce  of  clinic 
baptiara  la  fonnd  in  b  letter  from  the  Koman  hiab- 
op Corneliua  (about  250)  to  Biabop  Fabiua  at  Antl- 
ocb,  in  wbicb  it  ia  atatcd  that  "when  Kovatian,  ubo 
had  only  received  tbe  br^rfumut  c'rftioo'Knt,  and  with- 
out a  aubaequent  impoaition  of  hands  liy  the  bishop, 
bad  been  ordained  prioat  b;  ■  predeceaaor  of  Cor- 
nelius, the  whole  clergy  and  the  pccple  bad  pro- 
(eated  on  the  f^und  that  It  waa  not  permitted  to 
ordain  any  one  a  clergyman  who,  like  bim  (Nf^- 
tian),  bad  received  baptism  only  upon  the  alck-bcd; 
that,  however,  the  bishop  bad  aaked  to  allow  an  excep- 
tion in  this  cue"  (Enieb.  Bi^.  Eccl.  i,  6JS).  Tbe  same 
principle  was  expressed  in  314  by  tbe  Sjnod  of  Neo- 
Cssarea,  and  reaaserted  by  B  Paris  synod  In  SSg.  Bish- 
op Cornelius,  in  tbe  letter  above  referred  to,  even  hes- 
itated to  consider  a  clinic  baptism  as  valid  and  effi- 
cient ;  "  if,"  he  BJys,  "  of  inch  b  one  {cfiBO-s).  it  can 
be  said  at  all  that  hs  baa  received  liaptlam."  Similar 
douUs  were  expreaaed  by  others ;  bat,  on  tbe  other 
baud,  Cyprian  strongly  inaisled  that  a  clinic  baptiam 
waa  Joat  as  valid  and  efficient  as  any  other  {Epitl.  Tfl). 
Wetzet  u. Welle,  KircK-Ltx.  ii,6S6;  Uttiag, SvppL 
li,  SSfi ;  Beigier,  a.  t.  Cliniquaa ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Etd. 
b.  xl,  ch.  il,  §  6  j  Moebolm,  ConwKntorKf,  cent,  iil,  §  16. 

Clltua  (KAtTrot),  a  rash  young  man,  who  was  com- 
pelled by  Jnsephoa,  wben  commander  In  Galilee,  to 
cut  off  one  of  his  own  bands,  aa  a  punishment  for  ex- 
citing a  revolt  in  Tlbeiiaa  (Joseph.  Life,  %  84;  War, 
li,  2],  10). 

Cloall  ('^7'9,  meif ,  Isa.  liz,  17,  elsewhere  ten* 
dered  In  oarverslon"rohe,"or  "mantle")  was  an  up- 
per garment  or  robe  (of  cotton  ?>,  which  extended  be- 
low the  knees,  open  at  the  top,  so  as  to  be  drawn  over 
tho  head,  and  having  urm-hnles.  It  was  worn  by  tbe 
hl;:b-priest  under  tho  ophod  (Exod,  xxviii,  31);  also 
by  kings  and  persons  of  distinction  (1  Sam.  xv,  27; 
Jobi.SO;  11,12),  and  by  women  (2  Sam.  xiii,  18).    See 


So,  in  tho  New  Testament,  the  word  S/inn'oi',  ren- 
dered "cloak"  in  Ilatt.  v,  40,  il  in  its  plural  form 
taken  for  f!iirmcnts  in  general  in  other  places  (Matt, 
xvii,  2;  xxvi,Cfi;  Acts  vU,58;  ix,  SO).  The  cloak, 
or  pdliam  (Ada  ix,  C9),  waa  the  outer  garment  (dif- 
ferent fnjm  tho  "  coal"  or  (lursr,  x'^y\  and  't  eeema 
to  have  been  a  lar)^  piece  of  woollen  cloth  nearly 
aqoaro,  which  waa  wrapped  mund  the  twdy,  or  fasten- 
ed ubont  tb«  shoulders,  and  served  alro  to  wrap  the 
wearer  in  at  night.  It  might  not  be  taken  by  a  cred- 
itor (Exort.  xxil,  26, 27),  tbougb  the  tnnte  conld  (Matt. 
T,  40),  which  fact  gives  peculiar  force  to  the  Injunction 
of  our  Lord.     Sec  Clotbiko. 

The  ^Xot-iK',  rendered  "cloak"  in  2Tlm.lT,lS,waB 
the  Roman  ^xmuAi,  b  thick  upper  garment,  naed  <p^^ 


CLOD 


390 


CLOtJD 


sy  In  travdllDg,  tnitMd  of  lh«  tng*,  ■■  m  pratertlon  ■ 
f ram  lb«  wuttaet.  Ita«iDitah>vel«cn  ■  Iuqk  clixk 
without  ileevM,  wtlb  only  >n  openina  for  the  hud. 
Olhera  auppDH  it  to  h«v«  been  b  t™Telling-l)»g  or 
ponnunleau  for  bonk*,  etc.  OiKiaiiaaidi- piio  /'auU 
luve  been  written  l>7  Breaner  (UIbh.  1784),  Ueinie 
<Vileb.  1697),  Ukemacbor  (HelmK.  VSi),  Kutmeier 
(Gryph.  1731),  Vecbner  (r,  1.  lliTS).     See  Dhesb,  etc. 

Clod.  Xilt,  gush,  or  C'>S,  sUM,  Job  vii,  6,  a  bmip  at 
earth;  nO'^S'S,  n-jropAiiA',  Joel  i,  17.  *  ^adr/iii  of 
Mrtb;  ni-;,  rt'gtb.Job  zxi,  38;  xzxviii.  Ml,  *  phis 
of  earth;  "n^,  ladjd' ,  to  "breuk  clodf,"  Is*,  xxviii. 
!4;  HcM.  X,  11:  to  •■  hirraw,"  Job  xxxix,  10,  prop,  to 
ferci  the  plou/bed  fleld.     See  Aoricdltube. 

ClolataT(L«t.clacutnin<.ai>aic'^«)m).  Thia 
il  often  applied  lo  a  man-iilrry  (q.  v.).  It  wa*  or 
ally  applied  to  tbe  portb  of  Iba  atrUim  or  p:iradiM  (q, 
v.)  of  a  churcb  [ko  plun  of  ancient  cliarch  under 
CiiKHCil  Euipiceh],  in  whlcb  intannentj  were  nmda 
before  it  became  nanal  to  bary  In  llie  cliaivb  Itsrir. 
The  term  cla-Uer  is  now  more  iiaually  used  In  En(;IIah 
to  indicate  the  arcade  lurmundins  tbe  court  enclo«e<l 
by  the  buildingq  of  a  monaaCic  est&bliahnient.  'I'hui 
ancloied  apace  was  generally  a  gjrdcn.  ornamented 
irilb  a  fountain  and  ahrubbeiy,  lint  It  oft?D  aari-ed  also 
aa  a  burial-place  fur  ieidin^  memliera  of  the  hrother- 
bood.  The  arcade  (oi  cloiitcr),  In  the  Hrat,  or  flnt 
and  iBcond  stories  of  [be  buildings  being  the  court, 
■erved,  e§peciaily  during  bad  wealbor.  for  procosslons, 
and  aa  a  promenads  for  the  monk*  while  saying  pray- 
ers, medltatini;,  or  studying,  and  for  bealth,  rxroa- 
tion,  and  converaation.  In  the  Banedlctinc  monacter- 
iea  there  was  t«ad  in  the  ckiisten  eacb  day  a  portion 
of  the  reguladons  of  tbe  order,  and  the  entire  liody  of 
the  regulatiuna  before  the  aaaembled  brotherbood  four 
timea  a  y:tar.  Stone  aeata  were  uaually  placed  before 
the  windows,  and  celU  or  stalli  for  ituily  act  into  the 
wall  of  Ihv  building,  oiT  fhim  the  cloialer.  Ketlcs  and 
other  objocti  of  worabip  were  aometimea  placed  in  tbo 
cloister  or  tbe  court.  Tbe  cloister*  had  often  great 
archilecturai  beanty,  and  aome  of  them  are  verj*  im- 
portant In  their  bearing  on  the  history  of  BrchllectDre. 
Large  monasteriea  often  bad  sereral  cloisters.  The 
term  dauMlnim  was  in  them  applied  alao  to  the  corered 
paaaage-way  leading  tnrn  one  part  of  a  monastic  ea- 
tabllshment  lo  another.— Wetier  D.  Welte,  KirtAen.- 
La.  tI,  128. 

CL0I3TER-GARTH,  the  coort  or  open  apaca  •■>- 
cloaed  by  a  clolater  (i\.  v.}. 

Clok*.     See  Cloak. 

CloniteB.     See  Methodists,  Primitivb  Wse- 

Cloae  Cotninimlon.    See  CoMMDHtOK. 

Cloaet  (non,  AuppaW,  a  eotrring,  Joel  U,  Ifl),  a 
bridal  couch,  with  curtains,  rendered  bv  out  tranala- 
lon  "chamber"  in  Psa.xU,fi.  See  Bed.  Tbe  Jews 
atni  employ  the  same  word  to  deaignate  tbe  canopy 
under  wblcb,  among  them,  the  nuptial  ceremony  is 
performed.     See  MisniAOE. 

The  word  In  tbe  N.  T.  rendered  "cloaet"  la  rofuiov, 
algnifying  properly  a  ilan-haute  (as  in  Luke  xii  84); 
hence  any  place  of  privacy  and  retirement  (Hatt.  vi, 
6;  Luke  xil,  3).     See  Pravbr. 

ClotUng  (garment,  0=13^,  ItbuA',  tvlvpa).  Im- 
medbtely  after  the  Fall.ourfiritparenta  clothed  them- 
aelves  with  tbe  leaveaof  the  fig-tree;  afterwards  with 
tbe  skina  of  animals.  Subeequently  some  metbod,  we 
may  suppose,  waa  discovered  for  matting  together  the  I 
balr  of  animala  and  making  a  aort  of  fell-cloth.  Later  I 
atill  the  art  of  weaving  waa  introduced,  and  a  web  wat  i 
formed  combining  the  hair  of  animals  witb  thruda 


factu: 


Tbe  a 


Tbe  Egyptians  were  celebrated  fer  sncb  mannfkctnrok 
The  llubrewi,  while  dwelling  among  Ibem,  Itumcd  tha 
art.  and  even  exoelled  their  teMhera  (1  Chroo.  ir,  !1>. 
See  WE.IVIHO.  While  wandering  in  the  ArBl>Ian  wil- 
deniesa,  tbey  prepared  the  nutsriala  fur  corcnng  tb« 
tabamacle.  and  wrought  aom*  of  them  with  emlmid- 
ery.  CDtton(?)cloth  was  eatoemedmostTainalile, next 
tu  thai  woolen  and  linen.  That  wblch  was  manuGu- 
tured  from  the  hair  of  uniniala  waa  coniidered  of  Ir^xt 
value.  Silk  ia  not  meationed  at  a  very  «rly  period, 
unUaa  it  be  ao  In  Enk.  xtI,  10. 13.  1  hi^  bowerer,  ia 
clear,  thut  Alexander  found  ailka  in  Peraia,  and  It  ia 
more  than  probable  that  (he  Median  dreaa  adopted  liy- 
tbe  I'ersbna  under  Cyrus  was  silk.  It  waa  not  lalnv 
I  duced  among  tbe  nations  of  Europe  until  a  lute  period. 
!  (See  these  Tarioos  materials  in  their  alphabetic*)  or- 
I  der.)  Qarmenia  woven  ur  d}'ed  of  rarlous  c«lora  wera 
j  much  eateemed  in  the  EaiU  They  were  generally 
I  made  l>y  women,  and  were  Dccaaionally  laatrfull*  ent- 
broidered  ((ien.  xxtII,  S;  Exod.  xxviii,  4  8;  xixix, 
8;  Judg.  V,  SO;  Ptot.  xxxi,  SI-Sl).  The  Aaiatic 
'  modes  of  drsaa  are  nesrly  the  same  from  age  to  at*c, 
and  hence  much  tight  is  thrown  by  modem  obHrra- 
tion  on  the  iab}ect  afCbe  clothing  irf  the  Hebrewa.  Sea 
CosTUUR.  The  principal  ar^lea  of  drew,  with  nun, 
were  the  ^^cloak,*'  "robe,"  or  '^monf^"  cfmalitoting 
the  ordinary  ooter  gannenl;  the  "ahirt,"  or  fnas'e, 
forming  the  inner  dreaa;  the  "Inrbam"  tor  the  head; 
the  "girdle"  for  conflning  tbe  gannenta  at  tbe  waist; 
and  the  "  taadali"  for  the  feet.  To  these  were  added, 
in  tbe  csae  of  females,  the  "refT'  for  concealing  tba 
face,  and,  as  a  m;itter  of  ornament,  tbe  showy  "bead. 
dreaa,"  the  "necklaces,"  " br»Belota," and  "anklets,* 
the  Jewelled  ring*  fur  the  eara  and  noae,  with  other  ec- 
cuionat  articles  of  effeminacy ,  aa  in  Isa.  ill.  (Sea  each 
of  tbeae  worda  In  ita  piece.)    See  Attibe. 

CuAHQE  OF  Clotuiso.    Sea  Garuext. 

Bendixo  of  C1.0THES.  To  rend  or  tear  tb«  gar< 
menta  was  ftnm  the  earUeat  period  an  sction  e  1  [■  uia 
Ito  of  the  Ugbeat  grief  (Geo.  xx:(vii,£9>  Jacob  and 
David  did  It  on  variDOB  occaaiona ;  and  ao  did  Joahna, 
Heiekiah,  and  Ezra  (2  Sam.  xlii,  81 ;  Josh,  ri),  C ;  S 
Ktnga  xiz,  1 ;  Exra  li,  S).  The  high-prieat  waa  for. 
bidden  to  rend  hia  clotfan  (I^r.  x,  fi;  xxi,  10),  pn>b. 
ably  meaning  his  aacred  gannenCa  :  perhapa  thoaa 
referred  to  in  Malt  xxvi,  60,  were  auch  aa  were  ordi- 
narily worn,  or  merely  judicial,  and  not  pontifidal 
garments.  Sometimes  it  denoted  anger,  or  indigna- 
tkin  mingled  with  aoiToir(Iaa.xxxTi,  22;  zxzTii,li 
Actsxlv,  H).     SaeBE'dXNO. 

Clotld  (properly  1^9,  man  ,  aa  eortratg  the  iky, 
vif  i^q).  The  aUuiiana  to  clouds  In  Scripture,  as  well 
■a  their  use  in  aymbollcil  langnage,  must  be  uodrr* 
stood  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  climate,  where 
the  sky  scarcely  exhibits  the  trace  of  ■  cloud  froin  tha 
beginning  of  Hay  to  the  end  of  September,  dnring 
which  period  douda  so  rar«ly  appe.ir,  and  rairii  ao  ad- 
dom  r^ill,  as  to  be  consldeied  phenomeaa— as  waa  the 
case  witb  the  harvestrain  which  Samuel  invoked  (1 
Sam.  xli,  17, 18),  and  with  the  little  cloud,  not  larger 
than  a  man'a  band,  the  appearance  of  which  in  tha 
west  waa  Immediately  noticed  aa  aouKtbiag  remarka- 
ble not  only  in  itaelf,  but  as  a  sure  harbinger  of  rain 
(1  Kings  xviii,  M).  Aa  in  inch  climatea  clonda  i» 
frethingly  veil  tbe  oppreaalve  gloriea  of  tbe  ano,  clondl 
often  aymliolite  tbe  DIrioe  presence,  as  iadkatjng  Iba 
tplendar,  insupportable  to  man,  of  that  glory  which 
tliey  wholly  or  partially  conceal  (Exod.xvi,  10;  xxxili. 
0  ;  Kum.  xi,  26 ;  xxi.  b ;  Job  xxil,  14 ;  Poo.  xviLi,  II, 
13 ;  Isa.  xix,  1).  The  shelter  given,  and  refmhmani 
of  rain  promised  by  ckmde,  give  tbetn  their  pecnliar 
promiiirncs  in  Oriental  Imagery,  and  the  individaal 
cloud  in  that  ordinarily  cloudless  region  becomea  well 
deflned.  and  ia  dwelt  upon  like  tbe  individual  tree  hi 
tbo  bore  landscape  (Stanley,  Sgria  md  Palatim,  p, 
110).     Similarly,  when  a  oltHid  appaaii,  laia  ia  srdi- 


CLOtH),  PILLAR  OF  391  CLOVIS 

Mifl5Bpprabet>dMl,*ndtfaiutbe"cl0Dd  wlthmtnin"  {84).     So  bj  nlglittho  cload  on  tbe  Ubernnle  beeuna 


a  proverb  For  tbe  man  of  proniiH  without  par- 
i(Prov.  xtI,IS;  lM.zvili,  4;  XXT,  6;  Judo 
13;  camp.  ProT.  xxv,  14).  The  clotid  if,  of  conne,  ■ 
rigore  DrtruiuitoTiDeH(JDlixxi,lG;  Htw.  Tt,  4),  4nd 
•r  whatever  inUropU  divine  favoc  or  human  (uppli. 
ettioD  (Lam.  11, 1 ;  iii,  44).  Being  the  l«ut  eubatan- 
lie]  of  viiiUe  fonna,  andeSned  in  ihape,  and  unn- 
■bained  fai  poeitkin.  it  ii  the  ODD  aiHODK  male  rial  tfainga 
which  moat  easilj  luggeata  ppiritual  being.  Hence  ft  |  (I  Cor.  x, 
D  ffieak,  Ihe  recagniaed  machinery  by  which  to-  j  ViCeb.  «. 


the  gniding  pillar  ■  pillar  of  fire.  See  Bea- 
con. Hodem  Germaaa  explain  it  of  a  natural  ap- 
pearance, or  of  the  holy  Are  ouried  before  tbe  hott 
from  off  the  altar;  Iwl  It  >  dearly  apoken  of  ai  mlrae- 
uloof,  and  gratefully  remembered  In  after  agea  by 
picHia  Iiraelitee  (P»a.  cv,  89 ;  Ixxviii,  14 ;  Wisd.  jt,  1^ 
aa  a  token  of  God's  apecial  care  of  their  fathers.     Iial- 

nmarliable  alliuion  to  it  (iv,  6).  as  alio  Paul 
PTaa,  i>F  odte  liratSlai  baptiitaUt, 
■markablc  pasaage  in  Curtius  (v,  !, 


prniatural  appeMjncea  are  introduced  (Ifa,  lix,  1 ; :  §  7),  deecriptivo 
Ewk.  i,  4 ;  Kev,  i,  T,  ot  paaalm),  or  the  veil  lietween  |  mentlona  a  beacon  boieted  nn  a  pole  frooi  bead-quar^ 
thioKs  vbdlile  and  Invielble ;  but,  mora  especially,  ft  |  tera  aa  the  elgnal  for  ntarcfaing  ("  a  fire  wa>  ob>«rved 
■nyita-iooa  or  gnpcmatarat  cloud  b  (he  symbidiGal  by  night,  m  amoke  In  the  day-time").  Thla  wat  prob- 
•eat  of  the  Diving  preaence  llaelf— the  phemimenon  of  I  ably  an  adoptioD  of  an  Eattem  cuatom.  Spe  also  an 
debv  vouchaafedbyJebovahlo  tbepropbelitheprleat,  account  of  an  appearanac  or  Hre  bv  night  In  the  ex- 
Hia'fcin,!,  or  tlie  people  (Paa.  Isviii,  84-,  Ixxxlx,  G;  peditinn  of  Timaleon  tu  Italy  (Diod.  ^c  ivi,  S6). 
civ,  3 ;  Nah.  i,  H).  Somelimea  thkk  darkneaa,  aoine- 1  similarly  tbo  Perriana  UKd,  M  a  cunapicunus  aig- 
timoa  intanae  iumlDOUsnen*,  oftan,  apparently,  and  ee- '  nal,  an  image  of  the  aun  cnclnaeil  in  cri-aial  (Curtiua. 
psciklly  by  night,  an  actual  Bra  ia  attributed  to  this .  iii,  S,  }  9).  Caravans  are  atiil  known  la  UM  such 
(^ory-doud  (Deut.  Iv,  11;  Exod.  xl,  K;  ixxiii,  »,  beacons  of  fire  and  tmoke,  the  cloudlcsgness  and 
13;  3  3am.  xiii,  IS,  IS).  Such  •  bright  cUiud,  at  any  nfien  alilliiesa  of  the  aky  giving  the  amoke  great 
raM  at  times,  vlaited  and  reited  on  the  MercV'Srat  deniilv  at  volume  and  boldneas  of  outline.  See  Ei- 
(Exod.xxix,  41, 4S;  I  King*  vlil,  14 ;  2  Chron.  v,14',   ode.  ' 

EnJi.  xhii,  4),  and  waa  named  Shekinah  (q.  v.)  by  I  Cloagtl,  BEHJAHtir,  a  Weahyan  Hatbodlat  mis- 
bic  mltera  (aaeThalnnann, /isHia  iiijiraarra,  Lip*,  gionary,  waa  lorn  at  Bradford,  England,  1791,  and 
1771-1793;  Stiebritx,  Dt  area  Jitderit,  Hal.  lifiil).  united  wlih  tbe  Wesleyau  Church  bi  1608.  In  a  fow 
ThaaJebavahappttuwtatSinaiin  themldatnfacloud    yearsbe  waa  licensed  aa  a  local  pnacher,  and  in  tdlS 


(Exod.  xix,  9;  xaxlv,  5);  and  when  Mosea  had  l>nitt 
and  conaecrMed  the  tal>eniacle,  the  cloud  filled  the 
ooDit  around  it,  so  that  Moae*  could  not  enter  (Exod. 
xl,  hi,  36).  The  aame  happened  at  the  dedieution  of 
tbe  Temple  by  8<Jonwn  (3  Chron,  v,  18;  I  Kings  viil, 
10).  So  Christ,  st  his  second  advent,  ia  described  oi 
deacanding  upon  clouds  (Matt,  xvli,  6 ;  xxiv,  80,  cU. ; 
Acta  i,  9;  Rev.  i,  7;  xlT,  14,  16'.  To  come  in  tbe 
doods,  nr  with  the  clond*  of  heaven,  was  among  tbe 
JaWB  ■  known  symbol  oflKvlne  power  and  majesty; 
snd  Givtius  obaarvca  that  ■  aimlbir  notion  obtaintd 
UDoog  tbe  beMben,  who  lepnaented  tlieir  deitiea  cov- 
ered wltli  a  cloud.  (.Sea  tbe  treatisra  on  tbe  aymbol- 
kal  njmbna  or  halo  bv  NicoUi  [Jen.  100!)],  Rciskr 
[aa»rt.  il.  No.  4}.)  Hence  "clouds  and  darkneaa" 
appear  to  be  put  aa  repreaenUng  the  myatcriona  nature 
ii  tbe  Divine  opantiont  In  the  gnvemment  of  tbe 
world  (Psa.  xcvil,  »),  Clouda  ate  also  the  aj-mbol  of 
aimie*  and  mullitudea  of  people  (Jar,  iv,  13;  lu.  1x, 
B;  Heb.  iii,l);  >  figure  referring  to  the  effiacts  of  a 
lan^  and  compact  Ui-ly  of  men,  movinit  upon  the 
surface  of  on  eileiisire  plain,  like  a  cloud  iu  the 
dear  ekv.  A  dav  of  doiid*  ia  taken  fur  a  aeason 
x,8;  xxxiv,  13).  Pelcr  cimi- 
I  clooda  carried  about  with  r 
rarest  (3    Pet.  li,  17).     Sob.ii 


Ith  Dr.  Coke,  as  ona  of  bis  helpers,  in  his 
misshin  to  India,  In  Ceylon  be  was  soon  regsrded  aa 
one  of  the  moat  successful  students  and  teacherr.  Ho 
ditnpiled  two  dicUonarier — English  and  Singhalese, 
and  SinghaleHi  and  English — wbicb  wrre  puLliahed 
at  tbe  exipense  of  the  colonial  government,  and  have 
tieen  of  incalculable  value  to  bia  successors  in  the  mis- 
aiun.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Holy  Scri[K 
turesofthe  Old  and  KewTestameuta  into  tbe  Singha- 
lese  language;  and  be  assisted  in  preparing  for  the 
press  a  trauFlslion  of  the  Ktw  TesUment  into  the  Pall, 
the  sacred  language  of  the  Buddhirt*.  At  a  preacher 
to  the  natlvea  he  was  most  zeaioua  and  BucceBsful. 
"  During  tbe  firat  yosr  of  his  labon",  be  won  the  con. 
fidence  and  convinced  tbe  judgment  of  many  distin- 

that  eyJtem  of  evani-eliiation  wliich  has  blessed  many 
thousands  of  prrfons  in  tbe  island  ot  Crvlon."  In 
le/e,  ftiiiing  health  compelled  him  to  return  to  Eng. 
land.  He  died  in  London,  April  81, 1S53.— It'e^Irjnn 
JfuuK(*,18an,p.l8. 

Clout  la  given  in  Josh.  1x,  6  as  the  rendering  of 

the  Heb,  vert)  »Va  (fala' ,  e"je-»bere  rendered  "i>pol- 

ted"),  which  properly  mesna  topatett,  and  denotes  that 

the  sandals  of  tbe  Gilmmilea  were  mended,  as  if  old 

and   worn  by  a  long  Jonmey.      The  "cast  ctouta" 

afiiTraiii"  (Eoclea,  xit, '  C^?'?'?.  "f*"*"*',  literally  a  lenring  in  pieces)  pat 

ompareit  to  "a  cbiud  of  I  under  Jeremiah's  arms  to  prevent  the  corda  by  which 

Id   fenilising  tbe  earth  ,  lie  woa  drawn  out  of  the  dungeon  iVnm  cutting  into 

disapptarance  of  threat-    the  flesh  (Jer.  xxiviii,  11, 12)  were  old  torn  clothes  or 

emploved  by  Isaiah  a*   itiii*. 

of  tranagrei«ona  (xlir,       Gloria  (old  Ger.CUoAcav.).  ■"''"naas  wanior;" 
_  I  modem  Uer.  Luiang,  t'r.  ^>«iu)i  t^  ""*  Christian 

M.      1  Tu    n  •■.»      .1  L_i  II  J  niji        ,„.     I  death  of  his  father,  Childenc,  Iwcame  king  tf  the  S»- 

Exod.  "«iH,  MO),  otherwise  calledPiaoro//'.rcl,,^p^^,^^,^^'„p,^^,„Toqmav.  After  hav. 
(B»tn  "Misr,  Exod.  xiii,  33),  was  the  active  form  of  ,  j^^  oTerthrown  the  Galio-RomanR  under  Syagrins, 
the  aynibcdiealgloTr^;load,  betokening  God's  presence  '  near  Solsaona,  be  took  possession  of  the  whole  country 
lolewl  hi*  chosen  host,  or  to  Inquire  and  visit  offences,  j  lietwean  the  Somme  and  the  Ixiire,  and  established 
m  tbe  laminooa  eland  of  the  sanctoary  exhibited  tbe  bimwif  In  Soissona.  In  498  be  married  Clotilda, 
aasie  undtt  an  aspect  of  repoaa.  The  cloud,  which  dau^-hter  of  a  Burgundlan  prince.  His  wife  was  a 
bamne  a  pillar  when  the  host  moved,  seems  (o  have'  Christian,  and  earnestly  deaired  the  converalon  of  her 
rested  at  other  times  on  the  Ubemade,  whence  God  ia  '  huaband,  who,  like  most  of  the  Franka,  was  still  a  heo. 
MUtoban  "come  down  tn  tbe  pillar"  (Num.  xii,  fi;  then.  In  a  great  battle  with  tbe  Alemanni  atTolblaa 
m  Exod.  xxxiii,  9,  10).  See  Pii.LAn.  It  preceded  ,  [ZOlpich],  near  Cologne.  Clov 
tha  host,  apparently  resting  on  the  aik,  which  1>d  the  aa  a  last  rerour 
•aj  (Exod.  xiii,  31 1  1^,36, etc;  Nun.  ix,  la-38;  x,  I  iog  to  become  i 


ly  (Eaek.  x: 


a  tgare  fur  the   bIMting  o 


CLOYNE  at 

ttis  victory.  Tfaa  AlmunDi  were  routod.  anil  on 
Chriitmu  dnj  of  Uia  urns  jrgsr  Clovii  BUd  M»nl 
(taonunda  of  Ills  RTiny  oers  chriitenrd  by  Kamlj^liu, 
bbhop  ol  Rhcimi.  Tbc  racepCion  of  Cloi^  [dM  the 
Cburch  b;  ■  blsbop  in  coDncctlon  witb  ttume  tended 
greitlj  (o  Mcun  tbe  auprenucy  of  ortbodoay  over 
Ariaoiani,  to  whkb,  at  that  time,  moat  nf  tbe  WeaUm 
Chrlatian  princei  belonged.  Pope  ADUtaaiui,  wbo 
Ailly  appicclalad  tlie  Importance  of  thia  Bain,  ulutal 
Cloi-ia  u  tba  "mott  Cbrittun  king."  In  a07,  lava 
of  conqncat  concuiriag  wltb  leal  for  tbe  orthodox 
(kith,ClavianDircbedtotba  aoutb-itait  of  Gwil  againit 
tbe  twntic  Viaigoth,  AUric  II,  wi»m  hi  dafpat«d  and 
alew  at  Vougli,  near  Putlera,  taking  pouBatioo  of  tbe 
whole  canntrj  ■■  far  as  Bordeaux  and  Toalouae ;  but 
be  waa  checked  at  ArW,  in  607,  ty  Theoduric,  icuig  of 
the  Ottiot^ha.  Clovis  now  took  up  hia  reaideiice  in 
Par'u%  irben  he  died  in  611.  Ciovli,  In  aeveni  in- 
ilances,  uied  the  Arlaalnn  of  other  Cbriatian  princea 
aa  ■  pretext  for  war  and  conqueat.  and  be  abilned  his 
name  liy  cruelly  mnrderiDg  ■  nnmher  of  bia  lelationa 
wbum  he  loolted  npoo  as  dangerooi  rivala ;  Lut  tbe 
■rriten  of  the  Romlah  Church  uaert  thit  ha  wu 
cbiate.  and  Jaat  tovard  bia  aub>ect>.— 3«  Chimben, 
EiKyrl.  a.  v. ;  Wetter  a.  Welti,  Kinhm-I^x.  ii,  490. 

Cloyna,  an  utciept  eplacopal  town  In  the  aoutb- 
Mat  of  Cork  county,  flfleen  niilea  eait  by  gonch  of 
Cork.  Tba  biahopric  waa  founded  in  tbe  6th  ceutnry 
by  St.  Colman,  tbe  abbey  in  707,  and  tbe  cathedral  In 
the  13th  centary.  Near  the  cathrdrnl  la  a  rovnd  tow- 
er 92  feet  bi^.  About  lUO  the  cpucopato  waa  united 
to  that  of  Cork,  aeparated  in  I  Elf,  and  rennited  In  I83&. 
See  Cork.  Berkeley,  the  ralebnted  philoenpber,  wu 
bom  beie,  and  waa  bbhop  of  Cloyne  in  16TS.  Brink- 
ley,  the  HAtronoiDcr,  who  died  In  1BS5,  waa  alao  liiahop 
of'CloyDe.  Population  1136.  Cloyne  it  alio  the  Ktr 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  Urhop,  whohetnnga  to  the  kcoieai 
aiUcal  province  of  Caahel.— Cbambera.  Encfdnpaitla. 

Club  (only  once  in  the  plur.,  and  that  in  the  Apne- 
Ij'pha,  i  Hacc.  iv,  11,  CiiAuv  Taxi],  'Atc^tneoei  nfMlieki, 
L  e.  Btout  f*ec«a  of  wood). 

Clagnjr.  Congregation  ol,  a  congregation  of 
Reformed  Benodictine  monk*,  eatabliahed  in  909  at 
Clugny  (no*  Cluni,  a  town  of  France,  Depjrtinenl  of 
Saune  and  Loire,  eleven  mllea  north-weat  of  Ubcan) 
by  Dnke  William  of  AquiLinU  and  Bemo,  abbot  of 
the  Benedictine  nonatleriea  of  Gigny  and  Baumc. 
WiUiam  gave  to  the  new  conventa  all  tbe  Unda,  for- 
eats,  vineyards,  milti,  stave*,  etc.,  of  tbo  domain  of 
Clngny.  The  convent  waa  to  be  alwayi  open  Im  the 
poor,  needy,  and  travellera,  and  to  puy  a  small  annual 
tribate  to  Rome ;  it  was  to  be  exempt  from  ducal  and 
e|dscopal  Juritdictlon,  being  snbject  to  the  pops  and 
the  abbot  only.  William  hinaelf  went  to  Rome  (o  ob- 
tain the  papal  sanction.  Tbe  convent  began  with 
twelve  monki,  under  Bemo  a>  its  flrit  abbot.  Under 
hi*  eucceaaor  Odo  (q.  T.),  one  of  tbe  moat  InBnential 
nan  of  his  time,  Dnmerou*  Flench  coDTsnts  anbordi- 
nated  thcmaelvea  to  Clugny,  thus  forming  the  "Con- 
gregation of  Clugny,"  which  soon  extended  firom  Ben- 
evento  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  embraced  the  most 
Important  convents  of  Gaul  and  Italy.  Under  tbe  ad- 
ministration of  bis  succeaaora  Aymard,  UalenI  (Uajo. 
lus),  and  St,  Odilo,  the  congregation  steadily  extend- 
ed, many  bishops  and  princes  placinj  their  convents 
under  Clugny.  A  large  synod  of  French  biahopa  at 
Anse,duHngthetlmeorOdilo,  declared  the  exe> 
of  Clugny  invalid;  but  nnder  Odilo's  sueeesaor,  St. 
Hugo  (died  1109),  the  old  privilege  waa  recovered. 
The  reputation  of  Clugny  at  this  time  greatly  in- 
creased in  consequence  of  three  monks  of  the  congte- 
gation  ascending,  within  a  brief  apace  of  time,  to  tbe 
papal  chair—Oregoiy  VII,  Urban  II,  and  Pascal  II. 
Hugo.  In  1089,  began  the  construction  of  the  basilica 
of  Clugny,  which  at  thai  time  was  the  largest  in  the 
world,  and  suUtquently  only  a  little  snrpiased  by  Si. 


CNIDUS 

Peter's  Church  at  Rome.  Under  Huga  the  eoagra- 
gation  numbered  about  10.000  monks.  Hli  sneccawr, 
'  itiua  de  Uelgueil,  received  thi  right  of  exenaaing 
functiooa  of  a  cardiital,  and  aaaumed  the  tjtla  of 
Archiibbas.  Ills  ambition  having  involved  him  in 
lifflculllsa,  be  resigned,  and  undertook  a  pii^rim- 
Jerusalum;  bat  a  few  years  after  he  returned, 
took  forcible  possession  of  Clugny.  of  which  at  that 
time  Peter  Maurice,  of  Montboiaaicr,  generally  called 
Peter  the  Venerable,  wu  abbot,  and  aqiundered  Ike 
easures  of  the  Church.  lie  wasarrertad  and  impris- 
led  at  Rome,  where  be  died  excommunicated.  Uwler 
eter  the  Venerable,  Clugny  reached  the  most  brilliaDt 
>int  in  its  hittor}*,  mora  than  2000  convents  bdwe. 
.g  to  tbe  con^j^regation.  Soon  after  It  bef^in  to  db 
ine,  eapecially  in  consequence  of  the  rise  of  the  Dten- 
dicant  orders  and  of  the  ImmeDie  riches  of  the  coogre- 
everal  abbots  endeavored  to  restore  a  strict 
discipline,  and  abbot  Ivo  of  Vorg}*,  in  V2B9,  cstiblish- 
ad  tbe  College  of  Clngny  in  Paris,  In  order  to  hL-pirs 
the  monks  with  greater  interest  in  literary  pnnuitt; 
all  these  effbrta  led  to  no  permanenl  imprDremcnt. 
Gradually  the  abbey  fell  under  the  mU  of  the  Fnnd 
kin,;s,  and  In  the  IBlh  century  it  became  a  "  commead" 
(q.  V.)  of  the  cardinals  and  prelates  of  the  family  of 
Uuire,  and  was  on  that  account  aeveral  times  dcTae- 
tated  during  the  ciril  wart  in  France.  Chgny  lost 
many  of  its  convents  in  consequence  of  the  Beforms- 
tion,  and  because  foreij^  gavcmments  objected  to  tbe 
continuance  of  a  connection  of  convents  in  their  coan- 
briea  with  a  French  abbey.  In  1SS7.  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu made  himself  abbot  nfClujiny,  and  unilHl  it  with 
Ibe  Congregation  of  tbe  Uaurines.  This  led  toviideat 
dissenslansamongthemanksof  Clugny,  and  the  anion 
had  after  a  time  to  be  repealed.  The  cornptioa  after 
this  time  steadily  increased,  and  Clugny,  as  a  mmas- 
Uc  institntion,  waa  only  a  wreck,  when  tlie  French 
Constitnent  Auembly,  on  February  13. 1790,  soppieB- 
ed  all  the  conventa.  Tbe  laat  abbot  of  Clugny,  Car- 
dinal Dominique  de  la  Rocbefoucanld,  died  in  1800. 
The  property  of  tbe  convent  waa  canflseated,  and  tbe 
chnrch  sold  for  100,000  francs  to  the  town,  which  bnto 
itdown.  Only  a  few  ruins  are  left.  See  ldraiD,f.Jt- 
ioys  tie  Cagv  (fiijaa,  IBSB);  Wetter  u.  Welte.  Kir. 
e*ni.££r.li.SI];  Henog,  Jisii;.£te^tfi.ii,760;  Haae, 
CiMrrkUltl.p.'iiOi  SttodeT,auirdiaht.  61,411  fi', 
219,  263.  Sea  Be-(ei>icttSE8. 
Cluster.  SeeBiTTGB;  Bsbcol;  OitarK. 
ClyuUB  (ICXDafifr),  the  name  given  by  EnscUaa 
(OnonKUt.s.  V.  BiiAiTf^uv)  to  the  bead  taibt^aoop- 
oliUn  or  western  gulf  of  tbe  Red  Sea,  through  whirl 
the  Israelites  pasted  on  dry  laud ;  according  lo  Phi- 
loatorgius  (BisL  Ecrt.  Hi,  5),  from  a  town  of  that  ubk 
(comp.  Epipbaaius,  ade.  Harr,  ii,  p.  618).  appanmllv 
correlipanding  nearly  to  the  modem  site  of  Snet  (Be- 
land.  Falm.  p.  171>,'a  little  to  Uh  north  of  wbicb  are 
some  mounds  ttill  known  bv  the  Arebs  aa  TtS  Kwlam 
(Wilson,  taadao/fiiile,!,  187).     See  EiODE. 

Cnl'dtu  (K*i^ac,ofnnknowaetymol.i  by  ^Re- 
mans often  called  Gtiidiu')  is  mentioned  in  1  Hae&  iv, 
2S,  as  one  of  the  Greek  dtie*  which  contained  Jewiih 
residents  in  the  second  century  before  the  Chriiliui 
era,  and  in  Acts  xxvii,  7,asa  birhor  which  was  paised 
by  Paul  after  leaving  Myra,  and  before  running  ander 
the  lee  of  Crete.  It  was  a  cily  of  great  cooseqaeac*, 
sllunled  at  the  extreme  aouthwest  of  the  peDlanb 
(Mfln,  1, 16, 8)  of  Dori.  (Ptolemy,  x, !,  10),  in  Ada  ITi- 
nor  [see  Cahia],  an  a  promnnlory  which  projects  be- 
tween the  Islands  of  Cos  and  Rhsdn  (Pliny,  v,  99;  M 
Acta  i!xi,l);  in  (ket,  an  island,  so  joined  l,y  an  artitosl 
causeway  to  the  main  land  as  lo  fnnn  two  harliin,  sea 
on  the  north,  the  other  on  the  sontfa  (see  Smith'*  M- 
rfOau.GteffT.ihV.).  All  Iheremainaof  Cnidosikrw 
that  it  must  have  been  a  dly  of  gr«at  magnilhaM 
(aao  ManneTt,Vl,  iii,  !34  sq.^  Its  inhabitants  •<" 
originally  Laccd«monian  coionistt  (Hend.  i,  174).    It 


COADJUTOR 


PUn  dTCdUiu  ud  Chut  of  Ilia  kdjalnlng  Cout. 

KHi  caUbntad  ftir  ttw  wonblp  of  Tcdiu,  vboM  faiDoin 
rtatae,  execnMd  by  PrsxltatM,  Hand  in  one  of  her 
titrae  Icmpln  tliere  (Stnbo,  xW,  p.  MA;  PItn.  Rlil. 
Jfat.  mvi.lb;  Horn.  (Uyw.  1,  SO),  and  wu  the  birth. 
pUc«  of  Etedaa  and  olhar  Dot«d  ancisiiU  (PauunUi, 
i,  1,  S).  It  Is  DOW  ■  own  heap  of  riiina,  and  ths  mod- 
em Dame  of  Un  pnmontoij  la  Cape  Krio  (Clarke'n 
Tracrb,  HI,  961).  Tb*  place  bia  been  f^lly  illiutnted 
by  Beauftirt  (Karanania,  p.  n\  Hamilton  (AnrarfAff, 
II,  89),  and  TexUr  (^jh  AVawv);  see  also  I^ke 
{fftrUeni  Grtaee,  tt.  177 :  Atia  Minor,  p.  2iS),  with  the 
PtBwings  in  the  lom/at  Anliqtntia,  publiihed  b^  tbo 
DOattantl  Sodetj-,  and  the  Engllih  Adnirally  CiarU, 
Una.  IMS,  1694. 


CalB(<C«Uiu. 
CoadJntOT,  in  tha  chnrcbea  of  Bome  and  England, 
aa  aadttaot,  appointed  bj  competent  antborltr.  to  an^ 
biabop,  dignitaiy  of  a  cathedra],  or  IncnmbeDt  who  it 
disabled  by  age  or  iaflnntty  nrom  the  personal  dia- 
eharfie  of  hie  datiea.  Such  coadjutor  ma*  be  either 
pemiaiienl  or  lemporaty,  and  in  the  former  caaa  may 
ba  appointed  either  with  or  wilboDl  the  right  of  tuc- 
eaaaion.  In  tba  Bd  renCory  Birbop  Narclnun,  of  Jeru- 
aalem,  reeeiied  a>  coadjutor  Alexander  of  Cappadocia, 
and  in  the  4th  century  StAagnatlM  wae  appointed 
eoadjotOT  of  Valeria*  of  Hippo.  The  Aral  Inatance  of 
tba  biabopa  of  Rome  having  etalmed  any  Influence 
vpon  the  apfnintmentof  coadjotota  ia  finiudin  a  letter 
Rnnn  Pope  Zaebarlat  to  St.  Bonllhee,  In  which  pi rmls- 
•inn  b  gtren  to  the  latter  to  conMcrata  a  coadjutor. 
The  (tfoTtnclal  cnnnclla,  bowerer,  contiuacd  tn  claim 
tUi  Tight,  until  in  1196  Boniface  Till  nverred  it  as 
a  omuD  wKJor  tor  the  papal  chah.  The  laws  nf  the 
Cbnrcb  of  Home  strictly  forbade  tbe  appointment  of 
eoadjulon  with  the  right  of  aucce*>ion.  The  Council 
nf  Tnnt  Ibrbade  It  absoloteir,  with  nf^rd  to  lower 
benenecB.bnt  in  the  case  of  blsbope  and  anperlon  of 
monasteries  provided  tbat,  from  important  reatons, 
the  pope*  might  make  an  eiceptian.  The  popes,  how. 
arer,  dlarcfcarded  this  law,  as  well  aa  so  many  others 
Hdren  by  the  conndla,  and  appointed  coadjutor*  for 
lower  oScta  no  leM  than  for  episcopal  sees.  See 
Wataer  D.Welta,  Kirdknt-lax.  U,  e46:  Henog,  Xtai- 


£K3iUqp<idEB,il,78»;  Eden,  TJleof.  iKclf«M»T, 

Coal  (Sept.  and  N.T.  4»>»pa{)  la  a  tranala- 
tlon  oaoally  of  one  or  the  other  of  two  Heb. 
words,  viz.,  n^m  (jackelOh,  literally  a  kiit- 
dliag,  pniiad),  whicb  slgniflea  an  ignited  or  live 
cooj;  and  [■  of  (Sequent  occurrence  (2  Sam.  iIt, 
7;  xili,e;  Johi],21j  Psa.zviii.g;  cxx.i) 
Isa.xllv,19i  zlvll,l4i  Eiek. xziv,  11), often 
with  the  emphatic  addition  of  "homing"  ot 
of '■llre''(UT.xvl.l2;  S  Sam.xxli,  13;  l^a. 
XTili,  1!,  IBs  exi,  10;  Prov.vl,  28;  xiv,  SSj 
xxvl,  21;  Ezek.  II.  ISj  x,  S),  and  Onv  (pe- 
dum', lltarally  Uadt,  eorAo),  which  properly 
•ignlfles  a  cciil  quenched  and  not  reignltod, 
occjl(in;oaI(ProT.xxvi,  SI,  where  the  diatlne- 
tlon  between  this  and  the  former  term  is  clear- 
ly made,  "as  eoali  [^peduim]  are  to  burning 
eoalt  [ffodu/my),  snd  hence  sn  Ignited  coal 
(lea.  xliv,  12 ;  Uv,  16).     See  FuEi-    Two  oth- 
er Ueb.  terma  (arroneonaly)  renderad  "coal" 
are  nvxn  (rilquA',  "INe  coal,"  laa.  vi,  6, 
literally  a  ptatmat,  as  elsewhere  rendered), 
wbkh  appeals  to  have  be^  a  kol  lime  used  fbr  baking 
upon;  q:^n  (n'jJlffri),  properly  jCiwKt  (to  which  JeaU 
ouey  la  compared,  Cant,  vlii,  6),  and  hence  pestilential 
/•!t«r(llab.lil,&;  "bamlngheBt,"Dent.xxU,94i  else* 
wben!a"(pa>iv"Johv,T;  "Mumbrtott,"  Pas.ixxvill, 
48) ;  and  ^X^?  in'UtfK  spoken  of  a  cake  "  bakcn  On 
the  coala"),  which  appear*  to  be  cognate  to  both  the 
preceding  words  and  to  combine  their  meaning,  and 
may  thna  designate  (as  explained  by  the  KaliU.!*  a 
coal,  SrpL  iyipvfia,  Vulg.  jdAcuirrwiu)  a  loaf  baked 
awumg  Ou  embrn.    See  Bread.    In  Lam.  iT,8,  "their 
viaage  la  blacker  than  a  coal,"  the  word  ia  ^irn^ 
(lAci-Jtor'),  which  atmply  meana  Uochteu,  a*  in  tbe  mar- 
gin.    In  the  New  Tentamrnt,  the  "Are  of  coala"  (lii" 
Spoicin,  John  xviii,  IS)  evidently  mosna  a  man  of  live 
charcoal,  used  In  a  chaflng-diih  for  warming  In  the 
Eaat,  and  so  explained  by  Suidoa  and  parallel  instance* 
in  the  Apocrypha  (Ecdu*.  vlii,  10 ;  xl,  82).     The  anb- 
'  stanca  indicated  In  all  the  foregoing  paetages  is  donh^ 
leas  dtartoiU,  although  anthracite  or  bituminous  coal 
has  been  found  in  Palestine  In  modem  ^mea  (tea 
Brownbig'a  Btport;  alao  Elliot,  it,  2ST).     See  Muf- 

"In  2  Sam.  xxU,  9,  IS,  'coal*  of  Are'  are  pnt  met- 
aphorically for  the  tlgbtnlnKi  )mceeding  tram  tiod 
(l-aa.  XTiil,  B,  12, 18;  cxl,  10).  In  Prov,  xxv,  2S,  we 
have  tbe  [^overbial  eipreasjon  '  Thon  ahalt  heap  coala 
of  fire  upon  hi*  head,'  which  ba*  been  adopted  by  Paul 


neUpbo 


callye 


preaeed  the  Imming  shame  and  confotk 
munt  feel  when  their  evil  in  requited  by  good.  (See 
the  esssyii  on  thin  text  bv  Reinrieh  [Lucd.  B.  1716], 
Wahner  [Gott,  1740].)  In  like  manner,  the  Arab* 
ppsak  of  eoaU  o/lkt  ketnt,Jire  oftke  liver,  to  denote 
bnming  care,  anxiety,  remone,  and  shame  (Gcaen. 
TkaoMT.Heb.f.WO).  In  Pu.  cxz,4, 'coaia'-bnm- 
Ing  brand*  of  wood  (not  'Jonlper,'  but  broom),  to 
which  tbe  bise  tongne  hi  compared  (Jamea  iil,  6).  In 
9  Sam.  liv,  7,  the  quenching  of  the  live  coal  ia  uaed 
to  indicate  tbe  threatened  destmctian  of  the  nngle 
remaining  branch  or  the  family  of  the  widow  of  Te- 
koah  aubomed  by  Joab;  Just  aa  Lucian  {Tin.  $  B) 
uses  the  word  {wwupov  in  the  some  connection.'     See 

FlBK. 

Cout,  an  InaocDrala  rendering  In  the  A.  V.  of  va- 
riona  lenna  (niaally  ^m,  ^3n,  etc.,  Gr.  opioi')  sig- 
nifying Jorder  (q.  v.),  boundary,  or  extremity,  except 
in  the  expression  "sea-coa*l"^^n,cAapil,Eiek.  xxv, 
16 ;  wdpoXioCi  Luke  vi,  17  i  TofwdoXaffnoc,  MatU  ix, 
13).     See  Sea. 

Coat  (T^h^  tMAo'actt,  or  nvi^,  brito'mllt,  it^ 


COBB  SM  COBHAU 

■bly  moinlng  tovervigi  hence  Grack  X"^)  ^  *''*  I  HIiCiMifxwf  iff  Diiemilf  \»  ncogniud  n  ■ituidard  la 
ward  emplovnil  \iy  our  tranilaton  fur  the  ancient  ttanc  the  deoominition.  He  lita  wniU  a  Cattmrmlarii  oa 
(q.  v.),  vhlchwuelnmodeniphriieaalirtwonineit  :(tc  Nm  TtMamml.—Uiiivtneial  SrgiMtr  far  lagT.  p. 
to  the  ikin  (Lev.  xtI,  4),  hy  famale*  u  well  »  malaa   81  iq. 

(Cint.  T,  3 ;  2  Sam.  xiii,  1«),  and  enpecially  ly  the  Cobbflt,  Tnosiis,  a  ConftwE«licm«I  miniiter,  «aa 
prie»U  ind  Uvitet  (Exod.  iivlii,  * ;  x«ix,  G ;  Neh.  j  bom  at  Newbun-,  Bcrkahire,  Eng.,  in  1608,  and  Krred 
vU,  70.  72).  The  name  ttna  \a  aaed  of  the  "  coats  of  I  in  the  minlitrf  of  the  Church  of  England  for  a  abort 
■ktne"  prepared  by  the  Almighty  for  the  firat  bntnan  time.  GJscted  for  nonconfonnltr,  he  came  to  Kew 
pair  (Gen.  ill,  !1),  which  wore  prolably  nothing  more  |  England,  arriving  June  !6, 1687.  He  aerved  for  tww*. 
Oian  aprona,  or  a  abort  ahirt  bound  at  the  waiat.  The  ij,  j„„  aa  collegiate  pMtot  in  Lvnn,  and  reniOTed  to 
tunic  wa*  commonly  (.t  least  witli  malea)  witboot ,  Ip,w[ch,  where  he  died  Nov.  S,  1685.  He  pobliebed 
■leeTe^  and  usnaliy  reached  to  the  kneu.  It  was'  j  VimdicalitmofdKC-mwnlofAtCUIdnna/CliMnlt 
ganeraily  mnde  of  linen,  but  for  the  winter  waa  fro- i  Jf™6ti,(]&lB)i—^  7>r/enr«.//>/airf  fldp»i«ii  (1646): 
quently  made  of  wool  j  and  the  rich  no  donbt  wore  _ 7^  cim/ Jfojiafrufa. /'o«(T  m  Jtfottm  n/Brligia» 
tanicii  of  Anjnu  ("fine  linen,"  i.  e.  [?]  t«Uo^  then  very  ^iu*^  dfbalid.  etc,  (1659)  -.—A  pnoHad  Dutourm  tm 
rare).  Itwaa  eomeUmea  wovenantlro  withontBHim,  Pra^{iebi):— A  rreatiitm  Or  Honor  due/ram  €%it^ 
like  the  modem  ho»s  (.lohq  xix,  23).  It  w»»  alao  oc  .  jrtn  (0  thdr  FanMt  (1656).-Sprap».  vl  iwaf.,  1, 103 
caiionally  of  a  gay  nattcm  ;  anch  wa«  "  Josenh'i  coat ,      —   ..      „  „  r.r.i.v         .j. 

Of  man/color."  (GVn.  x:,:.vlli),  that  ia.Tdifleient  I  ^O^^^'*^'""-"  ^*''""?;,^f '.: Ji^J^'?  *" 
colored  thre«ia  in  .Hp«  or  piaided.     Sometime,  two    J^*";*"'  ^P'Ti^  ,i^    M  X  ^"^    ^^fTT: 

tonic.  «em  to  have  be^worl,  at  once,  either  for  oma-  Jf™  ^'^^f^J,  f •  >'"*■  "'  '"  ""  ^  ^"^'^^"^ 
ment  or  Inxnrv,  lor  the  term  ia  frequently  uaed  in  the  J^  °'  t^'°^  ""'??  ^^T^  "*^'  ^ 
pluraiof  an  Lidividuai(M.tt.  11,10;  Mark,  vi,9iLu](o/"*-  Ho  died  Jannaiy  11, 1861. 
Hi,  11).  In  tlut  caae  the  onter  one  probably  eupplied  Cobbam,  Lord  (Sir  Jaha  OUcaHlr},  a  Lollard  nar- 
tbe  place  of  the  "cloak"  o^pilliom.  SeeCLOTHino;  |  tyr  of  tbe  fldeenth  century.  Of  hla  early  life  little  b 
Dbesb,  etc.  The  "fiabor'a  coat"  (inv^urqc)  men-  known.  He  wb>  bom  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III; 
tioned  in  John  ixl,  7,  wsa  evidently  an  outer  ferment  j  married  the  niece  of  Henry,  lord  Cobham,  and  obtaia- 
orcloalt,  and  Peter  [a  aaldto  be  "naked"  before  throw-  ed  hia  title.  He  entered  tbe  military  life,  and  gaised 
Ing  it  about  him,  aa  having  on  only  the  tnnic,  or  per-  !  great  diatinction.  According  to  Bayle, "  in  all  ad- 
atpanomore  thaDaatripofciottaabont  theloina,  likej  ventamna  act*  of  worldly  manhood  bo  waa  ever  foftn- 
the  modem  Araba.  The  little  "eoaf  made  by  Ilan-  nat«,  doughty,  noble,  and  valiant."  By  bia  mil&afj 
nah  fbr  the  yonng  Samnel  (1  Sam.  il,  19)  hdr  the  talents  he  acquired  the  eiteem  both  of  Henry  IV  aiid 
^S-0  (fltelf ),  or  enter  dresa,  etaewhero  rendered  Henry  V.  In  conjnnctian  with  Sir  Ricbanl  Story, 
"  robo,"  '■  mantle,"  or  "  cloak"  [q.  v.].  The  "  coala"  Sir  Thomaa  Latimer,  and  olhera,  be  drew  up  a  nom- 
ofthethreoHebrewcbildrenin  thofnmace(Dan.iii,  ber  of  a^ticle^  which,  in  the  form  of  ■  remoiutraDC* 
SI,  B7)  are  called  In  the  original  Chaldee  V^a-^O  NpUn-t  the  conupttona  of  the  clerp  they  pre-nted 
,,'.,„  _       ,    T        ,     .  '   '  ■  '.  ~    to  tbe  Honae  of  Commona.     He  put  bimself  to  gnat 

(jrartofiB  ,  Sept.  «ap«^<.p<,X  fought  by  aome  to  be   „  ,„  „,i„^„    tranacriWng,  and  di.per.ing  th. 

U>e  Persian  natne  for  long  and  wide  (r™«r.,  whence  ^^^  ^f  ,Vycllffo.  He  abo  fumiJied  Lollarf  itin«. 
Greek  ^ap-HMa    Lat  Waiu.  e^.,  but  by  other., ,  ^^  h,„  ,,th  .belter  at  hi.  manaion  at  Cowling 

mith  greater  probabihly,  "ho  kindred  with  the  AraW  (,„tte,  in  Kent.  The.,  proceeding,  made  him  Tery 
"™ '"'*,""'?•  "■■'"  "'  "f,^  "■^J''  "  ""e*""^  I  obnoxtona  to  the  cleTsr-  During  th,  fin<t  y«r  of  tb. 
by  the  Talmudic  interpreution  "f  ««■-(  e.,  i.  e.  the  „,  „,  „,„  y  ihTprincipel  anl.ject  of  debate  «m 
p^'«»,  or  outer  dre«,  (See  Smith'a  D«X.  ofCU^  tbeVo-th  of  her;.?.  ThomM  AnilHel  (q.  v.X  «ch- 
Ant^.  ,.  V.  Tunica,  etc.)    S™  Attire.  ^j^^^p  „f  Cantarbn,^,  reqn«ted  the  king  tJ  Knd  ««,. 

Coat  OF  Hail  (■,T"'1U,  ihiryni',  i/Uaeriiig)  ocean  miaaionen  to  Oxford  to  inquire  into  the  growth  of  her- 
In  the  description  of  Goliath's  armor  (1  Sam,  irii,  6),  !  e»y.  The  commiwtoners  reported  to  the  archbidiap, 
and  alio  of  Saul',  (rer.  88).  See  Anuoit.  The  pin-  '  who  infonned  the  ConTOoation  that  tbe  Increaae  of 
ml  forma  an  found  In  Neh.  iv.  10  ;  1  Chrou.  xivi,  II ;  '  liereay  waa  eapeclally  owing  to  lord  Cobham,  who  «i>- 
where  they  are  tranalated  "  habergeona"  (q.  T.).  The  '  couraged  acholan  from  Oxford  and  other  plac«  to 
kindred  term.  m-iS(Bli'rynA',  "habergeon,"  Job sll,  propagate  heretical  opbioni  throughout  the  country, 
M),  -,-13  (Air^-',  "  hame*.,"  1  Kinga  ixii,  84 ;  2  ,  The  archbLihor,  accompanied  by  a  large  body  of  the 
Chroi-'sviii,  83:  ■■brea.t-pUte,"  laa.  li:,,  17).  and  I  ^'."f^;  ""''«'  "5^"  "'"j^'  '"^^"^  ^^^ 
.;,--   ,■/,,,■       J-        ..   T  ...     V-    ,i     him  the  olfrncB  of  lord  Cobham,  begged,  mall  iwaifc* 

.T';?  («r,™  ,  brjganduK^  Jer,  xlvi,  4 ;  h,  B),  |  ,„^  ^,,^  ^^^  i,„  ^.j.^^  „^  ,„^„  ^^  y^ 
were  probably  loM  complete  Unda  of  the  wme,  i.  e.  chruf,  labr,  l«  ptit  Urn  to  deBlk.  To  thia  humane 
cordrU.     See  alao  Maii.  ■  ^equeat  tbe  king  replied  that  he  thought  .neb  vio- 

Cobb,  STLVAKns,  D.D,|  a  Unlveraaliat  miniWer '  lenco  more  deatroctive  of  truth  than  nf  emir;  that 
and  writer,  waa  born  at  Norway,  Maine,  July,  1788.  ho  bimMlf  would  rsaKin  with  lord  Cobham;  and,  if 
His  first  education  was  under  orthodox  iDflaeocea,  but  that  abonld  prove  IneffiKtual,  he  would  leave  him  to 
early  in  life  he  became  a  Univenaliat.  He  preached  the  cewura  of  the  Church.  Henry  endeavored  to  per- 
bis  firat  sermon  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  but  waa  not  anade  lord  Cobham  to  retract,  but  be  returned  the 
ordained  until  1831.  He  waa  eettled  as  mtnlater  in  following  answer;  "I  ever  va.  a  dutiful  subject  to 
.ucce"a)on  at  Waterrille,  Ktalne,  at  Maiden,  Waltham,  voor  majeetv,  and  I  hope  ever  shall  be.  Next  to  God, 
and  (4ince  1849)  at  Bast  Boston,  While  at  Waltham  \  profeu  obedience  to  my  king.  But  a.  for  the  rpiril- 
he  estnblifbed  tbe  ChnHim  FifrmoK.  which  In  lS6i  uai  dominion  of  tbe  pope,  I  never  could  »e  on  what 
wa.  united  with  tbe  Tmnpel.  In  1864  In  retired  from  foundation  it  I.  claimed,  nor  cnu  I  pay  him  any  obedi- 
«ditorijilirc,Bfler  a  sen-ice  of  about  thirty  yean.  In  ence.  As  .ura  a.  God',  word  i.  trne,  to  melt  ia  fnlly 
the  same  year  he  recrived  from  Tufla  College  the  evident  that  he  ia  the  great  Antichrist  fontold  in  holy 
honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  dirinily.  He  died  Oc-  writ."  Thb  answer  so  displeaMd  the  king  that  b. 
tobcr  Bl,  1866.  Dr.  Cobb  was  a  voiomlnona  writer,  gave  the  archbishop  leave  to  [Owead  against  lord  Cob- 
Many  of  bia  earlier  controveraial  sermons  were  pub.  bam  ■'  according  to  tbe  devilish  decrees  which  they 
lisbed  and  widely  ctculatmi  In  Maine  and  elsewhere,  call  the  Uws  of  the  holv  Church''  (Bayle).  On  the 
Hia  PUauaoiu  with  Dr.  Adams  and  Mr.  Hudson,  In-  11th  of  Septemlier,  the  day  fixed  for  bia  appeanncs, 
volving  the  anbjcct.  of  everlasting  punishment  nnd  the  primate  and  his  aaaocintes  sat  in  consistory ;  when, 
the  nnniliiiation  of  the  wicked,  were  also  put  into  book  lord  Cobham  not  appearing,  the  archUshop  excoomn- 
form,  arcT  appearing  in  thi  eolumna  of  tbe  Fretmtai.  I  njcated  him.     Cobham  now  drew  tip  a  confbsaiaD  cf 


hhh.  which  he  pr»«n(ed  to  the  king.  Being  «$»in 
dtcd  to  »ppe»r  before  the  archbishop,  and  refusing 
mmplisiicfl,  he  wm  committed  to  the  Tower  hy  the  , 
kJDg'i  order.  "  Upon  Che  !5th  of  September,  UlS,  he  \ 
wms  tmnght  again  by  the  lienteiunt  of  the  Tower  be- 
fbra  the  arcbbiahop,  the  btihopa  of  London,  Winchea-  i 
Icr,  and  Bangor  (itting  upon  the  bench  with  bim.  I 
The  irchblahop  desired  Sir  John  to  move  Ibr  the  ebco-  , 
lotioa  of  the  Chnrch  in  the  customary  form.  He  re- 
plied he  would  beg  absolation  of  none  but  God  Al-  < 
mighty.  After  this,  the  arcbbishup  deiired  bim  to 
raske  an  eipress  declaration  concerning  the  sacrament 
of  the  alUr.  To  wbicb  be  gave  this  arewer:  that  as 
Christ,  when  upon  earth,  consisted  of  the  divine  and 
hmnaii  nature,  his  divinity  being  concealed  uoder  bt& 
bumauitT,  lo  in  the  eacriment  of  the  altar  there  la 
both  a  real  body  Dud  real  bread ;  that  the  bread  Is  the 
oliject  of  our  sight,  but  that  the  body  of  Christ,  con- 
tained or  sfarooded  under  it,  Is  imperceptible  to  our 
senses.  When  he  was  pressed  closer  (o  the  point  of 
tnnsnbatantiation,  he  declared  exprrssly  against  it, 
^ding  withal  that  tbe  common  belief  in  thii  article 
was  a  canliadiction  lo  the  holy  Scriptures ;  that  the 
drrieion  wm  modem,  and  that  the  Chnrch  did  not 
vary  thns  fcom  the  old  atandard  till  she  waa  poiaoned 
by  being  endowed.  And  as  to  penance  and  confession, 
he  affirmed  that  if  any  person  happened  to  bo  under 
the  misfortune  of  any  great  crime,  end  was  not  in  a 
condign  to  disentangle  himself,  he  conceived  it  would 
be  advisable  to  make  dm  of  the  direction  of  some  holy 
and  diacreet  prieet.  But  then  he  did  not  think  there 
waa  any  ncctttity  of  confessing  to  the  parish  curate, 
or  any 'other  of  that  character;  for  that  in  this  case 
there  was  needed  no  more  than  cnnCritlun  to  cancel  the 
bait  and  reelore  the  penitent.  Touching  the  worship- 
pang  the  cross,  he  maintained  tliat  only  the  body  of 
CbriiBt,  which  hnng  upon  the  oross,  ought  Co  be  adored. 
And  being  further  interrogated  what  regard  was  to  be 
paid  lothe  reaemblance  of  that  croFS,  to  this  he  replied 
directly  tbaC  sll  the  reverence  he  could  pay  was  only 
to  dean  it  and  keep  it  handsomely.  Being  interroga- 
ted turtber  about  the  potter  of  the  keys,  and  what  his 
opinion  was  of  the  character  and  authorit}'  of  the  pope, 
of  tbe  archbishops,  and  bishop*,  he  made  no  scruple  lo 
declare  that  the  pope  was  downright  Andchriet,  and 
tbe  head  of  that  party ;  that  the  blsbopa  were  the 
member*,  and  the  friars  the  hinder  parta  of  this  antl. 
Cbristlan  society ;  that  we  ought  to  obey  neither  pope 
DOT  prelates  any  fiuther  than  their  virtue  and  probity 
natd  command ;  and  that  nnlesa  they  Imitated  our 
SavioUT  and  St.  Peter  in  the  sanctity  of  their  lives,  the 
pretence  of  their  commission  was  not  to  be  regarded ; 
that  be  who  was  most  unblemished  in  his  conduct, 
moat  ivmerkable  for  his  sanctity,  was  St.  Peter's  auc- 
ceaaor,  and  that  bH  other  tillea  to  Church  nnthority 
dgnlfled  nothing"  (Hook,  Eat.  Bioffrnplhf,  i,  SIT). 
Having  remained  six  months  in  the  Tower,  he  escaped 
into  Wales.  In  1414  the  king  set  a  price  of  a  thou- 
iand  marks  upon  the  bead  of  Cobham ;  and  for  four 
yeata  he  continued  In  exile  In  Wales;  but  at  length 
hia  enemie*  engaged  the  lord  Powis  In  tlieir  inter- 
est, who,  by  means  of  his  tenants,  eecnred  and  deliv- 
ered him  np.  He  received  sentence  of  death  both 
a*  a  heretic  and  a  trallor.  On  the  day  appointed  for 
hia  execntion  (Chrietmaa,  HIT)  he  was  brought  out  of 
the  Tower  with  bis  arms  bound  behind  him.  but  with 
a  cbeerfnl  countenance.  Arrived  at  the  pbiee  of  exe- 
entkm,  he  devoutly  fell  npon  hia  knees,  and  implored 
of  God  the  forgivenew  of  hit  enemies.  He  was  hung 
np  alive  by  the  middle,  witli  iron  chains,  on  the  gal- 
Imn  whkh  had  been  prepared,  under  which,  a  fire  be- 
ing made,  be  was  burned  to  death — Jon^s.  Ckrirtian 
Btaffraplif.  s.  v. ;  HIddielon,  Mnnnn  k/iIu,  Sr/omerl 
(8  vols.  Loud.  18*9).  i,  98  sq. ;  Engliimi  mrf  Fratia  un- 
drr  at  B<mte  of  Lmeaiter  (London,  Ifbi)  p.  6IMT ; 
ErireHc  Saitw,  4th  serlee,  xvi,  249:  Mllner,  Ciurtk 
Bwtorjr  CUnd.  18!»,  4  vols.),  UI,  BOT-829, 


16  COCCEIUS 

CoccallU,  Jotm,  one  of  the  moat  distinguished 
theologians  and  Biblical  interpreters  of  tbe  ITtb  cen- 
tury, waa  bom  in  Bremen  July  30  (or  August  0,  N. 
a),  1608.  The  family  name  waa  Cock  (according  to 
others  Koci),  but  he  and  bis  brother  Gerhard  having 
been  in  their  youth  called  Coceiii,  ever  afterwards  re- 
tained that  appellation.  The  family  iros  an  ancient 
and  honorable  one  in  Bremen,  many  members  of  it 
having  filled  high  office!  in  Church  and  State.  He 
was  brought  np  with  great  moral  and  religious  strict- 
ness, fur  he  relates  in  a  short  autobiography,  which  he 
left  un finished,  that  having  been  chastised  at  school 
for  some  boyish  fslsehood,  he  ever  from  tbat  time  de- 
spised lying,  and  had  such  a  reputation  for  truthful- 
ness as  never  to  be  compelled  to  tako  an  oath;  and 
that,  having  once  been  struck  on  the  month  bi'  his  fa- 
ther with  a  spoon  for  tbe  irreverent  use  of  God's  name 
at  the  table,  be  never  again  took  it  In  vain.  Ha  waa 
put  lo  the  beat  schools  in  his  native  city,  and  became, 
while  still  a  boy,  so  great  a  proficient  in  Greek  as  to 
read  with  delight  its  hlstoriana  and  poet».  He  learn- 
ed from  his  brother  the  rudiments  of  Hebrew,  and  af- 
terwards obtained  the  Lexicons  of  Munster  and  Pagni- 
nup,  and  studied  them  wllh  great  industry  of  bis  own 
accord  for  the  inrestigiition  of  the  themes  of  the  lan- 
guage. To  the  Hebrew  he  added  Chaldee  and  Arabic, 
and  gave  his  attention  aleo  to  BabUnlcal  literature. 
Although  moat  strongly  drawn  to  philological  studies, 

tures  conld  not  be  rightly  nnderstood  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  original  languages,  he  did  not  neglect  oth- 
er brmnciies  of  learning,  but  studied  pb^'sics  and  meta- 
physics with  Gerhard  Neofville,  and  theology  with 
'Martlnins  and  Cmcius.  While  still  a  rtudent  he 
wrote  a  Gr«ck  oration  on  the  religion  of  the  Turks, 
raadine  the  Koran  for  that  purpose.  At  tbe  age  of  SS 
I  he  wrnt  to  Hamburgh,  at  tlio  suggestion  of  ilsrtinias, 
I  to  pmaecnte  his  RabUnical  stodiea  with  the  Jevs  of 
that  city.  On  his  return  he  went  to  Franekcr,  In 
I  Friesland,  preferring  the  Belgic  schools  to  those  of 
Germany,  which,  ha  says,  were  in  bad  repute  (faoff  de 
lUi  noa  bomit  nmor  esaef).  There  he  formed  tbe  ac- 
I  quaintance  of  an  eminent  Rabbinical  scholar,  Sixtinua 
I  Amama,  and  with  him  studied  the  Talmud.  At  bis 
request  he  published  a  treatise  St  Sipitdrio,  which 
was  hifihly  commended  by  such  scholar*  as  Ilelnsl- 
us.  Rlvetup,  Grolius,  Selden,  and  Salmaslus.  While 
at  Fnneher  he  also  became  Inlimstely  acquainted 
with  Uaccovlns  and  the  celcbrat«d  Puritan  divine 
WlllUm  Ames.  On  hia  return  to  Bremen  he  was 
made,  at  the  age  of  27,  profeaaor  of  eacri'd  philosophy. 
and  began  to  lecture  on  the  books  of  the  Old  TesU- 
menl.  In  the  following  year  be  published  a  Com- 
mentary on  Eccleaiastes, '  In  IG£<j  he  removed  to 
'  Franekcr,  to  be  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  newly-re- 
'  vived  academy  In  that  city ;  and  in  Ifi-tS  he  was  alto 
j  appointed  to  the  theological  chair.  He  remained  at 
Franekcr  until  1660,  giving  himself  with  great  dili- 
gence to  the  stndy  and  public  exposition  of  the  Scrip- 
I  tures.  Amongst  the  fruits  of  these  labors  were  a 
Commentary  on  Job,  Lectures  on  the  Minor  Prophets, 
and  on  the' Epistles  to  the  Hebtewe  and  the  Coloa- 
siana,  an  ETfraiatio  de  Primtijao  Epitioia  ad  f/hbefi'oa, 
and  a  theoli^cal  treatise,  JJe  Fadere  rt  Tnlamaiio 
Dei,  to  which  he  added  a  brief  Amalj/iu  TtiHponm 
Hon  TrtUaimli.  After  fourteen  ytars  of  lahorions 
and  successful  teaching  at  Franekcr,  he  was  invited 
I  to  Leyden,  to  aucceed  the  celebrated  Frederick  Span- 
heim  as  professor  of  theology;  and  at  his  inauguration 
In  October,  1650.  he  delivered  an  oration  De  caiuii  In. 
CTtdalilalii  Jvdrtomm.  He  soon  began  to  lecture  on 
Isahth  ;  but  the  death  of  one  of  hia  colleagues  (Tri- 
glandlus)  made  a  new  division  of  lal-ora  neceiaar;-,  and 
ha  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  the  exposition  of  Ihe 
!4ew  Testament.  In  1662  his  Commentary  on  the 
Minor  Pmphela  was  printed  bi'  the  famous  Elievir. 
and  In   16(4  ha  published  bi*  Omnderofia  Prine^i 


COCCEIUS  3S 

Evimstlii  S.  JalUitmu,  in  cUbcnta  eiinilnMlon  of 
the  fii*t  18  VMM)  of  thut  Go*p<1,  with  eapeckl  nl*T- 
•nCB  to  the  mirintcrpratntioai  of  Soclntu,  Schlkhlin- 
gina,  tnd  othsra  of  that  Khool.  The  writiiigi  of  Ibo 
SocInUns  hiving  been  ill»emiTuteil  tbroagfa  Holland 
uid  othsr  province!,  the  Synods  o(  Murth  and  South 
RolUnd  preKDted  to  the  Sutu  a  pcUtion  that  the; 
might  he  TeetTained  of  thU  liberty,  and  an  edict  vaa 
acHirdlngly  I»ued  In  1053  forbidding  tbs  printing  and 
pnliliahing  of  Soclnian  books,  and  the  preaching  of 
their  doctrlnea.  This  waa  done  in  aceordance  vlth 
the  opinion  of  the  theological  tacultyofLeyden,  which 
the  States  had  arked  for;  and  whan  an  Apology 
against  the  edict  was  written  (jy  £qiiet  Palomit  (be- 
lieved  t0  be  the  Sodniun  Jonas  Scbllcbdn^fius),  the 
task  of  answering  It  was  commlttsd  to  Coccelni,  who 
rnllilled  the  duty  BO  alily  as  to  recaiva  the  thanks  of  the 
Synods  ofDort  and  of  North  Holliud.  In  IC&C  he  «ai 
drawn  Into  a  controversy  with  bis  colleague  Uoiim- 
beek  on  the  divine  unthorlty  of  the  Sabbath,  which 
became  so  warm  that  the  Slalai  Inlarposed  and  put  an 
and  to  it.  Coccaina,  recoiling  ^m  the  ri^  Judaix- 
ing  view,  went  to  the  opposite  axlrame,  and  main- 
tained that  the  Sabbath  was  a  Jewish  institution,  not 
Idnding  upon  the  Christian  Cburcli,  although  be  was 
in  favor,  on  groands  of  expediency,  of  obaervlng  the 
Lard's  day  by  public  services  of  wonhip  and  preach- 
ing. The  fbUowing  year  he  began  la  writa  his  He- 
lirew  Lexicon,  at  the  request  of  her  bigiineas  the  prin- 
cess Maria  Eleanora  of  Biandenburg;  but,  owing  to  hla  j 
many  other  labors  and  cares,  he  did  not  fluhih  it  till  a  | 
little  before  his  death  In  16G9.  He  never  hltennittad 
bis  work  as  an  Interpreter  of  the  Scriptures,  but  sent 
forth  one  commentary  after  another  till  be  had  al- 
most gone  through  with  the  sacred  booka.  The  moat 
elabante  of  these  are  on  the  Psalms,  Job,  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  and  the  prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Teatk- 
ment,  and  on  the  Eplsttes  of  the  New  Testament,  par- 
ticolarly  those  of  Paul,  and  on  the  Apocalj'pee;  but 
there  are  many  valuablu  notes  on  the~Pentaleuch. 
He  was  also  much  occupied  with  the  contioversiea  of 
his  time,  and  wrote  with  great  learning  and  aUlity 
against  Jews,  Soclnians,  and  Papists.  He  defended 
the  Integrity  of  the  Jewisb  Scriptures  against  Isaac 
Vossios,  who  maintained  that  they  had  been  corrupt- 
ed, and  that  the  tmnstation  of  the  Seventy  bad  divine 
authority.  In  addition  to  his  treatise  De  Fmitrr,  ha 
wrote  ■  much  larger  work  with  the  title  Sunima  Tito- 
logia  ex  Seriplarii  rrprlila,  the  form  of  wliicb  was 
mora  in  harmony  with  the  syatamatJc  theology  of  hie 
Ume.  But  while  thus  laboriously  accn]»ed,  and  in 
the  full  maturity  of  his  powers,  be  was  suddenly  seised 
with  a  fever,  and,  after  a  sickness  of  nIneWen  days, 
died  on  the  4th  of  November,  1660,  at  the  a^e  of  Gfl. 

As  an  InMipreter  of  Scripture,  Coccelos  liad  many 
of  the  blgbest  qaaliHcatiooa.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  the  worthy  compeer  of  the  migbty  acholars 
of  which  Holland  could  boaat  in  the  ITth  cantur}-.  In 
tiic  range  and  tharoughneaa  of  bis  acquirementa  he 
wa*  not  inferior  to  aach  men  as  Grotius,  Heinsius, 
Buxtor(  and  Vosslus.  But  it  was  In  bin  pristiplet  of 
tnlerpralaCion  that  his  unrivalled  gift  was  chlcSy  seen. 
He  held  that  the  Scriptures  are  Iha  source  of  all  sound 
'  doctrine ;  that  they  have  not  been  exhausted  by  pre- 
vious Interpreters ;  that  they  an  to  be  regarded  as  one 
organic  whole,  the  Old  Testament  containing  every 
wbere  the  hidden,  and  the  New  the  unfolded  Gospel ; 
that  they  are  to  be  Interpreted  according  to  the  anal- 
ogy of  the  faith  or  the  scope  of  the  one  great  revela- 
tion; that  their  meaning  is  to  be  determined  by  a 
careful  examination  of  each  pasaam  as  to  the  force  of 
its  words  and  phrases,  and  its  relations  to  tbe  context, 
or  that  which  is  derived  tx  lota  compage  ternumii;  that 
the  inlorpreter  is  not  to  force  his  own  opinbns  into  the 
Scriptures,  lint  to  submit  his  mind  to  their  teachings ; 
and  that  Christ  is  the  great  subject  of  divine  ravela- 
tion,  as  well  in  the  Old  Testament  as  in  tbe  New.    It 


B  COCCEIUS 

was  bis  holding  np  of  the  SerfptUM  aa  tba  living 
fonntaln  of  tlieolagy  wfakh  drew  on  him  tha  Utter  ofk- 
position  of  the  acbnlaatic  theologians  of  hia  daj,  wlje 
would  not  go  beyond  what  tba  Balbrmen  hwl  U- 
talned  to,  and  uaod  tbe  Bible  only  as  a  ttorebousv  ot 
proof  teiU  for  doclriiHa  which  tbty  had  latned  rrom 
the  symbolic  writings  of  tbe  fisfonnation.  Ag»lii«t 
that  dry  and  hard  scholaatldam  Cocbaioa  sat  >■'■"— if 
with  uncompromising  boldness;  and  bt  did  aa  mticli 
as  any  man  of  bis  time  to  reinstate  the  SotptoMB  In 
their  true  place  of  authority,  and  to  make  iDtupreta- 
tloo  to  be  the  drawing  of  (kiah  streams  ftnrn  tha  Iiaut- 
haustibla  well-apring  of  divine  tmtta. 

He  baa  been  accused  of  being^/ac^  aa  an  Entec- 
preter,  but,  in  tha  sense  In  which  it  is  commonly  na- 
derstood,  no  charge  could  be  mora  groundleaa.  Hia 
fundamental  principle  waa  that  "  of  tboae  tliinga 
which  Christ  and  tbe  apostles  spake,  tbe  foundatkiD, 
cause,  and  preacribed  formula  existed  in  tha  wrrUingi 
of  Hoses  and  tba  prophets,  and,  in  truth,  that  Cbriat 
and  the  apostles  accomplished  that  preaching  conccni- 
ing  the  kingdom  of  God  which  had  been  promiaed  to 
Israel,"  and  therefore  that  "what  b  to  be  bellsved 
concerning  Christ  and  bis  rigbleoosness,  whad  in  tb* 
New  Testament  is  explained  more  succinctly  and 
clearly,  that  ought  to  be  demouitratad  from  tha  Old 
Tsatainent,  aince  both  the  apostles  appealed  to  ito 
testimony,  and  tbe  Saviour  himself  chained  tbe  Jews 
to  seanrb  it  as  testifying  concerning  himself."  He 
would  bring  men  to  *^the  examination  of  all  ScHptani, 
to  tbe  perpetual  analogy  t^  promise,  prophecy,  and 
Goapel,  and  Bo  of  all  the  nvelalions  of  God'a  Teata- 

Intho  application  of  thia  principle  ha  often  erred  by 
going  beyond  tbe  bounds  of  clear  and  deflnita  knowl- 
edge, by  forcing  eventa  into  Che  mould  of  proplwcy, 
and  also  by  too  great  subtlety  in  tracing  oat  analo- 
giea;  but  hla  errors  wore  those  ofa  man  of  peneittating 
insight  and  robust  Judgment,  and  not  of  weak  and 
childish  fancies.  No  one  has  seen  more  cleariy  gr 
more  sharply  defined  the  true  province  and  roetlMda 
of  the  interpreter,  "adding  nothing  to,  and  taking 
away  nothing  from  the  words  of  (jod ;  leaving  tboae 
things  which  are  said  In  a  general  way  to  be  Intarpnt- 
ed  getHrally ;  giving  force  to  tbe  propriety  and  em- 
phasis of  phrases,  and  the  analogy  of  aacradspaecta." 

No  one  now  will  doubt  that  the  one  great  object  of 
divine  nvelation,  both  In  the  Old  and  Kew  TMt» 
Tnenta,isto  unfold  "the  mystery  of  godllneaa,  God  man- 
ifest in  tha  Oesh."  In  all  his  interpretationa  of  Sciip- 
tnro  he  was  struggling  Cowards  this  end ;  and,  itatBritfc- 
standing  bis  many  fulln  res,  which  were  inevitabla  at 
the  time  and  under  the  circumstances  in  which  he  lived, 
his  writings  are  full  not  only  of  grand  and  br^raaddng 
prindples,  but  of  striking  Bismples  of  prophetic  Insight 
In  the  application  of  them.  He  gave  a  groit  iDpolae 
and  a  right  direction  to  Biblical  studies  in  Holland, 
his  pupils  the  fsmons  Vitringa  is  to  b«  na»- 


Aa  a  theologian,  Cocoeina,  n 
hcring  to  Che  doctrines  of  tbe  Kelbmwd  (Calvinislic) 
Church,  gave  to  them  a  mora  scriptural  and  leas  scho. 
biatic  farm.  In  consequence  of  his  ftea  and  profoaod 
study  of  tbe  Bible.  His  favorila  matbod  of  setting 
forth  theology  was  the  luttorical,  as  tbe  nnlblding  of 
the  successive  stages  of  the  covenant  enterad  into  be- 
fore all  worlds  by  tha  Father  and  tha  Son.  After  the 
Fall,  by  which  the  covenant  of  works,  under  wUch 
Adam  in  hia  state  of  inaocenca  bad  been  pUcad,wis 
abrogated,  the  way  was  opened  ft 


if  the  < 


which  w 


I  tbe 


icb  hsd  existed  ii 
tha  Godhead,  of  which  the  second  Peraon  waa  the 
mediator  and  surety.  Of  tbeae  there  are  three  dis- 
penaatloBs — tliat  of  tha  Pramiae  during  tbe  time  of  the 
patriarchs,  that  of  tbe  Law  gives  from  Sinai,  and  lU 
of  the  Gospel ;  although  the  two  fbtnat  an  alao  dB» 


COCHIN^HINA 


897 


COCK 


■d  U  one,  u  preeedlnff  the  adTent  of  thg  Redemuir.  l  extnder,  the  papal  rancto.  He  l>  charged  wHli  hor- 
Tbe  bll  of  man  wu  lelf  caiued,  and  not  neeesaitiited  !  ing  aongbc  to  Induce  Lntber  to  give  np  his  ufe-coD- 
b7  anj  act  of  God  (Soma  tnim  opemtBr  in  nobU  Deat  I  duct,  In  order  to  put  bim  ia  the  power  of  the  legate ; 
■M  Main),  bnt  all  bie  poeterity  ireni  involved  with  .  bat  CochlBue  aftfrnarda  denied  that  this  was  hia  pur- 
Adam  In  the  guilt  and  curae  of  bii  aln.  Thit  required  poae.  lie  waa  alao  preaent  at  the  Diets  of  KatiaboD, 
a  Mediator  who  couM  not  be  of  the  number  needing  1626,  and  of  Angabui^,  IMO.  At  tbe  latter,  with  Eck, 
ledemptioi),  and  jet  must  be  a  partaker  of  their  na-  Faber,  and  Wimpina,  be  undertiwk  to  refute  tbe  Auge- 
tnn;  a  problem  that  was  eolred  by  tbe  Son  of  God  I  burg  Confeaeion.  His  "renttatlon"  waa  read  before 
bdoc  made  man.  Ha,  atandlng  aa  the  apontorof  tbe  |  tbe  Diet  Augusts.  On  the  death  of  Eck  (154^,  Cocb- 
itanut  corenant,  gave  onto  the  Father  the  obedience  \  Ikui  took  bla  place  a*  Ibe  leading  ehninpion  of  lbs 
that  was  doe  ttom  men,  and  alio  endured  the  penalty  anti-Rerormers.  He  wrote  a  tirade  againat  Uelanc- 
of  death,  tbe  cuiae  (br  ain,  thereby  nuking  a  true  ax-  tbon,  entitled  PSWppiex,  sddreaied  to  the  tmperor. 
(liatian  and  atODement.  In  1516  be  was  active  at  the  colloquy  of  Katiiibfln, 

Coccaius  limits  tbe  death  of  Christ  In  its  full  force  i  agHinat  Bucer  and  Major.  His  numeroua  pamphlets 
to  the  elect,  hot  he  aaaerta  that  Chriat  waa  "a  victim  .  are  full  of  violence  and  peraonalitiea.  Among  them 
efso  greM  preciousness  aDdanfflcleocy  that  the  whole  I  are  Bocitpitl  Martini  Latiieri  (Maini.  1531)j  Luhenu 
world,  and  all  men  without  ezoeption  coming  to  Mf",  j  Sfpliceps  (Mainz,  1629) ;  Hiitoria  Huuitanini  (Mainz, 
can  find  sure  and  perfect  salvation  in  him."  |  lS49i  De  aclii  aadirr^it  iMtheri  (1M9,  fol.);  Sprcu- 

In  respect  to  most  doctrines  he  does  not  depart  from  i  Iwii  drat  Mimam;  J>t  immdanda  EttUaa,  1639,  8to. 
the  Reformed  Church ;  but  then  is  a  spiritual  life  and  — Dupin,  Eedtt.  Hit.  cent,  xvl,  p.  4A6 ;  Wetzer  u. 
power  la  his  bsndling  of  them  which  takes  them  out  Welte,  EinAtn-Lex.  U,  647 ;  Pierer,  UiavtnaULexiioii, 
gftheapbereofa  cold  and  lifeless  orthodoxy.  Hewae  iv,  S;0;  ^nlus,  ffutmy  of  tilt  BrfanaalioK,  iU,  SW ; 
mighty  In  the  Spirit,  and  br  in  advance  of  most    Hoefer,  J/ouv,  Biog.  Gnhale,  x,  S&6. 


in  of  bis  time  in  his  spprebeoaion  of  the  work  of  God 


rnu.j-       wl        L   7,i^'-"-"""*  "  "■; "'  •t'".         Cock  (fix  icT^p,  literally  vahm).     It  is  sol 

in  Chri«      ■«  here  be  fall,  lu  clew  . igbt,  we  slUl  feel    ^^.^  ,(„^,„  ^l„^'jj,i,  i,;^'  ^„j  ^„^.  ,„ 
IbMl  noble  matinct.  are  working  In  b.m       His  errors^    ^^^„1^  „Jj  ^^  di,ti„,Hy  noticed  in  the  Hebrew  Sc 
sa  m  regard  to  the  Lord  a  day,  were  partly  tbe  fni-'  -'  ' 


le  distinctly  noticed  In  the  Hebrew  Sctip- 
y  Z  T  '^  \T'^Z'^x}T"'r-l"J  «  ""i,"^'  I  "■"".  "pecially  aa  rearing  gallinaceous  fowU  was  an 
to  vindicate  fur  tbe  Church  her  Christi«i  lib- ,  „,,j^°;  of'^„,id;„tle  econ^icsl  importance  in  Egjpt, 

■    __,... ._. __..,...         rep,  for  the 

TiABia.    It 

when  Che  practice  of  obtaining  tbem 

...         ...  .  :  by  artificial  beat  commenced  in  Eiont  b  sufficlentlv 

*■         u    u.»  l''.?^?"'!!.^''     V^^."      i"^*''    -li'putable,  and  birds  of  the  genu.  Callus,  proprrivi 
Ihmgs,  he  held  but  half  tbe  truth,  not  discerning  the  I  ,.|]^  .„  nni  I,  "  .    -•■    -         ■   ■ '  '■    "    ■- 

tresdom  of  divine  ordinances;  hot  he  la  not  to  be 
ranked  with  the  lawless  spirits  wbo  would  break  down 


.       ,,  .         ,  ,      t     ^  1  p..      ■■  1      ,       uuiecLoi  cuuDuiunuie  Dcuuomjcsk  importance  in  J 

^^iT"^'"^!'"^.^  t"  ^^      ,        XT*  I  ■'  "«>  ">eir  flesh  one  of  the  priucipsl  resource,  t 

the  bondan  under  which  the  I-w  brought  men,  md  .  j,^,,  j^  „  „  of  Southern  .^We*ten.Asi 

be  b>oked  upon  tbe  Sabbath  given  from  Sinai  as  a  I  .    t„^_  ,h„  /.r,h,n  th»  nr.«i«  of  o1,t.ini„. 


those    whom   Christ  has 


U  upon  tbe  UcentloosnesB  of 
waa  smoDg  the  the  first  Id  iDodem  times  to  teach  the 
doctrine  of  a  apiritBol  dispensation  of  gloiy.  In  diatine- 
tim  from  a  vUble  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  ao  for  did 
lie  csny  it  as  to  find  nothing  of  tbe  resurrection  In  the 
Itst  chapters  of  the  Apocalypse.  But  he  (Irmly  held 
the  faith  of  the  Church  as  to  Ibe  final  resnnection  o^i 
tbe  body  and  the  awards  of  the  jndgment. 


called,  are  not  Indigenoua  i 

in  their  ori^insl  condition  to  la«>et  India,  Indo-Cbina, 
and  Ibe  great  tsiands  of  Aualral-Aaia.  Several  rpe- 
ciea,  apparently  di«dnct,  are  atill  found  wild  in  tbe  for- 
ests and  Jungles  of  India,  and  two  st  least,  Gallia  Sott- 
nerafii  and  G.  Skoileifi,  ate  al  iindant  in  the  woods  of 
the  Wettem  Gbsuts,  to  which  our  familiar  fowl  bear 
so  cloae  a  resemblance  that  natunliata  consider  the 
be  their  original.  Domeatic  poultry  have 
existed  in  Hindoostan  ttom  the  remotest  sntiquity; 


lebodyandthoawardsafthejndgment.  ^  probably  much  earlier  than  tbe  twelfth  century  B. 

The  viewa  of  CocceluB  were  adopted  and  further  de-    toi  in  tbe  InlHiila  ef  JUaai  which  Sir  William  Jou™ 
raloped  by  a  "^aib^T  ot  prominent  theoIogUns  of  the    ^        „  jj„t  „,  ^j  „, ..  ,i„  ,,^j  „f  (be  town- 

Befbnned  Church  of  Holluid  and  other  countries.  His  \  ^|,^..  ,„d  „,  tJ^  practice  of  coek-flgbting  (v,  12 ;  ix, 
Mlowers  were  commonly  designated  hy  the  name  j  22i).  When  the  cock  found  Its  way  to  Western  Asia 
UcceJaiiB.  The  foremost  among  tbe  writers  of  tbis  ^^  gurope  we  have  no  record.  Fowl  of  plumage  so 
^  in  the  province  of  systematic  theology  are  gorgeous,  of  aise  so  noble,of  flesh  so  samd.of  habits  ao 
Momma,  Wltrims  Burmann,  and  Von  Til  (««  these  ar-  domestic,  of  Increase  so  prolific,  would  doubtless  early 
tKlea) ;  m  exegeticol  literature,  the  greatest  and  most  i^  ^j^ed  along  the  various  tracks  of  Oriental  corn- 
celebrated  member  of  the  school  was  TItringa  (q.  v.),  ^„j^_  xbere  la  no  trace  of  It,  so  &r  aa  we  are  awara, 
while  the  pious  hymnologist  Jodokus  von  Todensteln  ^  ,hj  n„„u„e„l,  rf  Pharaonic  Egypt,  but  we  find 
and  Dr.  F.  A.  Lamps  exercised  a  considerable  influ-  t|,e  ^ck  figured  in  those  of  Assyria.  In  a  hunting 
raceuponthepncticallifeoftheChurcboftbelrtimes.  '  " 

His  Opera  TioAigica,  including  his  Sunaia  dod.  de 
/frdm  H  laUmatio  (Leyd.  1648),  his  Lv.  Htbr.  ft 
CiaU.  V.  T;  and  other  wriUnga,  were  publbbed  at 
Amsterdam  (1676-78,  8  vols.  fol. ;  !d  ed.  10  vola.  Ibl., 
S  vols.  Optra  dvUUra.  ITOl).  Hia  £■/«  by  hIa  son, 
i.  H.,  is  given  in  vol.  viil.  See  Henog,  ReaUEnrg- 
Uop.  li,  766:  Wetier  a. Welte,  Kirelun-lM!.  il,  046; 
Hoabeim,  Cfatrrk  Bitt.  cent,  xvli,  pt.  il,  ch.  ii ;  Gasa, 
Pnt.Tkniogie,H,VA;  UnpTihtKb,  Hit.  of  Dndrina, 
nd.  ii ;  Dome:,  CnekidUt  der  Prolabml.  Theoli'g^,  p. 
1^  sq.;  Faitbaim,  Tgpola/gi  Fairbaim,  Utmatea&c- 


•iUamal. 

CoebiU'ChliuL'    See  Akax. 

CoclllseuB,  JOHAKHES  (proper  name  iKhwci), 
»|»bom  in  1479  at  Wendelatein,  near  NOrnberg!  Ijc- 
Mcaerect(iTtDNarnberg,16Il;  In  I&ST,  dean  at  Frank- 
furt; finally,  canon  of  Breslan,  in  which  office  be  died, 
lUl.  He  was  one  of  the  most  vloleut  opponents  of 
the  BtftrmatioD.     He  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms 

as»),wi 


of  volonteer  ^  to  Al- 1  grouDd  amidst  the 


Andant  Aaajrbii  Guie-cocfc. 


and  shooting  scene  depicted  st  Kborsslnd  (Botta,  pi, 
cviii-cxiv),  the  Bcens  la  laid  in  a  forest  whose  charac 
teristlcs  seem  to  indicate  a  mountain  region,  soch  as 
Media  or  Armenia.  Mnch  game  is  represented,  in- 
cluding many  kinds  of  birds,  one  of  which  seems  to  be 
tbe  pheasant.  But  tbe  moat  interesting  it  a  large 
bird,  which  appears  fMm  its  form,  gait,  and  arching 
cock;  it  Is  waUtlng  oi 


Bofaraatl 


COCK-CROWINU  SI 

it  would  go  to  prove  tbat  the  fovl,  in  &  wild  itate,  ex- 
tBted  at  that  period  in  Weatern  AiU,  thoagh  noir  un- 
known un  thb  aide  Ibe  Indui.  Tlie  cocic  and  ben  ire 
dijtinctly  represented  in  the  Xanthian  uulpturea,  of 
■n  en  protjalilj  conternpcicaneous  with  tbe  Kboraabad 
pataee  of  Kineveb.  They  ippBU  aUo  on  ECniacun 
paintings,  having  prabihly  a  much  higher  antiquity 
(Mrs.  Gray'i  Elruria,  p.  iS,  46).  The  early  Grselte 
and  Romaiu  figure  them  on  their  coina  and  gems,  and 
speait  or  tbem  aa  poifectly  familiar  objecta,  with  no  al- 
lusion to  their  iDlroduction.  They  had  even  found 
their  way  into  Britain  at  aome  unknown  period  long 
anlarior  to  the  Roman  Invasion,  for  Caaar  lelli  ua  with 
Burprise  that  the  Britona  did  not  think  it  rij^t  to  eat 
the  gooao  or  tbe  hen,  though  tbev  lired  both  far  the 
pleaaure  of  keeping  them  (BeU.  GaU.  lib.  v).  Thia  ia 
a  very  [nteiestlng  allusion,  since  we  aia  compelled  to 
refer  their  introduction  into  that  island  to  the  agency 
of  the  Phicniciana,  who  traded  to  Cornwall  rbr  tin  cen- 
turies before  Bome  was  built.  Under  these  circnm- 
slancea,  their  abaence  fhim  Egypt,  where  in  modem 
times  they  hare  been  aitiUciall}-  bred  to  so  immenae 
an  extent,  becomes  a  remarkable  and  unaccountable 
fact.  They  were,  indeed,  it  may  be  surmised,  un- 
known in  Egypt  when  the  Uosalc  lav  wai  promulga- 
ted, and,  though  Imported  soon  after,  they  alwaj'a  re- 
mained in  an  nadetermined  condition,  neither  clean 
nor  nnclean,  hut  liable  to  be  deciaied  either  by  decia- 
iona  swayed  by  prejudice,  or  by  fanciful  analogiea; 
peibapg  chiefly  the  latter ;  because  poultry  are  devoar- 
ers  of  unclean  animala,  acorpiona,  acolopendra,  amall  | 
liiirds,  and  young  aerpenta  of  every  kind.  But,  al- 
tbou^  the  rearing  of  common  fowls  was  not  cncour- ! 
aged  by  (he  Hebrew  population,  it  la  evidently  drawing 
inferencea  be}'ODd  their  proper  bonnds  when  It  la  as- 
serted (aee  CocK-CROWiNo)  that  tbcy  were  unknown 
in  Jeruaalem,  where  civil  wars  and  Greek  and  Eoman 
dominion  had  greatly  aObcted  the  national  manners. 
See  Fowl. 

In  the  denials  of  Peter,  described  in  the  four  Gos- 
pela,  where  the  cock-crowing  (aee  below)  ia  mentioned ' 
by  our  Lord,  the  worda  are  plain  and  direct;  not,  we 
think,  admitting  of  cavil,  or  of  iieing  taken  lo  ^gnify 
anything  but  the  real  voice  of  the  bird,  the  aXttropo- 
f  wi-/a,  as  it  is  expreaacd  In  Uark  xiii,  35,  in  its  literal 
acceptation,  and  not  as  denoting  the  Bound  of  >  trum- 
pet, so  called  becaose  it  proclaimed  a  watch  In  the 
night',  fur  lo  what  else  than  a  real  hen  nnd  her 
brood  does  our  Saviour  allude  in  Luke  xiii,  34, 
where  [he  test  is  proof  (hat  the  image  of  poultry 
waa  familiar  to  the  disciplca,  and  coiisequenlly  that 
they  were  not  rare  in  Jndisa?  To  the  present  time 
ill  the  East,  and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  thia  bird 
is  atill  oflen  kept,  aa  amongst  the  Cclta  (Cffisar,  Bell. 
GaU.  iv,  IS),  not  so  much  for  food  as  fur  tbe  pur- 
pose of  announcing  the  approach  and  dawn  of  day. 
SeeHKN. 

CocK-CHOwixo  (liXicropo^i'io).  ' '  Tbe  cock  uau- 
■Ily  crowB  aeveral  times  alxiut  midnight,  and  again 
about  break  of  day.  The  latter  time,  because  he  then 
crowaloDdeat,  and  his 'shrill  clarion'  Is  moat  KaetaX  by 

of  (Ae  cock-crowing  emphatically,  and  by  way  of  emj- 
neoee,  though  aometlmca  tbe  diatinctions  of  thejSnl 
and  leamd  cock-crowing  are  met  with  in  Jewish  and 
heathen  writers  (Bocbart,  iti,  119).  These  times,  and 
these  names  for  them,  were,  no  doubt,  aome  of  the  most 
ancient  divisions  of  the  night  adopted  in  the  East, 
where  '  the  bird  of  dawning'  ia  most  proliably  indige- 
nous. Tbe  latter  '  cock-crow'  waa  retained  even  when 
artificial  divliiona  of  time  were  invented.  In  our 
Lord's  time  tbe  Jews  had  evidently  adapted  the  Greek 
and  Roman  division  of  the  night  into  four  perioda  or 
watchea,  each  consisting  of  three  houn>,  the  first  begin- 
ning at  six  in  the  evening  (Luke  xii,38i  Matt,  xlv, 
29%  Mark  vi,  48) "  (Kitto,  >.  v.).  Thia  watch  (the 
third  of  theae  divisions,  comprehending  tbe  space  be- 


COCKATRICE 


brawB  aa  ^2iri  T\K^-\p_  (teria/*'  liaf^btr\  and  waa 
termed  by  the  Romans  g(^imuam ;  and  it  tias  been 
sappoaed  that  Jerusalem  being  a  niilitsr>-  station  of 
the  Komana,  the  coatom  of  that  nation  concerning  the 
placing  and  relieving  of  the  guard  waa  in  force  th«r«. 
These  watcbes,  or  guards,  were  declared  liy  the  aoood 
ofatrumpet;  and  whenever  one  guard  relieved  aiMth- 
er,  it  was  always  done  by  the  mllitai;  signaL  Tbe 
whole  four  watcliea  were  cloaed  by  the  blowiQg  of  a 
shrill  horn.  Drakenborch  says,  the  last  trumpet, 
which  blew  at  (hree  in  the  morning,  waa  Bounded  three 
times,  to  imitate  the  crowing  of  a  cock.  See  Watch. 
"  It  lias  been  coDaidered  a  contradiction  that  Mat- 
thew (xxvi,  84)  records  our  Lord  to  have  laid  lo  Pe- 
ter, '  Beforfa  the  cock  crow,  thoa  ehalt  deny  mo  thrice,' 
whereas  Mark  (xlv,  GO)  aaya,  'before  the  cock  crow 
twice.'  But  Matthew,  giving  only  tbe  gmcral  anue 
of  the  admonitian  (as  also  Luke  xxii,84;  John  xlil, 
Be),  evidently  alludoB  lo  that  only  which  waa  cwTo-o- 
riffcalled  (As  cock-crowing;  but  Hark,  who  wrote  nn- 
der  Peter's  inspection,  more  accurately  recordiog  lit 
very  vonb,  mentions  the  two  cock-crowingi  (Wetatrin 
on  Mark  xir,  80;  Scheuchter,  Fkgi.  Sarr.  on  Mark 
.xili,  86  i  Whitby 'a  K^ott  on  Uatt.  xxvi,  »t).  Airatbcr 
objection  to  thia  part  of  the  Evangelical  history  hai 
Iwen  (bunded  upon  an  aasertion  of  the  MIshna  (s^a 
Kant,  vii,  T), '  They  do  not  breed  cocks  at  Jerusalem 
because  of  the  holy  thinga,'  1.  e.,  aa  it  la  interpreted, 
cocka  turn  up  the  dung-hills,  and  set  free  the  reptilea 
.  Iiy  which  the  sacrifices  might  be  polluted  which  were 
'     '        id  that,  conscqtiently,  Peter  conld  not 


Aeor  one  crow.      But  this  ii 


■Mly   . 


Even  the  traditionB  themselfc*  oi 
ject  are  not  uniform ;  witness  the  atorv  (In  Erubm,  p. 
26, 1)  of  a  cock  which  killed  a  child,  and  was  stoned  by 
order  of  the  council.  Other  instancta  are  given  hj 
Reland,  which  abow  that  (he  cock  might  crew,  thoiuh 
not  fii  lit  city,  and  yet  be  h^rd  by  Peter  in  the  still- 
neas  of  the  night,  especially  as  tbe  palace  of  Caiaphis 
(according  to  the  modem  trndltion)  stood  on  an  ele- 
vated situation,  at  the  distance  of  scarcely  400  jaida 
from  the  city  walla,"  In  the  modem  East  tbe  ban- 
door  fowl  is  a  common  appendage  lo  evetr  bouae- 
hold,  and  the  cock-erewing  ii  a  universal  rigiial  nf 
morning  in  Palestine  (Thompaon,  Lmd  and  Bvoi,  u, 
662}. 

COCK,tba,aa  a  Christian  aymbd.  (I.)  Oo  tombs 
tbe  rock  ia  a  aymbol  of  the  resurrect)on--the  prmto 
diti,  or  herald  of  tbe  light,  after  the  night  of  death. 
(2.)  The  cock  is  also  a  syml«l  of  vigilance. — Martig- 
ny.  Did.  da  Antiqatit  CkrHirmta,  B.  v,  Coq. 

Cocliatilce,  properly  a  ftbulouB  aerpenl  mppoaed 


idtroja 


rather  & 


tianalation  in  our  version  of  T^^  (pe'pka,  kinimj,  Ira. 
xiv,  !9)  and  "'SirllX  (toip&mi',  Isa.  xl,  8;  lix,  5;  Jer. 
vii],  17).  The  latter  word  alao  occun  In  Prov.  xxiii, 
82,  where  it  ia  tranalaled  "adder."  Aqoila  and  tbe 
Vulg.  underatand  the  baiUtit,  a  fabulous  aerpent  of 
antiquity,  Identillvd  by  many  modems  with  tbe  batili- 

of  Africa.  By  others,  however,  the  cenula,  or  "  hwn- 
ed  viper"  (coluter  cenuteiof  Linn.,  co/nin' coriufM  of 
Hasaelquist).  baB  been  more  definitely  fixed  upon  as 
the  animal  intended,  a  very  poisonous  serpent  of 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  about  a  foot  long,  brown  on  the 
liack  and  aidee,  with  a  white  belly,  about  as  thick  as 
the  flnger,  and  having  two  knob-like  projectiooa  upon 
the  head  (comp.  Pliny,  xl,  45),  which  were  anciently 
compared  to  homa  (£lian,  Anim.  t,  57 ;  PUny,  viu,  S& : 
comp.  Herod. ii,  74).  It  burieB  itself  in  tbe  aand,fnm 
which  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  in  color,  with  lbs 
horns  projecting  out  like  feelers,  whence  it  suddenly 
darts  forth  and  Beiiea  its  prey  (Died.  Sic  iil,  60).  (See 
Bocbart,  Bierat.  ili,  !05  sq. ;  Hasaalqulat,  2Vaa.  p.  £BJ 


COCKER  S£ 

■q.  I  BckiA,  in  raulni'i  SammL  I,  !06 ;  U,  S58 ;  Bntca, 
7>ar.  vii,  pi.  40 ;  Wilkinion,  2d  am.  li,  S46  >q.  i  Froap. 
Alp.  l^.  jEfiypt.  iv,  1,  p.  SIO,  pi.  6,  G.}  Othin,  sgiin, 
refer  (hU  lot  to  the  ''adder,"  i.  e.  viper  (q.  v.),  of 
Gen.  xliz,  17.     Sm  SuimiT. 

Cocker,  in  old  Engliih  Unn,  uud  but  ones  in  tbc 
A.  V.  of  lbs  ApDOj^lw  (Ecclus.  XII,  9,  Tiirtfnv, 
latd  M  ■  aawte),  in  tba  mdw  olf-Mdit,  or  tmt  goitlr- 

Cockle  (rn^K^  boiliak',  «n  d/auih  plut,  q.  d. 
■tink-wecd;  Sept.  JJnrof,  i.  e.  bimmbie)  occurs  only  In 
Job  xxsi,10 :  "  Let  thistln  gmw  inatesd  of  vhut,  and 
coetb  initud  of  lisrley."  It  is  probabi;  ■  mere  gen- 
eral term  algnifying  lettd,  pertupt  like  the  darnel  (X'' 
Zaria,  "  tiree")  of  Matt,  jdii,  90.  Celslui  (Bitnbot.  il, 
199)  would  identity  it  witli  the  actmiie,  but  Geieniui 
qnwtkiiu  thU  (Jftua,  i,  230 ;  ii,  3M),  as  the  word  must 
not  be  coofounded  with  the  plur.  form  (D''dN3,  lnu- 
*Aua'),  "wild  giapea"  (q.  v.),  in  lu.  v,  2^  i.'    See 

Codex  AlexMidilntu,  et«.     Sm  Ai.bxaiidri- 

Codex  Canonmn  Bcolosite  nnivenee  !■  the 
Dame  of  a  work  publiahcd  at  Paris  in  ISIO  bj  Chriit. 
Jotteaa  (JnMelluti),  which  undertook  lo  give  the  un- 
fHB  of  tbe  flnt  councils  in  B  shipe  as  confonuable  as 
poMible  to  the  collection  of  canons  nbicli  the  Coun- 
cH  of  ClialcedDa  (451)  was  supposed  to  bare  nude. 
nil  codtx  catunucH,  etc.,  was  reprinted  in  the  BM. 
jv.  eaiL  ml.  (tarn,  i,  p.  S9),  published  \>y  JneteUus  and 
Voitloa.  The  suppoaition  wbicb  led  to  tbe  cotnpiU- 
tkm  of  this  work,  that  tbe  Coancil  of  Chalntdon  had 
made  or  ordered  to  be  made  sacb  a  eoUection  of  can- 
COS,  is  erroneoui.  Il  is  tree  that  the  rerolutioiis  of 
the  ancient  Church  councils  were  early  call«ted  and 
drcolated  among  the  biihope,  and  that  at  the  Council 
ofCbalcedoD  luany  of  the  l^iahop*  bad  with  them  col- 
lactiona  containing  tbe  canons  of  the  Ave  synods  of 
Kiec,  Ancyra,  Neo-CKurca,  Gangn,  and  Antiochla, 
from  wUcb  nuny  passages  were  read.  But  it  ap- 
peared that  in  tbe  arrangement  of  the  canons  tbe  cot- 
lections  widely  diflered,  and  it  ii  nut  known  that  tbe 
eoancil  took  any  ac^n  with  regard  lo  the  matter. — 
Wetxer  u.AVelte,  Kinlun-Lex.  ii,  U9. 

Codex  JuRtliiiaiieiia,  a  code  compoaed  by  order 
et  tba  Emperor  Jusdnian,  and  intended  to  embrace  all 
that  was  still  available  of  former  coUectioos  of  impe- 
rial manuscripts  and  edicts,  as  well  as  of  edicts  Chen 
recent.  Tbe  previous  collections  wcrr,  1.  The  Codtx 
Ortyoriamatj  compiled  by  Gregorianus,  who  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  centnr}'.     It  contained 


"Con. 


■■(the 


e  for  the  "Jfe- 


qaeats,  and  the  "Eiliele,"  or  orders  on  general  ques- 
tions) of  the  eniperon  up  to  tbe  time  of  Conetan. 
Uoe;  !.  The  Coda  BermegtmaiiMi,  compiled  by  Her- 
mogenea,  likewise  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  ceo. 
tory,  and  containing  tbe  "Constitutions"  of  Diocle- 
Han  and  Ms^iminUn:  S.  Tbe  CoJei  Thtodfiami*, 
nnnpiied  in  the  first  half  of  the  flflb  century  by  order 
of  tbe  Erapemr  Theodosins  II,  by  a  committee  of  sis- 
leen  jarists,  and  containing  the  Conetitutlons  of  the 
■mperom  from  Conatantine  Co  Tbeodosius.  It  was  pro- 
mulgated by  Theodoiius  in  488  in  the  Eastern  empire, 
and  in  tbe  same  year  by  Vatentinlan  in  tbe  Western. 
It  was  divided  Into  sixteen  books,  of  which  the  first  II  ve 
and  tbe  former  part  of  tbe  sixth  are  lort.  All  these 
thive  codes  are  found  in  the  Cirrjuii  Jurit  Anirjiulm- 
iata,  published  by  Hbiel.  In  Feb.  SSS  tbe  Emperor 
Juatinlanus  ordered  Che  preparacion  of  a  new  code, 
whkh  was  to  embrace  ail  that  was  itill  of  practical 
Taliie  of  the  three  previoua  collections,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, all  tbe  canstltotions  issued  since  tbe  publication 
of  tbe  Tbeodoalan  Code.  This  new  collection  was  pub- 
Uabed  in  April,  £29.  After  the  poblioatiou  of  tbe  Tan- 
decti  (■  compOaUou  of  tba  writings  of  fonnr  Roman 


CdX&STKIA 

jurists)  and  tbe  ImlUationtt  (an  introductlan  to  tha 
itud;  of  the  Roman  law),  another  revision  was  mad« 
n  bM  by  TriLonianus.  '1  his  new  revision  (Codei  rrp- 
'liiit  pnrltclioiiu}  still  forms  an  Important  portion  of 
tbe  Carput  Jurit  CndU,  while  tbe  first  revision  (f!odex 
(u)  is  lost  In  its  List  revision,  the  Codtx  JmUia- 
leiis  consists  of  twelve  books,  eacb  Look  containing  a 
imlier  of  titles  in  chronological  order.    Up  to  the  time 

CunslanCine  nearly  ail  the  conatitDthins  ere  rescnji- 

(rescripts)]  aftertbat  we  meet  withnunwrousedkAi 
(edicts).  Tbe  code  of  Justinian  is  of  great  importance 
for  Church  histoiy  and  Chorcb  law,  as  a  great  many 
edicts  of  the  Cbriatisn  emperors  concerned  religious 
questions.  In  quoting  the  code  of  Justinian,  lirat  the 
number  of  tbe  constilution  ia  given,  next  tbe  special 
code  (Greg.,  Kerm.,  Tb.,  Just.)  ^m  wliich  It  is  tak- 
en ;  and  finally  tbe  tide ;  thus,  c.  4G.  C.  Jial.  1,  S,  d( 
epifc.  ((  eJer.,  which  means  conatitulian  46  of  tbe  Jns- 
tinianean  code  (that  is,  Ibe  enlirely  new  portion  of  it), 
book  i,  title  8,  which  treaCa  de  tjniecpii  el  ckricii. — 
Wetier  n.  Welte,  Kirdim-Lexihm,  ii,  660. 

CodmsD,  John,  D.D.,  a  Cnngregationd  minlFter, 
was  bom  in  Boston  Aug.  8, 1782;  graduated  sC  Har- 
vard ISO!,  and  studied  Isw  until  the  deatb  of  hia  b- 
tber,  when  he  commenced  theology,  and  completed 
bis  Btodiea  at  Edinburgh.  After  praiaching  a  year  In 
Great  Britain,  be  came  tiack  lo  America,  and  was  or- 
dained pastor  in  DorcbMter,  December  7, 1806.  In 
'834  be  went  lo  England  ss  delegate  to  tbe  Congrega- 
ional  Union  of  England  and  Wales,  He  died  Dec. 
S,  1S47.  He  was  made  D.D.  by  Che  college  of  New 
Jeraey,  189!,8nd  l.y  Harvard,  1C40.  Dr.Codman  pub- 
lished a  Vint  lo  England  (18SB) ;  Senaoiu  (1884, 8vo)  j 

and  a  number  of  occasional  diccoonca Spragae,  An- 

nait,  ii,  43!. 

CcDlantiiie  (Pqie).     See  Celebtiiix. 

CosleBUna.     See  Celmtiks. 

Ccalantlac,  a  native  ol  Ireland  (or  of  Dretagnef) 
ofnoblo  birth.  According  to  Marius  Mercator  (Com- 
momilanum,  !),  be  was  alawftudentat  Komewbcu  Pe- 
lagjus  arrived  there.  Embracing  the  vieu-a  of  Pela- 
gius,  he  accompanied  him  in  408(ar<09)  to  Sicily,  and 
in  411  to  Africa.  By  bis  character  and  talents  he  suc- 
ceeded, even  better  than  Pelagius,  In  diffuaing  the 
views  which  Ihey  held  in  common.  He  wss  accused 
of  heresy  before  tbe  biabop  of  Carthage,  A.D.  U2,  and 
condemned.  He  appealed  to  Rome  ;  and  on  hui  way 
stopped  at  Sicily,  and  there  spread  his  opinions  very 

Epbesua,  where  he  waa  ordained  presbyter.  In  417 
Pope  Zoiimur,  at  Rome,  was  ro  far  saliffied  liy  Iho 
explanetiona  of  Cslettlua  that  he  recommended  the 
African  bishops  to  restore  him.  In  4IB  be  was  con- 
demned by  a  n-nod  at  Rome,  and  went  to  tbe  East 
for  safety  j  but'about  429  he  was  Laniehed  from  Con- 
stantinople by  ordrr  of  the  emperor.  The  Council  of 
Epbeaua  condemned  bim  A.D.  481.  His  later  yean 
are  involved  in  obacurit}-.  "  He  wrote  a  Can/ath 
Fidti  Zoamo  Papa  Mala,  and  various  epistles  and 
appeals,  the  aubatance  otmoet  ntwhicb  can  be  gather- 
ed from  the  excerpts  given  by  Augustine  and  Jerome ; 
but  none  of  bis  writings  have  come  down  lo  us  entire. 
Ccelcstius  was  a  min  of  pure  morality,  and  more  lesl- 
ona  and  active  (perbaps  more  honest)  Clisn  Pelagius 
as  a  conttovertist.  Jerome  says  of  bim  (in  an  epistle 
Co  CCeaipbon,  A.D.  415),  'Although  s  scholar  of  Pela- 
gius, be  ii  vh  leader  and  master  of  the  whole  bwt," " 
—  Cave.  aitl.  LU.  Anno  407,  i,  246;  Murdorb's  Hot- 
heim,  Clmrtk  Hitory,  N.  Y.,  6  vol* .,  i,  870  ;  Wlggero, 
Avgvttiiutiii  and  Pdagiamtm,  Emerson's  liansl.,  p.  40 
aq. ;  Scbaff,  HiMity  oftU  ClUt'aian  Oank,  iii,  $  147. 
See  PEiJioina. 

Cceli-Syda  (')  niXq  ^vpla;  Tulg.  CalrtgrU), 
"the  MhK  Syria,"  was  (atrictly  speaking)  the  name 
given  by  tbe  Greeks,  In  tbe  times  of  theSeleucidK,  to 
Che  remsrkablo  valley  or  hollow  (tciXia)  which  inter- 


CffiLESYKIA  « 

Tene*  bctwsen  litangi  and  Aatt-Libano*,  itTMchlDg 
from  Inl,  330  iO'  to  84°  40',  a  diMance  of  nearly  a 
handrHl  mileB.  Aa  applied  to  this  region  tbe  won]  ii 
(Inking]}-  daacrlpaTB  (ms  Dlon;BiiiB,  Ptritg.  809-900). 
Thui  a  modern  tiavallor  obaerTea;  "  Wa  tinally  look- 
ed down  on  the  vait  green  and  red  valley — green  trma 
ita  yet  unripe  com,  rtA  from  iu  vineyatdt  not  yet  ver- 
dant— wblch  dlTJdei  tbe  range  of  l^banan  and  Antl- 
Lebacon  ;  the  former  reacbing  its  bigbeit  pinnt  In  <be 
enowy  crest  to  tbe  nortb,  bebind  whicb  lis  tbe  Cedara; 
tbe  latter  In  the  mill  more  inowy  cnwt  of  Hermon — 
tbe  culmination  of  the  range  being  thus  in  the  one  at 
tbe  northern,  in  tbe  other  at  the  aoutbeni  extremity 
of  tbe  valley  which  tbey  bound.  Tbe  view  of  thia 
great  yalley  Is  chiefiy  remarkable  at  being  tsocUii  to 
(ic  <jR  vftit  iti»  on  mvp* — tbe  '  hollow'  between  the 
two  moontain  ranges  of  Syria.  A  screen  tbrongh 
which  the  Leontae  (Litany)  breaka  ont  cloeaa  tbe  soutb 
•nd  of  tbe  plain.  There  is  a  similar  ecreen  at  the 
nortb  end,  but  too  remote  to  be  visible"  (Stanley's 
Palaliiu,  p.  899).  The  piain  gradanily  rises  towards 
Ita  centre,  near  which,  but  a  little  on  tbe  souther 
dlvity,  stand  tbe  rains  of  Baalbek  or  Heiiopalis. 
the  immediate  neighlwrhDod  of  Baalbek  rise  tbe  two 
streams  of  tlw  Orontes  (Nabr-d-Asy)  and  the  Litany, 
which,  Sawing  in  opposile  directions  to  the  Dortb-weal 
and  the  south-east,  give  freshness  and  fertility  to  the 
tract  enclosed  between  the  mountain  ranges.  Amgce, 
tlu  name  of  the  plain  through  which  tbe  Orontea  Bow- 
ad  (ru  'A/waic  wtiiov,  Poljb.  t,  69)^  is  derived  by 
Bocbartfrom  the  Syriac  Kp^tlS,  Arnica,  which  means 
deep,  and  is  nearly  synonymous  irlth  the  Greek  Ccdi 
(Gtoffr.  Sac.  1, 1, 1). 

ThelarmCffile-Sytfswasalsoniedina  much  wider 
Mtsa.  In  tbe  Snt  place  it  waa  extended  so  as  to  in- 
ctu'le  the  inhabited  tract  to  the  east  of  the  Anti-Llba- 
ons  range,  between  it  and  the  deaert,  in  which  stood 
tbe  great  riXj  of  Damascus ;  and  then  It  was  further 
carried  on  upon  that  side  of  Jordan,  through  Tmchoni- 
tls  and  Perna,  to  Idumna  and  the  borders  of  Egypt 
<Strab.xvi,§  21i  Polvb.  v,  80,  §  3;  Josephus,  vlirf.  i, 
U,  6).  Ptolemy  (v.  16)  and  Josephus  {Ant.  nUi,  IB,  S) 
even  place  Scythopolia  In  Ctele-SyriB,  though  it  iras 
upon  the  west  side  of  Jordan;  but  they  seem  to  limit 
its  extent  southwards  to  about  1st.  Sl°  30',  or  tbe 
country  of  tbe  Ammonites  CPtol.v,  15;  Josepbns,  Jiu. 
1,11,  &>  PtotemydistinctlylnclndeslnlttbeDamas- 
co*  country.  In  the  time  of  David,  Ctele-Syiia  wu 
probably  Included  in  "Syria  of  Damascns,"  which 
waa  conqoered  by  that  monarch  (8  Sam.  viii,  6),  but 
recovered  from  Solomon  by  Beion,  tbe  son  at  Eliadah 
(1  Kings  xi,  24).  Tbe  possession  of  it  was  an  object 
of  many  struggles  hetveen  the  Seleacidn  and  the 
kings  orEgypt(Polyb.i,8;  U, 71 ;  lii,  1 ;  t,  40 ;  xvl, 
88:  xivii,  17). 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  ■  part  at  least  of 
C«lB-Syri»  wss  included  In  that  "Valley of  Lebanon" 
Cl'lSain  n9;73)menlianed  by  Joshua  (xi,  IT;  x.n,^\ 
the  extent  of  which  has  been  too  much  restricted  bv 
recent  geoiirapbera.  The  name  "Valley  of  Lebanon" 
could  scarcely  be  ^^lied  with  propriety  srcAutnly  to 
that  section  of  tbe  greet  valley  which  lies  at  the  base 
of  Hermon,  at  i>  considerable  distance  from  tbe  range 
of  Lebanon.  Doubtless  Baal-Gad  was  situated  "  un- 
der Uount  Harmon;"  but  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  the  "Valley  of  Lebanon"  includes  tbe  whole  of 
that  vslley  which  separates  the  ridf-e  of  Hermon  tmtn 
that  of  Lebanon.  It  seems  that  at  a  subsequent  pe- 
riod this  valley  was  called  by  Amos,  apparently  in 
contempt,  "the  valley  of  idols"  (l^K  PT^a,  chap,  i, 
S),  See  AvES.  The  name  was  most  appropriate. 
The  whole  sides  of  the  valley  are  thickly  studded 
with  old  haatben  temples.  Mr.  Porter  visited  no  less  I 
than  fourteen  of  them,  and  be  heard  of  several  otb-  ' 
era.  Some  of  them  were  of  great  slue  and  splendor,  I 
■uch  as  those  of  Baalbek,  Mejdel,  Niha,  and  Uibbsri-  [ 


10  COFFIN 

yeh.  Tills  appaan,  in  bet,  to  have  been  tbe  cboMa 
house  of  idoUtry  (Porter's  Damataa,  1,  11;  H,  820; 
Bomd-io^  of  S.  md  P.  p.  668,  670 ;  Robinson,  Lt^r 
itifr.  An.  p.  488,  4S!,  620).  The  modem  nsme  of  tba 
valley  confirms  tbe  above  view.  It  is  called  el-Bmiaa, 
which  is  strictly  tbe  same  as  the  Heb.  Biiak  C^S). 

In  the  apociTphal  books  there  Is  freqaent  mmtioa 
of  Cmle-Syria  In  a  somewhat  Tigua  sense,  ntsKAT 
as  an  equivalent  for  Syria  (1  Eadr.  ii,  17,  14,  37;  ir, 
48;  vi,  29;  vii,  1;  viil,  67;  1  Hacc  >,  69;  2  H>cc 
iii,  6,  8;  iv,  4;  viii,  8;  x,  11).  In  aU  these  caae* 
the  word  is  given  In  the  A.  V.  ai  "  Celo-Syria,"  i.  t. 
CxBlo-Syria.  In  Eadr.  vi,  8,  it  is  called  ninply  "Sy-' 
ria."  Under  the  emperor  Diocletian,  Phceoiee  and 
C<de-Syiia  formed  one  province,  called  Phtmida  Li- 
banicB.  Under  (he  present  Turiiish  government  tbe 
vrestem  part  of  Ccele-Syria  is  in  tbe  pashalic  of 
Saide,  and  the  eastern  in  the  pasbslic  of  Damaseua. 
8ee  Stria. 

CnllcSlEB  <"  worsbippen  of  besvas"),  the  name 
of  an  African  sect  In  tbe  4th  century,  wlu  sppMr  to 
have  blended  together  some  parts  of  Judaism  and  [%- 
gsnlsra  with  Chrislisiil^.  An  edkt  of  Homrios  (A. 
D.  408)  fortdds  their  assamblaget  and  demands  CjOi 
disbandment  As  they  are  cotinted  in  Ibis  edict  ammg 
tbe  hetelics,  and  as  they  were  not  subject  to  tbe  juiia- 
dictlon  of  the  Jewish  patriarch,  but  had  their  own 
chiefs,  called  msjoree,  and  as  they  had  a  kind  of  bap- 
tism, they  are  by  some  regarded  as  a  Christian  sect. 
By  othen  they  are  regarded  as  an  offiihoot  of  the  Sa- 
senes.     8«e  Schmid,  Halcria    CatieBlanim  (SdmsL 

1704) Gleaeler,  CAwtA  BtMtaiy,  1,  J  78 ;    Hingh.m^ 

Orig.  SeeL  xvi,  fl,  S. 

Cealln.     See  C6i.u(. 

CcnmatoriB.    See  CcintTaBiEa. 

Ccana  Domini,  the  Lord's  Supper.     See  Lokd's 

C(En'a  DOMIKI,  Bdll  of.  See  Biru.;  and  t» 
Coxa  Domini. 

CouioblteB.  monks  who  formed  a  cmnnanity  liv- 
ing In  a  Hxed  haUtation  (omoAwn)  under  a  chief  (ab- 
bot or  (atber).  Their  name  Is  derived  from  cckvi^, 
commDN,  and  filof,  H/t ;  and  they  are  opposed  to  her- 
mits, who  live  Id  solitude.  Pacbomius  is  admitted  to 
be  the  Instjtntor  of  tbe  caaobilt  life,  as  being  tbe  tint 
tbat  gave  a  rule  to  any  community. — ^Bingfaam,  Orig. 
Ecd.  vii,  2 ;  Coleman,  Attdfut  CKritHanls,  ch.  vil,  t  6. 
See  MoHACHiSM. 

CoffflO  (drunk  in  tbe  East).     See  CUF. 

Coffer  C'J^9^  t^"*':  ^P*-  6i;«i,Vulg.  eapteBa), 
the  receptscle  (ipparently  a  customary  appendage  to 
a  cart,  from  the  use  of  the  arMe  In  every  occomnce) 
whicb  the  PhilistineB  placed  bcaide  the  ark  when  tbty 
sent  it  homo,  and  in  which  they  deposited  the  gidden 
mice  and  emerods  that  formed  their  trespase  olftrfng 
(lSam.vt,e,ll,I6}.  The  root  seems  to  signi^  to  he 
Aalm  about;  and  Qesenius  and  Lee  agree  in  regari- 
Ing  it  as  the  same,  or  nearly  tbe  anne  tUng,  as  tbe 
Arabian  rijata,  which  Janbari  describes  as  "a  kind 
illet.  Into  which  stones  are  put:  it  is  bung  to  bus 
ofthe  two  sides  of  the  handaj  [a  litter  borne  by  a  cansl 

mule]  when  it  inclines  towards  tbe  otbn-."  Dr. 
Lee,  however,  thinks  that  the  Heiirew  word  de- 
nota  tbe  wallet  itself;  whereas  Geacnius  is  of  opin- 
ion that  it  means  a  raJTir  or  small  box,  to  which, 
fmrn  its  analogous  nse,  the  lame  name  was  aptdied. : 
See  Arc. 

CofDu  ("il^K.  on?*',  a  box  for  goAavig  articlta; 
Sept.  iTDput)  is  used  with  reference  to  the  burial  of  Jo- 
seph (Gen.  I,  !G):  "They  embalmed  hbn,  and  he  wss 
out  In  a  eoffn  !n  Egypt!"  This  was  uodaubtedlys 
III,  such  as  are  now  fiinnd  in  the  tombs  of 
country,  and  frequently  exhibiled  in  modsra 
museums  [see  Hchvt]— a  mode  of  bnrU  pBCulisriy 
tikvorable  to  the  removid  of  tbat  patriarch's  remains  to 


401 


COHABITATION 


1,14,  of  wood;  S,D.il.I,8.<iriUM;  B.  of  wood,  and  of  Mrir 

tlw-bid^cmthelSlhdTiiMT:  10,arbBnit  luthcDiiin. 
PikMine  (ler.  !6,  irharo  the  tenn  "bonea"  b  stI- 
dcntlv   Died   ia  Oiu  gamial  aoDM).     Sm  Bdbiai.; 

Tbc  Mine  word  I*  ipokanin  thi  origlnBlof  a  "mon- 

iT<ll««"   (i    Klngl   lii,  10,  II)   [KB   TKBABBRr],  but 

BOit  frequent!]'  of  the  ucred  "uk,"  In  which  were 
4epDait«d  the  tablea  of  the  Iftw.  See  Ask.  It  hu 
tatn  thounht  by  aome  that  the  Iron  "  bedrteid"  of  Og 
CDent.  iii,  11)  wu  rather  hii  coffin.     See  Giakt. 

Knmeroo*  cofflni  of  e«rtheow»re  were  dlnlnurred 
br  Laftm  >t  Wnrk»  and  by  l^yinl  at  Hlflir,  wybje 
in  kngth  from  three  to  lis  feet,  and  doaed  by  la  ovil 
lid ;  lbs  corpa*  having  been  ewiilbed  in  linen  end  then 
•wared  with  bltnmeD,  except  the  fe»tur«a  (layard, 
Am.  and  Bab.  p.  471  aq.). 


Aadanl  Babj'lnilaii  CaSn. 
COFTIIf  (prob.  Ann  Saxon  Co/o==a  cave),  ' 
•Bsfat  wooden  caae  in  which  bodlea  are  now  Interred 
aptsara  to  be  of  compaistively  recent  origin  ;  in 
Uer  tget  the  gravea  were  aometimea  lined  with  alaba 
sf  atone,  but  oanally  a  atone  coffin  formed  of  a  a 
blodi  wan  DMid,  and  the  bod;'  placed  In  it,  eitho 


biWiap  HaJph,  Ills,  Ctilchealar  Calbednl. 
rdapad  in  paTe-clothea,  or  clad  in  aome  paiticnlar 
lireaa:  crrlnlaatica  wen  generally'  buried  In  the  habit 
of  the  order  to  which  they  belonged,  the  dignitariei 
of  the  Clinrch  fiuquenUy  in  their  official  robea  and  ac- 
cnnif  Bied  with  the  enaigna  of  their  otRct,  end  aorer- 
alipu  in  Ibelr  robea  of  atal*.  Numerooa  etone  coffina 
aiiat  In  Ihii  country  which  appear  to  be  ■»  old  as  Che 
•Wrenth  and  twelfth  eentories ;  they  are  tbrmed  of  a 
•laitlablockof  atone  hollnvad  out  to  receive  the  body, 
via  ■  amall  circolar  cirltyat  one  end  to  dt  the  bsad. 


and  they  uv  naually  rather  wider  nt  thia  md  than 
at  the  other;  there  are  generally  one  or  more  small 
bolei  in  the  bottom  to  drain  off  moiMare-.  theae 
coffin*  were  never  buried  deeply  in  the  B^Mind ; 
very  frequently  Ih^  were  placed  cloaa  to  the  aur- 
face,  ao  that  the  ltd  wae  vlaible,  and  when  within 
a  church  fonned  part  of  the  paving;  aameticDea^ 
in   churcbea,  they  were   placed   entirely  abova   the 

Coffin,  Cbarlm,  D.D.,  a  Pregbyterian  minister, 
wai  torn  at  Newbnryport,  Haaa..  Ang.  IB,  IT'S,  and 
greduated  with  diatlnction  at  Harvard  In  1703.  Hav- 
ing completed  hie  theological  atudies,  and  taught  for 
Kimo  time  In  Phillipe  Academy,  be  waa  licenced  in 
1799.  He  now  visited  the  Southern  atatea  for  his 
health,  and,  after  spending  aome  time  In  Virginia,  waa 
app^dnled  vice-president  of  Greenville  Collega,  Tenn., 
In  ]80a.  Returning  to  New  England  in  ISIM,  he  wU 
DTdainef  aa  an  evangeliat,  and  removed  with  his  fam. 
ily  to  Greenville  In  1806.  In  connection  with  hia  col- 
le,nt  dntlea,  he  had  charge  of  the  Harmony  Church, 
and  supplied  ftir  many  yeara  the  churches  In  Hawliina 
County,  at  BogersTille,  and  at  Jonesborougb.  Id 
1810  Jie  was  elected  president  of  Greenville  Colleee, 
and  aerved  till  1B27,  when  he  waa  called  to  the  preai- 
dency  of  the  Eaat  Tenneaaea  L'nivetaity,  Knozville. 
He  resigned  In  IBSS,  and  returned  to  Greenville,  where 
he  died  June  8, 1863.— Spragne,  ^mob,  iv,  246. 

Cofan.  ThoiIab,  M.D.,  an  English  Unitarian 
writer,  was  bom  atBowell,  Northamptonshire,  In  1780. 
He  officiated  for  some  time  as  a  Presbyterian  minister 
at  Amsterdam,  but  finally  studied  medicine,  and  prac- 
tiaed  In  London.  He  died  in  1818.  He  published  (1) 
A  Trmlue  on  fhe  PatAat  (Bath,  1802,  8vO'  end  2d 
part,  Bath,  1807-M):-{!)  Thtohgital  Dityamtiom  tn 
Natural  RtHgimi  md  Jtviih  Morali  (Lond.  1812,  flvo) ; 
~<8)  CiatadtiuHc  ExctBntda  of  Chrvtiaaily  (Lond. 
IBIB,  Bvo)  :-^V)  Zrfm  to  iCtffcr/ora,  «»  Ih,  Oodr*«r 
nf  t/fmUarg  Drprarihf  (Lond.  1816,  8vo) :— (6)  EiH- 
cal  Qattliot  (Lond.  1BI7,  8vo).  —  Darling,  Cgetopmiia 
BibSogropliiea,  i,  7H. 

Cogltatloii  (Chald.  li-'I^,  royon',  Oun^  Dan. 
vll,  38),  an  eameat  action  of  the  mind,  elsewhere  trao*- 
lated  simply  "thought." 

Cogawell,Wii.LiAii,  D.D.,  a  CongregaUonal  min- 
ister, waa  bom  in  Atkinson,  N.  H.,  June  fi,  1787,  and 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  ]»11.     He  waa  ordained 
pastor  in  Drdham  April  20, 1816,  and  resigned  in  If  29 
to  accept  the  situation  of  general  agent  of  the  Amiri- 
can  Education  Society,  of  which,  in  1832,  be  was  cho- 
aen  secretory  and  dirpctor.    In  April,  1841,  he  resigned, 
and  waa  elected  professor  of  history  and  national  edu- 
cation In  Dartmouth.     In  Januar:!-,  1^44,  he  went  to 
GilmonCon  as  president  of  the  theological  seminary. 
He  died  April,  IHEO.     Dr.Cogswell  published  A  Cafe- 
tkim  on  Ihe  Dnttrim  mid  Duliri  n/Rl:gim  (1B18)  :— 
A^ilant  to  Fmnilg  Rdigion  (1826)  -.—ThtolnffKal  Clait- 
boot  (1B31):— fffiiii'Bjer  nf  Ihr   .WiVtwKBm  (1883 1  ;— 
LeOtri  (o  Eoniij  Men  pr,  paring  fir  thr  JUiniitry  (1887)  j 
id  aeverat  occBsinnal  sermons.     He  was  editor  of  (he 
"M7-.  Qkorl.  RrgiHr.  of  the  ,V.  n.RtpOBlory.  of  the  1ft 
>L  of  the  Kttu  England  Bit.  and  Grnmlag.  RegiHer 
id  aome  other  works. — Spragoe,  AnnoU,  a,  SOS. 
CobabltatlcMi.     The  delicacy  of  this  snbject  did 
It  prevent  its  being  a  aubject  of  Uoaalc  legblation. 
See  CHiLDBittTU.    TbB  following  are  aome  of  the  moat 
'-nportant  Scriptural  noticea  reapecting  it.     See  Mar- 

1.  Every  conciiUfw,  even  conjugal  and  legitimate, 
ibjoctcd  both  partiea  to  a  atate  of  ceremonial  impuri- 
ty nntil  evening  (Lev.  xv,  18;  Joseph.  Apion.  ii,  24; 
comp.  Strabo,  ii-i,  746),  a  regnlaCion  which  certainly 
served  not  merely  1o  restrain  polygamy,  but  was  also 
uscftil  In  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  A  almlUr  statute 
oriBinally  prevaOed  among  the  Babylonians  (Herod, 
i,  198 ;  SM  W««MliDg,  In  loc.).    Sm  UncLKAtnizaa. 


COHORT  * 

t.  Whoaver  cMirapted  >  nioiden,  cither  by  decdt  or 
lorc«,  wu  compeUed  to  marry  her,  uid  pay  her  Tatber 
a  Ane  (properlv  60  ahekeli,  Deut.  xiii,  28  hi.):  the 
Utter  mutt  ttill  ba  paid  even  when  tbe  father  refused 
lo  permit  the  marrUga  (Exod.  xxli,  17 ;  comp.  Philo, 
Ofp.  ii.  Sll :  Hishna,  Cietub.  lii).  If  the  man  uied 
vwlenn  be  furfeited  the  ri^bt  of  diTorclng  the  wonuD 
•VBT  ifter  (ths  E((i'ptian  Isw  vai  bUII  more  Mvete  on 
thU  point,  Diod.  Sic.  i,  T8).     See  Tkkspasb. 

8.  In  lbs  cue  of  Kductian  or  npo  occurriag  to  a 
betrothed  female  in  an  inliabited  «pot,  aba  miut  cry 
(br  help,  or  be  considered  as  usentlng  to  the  debaqch- 
menl,  and  thus  Baljected  to  the  same  piiDlsbineiit  of 
stoning  as  the  male  party  j  bat  If  ahe  nas  in  a  lonely 
field,  where  ber  scream*  for  assistance  coold  lie  of  no 
avail,  the  was  preanmed  to  have  been  forced,  and  the 
rsrlsher  alone  was  stoned  (Deut.  nil,  S3  sq. ;  camp. 
Joieph.  Ai>t.  iv,  B,  S3;  Pbilo,  li,  31S)i  yet  even  in 
these  cases  the  later  intsrprotcra  of  tbe  law  underitood 
a  repudiation  by  a  bill  of  divorce  as  allowable  (comp. 
Matt,  i,  19 ;  ace  Paolns.  ConmoU.  1,  123).  A  priest's 
danghler  thus  playing  the  courtssan  was  (stoned  and) 
burnt  (I<y.  iii,  9).  (See  genersUv  Wicbielis,  Afos. 
RkIU.  il,  31£  sq.  i  Iv,  298  tq. ;  t,  803  sq.)     See  Fon- 


Coliott  (eoAori),  a  militarj  torm  need  by  tbe  Ro- 
mans to  denote  a  company  Keneraliy  compMed  of  600 
foot  soldiers ;  a  legion  consisted  of  ten  cohorts,  oTery 
cohort  being  composed  of  three  maniples,  and  every 
maniple  of  £00 men;  'aleglou.consequentlv,  contained 
In  all  6000  men.  Othsra  allow  bat  5O0  men  to  a  co- 
hort, which  wonid  make  5000  in  a  legion.  It  is  prob- 
able that  cohorts  among  the  Romaor,  as  companies 
among  the  modems,  often  Taried  as  to  their  number. 
See  Armt.  Besides  the  regular  legionary  cohorts, 
there  were  certain  others  separate  and  distinct  from 
■ny  legion,  as  the (?oAor(«(7rtain and /Vs/oriie.  Snch 
appears  to  have  iieen  the  "  Italian  bond"  mentioned 
In  Acts  X,  1,  which  was  in  attendance  on  the  Roman 
goremor,  who  at  that  time  was  residing  at  Cnsareo. 
Of  the  Fame  description  also  was  the  "Augustan  band" 
or  cohort  (Aclsixvii,  1),  which  most  probalily  derived 
Its  name  from  Sebsgle,  the  capital  of  Samaria.  The 
commanding  officer  otaa  ordinary  cohort  was  called 
TVihouu  aAortU  if  it  was  composed  of  Roman  citi- 
aens,  or  Pra/fftui  Cokortit  if  composed  of  aaxiliaiy 
troopt.     Sec  Band. 

Coin.  Before  the  Battj-lonian  exile  (see  Dei'Iing, 
Obicrr.  lU,  m  sq.,  also  in  Dgolini  Thaaar.  xxvlli) 
the  Hebrew!  had  and  knew  no  regularly  stamped 
money,  but  generally  made  nse  of  a  currency  in  traffic 
cortsiBting  of  uncoined  shekels  (or  talents)  of  silver, 
which  they  mglud  out  to  one  another  (Gen.  iiiii,  16{ 
E.iod.  xxii,  17;  2  Sam.  xviii,  IS;  1  Kings  xz,  89; 
Jer.  xxxii,  9  sq. ;  comp.  Pliny,  \xxiii,  13),  Just  OS 
among  other  nations  in  moat  ancient  times  uncoined 
metal  served  for  money  (lEIian,  Var.  tliit.  xil,  10; 
3trabo,  iii,  15  j),  and  even  to  this  day  the  Chinese  make 
their  commercial  transactions  by  means  of  silver  bars 
(Rosenniuller,  Morgenl.  1,  98 ;  see  Sperling,  De  nam- 1 
mil  fwn  eiitu,  in  Ugolini  T^isiaur.  xxviii).  Among 
the  earliest  Hebrews,  but  not  afterwards  (Crnsius,  De  J 
originib.  pteiaua  a  perore  anit  numiniin  lign.  Petropol. 
1748),  an  ox  or  other  snimal  (cnmp.  Pliny,  xixiii,  8) 
wai  traded  instead  ofcash(Me  Uichsells,  Dt  tido  anIt 
txS.  Babyl.  in  tlie  CommtiU.  Soc.  Goll.  li.  ITSS,  §  1). 
Tet  already  In  the  time  of  Abraham  there  circnlat*^ 
in  hither  Asia,  as  it  socms,  ailver  Ingots  (n^^S^,  (Sen. 
zxxiii,  19;  Josh,  xxiv,  il;  see  Gesenius,'  lia.  Drb. 
p.  1!41 ;  Berthean,  p.  24 ;  Tuch,  Cea.  p.  399,  472)  of 
a  determined  weiglil,  which  was  pnibahly  indicated  by 
marks  (lien,  xxiii.  16;  xliii,  21)  stamped  upon  them 
(so  the  Targum  of  Junaiban  explains  the  former  paa- 
lage  by  X"aap^B,  L  e.  irpny/jnTiin).  See  Kbsitak. 
Even  under  the  regularly  organized  Hebrew  siat« 
■Diall  lilrer  pieces  (comp,  ipyipta,  lUcaltag)  may  haTO  ! 


12  COIN 

passed  In  exebaoge  (as  among  their  Pfamnlcian  ntlgb- 
borsi  but  see  Henid.  i,  94;  PhUostr.  Jltr.  x,  1),  ak 
though  destitute  of  national  authority  (see  1  Sani.  ii. 
8 ;  comp.  Exod.  xxx,  18 ;  Lev.  xxvil,  S  eq. ;  Dent, 
xiv,  S6),  the  bars  being  wei^ied  only  In  payment  of 
large  sums  (oomp.  2  Kings  xii,  4),  although  modem 
Oriental  merchants  weigh  oat  even  regnlariy  colDSd 
money  (Volney,  Vofage,  ii,  BIG).  Sea  Uercbaitt. 
For  transportation  and  preservation,  money,  as  si  this 
day  in  the  East,  was  deposited  in  ba£B  (2  Kings  v,il; 
xii,  10 :  see  Harmor,  Obnm.  til,  26!).  8«e,  ganeially, 
Bertheau,  GtMck.  d.  Itr.  p.  14  sq.)     Sen  Bao. 

After  the  exile  Fenian  money  was  meet  cnrrent, 
especially  tbe  dur'x  (q.  v.),  then  Grcco-Svrian  of  tlia 
Seleudds  (q.  v.),  till  the  time  (B.C.  14B)  of  prince  Si- 
mon (q.  V.)  tha  Maccabee,  who  secured  from  tbe  Sp- 
Ian  munarchs  the  right  of  a  native  coinage  (I  Uacc^ 
XV,  6),  and  issued  shekels  (q.  v.),  both  whole  and  \ait, 
of  which  several  (some  eight)  are  Btill  extant.  The 
following  cinn  has  on  one  side,  in  Samaritan,  the  name 
of  Simon,  and  some  emblems,  upon  which  il  is  very 
difficult  to  pronounce,  and  on  the  other  "  The  Delic. 
eranco  of  Jemsolem,"  with  the  palm-tree  and  two 
Tosas.     There  are  other  coins,  bearing  on  one  aide  tbi 


PnbiJile  (Mn  ef  BIma 
been  Bttnch  by  SItnon  Barcochab,  not  by  Simon  Kao- 
cabnUB.  There  are  marks  on  these  coins  of  their  htr- 
ing  been  struck  twice,  once  by  the  Soman  aothnritiM, 
and  again  I7  tbe  Jewsj  there  are  also  exampka  of 


VmiAj  Jgwhh  C 
Greek  and  Roman  coins  of  then  double  types  applied 
one  upon  the  other.  A  leaf  and  vase  appear  lo  tie  lb« 
general  symbols  of  the  coins  Btmck  in  judna  daring 
the  dominion  of  the  high-priests,  and  the  coins  ttem- 
selves  ore  for  the  most  part  IndlSiAreutly  eiecnted. 
Those  of  Alexander  Jaanens  ore  all  of  bimue,  sa  sn 
also  the  coins  of  Autigonoai  these  lost  tiear  the  >yio- 
bol  of  a  cornncopia,  tbe  type  invariably  found  npm 
tbe  coins  of  this  prince.     Fix>m  the  Inscriptions  n  tte 


OolIU  of  Antlpnos. 
above  owns,  it  is  snppoiad  thst  Antigcons  wlsbed  la 


COIN 

iTniliMii  Ungi,  ftam  Herod  the  Fint,  in  all 
with  the  exception  of  ■  ailvei  ooa  uiigned  to  Herod 
th«  Tfaiid,  which  is  tuppoied  to  be  noique.  Or  Agrip- 
t»  the  Second  there  are  nuoy  colni,  struck  after  the 
deatradioD  of  Jenualem,  which  present  ou  their  re- 
T«nw*  portrkita  of  the  reigning  eniperore.  The  dales 
on  these  CWDS  denote  the  year  of  the  prince's  reign. 
(Sea  each  of  the  king*  in  tlieir  order.)  Erentnail;, 
bowevei,  theia  MaccahBan  ehekeln  passed  out  of  circu- 
lation on  accoant  of  foreign  traffic  (Irejng  especially 
■npplanted  bj  Tjriun  mintage^  nccordiog  to  Bertheai 


p.4oaq.).  SeeHoNEY-CHAXQERS.  In  the  1 
Christ  Greek  correncj  had  mostly  prevailed  (compn- 
tad,  pvbalil}',  at  a  depreciated  rate),  of  which  the  Ibl- 
lowing  piecea  are  mentioned:  the  Jrackam  (q.  v.\ 
which  WB«  the  nnit  of  value ;  the  didratAaia  (q.  v.), 
or  donbla  dimcbm  (_filpaj(jior.  Matt,  xvii,  !4)j  and 
the  ttaler  (q.  v.),  or  (etradrachm.  The  smallest  coin 
wa*  the  Uplim  (^iim>v,  icale,  "mile,"  Murk  xii,43; 
Lnke  zii,  59),  which  wai  the  serenth  part  of  a  )(Old 
piece  (xaXtoviy,  or  half  the  Roman  quadrana  or  "  fikr- 
Ibing."  See  Mm.  Under  the  Roman  rule  the  im- 
perial currency  naturally  ohtained  in  Palestine  (see 
Matt,  xxii,  IT-SI),  so  that  thenceforth  the  Roman  be- 
comes the  standard  (>o  In  the  Mishna,  Baba  Mttia,  Iv) 
of  Jewish  Talnadon  (see  Strong's  Barm,  and  Eipot. 
of  At  GotptU,  Append,  i).  tiingle  coins  of  this  cnr- 
wacj  named  in  the  N.  T.  are  the  following;  (n)  The 
iatoTvu  (q.  T.),  in  Greek  ifniariifla  (fqviifiiDv,  Talm. 
1J^^,  A.  y.  incorrectly  "penny"),  the  usual  unit  of 
popular  estimation,  correapondbig  about  to  the  modem 
lUIHaff;  (A)  The  auarim  (Tram  at  [i.  e.  aa.  bnm], 
which  waa  strictly  the  baals  of  the  Koman  monetary 
ajstem,  like  the  modem  pony),  in  Greek  atsaruun 
(aira6(H0v,  Talmudic  usually  ^^^Bt),  of  copper  (Matt 
X,  !9 ;  Luke  lii,  G),  DrlginBliy  ^,  then  ^  the  denari- 
na;  it  bore  the  effigy  of  the  emperor  during  whose 
reigii  it  was  atrock.  See  Pesnt.  (Comp.  Rype,  Oi- 
terw.  i,  ST  sq. ;  Berth,  Dai  rim.  At  umd  seme  Tkcilr, 
Upe.  ISM.)  (c)  The  quadratu  (or  quarter),  In  Greek 
bnirtu/u  (ralpavrqi,  Matt.  V.  !6 ;  Mark  lii,  4'2), 
which  waa  ^  the  as,  a  copper  coin.  See  Fartiiivo. 
The  Attic  drachma  passed  as  eqairalenl  to  th:  Ro- 
man denarius.  There  are  also  occasional  references 
to  other  and  smaller  coins  (see  the  Mishns,  Man- 
(cr  SHati,  ii,  9 :  It,  8 ;  A'itUuiAt'a,  t,  1 ;  ii,  1),  e.  g.  the 
etotat  (M?^,  aKd'j^i  assaria;  IhepiniliMi  Cl^^llD) 
=3  assaria;  besides  certain  antique  valnei,  e.  g.  the 
na  (111)  =  ^  shekel,  or  i  the  sUteri  tba  peiytak' 
(rtB4'iB)^^ece  of  money  in  general,  etc.  (see  Box- 
torf,  iJx.  Talia.  col.  IT5,  ISSS,  ITM,  181!j  Wisems, 
De  immmi  Hebraor.  1.  ii,  c.  93).  Coins  were  punc- 
tured and  hung  aa  nowadays  around  children's  necks 
for  ornament  (Hishna,Ctc&n,xil,T).  (See  Otho,  £ei. 
BtM.  p.  *ai  sq. ;  Klemm,  Df  nunnu  U^braor.  Tuliing. 
17S0 :  Eisenschmidt,  De  poHderi^.  rl  metuuru  vtU.  Rom. 
Grae.  rt  Bib.  ed.  !,  Argent.  1737 ;  Wurm,  Dt  potuhr- 
aa*.  aamssonin  ft  mnuam.  ratiomb,  op.  Jtom.  et  Grae. 
Stnttg.  1B31.)    See  Moset. 

The  intrinsic  irorfA  of  money  in  tlie  various  periods 
of  the  Hebneo-Tewish  antiquity  is  very  difficult  to  es- 
timate team  the  occasional  intimations  of  mercantile 
value  (see  Michaelis,  De  prttHi  rer.  ap.  BAr.  ante  ail. 
in  the  CvmHeaf.  Soc.  Gatl.  iil,  \*b  sq.),  especially  as 
the  measare  and  quality  of  articles  thus  estimated  is 
also  uncertain  (see  Bockh,  Mttrolog.  Vnlrrwarii.  p.  420 
aq.).  See  Hetrouht.  Examples  somewhat  indic- 
ative of  this  point,  however,  are  the  following :  in 
tbna  of  plenty,  1  ephah  of  wheat  sold  for  1  shekel, 
and  !  ephahs  of  barley  for  1  sbekel  (2  Kings  vii,  6; 
oompL  Pulyb.  i,  IB);  an  Egyptian  horse  in  Solomon's 
time  waa  worth  ISO  shekels '(1  Kings  i.  29) ;  30  shek- 
els were  generally  given  for  a  slave  (Eiod.  xxi,  aS; ' 
eomp.Gen.xxxvli,28);  for lOshekels  a  chaplain  could  I 
be  hired  In  the  times  ofthe  Judgea  (Judg.  xvii,10).  | 


COKE 

I  But  in  flush  times  prices  were  often  mnch  hif^ier,  e.  g, 

a  choice  vine.4tock  was  held  at  I  shekel  (Isa.  Hi,  33); 
a  thresbing-floor,  with  the  oxen,  cost  David  60  shekels 
(a  Sam.  xii<r,  uy,  a  single  vineyard  brought  Solomon 
in  1000  shekels  yearly  (Cant,  vjil,  11).  Other  less 
definite  values  may  be  coUecled  as  lo  func;  matters 
(Judg.  xvii,  4;  1  Sam.  ix,  8;  Neb.  v,  16).  In  later 
times  a  learned  slave  might  be  bought  (according  to 
Greek  and  Roman  money)  for  1  (Alexanilrian)  talent 
(Joseph.  AnI.  xii,  4,  U) ;  a  fann-IaboTcr's  daily  wages 
'  denarius  (Matt,  xi,  2);  and  the  charge  for 


Dvalid  ii 


caravansJrJl  wai  2  denarii  (Luke  x,  85).  (For  olber 
Instances  of  expense,  see  Josephosi  Ant.  xiv,  2,  S; 
War,  i,  ea,  5;  iXfi,  xiii.  44.)  The  comparative  cbeap- 
nese  of  living  among  the  Israelites  (as  among  the  an- 
cieDta  generully,  see  Bdrkb,  Staaltimah.  i,  G5)  is  ev- 
ident, owinw,  however,  rather  to  the  greater  rarity  of 
the  precious  metals  aa  a  circulutin^t  medium,  thai;  to 
anytbing  else.    See  NuHisvATica. 

Coiallii  MaiillBCTipt  (so  called  from  the  library 
of  Coislin,  bishop  of  Heti,  which  ori^oall.v  contained 
most  of  the  leaves),  a  name  applied  lo  two  very  differ* 
ent  Greek  nncial  HSS. 

1.  CoDBX  CoiBLiNiASDa,  the  great  copy  ofthe  Sept. 
Oclateuch,  first  made  known  by  Montfan^n  (fiiUiofJL 
Oiiilin,  niS),  and  illustrated  by  afac-iimiU  in  Silves- 
tre's  Paliogr.  Univ.  No.  6S.  It  contains  227  leaves  in 
two  columns,  13  Inches  bj'  9:  the  line  massive  leCtera 
of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  are  much  like  those 
ofthe  Alexandrisn  HS.  In  the  margin,  ^md  mom, 
Wetstein  fonnd  Acts  ix,  !4,  !6,  and  so  Inserled  this  as 
Cod.  F  in  his  list  of  HSS.  of  the  Acts.  In  IHi  Tls- 
chendorf  observed  nineteen  other  passages  of  the  N. 
T.,  which  be  published  in  his  Sfomtmenia  Sacra  Intd- 
ila  (p.  400  sq.),  wiUi  tfac-timUt.  These  texts  an 
Matt  V,  48;  xii,  48;  xxvii,  25;  Luke  i,  4S;  ii,  24; 
iiiii.  Si ;  John  v,  S5 ;  vi,  G8,  bb ;  Acts  Ev,  38,  84 ;  X, 
lB,lfr;  xxli,  22;  1  Cor.  vii,  89;  xi,  29;  2  Cor.  lii,  18; 
ix,  7;  xi,88;  Oal.  iv,  21,  22;  Col.  ii,  16. 17;  Heb.  «, 
26.  These  portions  of  the  MS.  are  designated  as  F* 
of  the  Gospels,  etc Scrivener,  Inlred.  to  K  T.  p.  lOB. 

3.  rRAaHENTA  CoisuTiiAiiA,  a  relic  of  only  fifteen 
leaves,  written  stichometrically,  with  a  subscription 
lefcrring  to  a  comparison  with  the  the  copy  al  Catsa- 
rea,  which  had  been  written  by  Pamphilui  himself. 
The  letters  are  large  and  square.  When  snmewbat 
faded,  the  whole  (except  the  subscriptions,  which  were 
written  in  vermillion)  was  gone  over  again,  most 
coarsely,  by  ■  corrector,  who  added  the  secentd  and 
breathings,  but  reblackened  the  letters  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  tboroai;hty  to  destroy  their  ele^nce.  Fourteen 
of  these  leaves  wero  published  by  Montfau^n  (u(  tap.\ 
who  ascribed  the  HS.  to  tbe  fifth  or  sixth  century. 
These  sheets  were  used  at  Ut.  Athoa  in  ISIB  as  part 
ofthe  covers  of  another  book,  which  at  length  fell  into 
F.uropean  hsnds,  and  was  saved ;  the  rest  of  tbe  MS. 
had  probably  perished  previously,  or  been  destroyed 
in  a  similar  manner.  Aftertfae  fire  ofSt.  Germain  des 
Prex,  whero  the  flagmenta  were  preserved,  twelve 
leaves  only  were  found,  which  are  now  in  the  Impe- 
rial Ubiwy  at  Paris,  and  conUin  1  Cor.  x,  S2-39i  xi, 
9-16;  1  Tim.  iii.  7-13;  Tit.  i,  1-3;  i,  lS-ii,6;  ill,  la- 
15;  Meh.  Ii,ll-1G;  iil,  13-18;  Iv,  12-16.  Two  other 
leaves,  however,  were  transfeired  to  the  Imperial  Li- 
brary- at  St.  Petersburg,  and  contain  Gal.  i,  4-10;  ii, 
9-14.  Tiscbendorf  has  lately  recovered  another  sheet 
fhim  Mt.  Atbos,  contuinlnn  Col.  iii,  4-11.     These  frog- 

mcDts  are  known  as  H  of  tbe  Pauline  Epistles Tre- 

gelles,  in  Home's  Inlrod.  new  ed.  iv,  194.  See  Hah- 
uaonii^.  Biblical. 

Coka,  TnnMAS,  LL.D.,  first  bishop  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  was  bom  at  Brecon,  Wales,  Sept. 
9, 1747 ;  became  a  gentleman  commoner  of  Jesus  Col- 
lage, Oxford,  in  bis  ITth  year,  and  after  his  gradua- 
tion bad  cbarK>  °f  Sontb  Petberton  pariah,  SomenaU 


COLERroGE  40e  COLERIDGE 

tamwd  It,  and  Colartdgs  luul  not  enoii^  to  ftuntsh  |  "  It  mu  orb  of  hla  moM  cbertBlnd  Khemes— hii  &n*- 
hlm  with  dulj'  nibdttcnce.  Jo*eph  CoUie,  a  bencvo-  Ito  rlalan  in  cloudUnd — to  compoM  ■  work  of  ooki*- 
lent  bookseller  at  Briilol,  fipdlDg  Uut  be  had  written  |  hI  proporllona  which  ahoold  emlirace  the  whole  luigi 
a  to  nuke  Dp  a  inudi  volnme,  offend  bim  ;  of  meotat  philosophy  taken  in  ita  widest  meaaiDg,  Id- 


thirty  gaineai  for  them.  The  volame  was  publishad 
lnI7M,and  other  literary  scheBwo  were  projected.  In 
1T9S  Colerid)^  married  Hiu  Sarah  Fricker,  of  Bristol, 
•  sitter  of  the  wife  of  hia  friend  Charles  Llojd.  In 
1796  be  published  a  volume  of  poems,  the  giaater 
number  of  which  had  been  written  at  earlier  periods, 
interspersed  with  some  bf  Charles  Lunbj  and  in  1797 
a  second  edition  appeared,  with  the  addition  of  some 
poem*  by  Charlea  Uoyd. 

Coleridge  was  at  this  period  of  his  life  a  Unitarian. 
He  siyi  of  himself.  "  1  was  at  that  time,  and  long  af- 
ter, ttaoUKi)  a  Trinitarian  (i.  e.  ad  *orma»  Plakmit)  In 
pbiloaophy.  jet  a  aealous  Unitarian  In  religion ;  more 
aeeurately.  I  waa  a  ptdoHAmpiit,  one  of  thoee  who  be- 
lieve oar  Lord  to  have  been  the  real  son  ofJoaeph,  and 
who  lay  tlie  main  stresa  on  the  resurrection  rather 
than  the  cmciAxiou"  iBiog.  Lit.  i.  168).    In  1798  Cole- 


idiog,  of  course,  theology  and  religion.  He  really 
only  wrote  a  few  disconnected  fragments  of  bia  miglitj 
task.  But  these  figments  have  proved  of  Immenta 
sngsestivenesitoyouager  intellect*."  and  Ca/eridgaaia 
may  be  found  now  among  every  class  of  Knglish  di- 
vine*, from  the  Broad  Church  to  the  highest  Pnaey. 
Itee.  The  condhion  of  the  English  mind  at  the  tame  . 
of  Coleridge's  appearance  ia  to  be  noted,  aa  acconDtlDg 
Ibr  the  wonderful  influence  he  gained.  "  The  receiTed 
philosophy  was  sensatlonaligm  in  intelligence  and 
thought,  and  utilitarianism  in  morals ;  snd  the  reeaiTcd 
theology  contented  itself  with  dealing  forth,  when  di- 
dactic, the  dij  haika  of  a  powerleo  morslinm.  and, 
when  argnoientstive,  with  insisting  upon  the  external 
evidences  of  Christianiti-.  Grotias  snd  Talev  (whose 
Itoral  Fkilotopii  was  a'text-book  at  Cambrid';:* >  wm 
the  oracles  on  the  subject  of  the  Christian  evidence*. 


Hi  Germany,  and  went  through  a  couree  of  I  Arianism  and  UDilarianiim,  always  found  alongsid* 
German  literature.  On  bis  return  to  England  be  went ,  of  ■entatlonalism  and  materialism,  had  crept  like  a 
to  live  at  the  Lake*,  where  Southey  and  Wordsworth  i  fog-blight  over  half  the  face  of  British  Chrirtianity. 
had  then  settled,  the  one  at  Keswick,  and  the  other  at :  In  such  a  state  of  thing*.  It  is  eaf  y  to  undenUnd  bow 
Grasmers.  The  appellation  nt  "  Lake-poet*"  wa*  giv-  the  appearance  of  a  teacher  liko  Col:Tidge  wonld  In 
en  to  these  three  writers  after  the  publication  of  the  welcomed.  He  wa*  the  declared  enemy  of  the  senaa- 
tgrical Bailadt.  Coleridge  now  became  connected  with  tional  and  utilitarian  philosopher*.  He  wa*  repsted 
tbe  Moraiitg  Pott,  and  wrote  both  on  politics  and  litera-  i  to  have  mastered  the  German  philosophy,  to  have  ab- 
ture.  From  about  1808  to  about  1814  he  contributed  to  stractad  tnm  it  what  wa*  sound  and  tme.  and  to  have 
IfaeCounn-.  In  1809  he  editsd  the /VuikI,  flnt  publish-  attained  to  a  clear  vision,  ftom  the  utmost  height  of 
ed  *<  a  periodical  at  the  Laker.  'He  left  the  Lakes  in  haman  tfaought,  of  tbe  nltimate  unity,  the  perfect  and 
1810.  and  did  not  afterward*  return  to  them;  his  wife  |  vital  harmony,  of  philoeopby  and  theology,  of  the  rev- 
and  children  remained  in  the  house  of  Southey,  and  i  elation  of  reason  and  the  revelation  of  God.  tie  pre- 
wholly  dependent  on  him.  On  Coleridge's  first  ar- I  fessed  himself  a  devout  and  orthodox  Christian  believ- 
rival  in  London  he  resided  with  Mr.  Basil  Montagu,  er.  Uost  of  all,  be  Impreaaed  and  attracted  the  vonng 
and  in  1816  he  became  the  guest  of  Mr.  OiUman  *l  men  of  his  time  by  his  noble  ideal  of  thought  and  far- 
Highgate,  in  whose  house  he  died.  The  many  ftiend-  j  pose,  hb  reverent  spirit,  hia  fir.eeeing,  practical  wis- 
■hips  which  Coleridge  attracted  to  himself  through  dom,  his  critical  and  Intuitive  sagacity,  his  uui<ui  of 
life,  tbe  sincerity  and  constancy  of  which  were  abun-  deep  Isamini^,  flne  taste,  and  recluse  habits,  with  phil- 
dantJy  shown,  place  in  a  striking  light  the  atniabil-  j  osophic  breadth  of  view  and  wide  hnnun  sympatbiea. 
Ity  of  hi*  character  ;  hi*  neglect  of  his  family  and  "  One  main  point,  pertiap*  tie  main  point,  of  Cole- 
extreme  carelessness  respecting  the  obligations,  both  ,  ridge'a  Phiiotnplts  was  the  Kantian  disthiction  betweea 
personal  and  peenniaiy,  which  devolved  upon  him.  a:  '  the  reason  and  the  understanding.  Upon  thia  distiao- 
Strikingly  illnatnte  its  weakness.  It  was  not  belbrc  .  tion  Coleridge  grafted  his  peculiar,  and,  aa  we  think, 
the  commencement  of  bis  residence  in  London  that  h:  j  unchristian  doctrine  of  tbe  Logos.  Many  who  ham 
formed  any  very  eitenalre  acquaintance  with  the  ^  not  followed  Coleridge  in  the  theological  doctrine  have 
writinjr*  of  the  later  German  metaphysicians,  by  the  ,  agreed  with  him  in  reference  to  tbe  metapbyakal  dis- 
•doption  of  whose  method  and  terminolcqcy,  rather  tinction.  according  to  which  the  nnderetaitding  ii  the 
than  by  any  derelopment  of  a  pyslem.  in  hia  aubae- 1  Ioj^IcbI  faculty  In  maik.  the  reason  is  the  intuitive  be- 
quent  pnblicationa,  he  came  to  be  accounted  tbe  rep- '  ulty.  which  stands  fece  to  face  with  spiritual  and  s- 
roentalive  of  German  metapbyaice  in  England.  He  |  tentlal  truth ;  and  tbe  immediate  ob)«t  of  which  b, 
pnbUabed  auccesdvely,  between  the  yean  1817  and  i  aa  Ur.  Morell  saya,  'the  good,  the  beautirul,  and  the 
1836,  the  Lag  Smnoni,  the  Biogra/Aia  I.ilerana.  tho  '  tme.'  Tbe  Intuitive  bculty  in  man  baa  thns  assigned 
bound  volume  of  the  Fritnd,  the  Cmulilulion  rf  tie  to  it  in  entirely  separate  sphere,  and  that  tbe  very 
Church  and  StaU  aceonling  la  ike  Idea  of  each,  snd  the  hi^est.  It  dwells  in  a  region  apart,  elevated  above 
jlHb  M  RtfiecHon.  During  most  of  his  life  Coleridge  I  that  of  the  logical  nndenUnding,  and  is  quite  Inde- 
waa  poor  and  dependent,  from  careless  improvidence,  pendent  of  it.  Being  thns  independent  of  the  under- 
He  suffered  also  from  chronic  ill  health,  combined  standing,  it  is  independent,  so  far  la  the  morally  tniod 
with,  and  to  a  certain  extent  caused  fay,  a  hahit  of  and  rinht  ia  concerned,  of  revelation  also  (which  must 
using  opiun.  He  died  July  2B,  liH.—Eiigl'ik  Cseby.  In  presented  to  It  through  the  nndentandlng),  einpt 
fa£a,  I  in  so  far  aa  it  may,  by  its  own  light  and  authority,  ap- 

Or  Coleridge  aa  a  poel  we  do  not  here  speak.  As  a  '  prove  and  warrant  that  which  revetatlon  bring*  bttan 
metaphysical  theologian,  his  influence  upon  his  own  It.  For  reason,  nnderslnod  aa  above  defined,  most, 
age,  and  especially  npon  its  younger  men  of  genius,  whether  in  matters  of  taste,  criticism,  or  morals,  be 
wasgreaterthin  that  of  any  other  Englishman.  Hia  the  supreme  judge,  and  be  a  law  unto  Itself.  Thus 
mental  attributes  were  of  a  bi|ch  order,  slranBoly  the  scintillations  of  genius  and  the  light  of  piety  sr* 
blended,  and  thoroughly  cultivated.  To  a  soUiety  ,  bntdifferent  manifestations  oftbe  same  bcully.  How 
which  wonld  have  distinguished  him  In  tbe  age  of  ,  well  this  accords  with  Coleridge's  supplementary  doe. 
•cholasticism,  he  added  a  great  compass  of  thought,  trine,  that  reason  ia  tie  liirht  in  man  of  the  divine  L«- 
Tbe  devotional  and  expository  writings  of  the  best  goa.  and  how  natunlly  It  le  developed  into  Maurice*! 
Engliahdirines,  such  asHDoker,Taylor,Bjixter.  Leigh-  doctrine  of  the  identiflcation  of  the  Word  or  Sou  of 
ton,  and  Wesley,  were  conitenlsl  food  for  bis  mvBtical  God,  with  all  men,  will  be  readily  seen.  How  neariy 
and  religions  nature.  With  his  enlarged  knowledge  related  it  hi  to  the  modem  Panlheiem  is  no  less  obri- 
be  abandoned  Unitariantam,  and  formed  fbr  himself  |  ons.  Coleridge,  in  a  passage  of  hia  Tdk  TVift,  wKl 
ahalr-completetheoh>gy,  partly  orthodox,  partly  mj-s-' which  many  passages  In  his  writings  fully  arcoid, 
tical,  and  partly  (though  nnconsciously)  pantheistic  j  speaks  of  'that  higher  state,  to  which  Arfatodo  ooald 


COLES 


407 


orrer  nin  bimwlf,  but  vhlch  was  nttonil  to  Plato, 
ind  haa  be«n  to  Mben'  [himKlf,  Tor  iimtann],  *ia 
■lueh  tbe  uDdcrsLindiae  li  dietinctly  coatainpUted, 
■od,  M  it  were,  looked  da*n  upon  from  tbe  throne  of 
•ctaal  id«aa.  or  Uvin/,  Inborn,  eueiiCul  tralbp.'  He 
■peak*  of  ths  eplrit'i  aKendinj;  into  'th«  ampfiwin  of 
idea*.'  He  idmtiAet  the  reaBon  with  the  dirtoe  Lo- 
go*, Eaaking  him,  In  thla  Hnw,  to  be  the  '  tight  wUcb 
Ugbtcth  every  nun  that  cometb  into  tbe  world.'  He 
dmlea,  ■■  man}'  hare  learned  tVom  him  to  denj-,  tbe 
pouihilit;  of  ■  revelation  ab  aim.  He  apeaks  ot  the 
Trioitj  as  an  'Idea,'  and  aniljzea  tlii>  'idea'  in  inch 
a  nj  an  to  resolvo  the  Tti-tuiltj'  into  *hnt  b  really 
no  better  than  arafined,  Platonlied  Sabellianinn — only 
not  Sabetlianirni,  beeaoM  not  allowed  to  be  conceived 
nnder  any  rondiAiiu  of  Ume  and  space.  Such  are 
aome  of  the  reautta  of  Coleridi.-e'B  pecniiar  philoMiphy 
a*  i-pplied  to  solve,  or  a*  nied  to  maganre  and  define, 
the  mjBteriea  of  being,  human  and  divine'"  (aee  Catry, 
in^  lhodulQ>iarter'g,JtiB.l»M,mzt.Hi  andRigg.in 
iftlk.  Quaiierlf,  April,  1966,  art.  i;  Jaly,  IgU,  art.  i). 
Uia  Tiews  of  liupiral'iii,  aa  given  in  the  C<mfet3icmM 
rf  laa  Inqmrittg  Spirit,  am  almoat  as  low  as  those  of 
the  RtillonalistB.  Hia  theory  of  the  aUmenml  aeems 
to  exclade  aimott  entirely  the  idea  of  anbatitution,  in 
order  to  avoid  what  he  cslla  the  "commerciDl"  theory. 
The  oalv  nnifbm  edition  of  Coleridgc'a  works  is 
that  of  PrefesHir  Sbedd  (N.  Y.  Harpers,  1853,  7  vols. 
ISmo).  Prefixed  to  it  will  be  foDnd  Uarah'a  admira- 
ble Preliminary  Essay  to  tbe  AiJt  to  Befiediea,  and 
also  an  able  and  genial  latrodnctory  Essay  by  Pro- 
feaaor  Sbedd.  Tbe  work  needs  nothini;  bnt  an  index 
to  be  nnnptete.  Of  Gillman's  Lifi  n/Olrridge  (Lend. 
IS38),  two  Tolames  were  promised,  bat  only  one  has 
appeared.  In  1866  appeared  Dr.  J.  H.  Green's  l^rU- 
mal  PkiloKpltg,  fambd  m  lie  Ttarfamg  of  S.  T.  CaU- 
riigr,  edited  by  J.  Simon  (Lond.  2  vols.  8vo).  Criti 
cal  casaya  on  Coleridge  abound  In  the  leadlni*  reviews 
among  those  that  examine  bis  philosophical  theology 
and  its  resalta  are  papers  In  the  CArudVm  .'Spectator,  v' 
(17  ;  /"rvvfCna  Raiae,  xx,  144 ;  BaUoOtca  Sacra,  li 
117;  7'*«I(^VaIJi»nu<(Urd's),i,68l;  Am. Bildkat 
arpailory.  Julv,  1849.  art.  I;  BritUk  QaaiUrIf,  Jan. 
IBM,  art.  iv. 

Cole*,  Ellaho,  ■  native  of  Northamptonshire, 
ma  made  slewaid  of  Uagdalen  Cnllege,  Oxford,  dur- 
ing (he  Commonwoaith,  when  the  tamoua  Independent, 
Dr.  Goodwin,  was  head  of  that  college.  After  the 
Bestoration  he  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  East  India 
Honse,  which  bo  is  aappoeed  to  have  held  until  bis 
death  in  168<j.  His  name  is  prcwrved  by  bis 
known  treatise  entitled  A  prarlieal  Trtaiiti  on 
Batmigahi,  originally  published  in  1673, 4to,  and  many 
times  reprinted.    It  is  thoroughly  Calvinis  ' 

Cole*.  Geoi^.  a  minlsler  of  tbo  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  and  for  many  years  a  Jnumglist.  " 
bom  in  Engbnd,  June  2,1792;  converted  ai 
became  a  local  prearber  in  18M;  emigmtod 
Ink  in  1818,  and  immediately  enleied  the  itinenni 
mioiatTy  in  the  New  York  Conference.  He  was  an 
"eflkctive  preacher"  Ibr  thirty-three  years,  and  on  the 
bt  of  Hay,  1868,  be  died  in  New  York.  He  was  an 
Invalid  more  than  half  of  his  life,  yet  eminently  cbeer- 
fbl  and  useful.  Thoagh  his  advantages  of  edncatlon 
while  young  were  limited,  he  was  nevertheless  a  very 
well-read  man,  and  tbr  twelve  years  was  eminently 
sncccK^f  qI  as  assistant  editor  of  the  Christian  A  dvccatt 
imd  Journal,  and  three  years  sole  editor  ot  the  Swaiijr- 
seteol  Adeocale  and  Sunday-school  books.  Among  hia 
puliliihed  works  ore  TS*  Aniuiilf  (Iftmo),  Lirtam  to 
aUdrrm  (IHmn),  SeriplMre  Cmtcordann  (18mo),  iVy 
fauH/ul  Dasi  (18mo),  -Vj  jfrrt  sova  I'fors  n  A  meriai 
ll«nio\tadnavmei'/3fflioilun(t3mo).  Mr.Coles 
was  a  ttnrere  and  simple-hearted  Chriatian  gentleman, 
loving  all,  1>y  all  beloved.  Aa  a  preacher,  sitbough 
not  poweiful,  he  was  clear,  instraetive,  pannaslve,  I 


and  eminently  consolatoiy.  "  His  Joamal,  which  waa 
csrefulty  kept  fbr  nearly  fitly  years,  shows  bow  ha 
longwl  to  live  and  labor  for  God."  His  death  waa 
peaceful  and  beautiful. — Mimila  iff  Canjiraiett,  IB68, 
.146. 
Colet,  Dr.  Johh,  was  bom  bi  London  in  14S6 ;  waa 
cdncated  at  Oxford,  and  travelled  on  tbe  Continent 
a  yean,  where  he  nude  the  acquaintance  of 
□inent  scholars,  especially  of  Enamns,  Bn- 
id  Linacer,  and  where  he  also  learned  Greek. 
ined  Church  preferment  when  very  Toang. 
In  1497  he  commenced  lecturing  at  Oxford  'on  St 
Pant's  Epistles,  and  drew  crowds  of  itudenls.  In  loOS 
'le  was  nude  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  in  which  capacity  hia 
indaavors  to  restore  discipline  broaght  on  him,  though 
bapirily  without  ellbct,  a  charge  of  heresy.  He  intro- 
duced divinity  lectures  at  St  I'aul'a,  delivered  by  bim- 
selfand  othen.  "These  lectures  rsised  in  the  nation 
spirit  of  inquiry  after  the  Holv  Scriptures,  which  had 
len  long  been  laid  saide  far  the  school  divinity,  and 
so  might  be  said  to  prepare  a  way  for  the  reformation 
'bich  soon  after  ensued.  We  cannot  but  think  that 
Colet  was  in  some  measore  instramenlal  towards  it, 
tboogb  be  did  not  live  to  see  it  effected,  for  he  express- 
ed a  (ireat  contempt  for  religious  bouses,  exposed  the 
abuses  that  prevailed  in  them,  and  the  mischiefs  at- 
tending tbe  Imposing  celibacy  on  the  clergy.  Tbll 
way  of  thinking,  together  with  hia  free  and  public 
manner  ot  communicating  his  thoughts,  which  were 
then  regarded  aa  impious  and  bcivtical,  rendered  him 
very  olmoiions  to  the  clergy,  snd  expoKd  him  to  a 
persecution  from  the  bishop  of  London.  Latimer  teUa 
US  in  his  sermons,  not  only  was  Colet  broDgbt  into 
tronble,  bnt  be  would  certainly  have  gone  to  the  atake 
bad  not  God  turned  tbe  king's  heart."  In  161!  ha 
rounded  and  endowed  the  noble  institution  of  St.  Paul'e 
School  for  163  scholara.  He  died  in  1619.  He  wrote 
a  Lotin  Gramrnar  for  St.  Paul's  Sthool,  which  waa  long 
in  use.  Among  his  religious  writings  were,  Dotlt/  Dt- 
vo&mt,  or  iKe  CkTittian't  monttaj  and  eraBB^  Socnjies 
(Lond.  1693,  l!mo):  Momiion  la  a  godls  Life  (Lond. 
16M) ;  Epiilolai  ad  Eratmam,  etc.  See  Knight's  Life 
n/Otai  CoiffLond.  1724,  8vo)i  Jonet,  Chiit.  Biag.  I 
Seebobm,  OrfordRtfonatti  (Lond.  1667). 

CoI-ilo'B«ll    (Heb.   KU-eiioaA,' ,    TnTr\-S,  even 
eeeri  Sept.  XokiZi,  XoAn^d),  a  descendant  of  Judab, 


eiug  ti 


n  of  H 


ir  of  01 


(Nch.  sl,6),B.C.BnteSS6.     He  had  also  a  eon  named 

Sbsllun,  who  repaired  part  of  the  walls  of  Jeruaalsm 
after  the  CapUvity  <Neh.  lii,  16). 

CollS&l.  GABrAKD  DE,  admiral  of  France,  waa 
bom  Felimary  IS,  1617,  at  bis  ancestral  castle,  ChatU- 
lon-snr-Lobig.  His  father,  Qaspard  de  Collgni,  mar- 
shal of  France,  died  early  (I6!3),  and  bcqneatbed  to  hia 
widow  the  task  of  edncating  three  sons.  In  this  she 
was  assisted  by  two  masters,  one  of  whom  Instmcted 
tlie  boys  in  languages  and  philosophy,  and  the  other  In 
bodily  exercises.  Gaipard  early  distinguished  himself 
fbr  •  firmness  of  character  and  purity  of  private  lift 
very  ran  in  those  days.  His  only  fHend  was  the  young 
duke  Francis  of  Guise,  afterwards  among  his  bitterest 
enemies.  He  entered  npon  the  career  of  arms,  and 
early  won  high  celebrity  in  the  wars  against  Italy 
and  Spain.  In  1647,  at  thirty,  Colignl  was  madis 
commander  of  the  French  infantry.  The  very  severe 
discipline  Introduced  by  him  changed  the  wild  bands 
of  lawless  soldiery  Into  an  orgsniiert  army.  In  1547, 
the  year  In  which  his  mother  died,  he  was  married  to 
Charlotte  da  Laval.  But  the  troubles  of  his  tlmea 
called  him  soon  again  and  again  to  the  ftont  of  battle ; 
tbe  happy  issue  of  tbe  campaign  of  1552-66  is  to  be  as- 
critied  to  him.  He  became  governor  of  Champagne, 
later  of  PIcardy  and  Isle  de  France.  In  1562  he  was 
made  admiral  of  France.  When  King  Henry  II  vio- 
tbe  truce,  atkd  the  war  with  Spain  broke  out 
,CoIlgni  wMcMomlstioiied  Id  defend  St.  Quentin 


COLIGNI  408  COLLAR 

•Kiliut  th*  SfMDbnla.  Id  ipita  of «  har^c  dehncs,  |  the  HngiHiiDti.  Cathitine  becama  alarmed,  and  hat 
OD  tbe  STtb  of  Aogiut  St.  QusDtlo  fall.  C«llgni  JailoiujofCoU^icbuigedintolutml,  althoqgb  itq>- 
wu  takan  pruoner  and  brought  to  the  KetheiUnds,  pun  that  u  jet  Charlea  «m  not  ill  lUapoaed  tovardi 
whan  he  Temainad  two  yaan.  Hera  be  became  a  theadminl.  OnthelSth  of  AnBBat,1572,tfaeiiuniaga 
Proteetant.  At  tba  peace  of  Chataau-Cambreali  In  'of  Henry  and  HarKiret  took  place.  On  the  wmcdij 
U&9,  be  regained  hia  libertj  for  a  raniom  of  tO,000  ,  Collgni  wrote  to  bii  wife  tbM  ba  hoped  to  *ee  bei  uon, 
florins.  Thrangh  the  audden  death  of  Henry  II  u  ha  was  weary  of  court  Ufa.  TbeM  were  the  lut 
(If'fiS)'  and  the  aacenaioD  of  hit  throne  by  Francia  llnea  abe  ever  received  ftvm  hb  bud.  Ponr  dayi 
JI,  the  Ouiwa  became  teinpoiarily  all  powerful,  and  later,  aa  be  wag  walking  in  tba  itreet,  a  iibot  wai  find 
Colitcni  loat  many  of  hia  honor*.  He  left  the  court  |athimrroni  a  bouH  in  the  preaent  Ruede  Biroli;  a  fin- 
witb  a  light  heart.  He  had  been  aiupected  of  "her-  !  ger  of  bla  rigbt  hand  waa  deatroyed,  and  bii  left  ina 
«ay,"  but  had  not  yet  publicly  contkased  hlmeBlf  a  '  wounded.  The  ataasainntlon  of  the  admiral  waa  afc 
ProCealant.  Aware  that  this  step  might  ba  ftitat  to  '  ciibed  to  the  OuIhs,  and  flUed  all  Paria  with  alans 
bla  family,  It  was  only  altar  bia  wife  had  gUdly  ecu-  ,  and  borror.  The  king  viaited  Coligni,  profeaaed  tba 
feased  to  the  "  Church  of  Chrlat"  that  be  partook  of  greatoat  ayoipathy,  and  awon  to  the  Proteatanu  he 
the  Lord's  Supper  in  presence  of  the  whole  village.  ;  would  be  nvenged  fbr  the  bloody  deed.  But  Catha- 
Tbe  news  waa  received  with  rejoicing  among  all  Prot-  rine  de  Hedicla  had  reaolved  on  Coligni'a  death.  On 
aatanta.  While  Coligni  lived  a  peaceful,  lecloded  life  the  evening  of  the  28d,  everything  was  prepared  tor 
with  hia  &mily.  the  public  diacontent  at  the  usorpa-  :  the  terrible  moaaacre  tbat  waa  to  take  place  on  the 
tlons  of  the  Guises  had  reached  a  climax.  The  con-  j  following  night  On  the  SSd,  after  midnight,  a  gurd 
•jBiacy  of  Ambtrise  In  1560  amply  show*  the  state  of  i  of  only  five  men  and  a  few  servanta  nmained  with 
popular  opinion  in  France.  Coligni  did  not  partici-  !  the  adminl.  Id  the  morning,  between  ooe  and  two 
lata  in,  though  be  seems  to  have  known  of  the  plot  |  (Sunday,  August  £4),  a  moideionB  band  approached 
But  at  the  ConventioD  of  the  Notables  he  made  brave  ;  (be  house.  It  bad  been  Teaolved  to  kill  the  adminl 
but  ineSectnil  aOempta  to  gain  more  ftvedom  of  wor-  '  flnt,  and  then  give  the  signal  for  the  general  mas- 
ship  for  the  Protestants.  sacre.     The  young  Duke   oT  Guise  bad  undeitaksi 

The  death  of  Fnncia  II,  in  1660,  however,  changed  to  destroy  bla  great  enemy.  The  doon  were  bant 
the  whole  aspect  of  affairs.  Coligni  and  his  brotber  open  and  the  goards  killed.  At  the  first  noise  Coligoi 
Andelot  were  reinstated  in  their  bonon,  and  now  more  |  requested  to  be  lifted  from  his  bed,  and  aud  to  hia 
than  ever  Protestantism  found  a  powertiii  pniteclor  minister, ' '  Say  a  prayer,  sir  j  I  pnt  my  eonl  into  the 
In  him.  He  took  part  in  the  terrible  religions  wars  Saviour's  hand."  A  servant  barst  into  the  room,  and 
which  lasted  for  thirty  yean.  At  the  head  of  the  |  on  being  questioned,  replied,  "God  calls  ns."  "I 
Bomau  Catholic  party  stood  the  Guises,  while  Condt  i  have  long  been  nady  to  die,"  Coligni  replied)  "but 
and  Coligni  led  the  Proteatanta.  But  the  latter  tnt-  \  yon  othen  esve  yoatselree."  The  murdcren  enlend 
bred  aerere  reversea,  and  oaly  after  the  aaaasdnation  i  the  room,  and  found  the  adminl  stsnding  upright 
of  Francis  of  Guise,  I6S3,  by  Jean  Poltrot,  fortune  be- [  One  called  to  him,  "Are  yon  not  the  adminl?'* 
gan  to  be  once  mon  fivorable  to  them.  Coligni  wsa  .  "  Yea,"  Coligni  answered  with  dignity ;  "  end  too. 
not  implicated  ia  thia  murder,  aa  has  sometimee  been  ,  young  man,  should  respect  my  gray  hain,  and  not 
Hserted.  After  the  peace  of  Ambaise,  conclnded  .  take  my  life."  With  an  oath  the  soldier  tbinst  his 
March  19,  in  which  freedom  of  conscience  and  of  wor-  !  aword  into  Coligni's  bresat  Hia  body.  In  which  lifi: 
ahlp  was  gnnted  the  Protestant  nobiLty,  the  admi-  j  was  still  not  entirely  extinct,  wss  thrown  out  of  tba 
tal  again  retired  to  his  estates  in  Chitillon.  Four  window.  Ouiae,  who  bad  been  waiting  below,  wiped 
years  later  the  war  broke  out  anew,  and  waa  on  both  the  blood  tnm  the  face  of  the  corpse  to  recognise  it, 
ddes  waged  with  the  old  b{«iU  and  bitterness.  For  a  '■  and  kicked  the  body  with  his  foot.  An  Italian,  Pe- 
time  the  prospects  of  tbe  Reformed  party  looked  vary  ;  trucci,  cat  off  the  bead  and  brougfat  It  to  the  Loovn. 
darlc.  In  1569  Condi  fall,  and  only  a  few  weeks  later  ,  Tbe  body  was  mutilated,  dragged  thmnuh  the  atnets 
Coligni's  bnfther  Andelot.  The  admiral's  siege  of  i  of  Paris,  and  at  last  hung  upon  tbe  gallows  t^  tba 
Poitien  was  a  fiilure ;  and,  while  he  withdnw  bis  feet.  When  Charles  IX  came  to  see  it  a  few  days 
troops,  the  Parliament  in  Paris  had  condemned  him  |  later,  be  is  said  to  have  repeated  the  words  of  Vitet 
to  death,  hung  him  In  effigy,  broke  his  escutcheon,  I  llus,  "  Tba  body  of  an  enemy  always  smells  welL" 
and  offered  ■  price  of  60,000  florins  for  hia  benl.  In  Parliament,  on  the  26th  of  Ausust,  he  staled  that 
Coligni's  lifb,  indeed,  was  endangered  by  sererai  at-  ,  the  massacn  of  St.  Bartholomew  had  l>een  oecetMuy 
tempts  to  assassinate  him.  But  no  revarses  could  to  pnvent  the  execution  of  a  plot  in  which  tba  Uag 
break  Coligni's  spirit  or  daunt  bis  energy  In  15T0,  wuto  be  assassinated,  and  accused  Coligni  of  ingnti- 
BtAmayle  Due,  the  Protestants  gained  a  com^tete  vie- '  tnde  and  treason.  The  servile  Parliament  aoxpted 
tory ;  and  shortly  after  all  further  movementa  were  j  these  3tatements,  declsred  Coligni  a  traitor,  and  de- 
ended  by  a  truce,  which  resulted  in  the  peace  ot  St.  |  creed  the  forfeitun  of  all  his  rights  and  bonon,  which 
Germains.  I  resolution  was,  however,  afterwards  completely  re- 

Coligni's  wife  had  died  three  yean  before,  and  In  i  voked.— Henog,  Rtal-EiK>,Ui>p.  xix,  S3l  sq. ;  Hod^r. 
1571  the  admiral,  ■Ithoogh  already  at  an  advanced  ,  Aow.  Ao;.  Giii^rala,  xi,  187 1  Haag,  In /Vowe  Profes- 
age,  marrted  Jaqueline,  counteaa  of  Hontlul  and  Ed-    lanit,  \-o\.  iii. 

tremont,  a  young,  beautiful.  Intelligent,  and  pioua  |  Go'lilu(KwXioc  v.  r.  Kwof,  Tnlg.  Cohru),  a  La- 
lady  of  Savoy.  Meanwhile  the  cumnt  of  ojrfnlon  at ;  vlto  "also  called  CaUtaa"  (I  E«lr.  ia,  MX  for  whfc* 
court  aeemed  to  be  gradually  aeUltng  in  fivor  ot  the  .  die  Heb.  text  (Ezra  x,  !8)  has  "  Kit^LaH  (q.  v.),  the 
Protestants.    The  union  of  tbe  two  parties  was  to  be  '  same  as  Kelita." 

completed  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navam  (later  j  CoUar,  tbe  rendering  of  one  Gr.  and  two  Het 
Henry  IV)  to  Margaret  of  Val<da.  Charles  IX  ne«i- ,„ortB  in  the  Anth.  Ten.  I.  M  {  Be*,  Job  xix,  II : 
•?  «  man  who  would  be  equally  impeded  by  .11  par-   ^       ^  ^    ^  ^        „^  ^^ 

ties,  and  Coligni  was  summoned  to  court.     He  went     ,      ,,'  '  , ,  .    -         ,        ■  . 

ftdl  of  confidence  in  the  Wng's  good-will  i  and,  Indeed,  "IgnlUe*  «  ™«^  in  whld>  sense  it  often  occora,  uA 
it  does  not  appear  that  Charles  and  his  mother,  Cstha-  '■  *"■"*  ■wlied  to  any  aperture  or  orifice.  Sm 
rine  do  Slcdiois,  had  at  that  Ume  any  hostile  intentions  ;  MoBTH.  It  is  ffcquaitly  applied  elsewhere  («a  in  His 
towards  him.  Tbe  admiral  wept  tasn  of  joy  at  hU  re-  l»"«»K«  eited)  to  the  opening  of  a  garment  that  tta<a 
ception  in  Bloia  (Sept.  18, 1571).  The  king  embraced  '""■■"*  »'"'  "*«''.  '^'*  "  ""  ^nnic  (Eiod.  sx.ii.  S*; 
bim,  and  both  Charles  and  hUi  mother  showed  bun  ev-  Psa,  cxisiii,  2).  See  EpnOD.  2.  riB*'a|l  {ttipUk  , 
ery  honor.  Gradually  Coligni  gained  a  decided  infin-  dnpt,  Judg.  viii,  26),  "  ooUara,"  mentloneil  amoag  At 
ence  over  the  king,  and  made  good  use  of  It  in  favor  of  |  spt^  of  the  Hidianitol^  were  •  peculiar  kind  of  ^av 


ttmt,  or  esiMlrop,  probsbly  af  pHUli,  lod  benca  dif-  I  k>D,  and  en 


fcrcot  from  the  ordinaty  or-ring  (q.  v.). 
bvm  ocean  in  the  liit  uT  fsiiule  altin  In  laa.  Hi,  IS, 
vben  it  b  traniUted  "chaini"  (q.  v.).  8.  "l/iai- 
(Cedai.  xxxtif,  !6),  *  (Awff,  \.  t.  etrap  for  hBrDOBiii:! 
(  beut  of  Imrden  to  Iho  yoke  (q.  v.). 

CoUktloii  (Ut.  eoUatio).  When  *  bubop  giTci 
>  bcDcficF,  which  eitbn  he  had  as  pUnin,  nr  Hbiib 
caoM  to  him  by  lipae,  he  is  uld  to  "  rallntB"  to  tbat 
bMMBce  tb«  ckrg3*mBn  on  wbamhebeslowait.  WJjero 
1  ift  of  the  bJBhop,  ho  b  f«d 


imai  of  ODD,  aometimea  ofaeTmal 


l»r|{yniin  to  It.     Tho  ' 


petilioni ;  but  If  coniirtlui;  of  mnre  than  tn-o,  the  In- 
troductory Ortmtia  and  ths  concluding  "Ptr  Jtoni- 
Hm,"  etc.,  an  nsad  only  twice,  all  the  intermedlata 
lieCitions  being  joined  to  the  U>t.  In  Milenin  nuiara, 
tbo  collect*  before  the  epIMIe  and  after  the  commu- 
niun  are  enng.  Similai  coUecta  as  in  the  Hiiial  occur 
in  the  Brevitiy. 

On  the  colleeta  retained  in  the  Anglican  Prayer> 
Look,  Dr.  Comber  remarks ;  '■  Out  reformera  obacncd, 
'those  rolled 


ia  alao  need  among  ccrioaiastical  writera  to  denota  tbt 
ipuv  nw^l  on  daya  of  abatlncnee,  coneiatiag  of  bread 
or  «tber  fruits,  but  without  meat.— Hook ;  Eden. 

Collect  (Lot.  Coittda,  from  eoBlgov,  to  collect), 
a  dMitt  form  of  prjyer  In  the  liturgies  of  the  tiomiio 
Catbotic  and  the  Angliciui  charche*.  In  a  wider 
MBse,  tho  word  eoltrcia  was  used  hy  ancient  irritcni 
d  the  L>Iin  Church,  like  the  Greek  vivabv,  to  dc- 
aignate  a  meeting  of  Christiana  for  publi 


d  colLitlon    pcrctitioua  alteration 


i  idclitions,  n 


e  by  a 


But  B> 


rf  (be  liturgy.  The  origin  of  this  aigni 
word  is  doubtful.  Accuntlug  to  aome  ritualists,  the 
uLine  indicates  the  comprebcnaiva  brevity  of  auelt 
prayers,  the  matter  of  the  epLttle  and  gospel,  e.  g,  be- 
ing gatbered  up,  or  colli  drd,  into  the  collect  for  the  dor 
Otben  derive  the  nQmc  from  an  ancient  practice  of  the 
chief  minister  collecting  into  a  single  bnef  and  public 
pnjrer  at  (be  end  of  aome  pjrt  of  the  service  the  prc- 
viou  (private)  devotions  of  the  people;  accordingly, 
(DC  of  the  service-Looks  ofthe  ancient  Catholic  Cliurcli 
waa  called  CuUeclanvH,  as  containing  such  prayers. 
Utnrgicml  writers  trace  Fomo  of  the  collects  tc  the 
LeooLin  Sacrsmentary  used  in  tbe  Roman  Church 
■bout  483  A.I>. ;  otbcn  lo  the  SscrLmenCarr  of  Bishop 
GeUsins  of  Home  {iBt};  nnd  the  majority  to  the  Sac- 
ramcntary  of  Gregory  1  (.i90). 

Tlw  ctdlects  in  the  Rnnuin  Missal  begin  with  Orrmai 
(Let  BS  pray),  and  conclude  witb  the  iovocation,  '-Fir 
Dowammm  noCram  Jumn  ChriihB*,  fiHim  Aiain.fin  It- 
ttm  tiril  tl  rrynot  in  ini  '(ate  ^rilui  Saudi  Drui  per 
awiu  soeafa  nm/trum,  Arntn."  Tbey  occur  l«ibre 
lbs  Epistle,  before  the  rrebca  and  after  the  Commnn- 
L  CoUteU  raMbwd/mn  audti 


TV  frtttukaj- 

IM.  id,  slid  ad  Sandar  after  Epiphany. 

Bik  SundsT  after  £plpbaiiy. 

?M,  «ih.  ud  Nh  BuDdaj  In  Lint. 

hh  SaMnr  la  I-™'' 

G«id  Frtdar,  the  tlires  CMIceta. 


Secondly,  that  the  a 
uda  lud  left  some  ofthe  primitive  collects  quite  out, 
end  put  In  rbelr  stead  collects  containing  soma  of  their 
fulse  opinions,  or  relating  to  their  Innovations  in  prac- 
tice. When  the  mass  bad  struck  ont  an  old  and  put 
in  a  new  collect,  agreeable  lo  their  new  and  false  doc- 
trines or  practices,  there  the  Kefurmers  restored  tbe  old 
colled,  being  pure  and  orthodox.  At  tbe  restoration 
<f  king  Cbarlra  11,  even  thoie  collects  mude  or  allow- 
ed at  tbe  Refrtnialion  were  strictly  reviewed,  ind 
i\hat  was  dcticlent  was  supplied,  and  all  tbat  was  Lut 
incongniouFly  ex]  reused  was  rectified,  so  that  now 
thoy  are  complete  and  unexceptionable,  and  may  be 
rat.ked  into  three  sevcnl  clasfcs.  Flrtt,  tbe  ancient 
primitive  ctdlccts,  containing  nothing  but  true  doc- 
trine, void  of  all  Kodem  corruptionr,  and  having  ■ 
strain  of  the  primitive  devotion,  being  abort  but  regu- 
lar, nnd  very  eipreeaive.  Ibe  second  order  of  col- 
lects are  alao  ancient  as  to  the  main ;  but  where  there 
were  any  pasaaics  that  hud  Lcen  corrupted,  they  were 
strui'k  out,  and  tbe  old  Ibim  restored,  or  tbat  passage 
ind  where  there  was  any  defect  it  was  sup- 


icd.     The  I 


>a  had  bf 


rupttd 


1  Misrala  and  Breviaries,  end  ci 
f;:methin)i  of  false  dnctrlne,  or  at  least  of  superstition, 
in  them ;  and  new  collects  were  made  instead  of  tbeae 
at  the  Reformation,  under  king  Edward  Vl ;  and  aome 
few  which  were  added  anno  li'G9." 

Tbo  following  tatilea  of  tbe  Collects  for  Sundays  and 
otber  holidays  used  In  tbe  Engtlrb  Liturgy  were  part- 
ly formed  by  bishop  Cosina,  and  were  published  by 

(  LUui^a  at  Iht  nrrrimuiU.m. 

d  <>nM>  n>r  the  flr<i  Bundsy  In  Advcab 
sen  and  Oothie  Lllurer. 

•od  at  AnilwsL  Llturgf. 


d  Frldav. 

t  sralenoiloflhel 

QtbsGallle.LlLiiro'. 


Tha  U.  4th,  Mh.  tth.Tlh.  8th,  8th,  10th,  r 

ittk.  imh.  loth,  iTth,  loth,  nst,  i-.'d,  i 

■■d  latti  a  fur  Trbiily. 
TV  PniM'-atWl, 


latm/rmi  aneitnl  Jfnfcb,  tut  rimMerablv  nllTril  and 
CoLuoimroa  Tuaor  iKnovuiBiiT. 

«k  hmdar  after  i^phuy.   Ksd  Inipmved  IMt.  (^nnliniisi 

«li  lln4>T  after  Rioter.        [mprmrnl !««.  Who  make-l 


8t.Grtg.eaer. 

rrf  tad  inpnved  by  n 


'  R/formm  muJ  fJha  Rnttvm  of  Ha 


ij  after  Tri  ilty.        Tbe  order  tnreiied  IMS. 

r  after  -rrtDllr.       IV«lnali>g  Innend  lUt. 
'     -  ■  '        -       oved  IBM. 


rrlDllT. 
Trinliy. 


a  heslth  of  lx>dy  and  sool,  t 

ofi^d  tiwl'nllm  for  A^ 
'de  rrpwed  It  u  ho  was  d] 
to  hsve  a  porpetus]  fear  ai 

litre  i"  tipvpr  dsMire^  e<c- 


Tbat  Ibe  wotUigt  of  Ihj  menf  nuj  be  In  all  lhlDg<,  i 


iruken  of  tbj 

Ic 


COIXECTION 

410                        COLLEGE 

CoLunnFdB 

TijiB  n»  iHTBOnoreMT. 

How  IT  wTOon  Dvon 

m.Fmart  loj. 

Impiwwl  UU»  iui4  IWJl' 

Gr.  (.  8«r. .«  «.1««1.  which  h«l  .,r  w,IWa/.(l 

pit  ODlj,  »W(h  ™  >  HillB  -.rtod  in  lU.  j-r  IWK. 

TbtABBUHUtiotL 

Imrnred  IMS. 

The  hraTlniiu  had  put  in  ■  nin  pn/er  obsui  the  hit 
(;™«.3«r.™«D™i. 

8<;  PhUlK  hbA  si  Jubh. 

ImproTdd  IMl. 

Ai  tkou  hail  l«u!hi  St.  Plilllp  ud  Uia  rrtbcr  n^iMlo, 

To  pnMl.  Ihet  'hkh  1«  Uncbt,  Mo.,  •»  elHrad,  be. 

Turn  Bund.T. 

'Ihe  uM  qRIw  b>T«  wioitKr  i;oUeci  tOr  lt,ud  tmll 

or  itetHot. 

m.  CoIlKft  nnjHwd  aiMH,iml«t5MltMMr 

•H»  g..  ihiM  ^ocm-t  ir^Klnf. 

lit  Bniidirlo  Advent. 

Rn 

Rm*of 

Kdvun  VI,  laa. 

let  Bunder  In  Leak 

Euter  SuDder. 

let  eueder  ifter  Buto: 

M  SundiT  •to'  Eutar. 

llt.ThaBiee'e  D>)'. 


IMS.    Uelbn  tlili  time  Iber  repeetad  the  Collect  for  the  flfth  8i 


.    THenllweioeedonEMlvTueedtr,  andmlMlwufludfcrlk 
[    eaeondDoakofBdwerdVi. 


Bt  ^Im 

AUSeh 


SLJude, 


S«  W«ticr  D.  WelU,  Kirrita-I-a.  ii,  066 ;  E>dir,  Eed. 
Diet.  167 1  Hook,  Chunk  Oieliamiry,  i.  v.;  Bingham. 
Onjf.  Eed.  bk.  xv,  ch.  Ij  Palmer,  Orv-  i^l^rg-  <<  ^19 
*q.;  Comber,  Cdhvuhmii  (u  (jh;  Templi  (_Lonian,164l, 
T  vola.);  De«peiu6,  TVoitf  da  CMtda;  LcIitbh,  £e- 
pficnliM  det  Cirrmomtt,  1, 192,     See  LrrnBOI. 

CoUaoUod.  (I.)  r9i:pa,  mavli',  Hiniething  takon 
up,  fl.  f.  tribute  (3  ChniD.  xxir,  6,  9;  elMn-here 
''girt,"  "iMM,"  etc);  (1.)  fin  imiayu,to  eoMrAule 
(Bimcb  i,  B) ;  (8.)  \ayia,  a  pBCnniary  coUtction  (I  Cor. 
xtI,  1 }  "  KsUicring,"  ver.  S).     See  Akskssnebt. 

Id  the  apostolic  age  the  ChrlBtiani  at  Faleatine  ware 
more  etntiWned  than  otber  cburchfli,  and  tbli  migbt 
be  ttam  their  being  usailed  witb  every  son  of  oppree- 
eiun  by  the  Jews.  The  activity  of  Puul  In  taking  np 
GoUectioiia  on  Ifaelr  behalf  la  evident  from  what  la  uid 
in  Acta  xxiv,  17  i  Bom.  xr,  36,  26 ;  S  Cor.  TJii  and 
Ix,  and  Gal.  ii,  10.  For  thi*  porpote  the  apoatle,  in 
1  Cor.  xtI,  2,  aaya,  "  Upon  the  Drat  i»,j  of  the  week 
tat  every  one  of  yoa  lay  by  bim  in  etora  as  God  batb 
praapered  him."  The  reaion  wbv  tbla  day  wai  ap- 
pointed for  this  purpoee  aeems  to  be  tbet,  by  the  early 
Cbriiitians,  the  Ant  div  of  tbe  week  wHa  oLaerved  aa 
the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  ;  and  conwqDently,  as  on  that 
day  they  commeiuorated  that  which  formed  the  great 
bond  of  union  between  tbem  and  other  Christians,  it 
was  the  moat  auitabie  occaaioQ  for  their  displaying 
their  love  in  tbe  way  prescribed,  and  alao  the  time 
wben  tbey  would  be  moit  liberal  (1  Cor.  xvi,  1^). 
See  Alms. 

CoIleOtor  iapxuv  ^opoXoyiac,  dutfi/tiut  trilmte- 
feij),  a  tax-gatherer  (1  Mace,  i,  29),     See  Publican. 

College  occurs  (2  Kings  xxii,  14  ;  2  ChroD.  xxxiv, 
S2)  aa  tbe  tnnalation  of  tnjdp  {miiindi',  tamd  rank), 
the  residence  of  the  proplieleaa  Huldah  (q.y.).  The 
tame  term  is  used  in  Zepb.  i,  10  (translaUd  "second"), 
where  tbe  different  quarters  of  Jeruaaiem  are  spoken 
*r,  and  la  found  more  fnlly  in  Neb.  xi,  0  (where,  in- 
stead of  "the  lerond  over  the  city,"  tbe  original  haa 
nj:^0  I'-'Sn  is,  "tipon  tha  city  second,"  i.  a.  over 
tbe  second  part  of  the  city).  From  all  these  notices 
*e  can  only  gather  that  then  wu  anciently  a  quarter 


or  district  that  went  by  lUi  appellatioD,  bat  there  la 
DO  definite  intimation  of  its  pii^tian.  It  may  bave 
been  only  another  name  for  A(;BA(q,  v.),  or  tbe  Lower 
City,  which  was  built  subsequently  to  tbe  more  fash- 
ionsbie  portion  of  tbe  city  on  Ml,  Zlon.  The  word  oc- 
curs frequently  elsewhere  in  its  ordinary  siienilicatien 
of  persons  or  things  that  occupr  a  second  place  in  at- 
der,  dignity,  honor,  etc     See  Jebusalbm. 

COLLEGE  (Lat.  is%um,  a  coUeetion  or  asasn- 
bUge).  (1.)  "  In  its  Koman  atgDlScatioD.  a  collage 
sinnided  aii.v  swiclaliDn  of  persona  fiit  a  specille 
purpose.  In  many  reapecis  it  was  synanymoas 
with  mrpHs,  »  boily  or  euUeciion  of  racmbcns  a 
corporation— with  unirertilai,  a  whole  as  t 
ed  with  il9  part* — and  wil 
parlncnhip,  as  opposed  1 
which  it  was  composed, 
common  cheal,  and  it  could  silt  and  be  sued  in  tbe 
name  of  its  manager  (actor  or  ayndicus),  Just  like  an 
incorporaljon  with  ua.  It  required,  alao,  to  be  io- 
corporaled  by  eome  sort  of  public  autbority,  apringing 
either  from  the  Senate  or  the  emperor.  A  college 
couldnotconsiatofrenertban  three  persona."  (2.)  Tbe 
term  ia  applied  U>  any  company  of  persons  associated 
upon  some  common  principle  ;  so  we  speak  of  the  col- 
lege of  the  apoMles ;  the  collage  of  caT^lnsla ;  a  col- 
la^  or  aynod  of  bishops ;  snd  ss  "  three"  are  rcqaired 
for  a  college,  it  has  come  to  be  ussge  that  three  Unh- 
ope  anita  in  the  act  of  ordination  of  bishops.  (S.)  The 
word  "college"  la  used  also,  in  England,  to  deftgnala 
"an  endowed  institution  connected  with  a  univrrrity, 
having  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  learning.  In 
this  reistion  a  college  la  a  sab-corporatJon,  1.  e.  a  mem- 
ber of  the  body  known  ss  tbe  University.  The  con- 
Btitutlon  of  B  college  in  this  sense  depends  wholly  on 
the  will  of  tbe  (bunder,  and  on  the  regnlations  whii^ 
may  be  imposed  by  the  vislton  whom  he  has  s[^oiiit- 
ed.  In  Scotisnd  and  in  America,  the  distinction  be- 
tween tbe  college  as  the  member  and  the  university 
ss  the  body  has  been  Inst  sight  of,  and  we  cease- 
qnenlly  hear  oC  the  one  and  the  other  indisrrlmlnitely 
granting  degrees,  a  function  which  in  the  English  snd 
in  the  original  Ennpean  v-tw  of  tbe  matter  belonged 


COLLEGIA  PONTIFICIA         41 

vzidiBlrely  to  Uw>  imlnnitv.  Wben  thrra  ii  bot 
«iH  coUegs  ID  B  unireraity,  m  la  th«  cue  in  ths  niu- 
Tandli«  of  ScatUad  and  mMI  of  thoM  in  Aoierlc*, 
tha  two  bodita  tn  of  eourae  identical,  though  tbs  ftino 
tloiu  vblch  ttwir  perform  are  different.  In  (iennany 
than  are  no  coUegsa  In  tbs  Engllali  Mnse ;  and  tbongh 
tfaa  uniTaraltiea  In  tbat  country  perfurm  preciaely  tbe 
■una  fanctkni*  >a  In  Scotland,  tbe  verbul  conroalon  be- 
tv*en  tbe  ctdlege  and  tbe  nnivenity  Is  avcdded  by  tbe 
latter  perroTDiing  tbe  functiona  of  botli  in  Ita  own 
name,  aa  two  aepsmtB  parts  of  its  proper  dniies.  In 
Fr»oee  the  title  'coUb(i:b'  liat  a  meaniiiK  totjUy  diflfet- 
ent  from  tliat  xbicb  we  attach  to  it :  it  ia  a  ccbi«l,  coi^ 
reapooding,  bowever,  mon  to  the  gymiiuaiuni  of  Uet- 
many  than  to  tha  grammar-Kbool  or  tbia  country. 
All  tbe  college!  are  placed  ander  tbe  Univenlty  of 
Ffaace,  to  wbicli  tba  eentraliiia\;  ten'leikciea  of  that 
eouDtry  have  given  a  meaning  which  alao  diffcra  wide- 
ly bom  that  which  the  term  nnirenity  beara  In  Eng- 
land,"    See  UsiVKiisiTT. 

CoUeglB  PONTIFICIA  (;npai  mlfr^i'),  inatltD- 
tioEia  for  irainlngRomiabmiaaiooarie*  for  aerTice  among 
"  heretical"  and  pagan  nation*.  The  first  wua  the 
Geiman  college  at  Rome,  founded  by  Loyola  in  165!. 
Greek,  English,  Hungarian,  Haronite,  and  Thraco-Ii- 
lyrian  coliegea  were  eatabliahed  by  Gregory  XIII. 
Scottiah  and  Irish  colleges  followed;  and  the  Inatita- 
tion  nf  the  Congregation  dt  propagamla  file  was  suc- 
ceeded l,y  the  erection  of  tbe  colle.-e  which  bear*  tbe 
Mine  title.  More  recently,  an  "American  colleae" 
(1854)  and  a  South  American  college  have  been  estab- 
liabed.     See  Propaga^dx 

CollesUl  or  CoUeglate  Cbtirob:  {1.)  In  the 
Bnmin  Church,  a  cburch  served  by  canona  regular  or 
aecular.  They  originated  in  a  desire  to  have  maaa 
conducted  In  towna  which  bad  no  catbedral  (q.  v.), 
with  greater  pomp  than  could  lie  had  with  one  priest. 
Originally  the  canona  dwelt  in  common  in  one  college, 
but  this  waa  afterwarda  abandoned.  3ce  CANo:fs. 
(1.)  Id  England  there  are  aeveral  etlltgiale  cburchea, 
which  are  served  by  a  dean  and  a  body  of  cunonK. 
They  differ  from  cathedrals  in  that  the  aee  of  tbe 
bishop  la  at  the  latter.  Tbe  Berrke  i>  it  abouid  be 
the  same  in  both.  They  are  under  the  Jiiriadictlon  of 
tbe  bishop  of  tbe  dioceaa  in  which  they  are  sitnated, 
and  ho  exerdaes  vtaltorial  poweri  over  tbem.  (3.) 
Sereral  cfamches  connected  in  one  corporation  are 
called  "colUgiale"  chnnfacs;  e.  g.  a  comlonatlon  of 
aeveral  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  cbnrcbes  in  New 
York  la  ao  atyled. 

Co11«k1b1  or  GoIlaglatA  Byatam,  a  mode  of 
•xbiblLng  tbe  lelatiun  of  Church  and  State  employed 
by  Pnfftoidorf  and  Pfaff  in  Protastant  Germany.  The 
cburchea  were  regarded  as  lieiog.  after  Conatantine'a 
tinje,  legal  corporationa  (colUffia  Ucila)^  with  riglits  to 
Ibnn  their  creeds,  conduct  their  worsliip,  chooee  their 
presiding  ofiker,  admit  and  expel  members;  to  miliB 
and  administer  by-iawa,  comicl  such  abuses  aa  might 
ei«ep  in  among  Oiem.eallin  the  eld  of  the  civil  power 


of  these  rights  to  others.  It  was  assumed  that  the 
rights  originally  belonging  to  tha  congngationi,  which 
had  been  in  conrae  of  time  oaurped  by  the  hierarchy, 
were  restored  to  tbe  congrvftntions  by  the  Reformation, 
and  were  left  by  the  Retbnned  congrentions  to  the 
dvll  intborities.'  According  to  this  view,  the  civil  au- 
thotity  would  have  a  douljle  power  with  regard  to  tbe 
Church,  the  jai  circa  MCTa,  the  right  of  sDperintend- 
oice  and  of  patmnage,  which  inheres  in  the  secular 
authority,  and  thejw  ia  nvru,  the  tnm  of  tbe  collepal 
rights  in  internal  affairs  of  tbe  Church,  transferred  to 
it  (the  secular  government)  aa  the  tepnaentallve  oftha 
congrantieiK  of  tbe  country.  For  aome  time  thla  view 
waa  eagerly  made  use  of  by  most  of  the  Protestant 

tan  given  way  In  every  cmintry  to  a  sounder  concep- 


tion of  the  relation  between  Church  and  State.— Wet- 
car  u.  Wette,  KwAm-Let.  li,  «ei.     See  Cuoncu  and 

ColleglailtB,  a  party  of  the  Remonetranta  of  Hol- 
land. It  derived  its  name  fVom  the  memlwra  calling 
their  ataembiiea  coUtgti.  They  rejected  alt  creeds,  all 
regular  miniatera,  and  all  teats  of  communion  and 
fbrms  of  ecclesiaatical  government.  Thry  are  aome- 
timea  called  Jthinibftgen,  because  they  met  twice  ■ 
year  at  Khinsberg,  a  village  near  Leyden.  The  Col- 
legiants  were  cnnlined  to  Holland  ;  but  ]U)me  of  their 
practices  are  followed  liy  other  religioua  bodiea  In  oth- 
er countries,  aa  by  the  nrmonth  Breihren  (q.  v.)  in 
England.— Mosheim,  CAwck  hitloiy,  cent,  xvii,  pt.  li, 

CoUesiate  Chiuoh.    See  Collboiai.  or  Coi^ 

LBOUTB  ChDBCU. 

CoUier,  Jeremy,  an  Engliah  non-Juror,  was  bom 
Sept.  33,  IS50,  at  Slow-with-Qiiy.  Cambridgeshire.  Ha 
passed  H.A.  at  Caius  Cullege,  Cambridge,  in  t67B,  and 
obtained  tbe  living  of  Ampton,  Sussex,  wliicb  he  re- 
signed for  the  lectureahip  of  Uray's  lun,  1C85.  At  the 
Revolution  of  1688  he  nut  only  refused  tbe  oatha,  but 
waa  active  in  behalf  of  the  tletbtoneil  monarch.  In 
1696  he  waa  outlawed.  At  last  ha  turned  bis  Ulenl* 
to  better  ends,  and  made  war  on  the  licentiouBneaa  of 
the  theatre.  His  flrst  work  on  this  aubject  was,  A 
Short  Virm  of  lie  ImmnnilVg  ami  Pro/ioittieu  of  lit 
Stage  (Und.  17B8,  Sil  ed.  8vo).  The  wita  in  vain  op- 
posed him,  and  alter  a  ten  yeare'  struggle,  in  which  he 
wrote  other  tnoks  and  pampblels  on  the  aubject.  he  ao- 
compllahed  hia  object.  The  restorhia  life  was  spent  in 
varioualiteraiy  labors.  He  wasconsecratedanonjuring 
biabop  by  Dr.  Hicks  in  1713,  and  died  April  26, 1726. 
Collier  waa  a  man  of  eminent  abilities,  but  of  smaU 
reasoning  faculty.  Basldea  the  books  above  named, 
he  wrote  Eicltiiai&ol  Ha/otj  of  Gnat  Britain  (new 
edition,  with  Life  of  Collier,  Land.  1840,  9  vols,  Sio) ; 
EtKiyi  a,  Moral  Skbjrcli  (Land.  3  vols.  Bvo) ;  Sirlor. 
ical.  Geographical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary^  from  Mo' 
reri,  with  additions  (I.flnd.  I7ni~27,  4  vols,  fol.),  be- 
tides numerous  controvcralai  tracts.— Hacaulsy,  BiA, 
ofEnglmd,  iii,  8G,1 ;  Life  of  Collier  (prefixed  to  bis  Ee. 
Hittoty  nfKsg'and) ;  Hook,  Ecele:  BUgrapkg,  iv,  137 ; 
Bieffraphia  Brilanmea,  iv,  IS. 

CoUler,  JOBeph  Aveiy,  a  minister  of  tbe  Re- 
formed Protestant  Dutch  Church,  wsa  liom  at  Plvm- 
ontb,  Maaa,.  Oct.  26. 18S8,  graduated  at  Rutjiera  Col- 
lege, New  Bmnawick,  N.  J,,  July,  1849,  and  at  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Chnrcb 
in  that  city,  July,  1852.  Died  at  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  An- 
guat,  1864.  He  was  a  clear,  methodical,  persuasive, 
and  eloquent  preacher.  His  literary  attainments  were 
unusually  large,  and  entirely  consecrated  u>  bis  miit- 
istry.  As  a  preacher  to  children  and  the  young  men 
he  ia  entitled  to  the  first  rank.  His  pubiicationa  were 
the  following :  Tha  Hglit  Wag,  or  lie  Gotpd  apptird  lo 
IIk  Jniercaurm  of  IndividuaU  and  Aationt  (a  priae  ea- 
tay  on  Peace,  Am.  Tnct  Society,  N.  T.  18&4,  of  which 
over  ten  thouaand  copies  have  been  circulated)  : — nt 
Ckriitian  Home,  or  Btligiom  in  tlu  f'amilg  (priie  essay, 
Presbyterian  Board,  Phita.  1869)  :—ne  ratmg  Han  of 
lie  hible  (Am.  Tract  Soc.  N.  ¥.  1R61)  -.—LMe  Cnximt, 
awf*s«loaiMlAein(N.Y.18G4;  rapoblished  in  Eng- 
land) i-P'rafaM  Faihtfor  Sjule  Feet  (Am.  Tract  Soc. 
N.  Y,  1864)  -.—Tka  Dam  if  Beartm,  or  lie  Prinriplte 
of  lie  keatemly  IJfe  applied  to  lie  earHJy.  a  posthumous 
work,  to  which  is  pretixed  a  brief  and  just  biographi- 
nl  Fketch  by  hU  brother,  Kav.  Em  W.  Collier  (N.  Y. 
186S). 

Collier,  WtiliBm,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  bom 
in  Scltnate,  Mass.,  Oct  11,  1771.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University  In  1797,  studied  theology  nnder 
president  Maxcy,  and  wa*  licensed  to  preach  in  1798. 
In  1799  he  waa  oidained  at  Boaton  as  mlDtater  at  Iarg<^ 


COLLINS 

.bat  won  went  u  pastor  to  Newport,  ipent  nna  yaar 
tbara,  »nd  four  u  pulor  of  the  Kint  Biptiit  Church, 
New  Vork.     Id  1W)4  be  heume  potor  of  the  ItapUM 
ehorch  In  Charlestown,  Mau.,  whtre  he  remaJiiMl 
teen  yiwra,  e  faithful  end   tncceuful   mlaiatcr. 
1820,  hit  health  ftUling,  be  Tesigneil  hu  charge, 
removed  to  Boeton,  where  he   reniaiped  during 
tett  of  hit  life,  doiog  aervlce  as  miniiter  at  \iige. 
vat  B  pioneer  of  Chu  b'mperance  rerurm,  and  From  IBSG 
to  1S2S  edited  the  fi'aliomd  Pkilmlin^l,  the  fii 
temperance  piper.     He  died  March  19,  IBIS.    Amo; 
bi5  literary  labon  were  a  Bgam-ioiJi,  a  eeriea  of  Si 
m-Hu/nna  fm'mg  ynmUm  (begun  in  1827).  editiuna 
ofSaurin  and  of  Andrew  Fuller,  and  HTenl  oca  " 
bI  Sermons. — Spntgue,  ArmaU,  rl,  87C. 

ColllnB,  AntllOiiy  an  Engllah  Deltt,  wai  bom  at 
Heston,  near  Hot'jiOoVjIc  167S,  and  waa  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambrid)[e.  Being  a  man 
■of  property,  he  spent  bi*  life  chiefly  In  literaij  pur- 
nita.  He  died  In  1729.  Hla  infldel  principles  Innught 
him  into  cotliilon  with  Bentlay,  Chandler,  and  many 
Mhen.  Hischlefworkssre;  'HiiamrteoiithtGromdi 
<md  Rtatomo/lhtCirulUin  Reiig'on(lani.nai,9vo); 
—Prialcrajl  m  Ptrfection  (London,  1710,  8vo)  —Dit- 
amTK  on  >'ref-(*iiiitiij  (1713)  :—*,'««»  on  Ihe  Tkirly- 
wlat  Artiela,  in  reply  to  Bennet  (Lond.  17S4,  8vd).  be- 
■idea  various  pampbleta.  In  171fi  ho  published  hii 
Ph^vofk-cal  laquiry  eoKctraiug  lAb'Tig  and  A'eoftt'ljr, 
which  was  reprinted  in  1717  in  Svo.with  correctiona, 
and  «BB  tianslatsd  into  French  by  Des  Haiieanx 
<17ia).  Dr.  Samuel  CUrke  replied  to  the  necesMiian 
doctrine  of  Collina  chiefly  by  iniiitlng  on  ita  inexpe- 
diency, considered  as  destructive  of  moral  responsibil- 
ity. Banlhj't  Remartt  upm  a  Lilt  DitamrK  nf  Fftr. 
tUniiitg  ({iven  in  Randolph's  EncAiridion  7%toiiigKam, 
vol  v)  it  n  sharp  and  aarcastic,  but  fully  adequate  re- 
ply to  the  skeptical  argnments  of  Ctillina.  See  Le- 
land,  Deutkil  WrUtrt,  ch.  vl ;  Farrar,  Criliail  aiilory 
t(fFree  Thought. 

ColllnB,  John,  B  Melhoditt  E[dicopil  mtnbter, 
waa  l>om  in  Nqw  Jenev  in  1769.  In  1803  he  removed 
to  Ohio,  and  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  1807. 
He  wBSineoftlie  pioneer*  of  Methodiam  in  the  West. 
In  1801,  while  yet  a  Wal  preacher,  he  preached  the 
flrat  Uethodist  sermon  In  Cincinnati  to  a  dozen  per- 
•one,  in  an  apper  room.  With  a  brief  interval,  he  la- 
ijored  as  an  itinerant  until  IR8«,  when  he  iMcame  super- 
annuated. Hedied  Aug.!l,1815.  He  waa  an  able  ai^ 
faithful  preacher,  often  impressively  aloquen^  and  em- 
inently successful  as  an  evangeliat.  Revivals  of  re- 
ligion followed  his  fnotsteps  everywhere.  An  inatmc- 
tivo  aketch  of  h'lii  life,  from  the  pen  of  Justice  M'Lean. 

waa  published  in  lfUO(Cincinn  iti,  18mo) aiituUt  >■/ 

Cmftrmai,  iij,  660 ;  Mtlk.  (bunt.  Raieir,  IBSO,  p.  834. 

Gollina,  Jobn  A.,  a  dietinaulshed  Uethodist  Epia- 

copal  minister,  wu  bom  near  Sojford,  Del.,  1801.    His 

rants  removed  to  Ohio  in  180j,  and  tc  Georgetown, 
C,  in  1813,  and  his  academical  education  was  ob- 
tained at  the  latter  place.  Givinic  early  pmnitae  of 
talent,  he  was  placed  as  a  law  stndent  in  the  office  of 
William  Wirt;  but  the  plan  of  his  life  was  changed  by 
his  CDnreralon  at  a  camp-meeting  in  l.oadoun  Co.,  Va., 
In  1820.  He  Joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
Bnd  in  1826  was  licensed  Bi  a  local  preacher.  In  1830  he 
entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  Baltimore  Confer- 
ence, and  hi*  groat  talent  as  a  preacher  eonn  gained 
bim  a  commandin,"  reputation.  He  Hlled  all  the  prom- 
inent appointments  in  bis  Conference  as  pastor,  and 
•arved  several  terms  as  presiding  elder.  In  1836  bo 
waa  elected  assLitgnt  editor  of  the  Ckriftitn  Admcnte 
Bt  New  York.  This  office  he  soon  rexij.'ned,  partlv  on 
Bccountoflheefl'ect  of  the  climate  upon  the  health  of 
his  family,  but  mainly  liecause  he  Ijelievnl  he  could 
better  serve  the  Church  in  the  more  regular  dutiaa  of 
the  ministry.  Few  men  in  any  period  of  the  hiatorj- 
of  the  Uethodlit  Fpiacopal  Chnich  have  mote  tucceta- 


COLLX 

fully  preached  her  doctrinaa,  or  mora  fUthfally  da- 
fended  her  diaclpline.  He  wiit  elected  to  the  'ienersl 
Conference  a*  aoon  as  he  waa  eligible,  and  to  every 
^nent  one  down  to  the  luat,  whan  be  ted  the  del- 
egatioo.     He  had  pre.«ininent  pulpit  power.     Uia 

ind  scriptural  iiluUrations,  and  were  delivered 
elegance  of  speech,  and  often  with  ai      ' 


helm 


I*- 


a  detuter  on  tlie  floor  of  the  General  or  Annu.l  Coit- 
ferrnce  lis  had  few  eqnali,  certainly  no  superior.  He 
died  of  pneumonia,  after  a  short  iilneaa,  Uay  7,  1S£7. 
—Uitulet  ofCjmf-nnca.  1868,  p.  IC. 

CoUtna,  Jndaon  Dirlght,  taperintendentof  the 
Uethodist  Episcopal  missions  in  China,  waa  bom  Is 
Wayne  County,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  K,  1882.  He  removed 
with  hit  parents  to  Micbigan  in  1881,  was  converted 
in  1838,  gradnated  in  Hichi.'an  University  ISia,  en- 
tered the  Itinerant  ministry  in  the  Michi^n  Confer- 
ence, and  was  appointed  teacher  in  the  WBalayaa  Senk- 
inary  at  Albion  in  the  same  year.  He  waa  aent  u 
mis^nary  to  China  and  superintendent  in  \M7,  re- 
turned with  impaired  health  in  IdBl,  and  died  May  U, 
186^,  in  Washtenaw  County,  Michigan.  His  mind  waa 
clear  and  vigorous,  more  sidid  than  brilliant,  and  more 
logical  than  eloquent.  "  Years  before  the  Cbnrcfa  ea- 
Ubliahed  the  China  mission,  and  while  pnnecuting  his 
collegiate  ttudiet,  he  pursued  a  course  of  reading  aa 
China,  preparatoTy  to  a  whole  life  of  missioDary  labor 
among  ita  benighted  mUliooa,  and  his  mind  had  no  rest 
until  it  was  actually  surrounded  by  their  darkneaa  and 
miser}-.  No  temporary  Impulse  led  him  thitber,  mo 
transient  ti>rvent  feelings  urged  him  to  a  life  of  toil  in 
that  distant  land;  but  a  permanent  convlcticn  of  doty 
possessed  his  mind,  one  great  idea  of  supreme  Mrviea 
to  Christ  controlled  his  whole  existence,  and  carried  all 
his  thoughts,  all  his  affections,  all  hli  impulws,  to  that 
extensive  territory  of  heathenism,  and  his  marti-r-lllie 
atbichmenta  to  his  work  were  only  loosened  by  death." 
—MiniO't  of  Cm/trtnix;  1852,  p.  118;  S[ngae,  A»- 
not',  vil,  831. 

CollliiB,  WeUtuston  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  wat  born  May,  ISin,  In  Wolcott,  Wai-ae 
County,  N.Y.i  removed  with  hit  parents  to  Micbigu 
in  isao,  was  converted  in  1885,  be,.-Bn  preaching  io 
1837  under  the  presiding  elder,  and  entered  the  Midki. 
gan  Conference  in  1838.  The  Conference  then  la- 
eluded  alt  of  Michigan  and  North-wetUm  Ohio.  Af- 
irenty  years'  service  as  a  stationed  minister  and 
I  vears  aa  presiding  elder,  he  died  at  Detroit,  Ang. 
1^.  He  was  delegate  to  the  General  Conference 
at  Boston  1852.  and  also  to  that  at  Indianapolis  in  185C. 
Mr.  Collins  was  a  man  of  great  force  of  character.  He 
waa  a  masterly  preacher,  and  was  reniailtably  aide  in 
deliBte ;  but  perbape  his  highest  excellence  was  in  hia 
safe  Judgment  as  a  counsellor,  by  which  he  was  always 
influential  among  his  brethren.— JfiMtIa  of  Coif  if 
tncr;  1858,  p.  .134  i  Ladi-t'  litporilory,  lii,  «0. 

Gfilln,  Dahikl  Georo  Cokbad  vos,  was  bom 
Dec.  21, 1788.  at  Oerlinghauaen,  in  the  principality  of 
LIppe-Detmold,  where  his  father  was  minister.  Hia 
family  were  of  Moravian  origin.     He  studied  at  Uet- 

aid,  Uarbnrg.  Tubingen  (nnder  Flatt  and  Schnnrrer), 

id  finally  in  Gottingcn.  In  1816  ha  became  profeu- 
titraordiaaruu  of  theoli^y  at  Marburg,  and  in  1817, 
the  Rebrmation  Jubilee,  he  became  doctor  of  the- 

3gy.  In  1818  he  received  a  double  call,  one  fhim 
Heidelberg  to  the  pbiloaophicai.  tlio  other  from  Brts- 
'  in  to  the  theological  faculty.  He  accepted  the  latter, 
lis  academic  discourses,  embracing  oiegetic  and  his- 
>rical  theology,  attracted  the  moie  gifted  among  the 
:ndents.  Besides  his  occaalonal  academical  writings 
{De  Jodii  propiOa  akHt  fMarb.1811],  Sfietitfiim  A- 
Mfrtalionvm  fxrgflieo-crifvuriim  ad  Zfpkattia  vnticitiia 
[VraiisL  1818],  Mtmoria  pr«fa$anm  IhnL  Uarhtj^ 
Philif^  M<i3«tiaiaio  ifjRunfs^Vratid.  1327],  Cva/'esaa- 


COLLOPS  413  COLOGNE 

MMoa  JValmol/ioiHi  d  Zwrlttgl'i  Augmtrmama  capita  '.  bid  trnllt  or  had  restored,  iDil  in  wblrb  tbey  had  me* 
grar.'ora  inter  tr  «H>/>nfli(iir[Vrjtul.  183il]),  and  mcnj  ;  caufally  pruched  for  neirty  aevsnty  ytait.  Colman 
Tm]iuble  artlclei  In  Jcinmala,  two  booka  iiurCicuUrly  j  now  leturnod  to  Inland,  taking  with  him  all  hii  own 
hrnTo  made  hii  name  anlvCTMlly  known.  Fint.  hl>  coonttymen  and  thirtj-elz  cccleaUatica  or  itudenu 
TCTbioD  of  the  Hnt  volumo,  and  Che  Hrst  part  of  the  who  adhered  to  hii  teacbing.  For  tbo  latttt  be  ei- 
Mcnnd  Tolamc,  of  the  third  edition  of  MUn>cher's  tablitbed  on  the  eart  of  the  leiand  an  institution  loD^ 
driMdte  DogmrngaMehle  (Ca»el,  1HH3  and  IftM).  known  u-'UaTo  of  tbe  EngUab,"  to  wbicb  Bedo  Hya 
This  editlnn  fonned  an  npncb  in  the  Hiatorj  of  Dog- ,  many  flocked  from  England,  that  they  might  "gain 
maa.  But  his  prinrlpil  bonk  Is  ttaa  BibUtde  Tluelo-  knoirledge  and  lead  a  boly  life."  Bui,  notHiCbeUnd- 
gia  (!  vols.  Leipn.  I8SC,  edit,  b;  Schulz),  which  for  a  ing  bis  sncceaa  in  hia  new  enterprise,  be  could  not  re. 
tonic  time.  rsprciallT  in  ita  Old-Taatsment  part,  waa  cuverbimrelf  ftwin  hIa  former  difeat;  be  went  abroad, 
coD(ider«d  aa  the  most  excellent  work  on  this  science.  '  traveled  on  tba  Continent,  viaited  the  FMt,  and  died 
B«  died  on  the  ITih  of  February,  1638.  In  theolofcy  about  A.U.  GT6.  See  Bede,  Hit.  Eccl..  1.  c,  and  also 
ba  was  a  moderate  Rslinnalist.  See  a  ahetcb  of  him  iv,  4 ;  Moure,  Hubtry  of  Inland  (Am.  edit.,  Philad.). 
by  Schnli  in  tbe  above- mentioned  Biil.  Tkroiogie,  vol. 


L— Henog,  Rti^-Oteskhp.  xix,  880. 

Collopa  OF  Fat  (yra-9,iRmah',fa-iita),  spoken 

of  Ibe  thick  Bikes  of  fit  flesh  apon  tbe  haunches  of  * 
■tall-fed  ox,  put  as  tbe  symbol  of  irreligioui  proeper- 
i^  <Job  IV,  S7).     See  Fat. 

ColIrrldlMlB,  a  loct  ol  heretice  which  arose  to- 
■    ■■       '  -■■      '       -'        r,  to  named  fTDm 


Coltnaa,  Beiijam:m,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congrega- 
tional minitter,  was  bom  In  Boston,  Oct.  10, 167S.  He 
graduited  at  Harvard  160i,  and  sailed  for  London 
169a,  but  on  tbe  vnyags  was  taken  l>-  a  French  vea- 
sel  and  csnied  to  France.  After  remaining  in  Kng- 
land  eome  three  year*,  be  was  called  to  take  charge 
of  BraUlf  Street  Chorch,  Boston.  He  accepted,  and 
IK-  i,  1699,  in  London.     Ha  died  Aug. 


a  amalt  cake  of  a  cvlindrical  lorm  {ioWuiMi.  aJlgn- 1  ».  1747.      He  was  made  D.D.  by  tbe  rniversily  of 

lb)  which  they  offered  to  tbe  Vin(in  Mary  with  liba- 1  Ql«»l">w,  17B1.      Dr.  Colman  publifbed  a  Pam  m 

Iwna  and  aacriflcea.    They  were  chiefly  Arabian  worn-  :  t-l'jah'i  Traiuiatiim.  occatitmed  Ay  Ikt  Dralh  of  Jtie 

sa,  who  rendered  divine  honors  10  tbe  Vir|,'inHiryaB  Saauul  Willaid  {17Wr>:    The  Incomprtinuiilenit  >} 

k  goddess.     It  Is  conjectured  ly  Neander  that' tba  (.'«^  ™/oiir  S*™DiTs(niS);  Five  beimotu  from  Lute 

cake-offering  waa  a  transfer  of  the  obUtions  of  the  »'.  21,  n  (I'lT);  Obtamtiau  on  Iitotvlaium  {17E!)i 

Lord's  Snpper  to  the  worsbip  of  the  Virion,  the  whole  -^  Trtatue  on  Familg  Worti'p  {iUO) ;  A  D  tueiario* 

bUilng  thadiapBofa  pagan  ceremonv ;  the  truth  prob.  "»  '*«  Jmaife  rfCadnherBn  itanmii  crealrd  (17BS); 

ably  being  that  the  corrDption  was  introduced  from  the  ">^  ■  '"'B'  number  of  occasiansl  sennonr.— Sprague, 

pagan  worship  of  Cores,  and  that  tbo  tuatumary  bread-  Anaali,  i,  ilS. 

obrings  at  the  heathen  feast  of  tbe  harvest,  in  honor        Colopia,  a  celebrated  city  on  the  Rhine,  the  seat 

of  Cerea,  had  been  clianged  for  anch  offerings  in  honor  of  an  mrly  bishopric.     1  he  legend  that  a  diaciple  ot 

ofMnry.— S«eEpipli*nins,Hfflr,7S;  Moshoim,  CTurrf  tbo  apostle  Peter,  by  the  name  of  Hatemua,  waa  tba 

Binary,  i,  Bll;   Naandar,  Oua-A   HUtory  (Torreya  founder  and  lint  biphop  of  the  cbnrch  of  Cologne,  is 

tran8l.),ii,389.  now  generally  abandcned  even  by  R.miD  Catholic 

ColmsD.  an  Iriah  mlaalonar*  of  tha  Tth  centary. !  writers.     Matemua,  tbe  first  (historical)  hiabop  of  Co. 

C<dman  was  the  third  ecclesiastic  who  by  royal  an-  lognr,  ta  mentioned  as  early  as  BIS  (Msnsi,  Cvlledio 

thority  bad  been  called  from  Ireland  to  preside  over  Oniil.  t.  li,  rol.4SI>).     The  aucceaaor  oTMalemuf,  Eu- 

tbe  see  of  Lindisfame.  In  North  Britain.     During  bis  pbratM,  altrnded  in  847  tbe  Synod  of  Sardica,  and  wa* 

and  hie  predecessors^  a uperin  tendency,  the  cbnrchesin  one  of  the  deiegatcs  of  this  synod  to  the  Emperor  Con- 

that  country  whicb  bad  been  devasUted  by  Penda,  tbe  sUntina.     The  acts  oTa  Synod  ofColo^e  of  646,  which 

last  Pagan  king,  were  restored,  and   were  enjoying  ttste  that  Euphrales  was  depoted  Ibr  beinjc  an  Arian, 

graat  temporal  and  apiritaal  prosperity.      But  about  are  now  genarally  regarded  as  spurious.      In  E2S-(I6S 

A.D.  663,  tha  Anglo-Sa:(on  clergy-,  who  had  desert-  we  And  Cunibcit'mentkmed  aa  archliishop  of  Cologne 

ed  tbesa  churches  in  the  hour  of  danger,  wished  to  (Rettberg.  Kirelittgeiili,  Dtultehlandi.  ii.  602)i  yet  it 

return  and  to  aliBre  them  at  least  with  the  Irish  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  at  the  time  a  regular 

Ionian  miasionarics.     But  here  a  difficultv  arose.    The  archbishopric,  for  hirhups  of  Cologne  are  mentioned 

English  Catbolia  Church,  as  lecently  reconstructed  by  after  that  dale,  and  Bonificina  (q.  t.)  in  T4R  »ub>rted 

ADgaetinr,  and  that  of  tbe  Scoto-Irlah,  were  found  to  It  to  the  metropntitan  of  Maycnce,  ftvm  which  it  waa 

be  ao  dissimilar  in  doctrine  and  nuge  that  they  could  probaldy  detached  under  Charlemagne,  between  7D4 

not  conduct  worship  in  tbe  same  edifices.     The  differ-  and'SS,  in  order  to  be  raised  to  Ihedlgnity  of  an  arch- 

eneca  were  nomerons;  among  tbem  were  tbe  ques-  liishopric.    A  national  synod  was  held  at  Cologne  in 

tkm  of  the  Thraa  Chapters  (q.  v.),  the  tonsure,  and  874,  to  regulate  the  administration  of  the  goods  of  tbe 

the  time  of  keeping  Easter.     An  appeal  to  the  pope  Church,  and  to  consecrste  the  cathedraL     1  he  impor- 

waa  oaeleea,  for  long  before  be  had  poE  forth  bbi  de-  tance  this  see  had  obtained  in  tbe  loth  century  ia 

dsion ;  bat  the  Irish  Church  and  those  of  lona  had  proved  liy  the  fact  Ihst  tbe  Emperor  Otto  I  gave  it  to 

not  complied  with  it.    Oswy,  the  king,  required  the  hia  brother  Bruno  I,  tbe  first  archbishop  who  waa  at 

whole  to  ba  presented  to  him  for  adjustment.     Tbe  tbe  ume  time  a  prince  of  the  German  Empire.     Popes 

disenaaion  was  In  Iriah  and  Anglo-Saxon,  by  Colman  and  emperors  vied  in  increaaing  the  wealth  and  power 

and  Wlinvd,tfae  venerable  Ceada,  bishop  of  tbe  East  of  the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  synoda  held  at  that 
Anglea.  acting  as  interpreter.  When  the  arguments  [  place  declared  him  to  have  tbe  right  of  precedence 
had  ended,  the  king  and  a  majorilv  of  tbe  assembly  '  over  all  other  clergy,  the  papal  legates  a  laltrt  alone 

decided  for  Wllfml  and  Ibe  Anglo^Catfaoiics  (see  Bede,  '  excepted.     Al.out  the  middle  of  the  l-;th  cenlurv.  the 

lib.  lii.  c.  35).     This  decision,  however,  waa  far  from  archbbhope  of  Cologne  were  elevated  t»  the  rank  of 

effecting  peace.     The  dominant  party  soon  became  in-  elector*.     Prominent  among  tha  arcbbithops  of  this 

tolerant,  and  required  the  clergy  of  Colman  to  he  reor-  period  were  Anno  II,  who  abducted  the  young  em- 

dained ;  that  their  churches,  previous  to  the  perform-  psnir  Henry  IV,  and  Rainald,  connt  of  Dossel,  an  able 

ance  of  Catholic  worship,  "ahonld  bo  aprinkled  with  general  of  the  Emperor  Froderieh  I,  who  patroniied 

exorcised  water  (Uafaer,  vol.  vi,  p.  S74);  and  also  that  tbe  anti-popes,  and  brought  from  Milan  loColaime  tha 

they  ahonld  observe  many  new  rites  and  usages  to  pretended  liadies  of  the  "thnw  holy  kiniis,"  which  op 

which  they  had  been  anUre  atrnngera.    To  all  oftheae,  to  this  day  are  venerated  as  tbe  most  precioua  relics 

Ilka  tbe  Welsh  Christians  before  them.  Colman  and  of  Cologne.     The  political  troubles  of  the  13th  and- 

tba  moat  of  his  clergy  refused  lo  sul  mit.  and  quietly  Jilth  centuries  diminished  the  power  of  tlie  archbishop* 

lallDqallbed  in  Horth  Britain  (be  churches  which  they  ric,  but  it  roaa  again  under  Conrad  von  Hccbttadcn 


COLOMBU,UNlTED  STATES  OF   414 


COLONNA 


(I!38'1261),  But,  vbilB  oDtwiTdlj  praapniog,  the 
■«■  wu  iDvrmrdly  weakened  hy  the  nUxatioti  or  tbe 
clergy,  which  l>ecBniB  ao  fcrut  Uiut  mopLiiat  wni 
made  or  it  to  Papa  Alexuder  IV,  Ly  whoM  direction 
Canr;id  held  a  lynod  at  ColoKne  In  12fiO,  ror  tba  pur- 
pose of  reforming  abase*  (Uartiheim,  Cuncii.  Ctnii.lVi, 
p.  588  w|.).  In  l;fG6  (according  to  otiien,  1371  or 
137!)  anotheT  council  wa«  beld  ugnini-t  the  vloliton 
or  tbe  rules  or  discipline.  After  the  Refunnition  of 
tlie  16th  cenlary,  two  arrrhtrishops  uf  Cuio^jne,  Hennaa 
y,  count  of  Wied,  and  Gebhard  11,  turned  IVoteilaiitg, 
and  were  on  that  account  deposed.  After  Ibut,  tba 
SH  was  held  f,ir  178  years  without  interruption  (until 
1761)  by  Bavarian  princes.  JoK(,h  Clement  (f  V-iS), 
«hi  was  elected  In  lC88,waa  not  even  cirdatned  a  priest 
until  1700.  Clement  AD)(ustiu  (1723  -l;61)  was  at  the 
umt  time  bishop  of  Uunster,  I'^idorlurn,  Hililetheim, 
and  OwilirQch.  Maximilian  Frederick  (1761  1784) 
fbund^  the  Academy  of  Bonn.  Maximilian  Pr^inci*, 
archdukeofAastrla(i;S4-1801),cbjn:ed  the  Academy 
of  Bonn  into  a  university,  and  supported  his  brother, 
Emperor  Joseph  II,  in  his  ecelesijatlciil  refiirms  (see 
Eu4,  CoNOBESS  of).  Ilis  successor,  Anthony  Victor, 
archduke  of  Austria,  was  the  Wt  elector,  as  in  1B03 
tbe  dominions  of  the  archliishnp  were  seculjriied,  and 
divided  amon;j  other  princes.  Tlia  eWtnnta  of  Co- 
logne at  that  time  had  about  2546  English  sq.  miles 
and  3.'IO,0OU  inh^ibiUnts.  But  tbe  diocese  nrCologno 
was  macb  more  extensive  thin  Iha  alcctnrati.  Even 
the  city  of  Colojna,  being  a  free  city  of  tbe  empire, 
was  subJNt  only  to  the  tpititual,  not  to  the  temporul 
,  rule  of  the  arcbliishopa  who  r«ided  at  Bonn.  At  Iho 
time  of  the  Kefomution  the  diocese  h^d  about  SOO 
pirishei,  divided  into  22  deaneries;  in  the  lath  cen- 
tury the  nomlier  orparisbas  was  aliout  ISOO  (a  m  ip 
of  tba  diocese  is  given  in  Spruner's  /{ittor.  AU-u,  No. 
II).  After  tbe  reorijanixatlon  at  Gerinjny  by  the  Vi- 
enna Cunjcreas,  Cologne,  now  bebjnKing  to  Prussia, 
was  recnnstitnted  an  archbishopric  liy  u  bnll  of -Inly 
16, 1821,  with  tbi;SuBine>n  bishoprics  of  Treves,  Mnn- 
rtar.  and  Paderbora.  Tba  diocase  of  Cologno  had,  in 
1867,  44  deaneries,  al>ont€')Opirishf*,  and  a  population 
or  about  l,MKI,00n.  Tbe  llrst  ircbUisbop,  Feidinand 
Jose^ih,  count  Spla^l  (1824-1835),  wus  a  man  of  mod- 
snte  principles,  and  a  patron  Si  tiie  Herme^ans  (q.v  V 
His  socceuor,  Clement  Augustas  Dmste  von  Vlsch.'r- 
In.'  (1»35-1H4J),  had  a  violent  controversy  with  the 
Prussian  travernment  on  the  snhject  nf  marriages  be- 
tween Protej-ti.its  and  Roman  Catholtcs,  was  arrested 
In  1837.  and  set  free  in  1S40  only  on  condition  thot 
he  resigned  the  admin  latr^tion  of  the  diocsse  into  tho 
hands  of  a  coadjutor.  Joannes  von  Galsset,  who  snc- 
eeadad  him  in  18t&,was  created  a  cardinal  in  1*>&0.  and 
died  in  1864.  He  was  succeeded  by  Paul  Elelchcn, 
wbo  was  the  Incumbent  In  18G7.  See  Gbrhaitt  and 
Prussia. 

or  the  councils  of  Cologne,  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  the  most  Important  were,  (1)  in  IS8D,  called 
by  the  Archbishop  Sifridiis  (SifM),  In  whkb  eighteen 
canons  of  discipline  were  drawn  up;  (£)  in  1&S6,  by 
Herman,  on  discipline,  tba  duties  of  bishops,  offices 
or  the  Church,  etc;  (3)  in  1619,  by  Adulpbui,  when 
several  statutes  were  made  fur  Iha  reformatlDn  of  the 
Church.  The  mtoratlon  of  leamini;  was  recomniend- 
«d  as  one  of  tba  means  of  aceotnplishlng  this  end. — 
Wetier  n.  Welte,  Kirchat-Ux.  li,  678 ;  Reltiwrg,  Kir- 
ehe«-Gesch.  UnUchlfOtdt  (Gfltt.  1846);  Priedricb,  KiV- 
ehufUrich.  D'alKhltmdi  (Bamberg,  1867);  Btnterim 
ft  Mooren.  DuiaOtamianu  ErtdiSc.Ca'n  (4  vols.  Msy- 
anre,  1828) ;  McTlng  u.  Relschert.  Dir  Biickiyfe  u.  En- 
Uiek.  vim  Ciln  (Cologne,  1843) :  Ersch  u.  Omber,  s.  r. 
(vol.  xviii,  ITS  sq. ;  here  a  complete  list  of  tbe  bishops 
and  archljisbops  of  Cologne  Is  given) ;  I.andnn,  .Von- 
tvd  of  CoaariU,  e.  v. ;  Smith,  Tabln  of  Ch.  H.'lory. 

Colombia,  United  BtatOB  of.  a  republic  In 
Scnth  America  (until  1861  called  NewGrunada).  The 
eonntry  was  discovend  in  1498  by  Christopher  Colnm- 


bns.  In  17SS  the  vlceroyally  of  Xew  Granada  «u 
eatahlisbed  ef  what  an  now  the  United  States  of  Co- 
lombia and  Ecuador.  In  1810  New  Granada  separa- 
ted harseir  from  tbe  Spanish  ntonarBby,  sod  niaiotain- 

was  conquered  by  the  Colombian.  New  Granada 
formed  with  Veneiuela  (since  1817)  and  with  Ecuador 
(since  1821)  tbe  ri'pnlilic  or  Colombia.  But  VeuaaueU 
•epjrated  beraelf  In  Nov.  l8::9,  and  Ecuador  in  May, 
lN.i).  and  the  central  part  coDstitutwl  itaeiras  tbe  rapHb- 
lie  of  New  Granada  ou  Nov.  21, 1801.  Several  t.me* 
soma  of  the  states  (bnnin.  tbe  republic  decLrcd  thwn- 
selves  ind[>pendent:  thus  the  state  ufl'anama  was  in- 
dependcut  from  ]tM>3  to  18tiS.  Since  tben  the  united 
republic  has  ueen  constituted  of  tba  nine  state*  of  An- 
lioqula,  Boliv.r,  Boysi'i,  C.uca,  Cundinam>.rcj,  Hag- 
dalena,  Panama,  Sant.nd:r,  Tolima.  loxether,  accoid- 
ing  to  tb..  .,  LLUS  of  1867,  wiih  a  pnpulatioTi  -f  2.79*^ 
473  inhabiiaiils.     The  populaiion   is   rB|>i.liy  iucrcM- 

were  8Dn/)lin  inhabiiaiiu :  in  1826,  l,3ni,im ;  in 
imh,  l,68.vn88;  in  1886,  8,600,0MI.  Aeconline  lo  • 
decree  of  ISGI,  slavery  ceased  on  January  1, 1863: 
The  whole  native  population  belongs  to  the  Booas 
Catholic  Cbnrch,  whose  ministers  receive  ■  salary 
fmn  tbe  sbite.  The  hIerbTchy  consists  of  one  arcfa- 
blshop  St  (ftania  V6  de)  Bo^tn,  and  seven  Liibops  at 
AntioquU,  Cartagena,  8..nta  Haitba,  New  Pampelo- 
na,  Panama,  P^txe  (estaiilisbcd  in  1866),  and  Pvpa- 
yan.  Church  alTairs  hive  ror  msny  years  Iwcn  tha 
subject  of  violent  controversies  between  the  Liberal 
party,  who  are  in  favor  of  absolnle  fn-edom  of  wor- 
ship, of  separating  the  state  from  the  Church,  of  ex- 
pelling the  Jesuits,  and  similar  meosuKs,  and  tbs 
Conservative  party,  to  whom  belong  all  the  fanat- 
ical partisans  of  the  Church  of  Rmne.  Generally  tbe 
government  has  lieen  in  the  bands  or  tbn  Li'ieral 
party,  which  several  times  ha*  made  attempts  to  en- 
force a  Tull  fCpjration  of  the  Church  froui  lioine. 
Protestant  foreigners  received  the  riabl  of  public  w«- 
sblp  in  1823,  and  later  the  uuoe  right  was  ^iveu  to  tbe 
natives.  In  all  the  Inrge  towns  tbe  govemmeut  en- 
fi>rces  the  lernl  toleration  of  all  religions,  but  in  the 
countrv  tbe  ignorance  and  finaticlsin  of  the  populace 
make  it  often  difficult  to  obtain- the  roll  benalit  of  tba 
law.  In  1866  tbe  Old  S.bool  l>niri)yterian  Cfanrch 
of  the  United  Slates  occu|ded  Bogota  as  a  inisaiDnary 
station,  and  in  I8<;6  a  sen)nd  mlsskmary  was  seat 
lo  the  same  place.  A  boys'  schuul  was  opened  Janu- 
ary I,  1867.  The  American  Bible  Society,  in  1866, 
opened  a  depository  at  Bogota.  At  the  Engliah  ser- 
vices the  average  attendance  on  the  Sabliatfa,  during 
tbe  year  1866,  was  over  thirty  j  bat  worship  was  stiU 
held  In  private  houses,  no  sollable  hall  or  idiBca  bar- 
ing yet  been  obtained  by  tbe  miasionaries.  A  large 
number  of  foreign  Protestants,  chiefly  from  tbe  United 
SUIes  and  England,  have  settled  at  Panama  aad  As- 
piowall  (Colon),  and  they  have  a  church  and  acbool, 
hot  hardlj'  any  prc^jress  haa  been  made  toward  estab- 
lishing a  native  Spanish  congregation  .--Sea  Ibe  Alt- 
naal  Hrporlt  oftke  Board  of  Fereipi  Hiuioa,  o/Uk 
PrrttsierioR  Ciarrh;  Nt»  A^nBrwim  (^depmdia  mi 
Ijppineotl'i  G-'fttftr,  a.  r.  New  Grwwda  i  Uenog, 
Rtal-Encsldap.i\,19't. 

Colooil*  (De  Colnmna),  the  name  of  an  audant 
princely  bmily  In  Italy,  which  was  famous  for  many 
centuries,  and  especially  dnring  tbe  Middle  A^eo,  fur 
the  numlier  of  aidinals  and  bishops  which  it  gave  to 
the  Roman  Church,  and  for  the  piominent  inflaence 
which  it  exercised  upon  the  election  of  tbe  popes  nod 
the  government  of  the  papal  stales.  In  tbe  qaanels 
between  tbe  popes  and  the  emperors^  the  Coloonas 
mostlv  sided  with  the  emperors.  Boniface  VITI  be- 
came'so  incensed  at  the  hostile  atUtade  of  the  fanlly, 
that  the  descendants  of  the  princes  John  III  and  OUu 
XVH  were  declared  by  him  to  be  "liregnlar"  ui 
tba  ronrtb  generation.    According  to  i 


COLON  N  A  4 

lial  wTitan,  Papa  AUxuuter  III  (acoonlinB  to  otban 
Gitgary  IX)  decUnd  oil  tbe  mrmlnn  of  tlig  ftuilly, 
fcr  all  tinw  to  come,  incapiLle  of  holding  inv  ucclebi- 
utiulDfflca.  Tlw>ull>«Dtii.'lty  ortbudecnuUdouLU 
if  U  wu  ever  inoed,  It  Hon  fell  into  diaura,  far 


ir  (imily  * 


»un 


tar  of  canliniU  amoiiK  ita  memben  M  the  (Jolonnu. 
Onljroiic  or  tbe  family  ueended  tbe  papal  chair  under 
tfae  nsino  of  Martin  V  (q.  v.) ;  in  ffenenil,  public  opiu- 
ioo  in  Boma  waa  ao  much  oppoaf d  to  tbe  election  of  ■ 
Coloona  a*pope,thatthEr«  «aa  a|irDicrL>;  fi'tcjralrr, 
mm  GaUui,  mtc  CoftBuao  tnaU  papa  (Xelthei  a  i.rolber 
\i4  tbe  decvaaed  popa],  nor  ■  trinvliroan.  our  a  Colon- 
na,  lousl  be  elected  pope).  A  (reat  many  oftlie  cai- 
dlnala  of  tbii  bmily  were  knD»n  for  tbeir  lijibtiiiK 
^ropenaities ;  and  aa  b>t«  na  Ibti  the  Canlinal  Pumgiey 
Colonaa  expelled  Popa  CleiiieDt  VII  from  Ibime.  wbo 
on  that  account  depoaed  him  from  hia  ectluni^atiiul 
di|piity,  and  pmnouand  the  ban  agaioat  him.  He 
wu,  however,  raatored  to  all  big  di((nitin  Id  1529. 
Bnt  vary  few  of  tbj  Colonnaa  pubuahed  any  llKolo|{ic- 
■I  writinip;  onaof  Ibaae  (bw  «aa 

Colonna,  Gior  asm,  bom  a^  the  btgia  ling  of  tbe 
ISth  centDTy.  He  enterrd  Ibe  Doniiniomi  ordoTj  waa 
la  1336  tirovincial  of  hu  order  in  Tuacany  ;  beranie  in 
13&S  arcbbbhop  of  Ueuin;!,  and  In  126^  arrblJabop 
of  Nicoab,  in  Cypraa,  Tbe  lalttT  aae  ho  rrei|[n(d  in 
11768.  on  account  of  political  dlaturl«nceB  In  Cvprna. 
He  died  between  Vim  and  1^90.  He  wrote  L-hrr  de 
writ  iUntribiu  nkmeit  el  Ckriniaitu  (pablLihcd  in  I'SO. 
vlthiKiteabyB.ZoaiMlli).  A  nambcrorotbrr  worka 
(fM  Hare  Aufonnm.  f^tiMs  ad  dirrrtoM,  Bit  gloria 
Paradm,  etc.)  hare  never  been  [a-inted.  See  Wetzer 
B.  Welta,  Kinktm-Ltx.  ii,  CT9  HJ. 

Coloaj  ((oXwMD,  for  tbe  Lat.  rolimia),  a  dlatinr- 
tfam  applied  to  the  city  of  PhlllppI,  in  Macedonia  (Acta 
XTi,  IS).  After  the  liattle  of  Acrluni,  Auguatua  aa- 
ai^ed  lo  hii  velerani  thoae  parta  of  Italy  which  hod 
eapouaed  the  caaae  of  Aatony.ind  Irunaportrd  many 
at  the  e\peUtd  inbibitanla  to  Blarerionia.  by  which 
DKus  the  towna  of  PhillppI,  DvrraLhiuni,  etc.,  nc- 
quired  the  right  of  Roman  colonies  (I)lo  Cara.  p.  4S5}. 
AecDTdin^ly,  we  And  PhilippI  deecrlbed  as  a  "cotonia" 
faoah  In  iuacrlptlona  and  upon  the  coina  of  Au;ualua 
(Orelli,  /uT.  fil2,  3658,  3746, 406t ;  Koacbe,  vol.  viii, 
pL  11,  p.  1110).  See  Phii.ifpi.  Sacb  towna  poracat- 
ed  the  t'w  cnJoMarnun  (Plin.  Kal.  HiH.  v,  1),  i.  a.  tn- 
(sUed  jut  llalimm  {ty.g  it.  /jy.  vUi,  81,  conni.tinu,  If 
comi^cte,  in  a  free  maDicipal  constitution,  euch  aa  waa 
eaatomary  In  Italy,  in  exemptinn  ffom  peraonul  and 
land  taxce,  and  In  tbe  commerce  of  the  aoil,  or  tbe 
right  of  Belting  the  land.  Oilicinalty  and  properly  a 
colony  waa  a  body  of  Rotoan  cilizena  aent  out  aa  vol- 
uiteera  (l-lvy,  x,  21)  lo  poaaeas  a  common  wealth,  With 
Ibe  approlia^on  of  their  own  atate  (Serviaa,  oil  jEmeiil. 
i,  IZ).  The  old  Roman  colonioa  were  thua  Id  Ibe  na- 
tors  of  garritona  planted  in  conqnered  towna,  having 
a  portion  of  the  coitquered  territoiy  (uaually  a  third 
part)  aaaigned  to  them,  while  the  native  Inbaliltanta 
retained  the  rest,  and  lived  together  with  tbe  new  ael- 
tlen  (Dlodya.  Ami.  Rom.  11,  63).  Such  colonixta,  of 
ccnrae,  remained  Roman  citizens  In  (he  fulleat  arnae. 
The  original  nitltes,  however,  and  their  descendanta, 
did  not  become  Roman  cltiiena  by  havlne  a  colony 
planted  among  them,  nnleaa  it  was  conferred,  either 
at  the  tfana  or  ■nbaequently,  by  a  special  act  of  tbe 
Bomaa  people,  senate,  or  eBipcror,  Their  exact  rela- 
tloo  in  tbia  respect  it  is  aomenhat  difficult  to  deter- 
mine In  the  ahsence  of  snch  a  specific  act,  as  the  jn 
/Inficius,  readily  and  oDrn  conrerred  upon  provincial 
dtiea,  and  which  now  would  be  more  likely  to  obtain 
than  cokmkal  ones,  conferred  only  the  above  rights 
apon  the  coatmanlty,  withont  making  tbe  inilivldoal 
iahabituita  Roman  ciliiena  in  full.  (See  Smith's  Did. 
^Claf.  Amtiq.  t.  v.  Colonia.)     Sea  CiTiZENSHir. 

In  ooe  paaaage  of  the  Apaci?-pba  (Wiad.  xli,  T>  the 


Color.  Namee  of  colon  ezpreafly  mentioned  aa 
such  in  Ibe  Old  Test,  are ;  (n.)  '^3^,  taban'.vhat;  n$, 
tiaek,  bright;  Ijn,  cfa'aeor',  pah;  3^b,  ttgb,  gragi 
ins,  Uaekor',  erraM-eolared  t  (b.)  3in3,  Uaiob',  grU 
Iok;  P'11,  jonti',  jrwBj  (c)  D^tJ,  adorn',  rtdi  p'^tf, 
taT,J^,fox-culortd;  -3m  Hsiin,  tola  alhtkami',  trim- 
■M  ■  HDO,  Aiukir'.  oekrfrtd;  (d.)  "psriJ  argamK-J, 
purpb,  ri=n,  (eJjB  Irl/i,  eialHi  ((.)  ^n^p,  »/.ocA:r', 
UuiJt;  Din,  chim.  Inms  (J.)  1p_3,  nufaKf,  ^mJjfcd; 
swin,  tola,  ipoUid;  Ht^,  tiird',  p.fJtaid!  Ipy, 
abid' ,  ariprd.  In  the  K.  T.  the  colors  mentionr^l  are : 
\(tnrc>c,  fhiU  !  ftlAoc,  Haek ;  rvp^c-  rtij ;  x^<»P't' 
gntm  ;  iropfiipa,  wopf iptoc.  psrplr ;  *•' trims,  fO't'l- 
r  the  whole  aul'lect  in 


Tbe  teima  relative  to  color,  occorrlng  In  tbe  Bible, 
may  be  amngcd  In  two  rlirsea,  the  flrrt  including 
those  applied  to  tbe  dcFcriptlon  of  natural  ol  Jecta,  the 
second  those  artlflclal  mlxtorea  which  were  employed 
in  dyeing  or  painting.  In  an  Bdv>:nrrd  (tatc  of  uit, 
Fucb  a  distinctlcn  can  hardly  Iw  raid  to  eilat ;  all  tte 
hoea  of  nature  have  hern  sncceasfully  Imitated  I  y  Ibe 
artist ;  bnt  among  tbe  Jews,  who  frll  even  lelow  Iheir 
contemporaries  In  the  cnltlvaticn  nf  Ihe  fne  arts,  and 
to  whom  painting  was  unknoon  until  a  late  period, 
Ibe  knowledge  ofartincial  colorn  was  lery  rc-tricted. 
Dyeing  wu  tbe  olijevt  lo  which  the  colois  known  to 
them  were  applied  :  so  axclaalvrly.  Indeed,  were  tbe 
idfia  of  tho  Jewa  llmilf  d  to  thia  aprli  allDO  of  color, 
that  the  name  of  the  dye  waa  tntntfenm  ivlthontany 
addition  to  the  material  to  which  It  waa  applied.  The 
Jewa  were  not,  however,  by  any  means  InrCDsible  to 
tbe  Influence  of  color:  they  attached  delinite  ideaa  to 
the  varioua  tints,  according  to  the  use  made  of  them 
in  robre  and  vestments  i  and  the  suliject  excrclaes  an 
Important  influence  on  Ihe  inlcqirelation  of  certain 
portlona  of  Scriptnre.     See  DvE. 

I.  The  wintrof  colors  noticed  in  tbe  Bible  are  «rhlta, 
black,  rad,  yellow,  and  green.  It  will  be  obrerved 
that  only  time  of  tbe  priamatlc  colors  are  represented 
in  tUs  list)  blue,  indigo,  violet,  and  orange  are  omit- 
ted. Of  the  three,  frUov  it  rery  seldom  nuticcd ;  it 
was  appattnlly  regarded  as  a  shade  of  green,  fur  tbe 
eame  term  gnaaih  (p^p^-)  ia  applied  to  gold  (Pfa. 
Ixvili,  IS),  and  to  the  legwous  spot  (Lev.  zUi,  4»),  and 
vciy  probably  Ihe  goUem  (sHx)  or  grtlou  hue  of  the 
leprous  hair  (Lev,  zlll,  80-88)  diOtrcd  little  fttim  the 
gremak  spot  on  the  garments  (Lev.  xiii,  19).  Grtrm 
is  frequently  noticed,  but  an  examination  of  tbe  [•>• 
sages  in  which  it  occurs  Mill  show  that  the  referrnco 
is  seldom  to  color.     The  Hebrew  terms  are  raania' 

Ci?^?)  '"d  y^^  <.P7r)  '■ ''"  ^^  "^  ""■■  ■??'■>■  >(• 

wba'l  is  ngorau  tui  JlourithJmg ;  hence  it  is  metaphor- 
ically employed  as  an  hnoye  uf  prosperity  (Job  xv,  SS) 
PaLxixvli,BSi  111,  8,'  xcii.l4;  Jer.  xi,  1G(  xvii,8; 
Dan.  Iv,  ii  Hoa.  xiv,  S);  it  U  invariably  employed 
wherever  tbe  expression  "gmm  Ira"  ia  need  In  coik- 
nection  wilh  idolatruua  sacrifices,  as  tbuuKh  with  Ibe 
view  of  conveying  Ihe  idea  of  tbe  otliprttidimg  braucb- 
es,  wbtcb  served  u  a  canopy  lothe  worshippers  (Dent, 
xli.  i ;  3  Kings  xvi,  4) ;  elsewhere  it  is  need  of  that 
which  is/rei*,  u  oil  (Psa.  xcii,  10),  and  newly-plucked 
boughs  (Cant,  i,  16).  Tbe  other  term,  garat,  has  the 
radical  aignlflcation  Of  pmOimg /ortk  feares,  qnvaJriy 
(Geaenius,  Tkn.  Hrb.  p.  GS-^):  it  U  used  indiscrin-.l- 
nately  for  all  productions  of  the  earth  fit  for  food  (Gen. 
t,  30;  ix,  Si  Exod.  x,15j  Num.  sii),  4 ;  Isa.  xv,  6j 
comp.  );Aupci[,  Rev.  viii,  7;  ix,  4),  and  again  for  all 
kinds  of  garden  herbs  (Dent,  xi,  10;  1  Kings  xsi,!; 
2  Kings  lis,  !6  j  I'roT.  zv,  IT ;  Isa.  iziTil,  ST ;  con- 


COLOR  418  COLOR 

Mch  robe,  m  tamed  Vii>=t)  ■'tSai.reStt  «/»«-/«-   hemof  thehiglHici*«-.mb.(Exod.ixTiU,S8).     Th« 

mnii.n.Bo-ii*"""™""  _;_-,  /  i-  J,,     hlith-pnestB  lireMlptale,  the  roLe  of  Ihe  cphod,  anil 

don.  ttut  the  Sept.  tr«l«  the  term  Onri,  «ac4  luA  (A. ,  j^»  ,_^^^^  ^^  j_,^  ^.^^  ^^^  BXdmivelv  of  MueCEiod. 
V.  -'tMdger")  aa  indic*tlve  of  color,  aod  hu  tnof  jj^rfii,  2^  BJ,  87).  Cluthi  (or  wimp^ng  tbs  «MT»d 
bted  it  iianVftvet,  *jFOCi«rit'iM  (Ewd.  xxv,  5).  S«e  utgn^  „„  giti,„  him  {Nam.  iv,  G),  mrlet  (8J,  or 
Blvk.  I  porpls  (IS).     Scarlet  tbtud  iru  apodGed  in  cobdh- 

B.  ScABLET  (Cbihmk,  Iw.  1, 18;  Jet.  It,  eO).  The  ,io„  ^^  the  rilei  of  cluDimg  thb  leper  (Lev.  li.,  t, 
ternu  by  which  tbi<  color  !«  eipreued  Id  Htbnw  \  e,  61),  and  of  buminit  the  red  heifer  (Niim.  xix,  Gi, 
Tirv;  lometinies  '■30,  Aani',  simply  la  uaed,  aa  in  apparently  tar  the  purpose  of  LiindmK  the  hyaaop  to 
Gen  mxvUi,  28-30 ;  iometimea  "S^  nS^IFi,  luta'atk  I  the  cedar  wood.  The  lian({iiigi  f.r  the  court  (ExoL 
Oam     U  in  Eiod.  »xv,4:  and  aometimaa  rjVin, '  "tvll^  »;  mitUI,  D),  the  coat*,  mima,  Lonnrtii,  and 

HOB  ,  a.  u  li.™.  ,     ,  ,    ,,,^^1^  ^f  y,,  „1b,[,  ,gre  white  (Enod.  xiiix,  17, 

tofa'art,  limply.  M  ta  laa.  i,  18.  The  word  i.-'07?.  jg^  The  appli^tkra  of  the«  colora  to  the  »r^  ice  rf 
tartnt'  (A.  V.  '-  erinuoD ;"  3  Cbnin.  II,  7, 14 ;  111.  14)  |  ihe  Ubemacle  bu  led  writeia  both  in  ancieat  and 
waa  introduced  at  a  bte  period,  prubalily  from  Arme-  ;  nij,dero  timea  to  ittach  aorne  aymbolical  n>euiiB(  to 
nla,  to  expniH  the  aame  color.  The  fint  of  tbeee  ,  n,^  (^  pm^  ,„j  Joeephas,  at  n^.).  The  (sbi«t 
torma  (derived  from  nSS.  riiMul',  to  aAw)  espresacB  baa  been  followed  up  with  a  great  variety  of  iotar- 
theftriffMiBcj  of  the  color;  Uie  aecood,  rsblP,  (iJo'ort.  pretalioni.  moie  or  lere  probable  (aeo  KiaVK,  Dc  aiurt 
the  worm  or  grub,  whence  the  dye  wai  procored,  and  laert).  Vlt.  1707 ;  Crenier,  SymboUt,  1, 126  aq. ;  Bahr. 
Which  ave  name  to  the  color  oca aionally  without  any  '  Sgnbolii.  i,  3B6  m,.  ;  Friedorich.  a,»M.  d.  J/o*.  SH/.,. 
addilion  Juat  «•  rermi/tw  ia  doriTed  ffom  WT-fca&u.  *"*?»,  Lp>.  1841;  &»Au.A:rit.  1844,  li.8IS  »q.).  With- 
The  Sept.  KBoendly  rendora  it  <a'mavov,  occasionally ;  out  «nterin«  into  a  diaquiriCioD  on  thewi,  «e  a-iU  n- 
with  tlio  addilion  ofanch  term-.  i»  ori.«j/ii™v  (Exod,  |  mark  that  it  la  nnneceiMiy  to  aaaome  that  the  colon 
xxtI  l),orJMTCii*ioufi«>i'(Exod.  xiviii,B);  theVnl-l  were  orijinalty  aetocted  with  luch  a  i-iew;  tbetr  bean- 
gate  hja  it  Bonerallv  coccwiwt,  occMionally  cotcua  6.' tj"  «nd  coatUnwa  i«  a  anBckntexpUnalioooflhe  •«■ 
(MC/w  (Exod.  xxviii,  8),  apparently  following  the  er-   lection.    Sea  Crduoh. 

roneoua  interpretation  of  Atiuilaand  Sytnmachui,  who  4.  Vebiiii.io>  (*>1^,  aibiahir',-  Sept.  fiiXnc ;  Vnlg. 
render  it  yii,5ofof,  dauble-tlged  (Eiod.  xxv,  4\  a»  j  rinopir).  Thia  w«a  a' pigment  uaed  in  ftnco-|«int- 
thongb  (rota  ni:^,  (o  rtpia/.  The  pmcesa  of  donble-  jnga,  eitlier  for  drawiDjt  B^rea  of  idole  on  the  walla  of 
dving  wa^  bowsTer,  peculiar  to  the  Tyriin  purplea  '  templea  (Eick.  xxiii.  14).  for  coloring  the  Uola  ttMOi- 
(Plir.  ix,  U3).  Tliedye  WW  produced  from  un  Insect,  kIvm  (Wind,  xiii,  14),  or  for  decorating  the  irallt  and 
Bomowhat  roaambllng  the  cochuieal,  which  ia  found  in  !  i^m,  of  houaea  (Jer.  xxii.  H).  The  Greek  term  ii»- 
can«lderable  qaantitios  in  Armenia  and  other  Eaatem  ,^  j,  jppijej  1,0,1,  to  miman,  ral  l«»d.  and  ntrwo, 
countries.  The  Araliian  name  of  the  insect  i»  ttrma  ,^  (,pi,„ .  ,1,,  Lay„  ,^  ■,  jjgCTibm  the  bert  kind  tl 
(whence  ctAmm);  the  l.innoan  namo  la  Coow  iiKU.  ochw,  which  came  from  Sinope.  Vermilion  waa  a  6». 
llfrequenta  the  boughs  of  a  apjcjea  of  ifer,-  ontheie  it  ^^^^^  ^f^^  among  the  Asayrlana  (E«ek.  xxiii,  11),  as 
Uya  its  eggs  In  gronp^  which  become  corered  with  a  j,  ,^1  attested  liy  the  scniptum  of  Nimroud  and 
kind  of  down,  so  that  they  present  the  appasrance  of  Khocsabad  (Layaid,  li,  808).  See  VebhiI-IOS, 
vegetable  galla  or  oicrescenws  from  the  tree  iUelf.  ,„  „^j^^  SpnbniMl  SigmScOMt  0/  C«ior,.- 
and  are  described  uaach  by  PLny.XYl.ia.  The  dye  ,r,,^l„„  .„y^„i  color  ^pied  an  impcctaat 
is  procured  from  the  femJe  wrub  alone  whieb,  when  ,  ,^  ^^  ^^^  aymbology  both  of  aentlment  and  of  " 
alive,  is  about  the  SIM  of  a  kernel  of.  cheny.ami  of  a    ,^i        of  the  analogiea  on  which  theee   aymfc 


oarsnth  color,  but  ' 


surbce,  while 


a  gnln  of  wheat,  and  Is  covered  wttb  a  ■    ^,,„„  »„  more  recondite.     Thu.  riie  was 

bluoh  mould  (Panot  s  Job™^  to  ''™™'.  pl")' I  where  the  aymbol  of  «m»,  end  the  emblem  of  .i-*- 
Tbe  general  char.clCT  of  the  color  ia  expceaaed  by  the  1  ,^,^  .  ^^^--jj  ^„  ^^  ^^  ^,^^  high-priert  <«  »s 
Habrow  term  ylTsq,  efawwti  (Isa.  Uiii.  1),  lit.  $kirp,  ■  j^y  ^f  rtonemont,  bia  holy  dreas  (Lev.  xvi.4,  Sty,  tbi 
and  hence  dsuling  (compare  the  eipntssioti  ii^/iu  '  ssgela,  oa  holy  (Zech.  xlv,  5 ;  Job  xv,  loX  appear  to 
Afu),  and  in  the  Greek  Xopirpu  (Luke  xxiii,  II).  com-  white  clothing  (Mark  xri,  5;  John  xx,  12^;  and  (he 
pared  with  rnaim  (HatL  xxvii.  S8).  Tbe  tint  pro-  j  bride,  the  Umb's  wife,  wis  arrayed  In  white,  whidi  is 
dnced  was  mswon  rather  than  scarlet.  Tbe  only  iiat-  explained  as  emblematical  of  the  finiiw^rn  rwf  o^i- 
ntal  object  to  which  it  is  a|ipU«l  in  Scriptnre  is  the  wv  (Rev.  six.  8).  White  was  aim  the  aign  offiMJtHl 
lips,  which  are  compared  to  a  scarlet  thread  (Cant,  iv, '  (Eccl.  ix.  8 ;  comp.  the  aOotet  of  Horace,  Sat.  ii,  J,  Q 
iQ.  Josephua  coosideied  it  as  symbolical  of  tiro  (.4iii.  and  of  (rwajil  (Zech.  ri.  8 ;  Kav.  vi,  i ;  aee  WetMein, 
iU,  7,  7 ;  comp.  Pbllo,  I,  5S6}.  Scarlet  threads  were  N.  T.  in  loc.).  As  the  ligh'-color  (camp.  Matt.  xni. 
aelected  a«  disdnguishlng  marks  from  their  brilliancy  '  2,  etc.)  white  waa  also  ^e  symM  ttg'.ory  and  wicgt^ 
(Gen.  xxxviU,!S;  Josh.  ii.  18,21),  and  hence  the  col-  (Dsn.vil,9:  comp.  Paa.  riv,  2 1  Exck.  ix,  3  aq. ;  I>ai>- 
or  is  expressive  of  what  is  exceaive  or  glaring  {In.  I,  xii,  6  aq. ;  Hatt.  xxviii,  S;  -lobn  xx,  12;  Actsx.M). 
18).  Scarlet  robe*  were  worn  by  the  luxurious  (2  As  the  opposite  of  white,  bla-t  waa  the  rnnblen  of 
Sam.  i,  24;  Prov.  xxxl,  21;  Jer.  iv,  SO;  Lam.  iv,  &; '  moumtng,  afitd'um,  cnjnnifj  (Jer.  xlr,  2;  Lam.  Iv,  B; 
Rev.  xvii,  4;  xvlii,  12,16);  it  waa  also  the  appropri-  t.  10;  comp.  the  atrana  and  laga  yiMt  of  Cic<nt» 
ate  hue  of  a  warrior's  dress  from  lis  similarity  to  blood  '  V<i(».  13);  it  waa  also  the  sicn  of  jlastHafio*  (UaL 
(Nah.ii,S;  comp.  Isa.ix,fi),  and  waa  eapecially  worn  ill,  14)  and  the  omen  of  rn{  (Zech.  vi,  2;  Uev.  vi,i) 
by  oiBccrB  In  the  Roman  army  (Pliu.  xxii,  8;  HaH.  Anj  indicated,  poeticallv,  UwiMrd  and  v<v  (Nah.ii,! 
xxvli,  28).     ScB  ScABi-BT.  [A.  V.  8] ;  Zech.  vi,  2";  Rev.  vi,  4).      Grtn  was  Iba 

The  three  colora  above  described,  purple,  blue,  and  emblem  of frahnru,  v'gar,  and  prnperity  {Psa.  xdi, 
(cailet,  together  with  whit?,  were  employed  in  Ihe  lb;  III,  10;  xixvii,  B5).  BUt,  or  iigadMtk,  or  awn- 
textures  used  for  the  ourtnins  of  the  tabernacle,  and  I:in,  was  the  symbol  of  rmfafiaii ;  it  was  pre^emlDeBt- 
for  the  sacred  vestments  of  Ihe  priest*.  The  four  Iv  the  celestial  color,  even  among  heathen  paliW' 
were  used  In  combinalion  in  tbe  outer  curtains,  the  ('comp.  e.  g.  Jer.  ix,  10,  of  tbe  idd*  of  Babylon,  sad 
vail,  the  entrance  curtwn  (Exod.  xxvi. 1.31,  86),  and  what  Eusebiua  aiys,  Ptot).  Bmui.  Hi,  11.  of  tbe  ^4p- 
the  gate  of  tbe  court  (Exod.  xxvii,  16),  aa  also  in  oupT^t  Kviff .  and  the  Crlshna  of  the  Uiudoo  nytliol- 
the  higfa-priest'a  ephoil,  girdle,  and  breastplate  (Exod.  o:y) :  and  among  the  Hebivws  it  waa  the  Jebanh 
xxvlil,  G.  6.  8, 15).  Tlie  first  three,  to  the  cxeluaton  color,  Ihe  aymhol  of  tbe  revealed  God  (comp.  taoi- 
of  whita,  were  used  hi  the  pomegranataa  about  the   xxlv,  10;  Eiek.  I,  26).     Hence  it  waa  tfae  nilor  [W 


COLOKS  419  COLOSSI 

DiiUl  I  and  it  wu  tha    ratained.     It  U  the  wna  u  the  oS,  except  that  Dm 

fnlor  pnacribedfcir  Ibe  ribbon  ottha  triage  la  the  bar-  aleevM  it*  broad  and  fall.  (60  Tbe  catecAamtm  fgr- 
der  of  Ibe  garment  of  ever;'  Inttelita,  that  aa  they  merty  were  dreued  in  white  for  one  wceii  rrom  their 
hnked  OB  it  they  iiii)(ht  rememlier  all  the  comniand- ;  baptism,  and  white  i«  yet  usually  thu  dreu  worn  by 
nnta  of  Jehovah  (Num.  XV,  SH,  S9).     Withpiirp^r,  Ha    girla  in  their  confirmation. 

the  dnea  of  kingg,  vera  aaaoclated  Ideas  of  royoJ^  and  ,  n.  iPed  is  «  ermbgl  of  fire  and  of  gloninK  lore.  It 
majfig  (,Jadg.Tiii,i6;  Eath.vill,I&;  Cant.  III.  tU;  vii,  |  „„  used  in  the  dress  of  the  Jewish  prieilbood.  It 
6;  Dan.  t,  7, 16,  SS  ;  amp.  Odj/f-  »ii,  ^26,  thepoKnai  j  j,  usually  adoptMl  Urg«ly  in  palntinij  Christ  perform- 
fffigTim  of  tbe  Jupiter  Capitolinui  at  Romo,  the  ]  Ing  hi*  miraclea  or  other  labors  of  love,  or  who  it  ijlv. 
fnptna  flit  of  PbcelHU  [Grid,  Jfctox.  li,  I,  S3],  the  ,  ing  to  hia  dlsciplca  the  missiaa  to  carrj'  into  the  world 
xAdfiu^iC  irofif 'P"'  "f  ">•  Ofo*""!  [Pausan.  iv,  21),  :  the  Are  of  hU  word  (Lnka  xii,  49).  On  the  fiimoua 
Ibe  TopfHpavtvi'qrvc  of  the  Byuntines,  etc.).  Crim.  \  aUndard  or  labatutn  of  Conatantine,  tbe  moDogrem  of 
«■  and  arorM,  ftom  their  resemblance  to  Uood  (prob.  ,  Cbrirt  tested  on  a  purple  cloth.  Bede  saya  that  at 
ably),  became  nymholical  of  IIA;  hence  It  waa  a  crim- 1  his  time  the  holy  sepulchre  was  painted  white  andnd. 
sen  thrsad  wbicli  Rahah  was  to  Und  on  her  window  Some  angtli  have  lieen  painted  with  red  winga  (per- 
•■  ■  si.ni  that  she  waa  to  be  aaved  alive  when  Jericho  hapa  from  the  woid  serupb—plenitude  of  love).  The 
waa  de*trD}-«d  (Jmh,  ii,  18 ;  vi,  S6),  and  il  wua  crluis>m  priestly  veatmenta  in  the  Bomish  Church  are  red  on 
which  the  prieM  wu  to  use  aa  ■  meaoa  of  mtoring  Whitsuntide  and  on  days  of  the  martyra.  The  Am- 
Umm  who  had  mntnctad  defllement  by  touching  a  brusbn  rlta  prracribe*  red  during  the  contecratii.n  of 
dtMl  body  (Num.  ila,  6-2V).  From  iU  inUniity  and  the  lioM,  and  the  Amliioeian  and  l.yonneie  riles  dut>- 
Riedneu  this  color  ia  alu  used  to  ayailwIiM  what  ia  ,  in^  the  festival  of  the  CirrumcialoD.  Tbe  red  drua 
indelil'le  or  deeidy  engrained  (laa.  1, 18).  The  colon  i  of  tlie  cardlnala  it  profciaedlv  intended  to  keep  before 
ehieav  used  hi  the  Uoaalc  ritual  were  wblle,  hyacinth  ihem  conitantly  the  love  and  passion  of  the  Saviour. 
(nine),  purple,  and  crimson.  It  ia  a  saperHcial  view  '  The  pope  weara  red  on  Good  Friday.  The  Greek 
which  concludes  that  IhcM  were  used  merely  frrm  priesta  wear  red  omamenta  during  fnnrral  lerTlcea. 
tbeir  Irillianey  (Brauu,  Dt  l-'ial.  5a.  Htt.  i  Bibr,  Sfm.  <  The  red  spoken  of  above  is  alwaya  scarlet.  Crlm- 
<L  Hot.  O*.).     See  further  below.  |  son  red  is  appointed  for  certain  days  in  certain  rilee  of 

COLORS,  Chbibtiaii  Symbolism  of.  Colors  are  i  the  Komith  Church, 
made  uae  of  in  religioua  aymbolUm  among  the  Jews, ;  m.  Q^mi,  from  Ite  analogy  to  tbe  vegetable  world, 
andinaeveralbranchee  of  the  Christian  Church.  Spe-  indicalea  life  and  bnpe,  especially  in  the  future  life 
die  dimctiona  were  given  in  tbe  O,  T.  tat  the  colora  ^nj  i„  the  coming  of  our  Lord.  'Ibe  perpetual  youth 
to  be  ased  in  building  of  the  Ubenwle  and  the  mak-  ■  nf  ,ngd,  j,  ofts„  indicated  br  painting  tbcm  in  gar- 
iag  of  the  drvM  for  the  Jetriah  (rieats.  Colors  are  menu  of  green.  The  saints,  and  especially  John  the 
■Im  iotrodDced  in  (dving  moral  or  apiritual  letwms,  ,  Evangelist,  were  often  represented  in  green  by  palnt- 
■Dd  hi  descrilung  acenea  In  ravehilion,  aa  in  Isa.  i,  18.  |  p„  ,„d  sculptors  (who  often  colored  their  works).  The 
in  the  dncriptim  of  tbe  Transflgumtion,  and  often  >n  I  tree  of  life  in  I'aradlse  is  painted  green.  An  old  tr*- 
lh«  imagery  of  the  Apocalypse.  See  article  al.ove.  |  Jition  has  it  that  a  twig  of  tlie  tree  of  life  was  trans- 
Very  eariy  in  the  history  i.f  Christianity  the  sym-  |  planted,  and  produced  the  In*  from  which  the  crosa 
holism  of  colors  was  introduced  In  the  ritualism  and    ^r  Chritt  was  madel     John  the  Baptist  and  tho  Vlc^ 

-■■ ■  of  the  Church.     In  the  Greek  Church  this  ■  p„  Mary  ere  often  represented  in  mantles  of  green. 

'—1  haa  been  worked  out  to  such  a  degree  of  Brancbe*  of  cypresf,  laurel,  and  other  evergreens  are 
i*  thM  little  or  no  discrimination  in  the  use  often  plsced  in  the  cottna  or  over  the  grave*  of  the 
u.  ™™..  ia  allowed  to  the  painter.  In  the  Romitb  a^a^  „  emblems  of  the  hope  In  a  future  life.  Tbe 
Chan*  somewhat  mr>re  latitude  la  allowed  to  tho  art-  Komiah  Clinrch  directs  the  priests  to  wear  green  from 
ut.  FivecolrvsarerecognbiadaBhavingatheological  [ho  Epiphanv  to  Seugeaima  Sundsv,  and  ftom  the 
meaningor  ezpnaslm  i  White,  Bod,  Greao,  Violet,  and  i  uJrd  after  Buler  to  Advent.  The  Amliro^n  rite  or- 
Black.  dera  tbe  cloth  that  cr.vtrs  tbe  host  to  Ic  green. 

1.  WUtt  la  the  most  often  reftrred  to  in  tbe  Scrip- 1  iv,  Viob*  Is  considered  the  color  of  penitence  and 
tares.  At  tbe  uoion  «f  all  the  rays  of  %ht.  It  k  the  ^o^row.  The  Rombb  Church  orilera  it  to  be  worn  dui^ 
symbol  of  t-»t*  and  (pMfe..  par^.  U  la  applied  to:  ,  in^  jj  times  of  penance.  In  painting,  this  col^r  is 
(!.)  6W  At  fatkfr,  the  source  and  esaence  of  immuta-  „fi^„  ,ppii,j  ,„  j„|,n  the  Baptist,  who  preached  re- 
Ue  truth.  In  Daniel  (vli,  3)  the  Ancient  of  Days  has  ™ntance  ■  to  tbe  Virgin  Maty  as  the  mother  of  grief  ■ 
graenta  white  aa  anow,  with  bis  bair  like  pure  wool,  .^j  ^  j^;  ,„  j  ,,,„  ,„  „„',  jo  caU  men  to  repcntl 
Tbe  manna  hi  the  wllder^es^  being  white,  has  been  '  ,„£«. 

"  ^!!Tfl™",^„*^'„™"ll''L*'™™.«'       ^  **"  ''  ""W^^-^n  I  y  th*  R«"''*  Church,  but  It 

color  peculiarly  appropriate 


drill,  at  the  TtansfiKUration,  appeared  In  ganr 


la  the  light'  (MatL  ivii,  2 ;  Mark  ix,  8).     As    , 


1  the  Virgin  Mary. 


Jnriiw,he  will  be  seated  on  a  gnat  while        ,.,    B,,,i..,,.t,:', . „,„:„.„» 

,1. ,D --in       1 1..    .r 1    _u i-'i..!.!  >  I.  Bluci;  1*  (he  universal  representative  of  sorrow, 

tarone  (Kbv.  xx,  II).      in  works  of  art,  when  (.hrist     , ^        .  .„,. .  .        _  ,, , ,., 

.Lij...    .L             .Lj_.        f  .%.  destruction,  and  death,  and  is  considered  onlv  unpro- 

appcan  as  the  Lord  of  truth  among  the  doctors  of  the  ,.^7            '         -           '     -            .,            .        ■      '.\^ 

Uw^  1.  ret^sented  in  whi|e^nnent..     (B  ) 'The  ^,:'^^:r^'J„^7theVnX  IneTZr^ 

■^  "  ;;:::TL';r^.'r;^'.'l'l^,!;!l'oVci;r^  ■  -™'"  .-  -He  dre.s  of  that  order.     The  studcn 


(Matt,  xx.lll,  3),  at  the  Ascension  (Act.  1, 10).     (4.)    """'r'T  ?  «Dd  Cambridge  thus  were  given 

The  *ri-li  In  gtosy  .ball  walk  in  whit.  (Rev:  ill,  4)  "«  ''L"'',  J"," ";,"''«'',  '*"'-".  l?'  V.,  V  T" 
.hall  i,  arrayedZwiate  (iv,<;  vii.O,  xv,  6. and  ^li.  ]  r"  ?*;P':^,  ^Ini  f™  ^h"",™  aU  fJ^M.^l 
8^ where  .be  8»e  linen.  cl«n  and  whiuj.  the  right,  j  •':,t;;;:i,:^.';nCitTl;ss^™er  L  the  ^'ti„t 

"T™,r(t>^y:tr.^b  rrra'tirn^n^ 

t™.i.  _™  '. ,d  i„  \.Ki,.  ii™- /-.  r-i,™,    ;™l<"  of  clerical  dress  to  all  Protestant  chulches.- 


the  Temple,  were  "arrayed  in  white  linen"  (2  Chroi 


!  Kretuer.Ai'UfrEaotCrsdrrhorn,  186.1);  Martigny, 


v,m.     in  the  fonrth  century  the  pnestsof  the  Chris- '. .  '   .      ,    .. >,.    ^......  '.. .    /ji.j.  ,„ri,v     ..  ■ 

,1 ni u I.'.     I ._i.li       -.*  ;.    '  tummiart  da  A  ntiatiU'i '.tr/tirwnri  (I'taf.ll'G^):  I'al- 

tian  LhucQ  wore  white  irarmcnta  while  perform  ng  ,  .   ^     ...      T...      ->    r- 1    il-^    i     n     .        ■* 

t)i.i,  ^IK,™       i~.v.  ir.Ji.h  r-1,^^1.  -hi.ri.  „..  Jl    ""'•  'toll'"""  "f"^  EngbA  Rutmi;  Parurr  Mtm- 

SEd'^b.  ':^,^^.  Z'tiZ^X  Z7. :  *-  »»)  -.  '■"'-.  '■^"  ■«•  '^r-^A-.  I. 

Ik*  entire  priesUy  garments  on  the  fiutivals  of  the         '^' 

KativHy,  E|riphany,  Easter,  etc.     In  the  Church  of  |       CoIOfl'MB  (KoXoffinii,  Col,  i.  Sj  but  the  pre»»- 

EifUnd  tbe  white  inrplice  of  the  Komisb  Church  ia  ,  darance  of  MS.  authority  la  in  tivor  of  koXasffsi.Vo' 


fium,  >  form  nwd  bv  tbe  Bf  untins  writrn,  and  which 
perbipB  npretenU  the  provincial  made  of  pronouncing 
the  lume.  On  coins  and  iaicrjptions  [sM  Eckbel, 
J><xt.  yum.  I,  iii.  1^7],  and  in  cluaial  writara  [lee 
Valckcn.  ad  Htmd.  vii,  30],  wt  and  \.iAaoaa{),  a  cit^ 
of  Phijgia  Paciclanft,  ia  tbe  upper  part  of  the  baiin  of 
the  HBJin4er,  on  one  of  its  affluent*  aimed  the  LycuB. 
Hierapolis  and  Laodicea  were  in  ita  Immediate  neigli- 
borhood  (Col.  il,  1 J  iv,  18,  15,  16;  aooKev.  1,11;  iii. 
14).  Coloun  (eii  aa  thsHt  other  tvo  citiea  roee  Id  Im- 
portance. At  a  later  dale  thej  were  all  oTerthrawn 
hj  an  earthqualie.  HerodotuB  (vit,  30)  and  Xenophon 
{A  tKih.  i,  S,  6)  speak  of  it  as  ■  city  of  contldenbli 


.{CO, 


■iiny,  V,  2«). 


J,  676) 


acriboa  it  ■»  only  a  iroXiff/m,  not  a  wiiXit;  yet  ei»e- 
where  (p.  &T8)  be  Impliei  Chat  it  had  some  mercantile 
Importunce ;  and  Pliny,  In  Paul'a  time,  deaeribes  it 
(t,  41)  M  one  oftba  "celeberrimR  oppida"  of  it*  dis- 
trict. CotoAue  was  situated  cloee  to  tbe  fcnai  road 
Whicb  led  from  Epheiiu  to  the  Eupbratet.  Hence  our 
Impulse  would  be  to  conclude  tlist  Paul  passed  tbia 
way,  and  founded  or  confirmed  tbe  Coloesliin  Chnrch 
on  bin  third  miuionary  jonmey  (Acta  xriil,  S3 ;  xix,  I). 
Ee  might  also  bare  easily  viaited  CotosMe  durtnit  tha 
prolonged  atay  at  Epbeana,  whicb  immediately  fol- 
lowed. Tbe  moit  competent  commenUtors,  however, 
axnM  in  thinliing  that  Col.  li,  1,  proves  that  Paul  had 
never  been  there  when  tbe  epistle  was  written  (bnt  aeo 
thi  Stud.  H.  KtH.  1920,  iii,  G12  aq.).  See  Padu  Tbeo- 
doreC'a  argumeut  that  he  must  have  viall«d  Colouai 
on  the  journey  Just  refeTTcd  to,  liecjose  he  ia  said  to 
have  gone  through  the  whole  region  of  Phrygia,  may 
be  pravad  hllscioDs  from  geographical  conaideraliona ; 
Coloaas,  thou/h  ethnolozically  in  Phrygia  (Herod. 
L  0. ;  Xen.  I.  e.\  waa  at  this  period  polittcally  in  tfao 
province  of  Aaia  (see  Kev.  1.  c).  Iliat  th3  apostio 
hoped  to  viait  tbe  pUoe  on  being  delivered  from  his 
Boman  Imprisonment  is  elejr  from  Philemon  33  (com- 
pare Phil,  il,  24).  PhilenMn  and  bit  alave  Ooeslmua 
were  dweller*  hi  Coloaiue.  So  alio  were  Archlppus 
am]  Epaphraa.  Fntm  Col.  t,  7 ;  iv,  I'l,  It  haa  been  nnt- 
nnlly  concluded  that  tbo  lattsr  Christian  was  Ibo 
(bunder  of  tbe  Coknsian  Cbureh  (see  Alford'a  Pnle- 
pomenaUtGr.Tal.vA.aii).  See  Epaphras.  The  wor- 
ahlp  of  angels  mentioned  by  the  apoatle  (Col.  ii,  18) 
cniiously  reappeara  in  Christian  times  in  coDDection 
with  one  oT  the  lopogtapbicil  teaturea  of  the  place. 
A  church  in  honor  of  tbe  archangel  Michael  was  erect- 
ed at  the  entrance  of  a  cbasm  in  consequence  of  a  le- 
gend connected  with  an  inundation  (Harlley'a  Re- 
ttiTiAet  in  Grace,  p.  I>3) ;  and  there  is  good  reason  for 
identifying  this  cbasm  with  one  which  ia  mentitiaed  by 
Herodotus.  This  kind  of  anperatition  is  men  tinned  liv 
Theodoret  as  auhaistlng  in  hia  time;  also  by  the  By- 
xantine  writer  Nirretas  Chnnlntes,  who  was  a  native  of 
this  place,  and  who  says  th;it  Coiosafo  ami  Chonie  were 
the  same  (ChnyH.  p.  115;.  Tbe  protwbility  is  that  un- 
der tbe  later  emperors,  Colossie,  beio'i  in  a  ruinous 
state,  made  way  for  a  more  modem  town,  doiw  (Xu^ 
vai,  BO  lleopbylact  a-l  Col.  ii,  1),  situated  near  iL 
Tbo  neighborhood  (visited  by  Pocorke)  was  explored 
by  Mr.  Arundel  {Sectu  Chureha,  p.  15H;  Aiia  Miam, 
il,  160);  but  Mr.  Hamilton  was  tbe  first  to  determine 
the  actual  site  of  ihe  ancient  city,  which  appears  to  be 
■t  Bome  little  dMtanco  from  tbe  modern  village  of  Cbo- 
Daa  {Rtiforekn  in  Aria  Minor,  i,  508).  Tbe  hune  range 
of  Mount  Cadmus  rises  Immediately  behind  the  vii. 
iage,  close  to  which  there  ia  in  the  mountain  an  im- 
IDcnse  perpendicular  chasm,  affordin.j  an  outlet  for  a 
wide  mountain  lorrenL  The  mins  of  an  old  castlf 
stand  on  the  sammit  of  the  rock  forming  the  left  aide 
of  this  chasm.  There  are  aome  tracea  of  rains  and 
fragments  of  slflno  In  the  neighborhood,  but  banily 

dent  site  (PocwKp,  KatI,  iii,  114 ;  Scbulicrt,  Etire,  1, 
3B2 ;  see  generally  Ilofmann.  Inlrod.  in  Irclion.  rp.  ad 
Cobu.  Ups.  1749 ;  Cellarii  IfolU.  II,  15!  sq. ;  Hannert, 


10  COLOSSI  ANS 

GtOffT.  VI,  I,  1S7  sq.;  Smilb,  Diet,  ff  Ctau.  Grogr. 
a,  v.).     See  CoLOBS[A^8  (Cpibtlk  to  the): 

ColowilAoa,  EP1BTI.B  TO  TBB,  the  serentb  of  tha 
Pauline  eplitlea  in  the  New  Teat,  (see  DaTidaoa's  7*- 
irod.  ioAeN.T.  ii,  SH  sq.).     See  EnsTLB. 

I.  .4  «lAar(U|i.—Th:it  this  epistle  il  tbe  geaulM  pro- 
duction of  the  apoatle  Paul  b  prored  by  the  moat  sal* 
lafkctory  evidencs,  and  haa  Dorer,  Indeed,  been  aeri- 
ously  oiiled  la  question.  Tbe  external  tBitiiBODiea 
(Just.  M.  Trfipito,  p.  811  b;  ilieaphil.  ad  Aatol.  ii,  p. 
100,  ed.  Col.  1666;  IrenBua,  Hutr.  iii,  14,  1 ;  Clem. 
Alex.  AlFYM.  l,p.  326;  Iv,  p.  68B,  al.,  ad.  Potter ;  Ter- 
tull.de  Prracr.  ch,  7;  dt  Ramrr.  ch.  3S;  Origen,  eoK- 
Ira  CtU.  v,  V)  are  explicit,  and  the  internal  argnmeuta, 
founded  on  the  style,  balance  of  sentenoes,  poaitioau  of 
adverbs,  uaa  of  the  relative  prononn,  partidpial  an«- 
colntha,  unusually  atrong  and  well  defined.  It  i*  not 
right  to  supt^ess  the  fact  that  Uayerboff  (fier  Brirf 
•at  die  Kot.  Uerl.  ia3«)  and  Baur  (Der  Apo^  AnilBf, 

'")  have  deliberately  reJcctMl  this  epistle  as  clilm- 


Ihei:. 


of  tbets  critica,  however,  baa  been  liricfly, 
would  seem,  compltltly  snswetrd  Uy  Hev 
p.  T):  and  to  thn  second,  in  his  subjective  and  anti-hh- 
torical  attempt  to  make  individual  writings  of  tbe  N. 
T.  mere  tbeosophistic  prodaetioos  of  a  Inter  Gnnni- 
clam,  the  intelligent  and  critical  leader  will  natunlly 
yield  but  little  credence  (aee  Hilbiger,  Dt  Chritlotiyia 
Patdiaa,  etc.Tratisl.  1853;  KlOppcr.  Dt  orT^nc  Epf. 
ad  Ephniat  el  Colhanuti.  Gryph.  1»^1).  It  is.  In- 
deed. nmarkaUe  that  the  strongly-markL-d  peculiarity 
of  style,  the  nerve  and  force  of  the  arguments,  and  th« 
originality  that  appears  in  every  paragraph,  Fhoald 
not  have  made  l>oib  titese  writen  pause  in  thrir  ill- 
considered  attuck  on  this  epistle  (aee  TrageUe*,  in 
Home's  ItHrad.  new  edit.  vol.  iii). 

II.  Ills  leas  certain, however,  vAtn  and  rirre  it  was 
composed.  Tbe  common  opinion  Is  that  Paul  wrote  it 
at  Bume  dnring  bis  imprisonment  in  that  city  (Acta 
xxvili,  16.  SO).  Erasmna,  followed  hy  others,  sopposea 
that  Kphesus  was  tbe  )ilace  al  which  it  was  composed ; 
bnt  this  soirgestlon  Is  obvioosly  untenable  from  its  In- 
cnnipatil>i1ity  with  tbe  allusinDs  contained  in  the  epis- 
tle Itself  to  tbe  state  of  trouble  and  imprisonment  ia 
which  tbe  apostle  was  whilst  composing  It  (1, 34  ;  iv, 
10, 16).  Id  Germany,  the  opbiiont  of  theologians  have 
been  divided  of  late  years  lietween  the  common  hy- 
pothesis and  one  proposed  by  Schuli  In  tbe  Ti/nto- 
giiehe  atadiai  and  Krililm  for  1^23  (p.  613  Fq.).  via-, 
that  thb  epistle,  with  those  to  the  Ephcsians  and  Phil- 
emon, was  written  during  the  apostle's  (two  years') 
imprisonment  at  Csaiirea  previous  to  his  being  sent  to 
Rome.  Tbia  opinion  has  Iwen  adopted  and  defended 
hy  Scbott,  Battger,  and  Wiggers,  whilst  it  has  bera' 
opposed  by  Kcander,  Steiger,  Harless.  Riickett,  Crad- 
ner,  and  others.  In  a  more  recent  number  of  the  same 
periodical,  however,  the  whole  question  has  been  sub- 
jected to  a  new  investigation  by  Dr.  Wingers,  who 
comes  ta  the  conclusion  that,  of  the  facts  abuve  ap- 
pealed to,  none  can  be  reinrded  as  dFC*fK«  for  either  hy- 
pothesis {Slud.  u.  Kril.  1641,  p.  436).  Tbe  above  opin- 
ion that  tbia  eplstlo  and  those  to  the  Epbeaiana  and  to 
Philemon  were  written  during  the  apostle's  imprison- 
ment at  Cnsarea  (Acts  mi,  27-xxvi,  82).  has  been  re- 
cently advocated  by  several  writera  of  ability,  and 
I  stated  with  such  cogency  and  deameaa  by  Meyer  (fat- 
!  Ifir.  t.  FpKn.  p.  16,  sq.).  aa  to  deserve  some  ronsideni- 
I  tinn.  It  will  lie  found,  however,  to  rest  on  ingenbns- 
ly-urged  plaoidbllltiea  j  whereas,  to  go  no  rurther  into 
,  the  present  epistle,  the  notices  of  the  apostle's  impris- 
onment in  chap.  Iv,  3, 4, 11,  certsinl}'  seem  histatirallT 
inconsiatrnt  with  the  nature  of  tbe  imprisonment  al 
Cssarea.  The  permission  of  Felix  (Acts  xxiv,  33) 
can  scarcely  be  strsined  Into  any  degree  of  liberty  to 
teaeb  or  preach  the  Gospel,  while  the  facts  recorded 
of  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome  (Acts  zxvUi,  S3,  81) 


COLOSSIANS 


I   bulh    I 


■poMl 


»nd  hia  cumpaiiinm  (««  chap,  ir,  II,  u)d  cump.  De 
Wtilt.  EMU.  I.  Coiau.  p.  IS,  18;  Wiewler,  ChitmaL 
pi.  490).  FImUj,  the  Cwndalina  fur  thu  o| '  ' 
u  Uk«i  KWBv  br  the  fact  that  Iha  impruoi 
of  Paul  at  CBiarea  wat  not  mi  long  »•  coromonlv 
toppOMd.  See  Padi..  It  ia  moat  likely,  tlienilc 
that  it  was  written  during  Paal's  firat  impiiaanmeut 
at  Rome,  probably  in  the  rptiag  of  A.D.  67,  and  ap- 
parentlj  ■oon  after  Ibe  EplHtlt  to  the  EphsaimiF,  ultli 
which  it  eoDtaina  numeroui  and  rtrilijng  colncideDCU. 
!d  *gpiiort  of  thit  date  the  following  facta  may  be  ad- 
Atad.:  Timothy  wu  with  Paul  at  the  time  (chap,  i, 
1;  camp.  Pbll.  ii,  19);  Epephroditua  (Epaphnf)  hkd 
lately  coma  bom  A*ia  Minor  (1,  4, 7, 9 ;  comp.  Phil.  Ii, 
*S ;  iv,  18).  and  waa  now  with  Paal  (l»,  3) ;  Paul  wu 
in  primn.  and  iiad  bean  preachinft  tn  hii  conliaement 
(ir,  S,  18;  ace  Acta  sxriii,  SO,  81);  TBrioua  fHonds 
wen  at  this  time  with  him  (iv,  7-H  ;  theae  had  then- 
fere  had  time  to  gather  aboot  hhn,  and  It  was  not  K 
ieamn  of  danger);  Tychicua  (on  his  Hcond  >»uniey) 
and  Oneatmns  carried  the  letteT(lT,  7,  g;  andaubacrip- 
tkm ;  camp.  Eph.  vi,  SI ;  Philem.  IS).  Frain  tbli  laM 
cireDmitance,  It  woold  appear  that  the  ej^tle  could 
not  have  been  writtfn  rerj-  early  in  hla  impriaonmont, 
a>  tfao  letter  In  Philemon  (doubtlna  written  not  long 
after)  speaks  confident!  vof  a  speedy  release  (see  Cnny- 
bean  and  Howaona  L'/e  and  EpMa  of  St.  Paul.  Ii, 
W). 

"The  striking  aim  iiniity  between  many  portions  of 
this  epistle  and  of  that  to  the  Ephcaians  has  given  rise 
to  much  spec ulatiflB,  both  Dstothe  reason  of  thia  atad- 
led  aimilarily,  and  as  to  tbc  priority  of  order  in  re- 


diacaiacd  at  loaglh,  but  must  bo  somewhat  briefly  dl«- 

tbe  (tenilarity  may  reasonably  be  accounted  for,  (!)  Ijy 
the  proximity  in  time  nt  which  tho  two  e[dstles  wero 
written ;  (!)  by  the  high  probability  that  in  two  cities 
of  Ada,  within  a  tnodente  dislanco  from  ooo  another, 
then  would  be  manv  doctrinal  prejudicce,  and  many 
social  relations,  that 'would  call  forth  and  need  prectsc- 
ly-tbe  aaine  language  of  warning  and  exhortation. 
The  priority  In  composition  muat  rPtnain  a  matter  for 
a  reasonable  dilTennee  of  opinion."  See  Ephuiahs 
and  PniLKHON  (^lipitilu  lo), 

III.  Ow^a.^Tbe  Eplrtlo  to  the  Cohwaians  waa  writ- 
ten, apparently,  In  conaequence  of  intbrmation  received 
Uf  Paul  through  Epaphraa  concerning  tho  internal 
state  of  their  rhurch  (i,C'R).  Whether  the  apoetle 
had  ever  himseir  beforo  thia  tima  visited  Coloean  is 

whars  he  says,  "  I  would  that  ye  knew  what  great  con- 
diet  I  have  for  you  and  (br  tbem  at  Laodicea,  ond  for 
ai  many  aa  have  not  seen  my  fu 
has  by  some  been  very  confide 
had  not.  It  haa  been  urged,  liowever,  that  when,  in 
vcr.  &,  the  apostle  saya,  "though  I  am  absent  In  the 
IWh,  yet  am  I  with  yon  In  the  aplrit,"  etc.,  bis  lan- 
goage  1*  stionglj  indicative  of  his  having  tbnnerly 
been  amoagM  the  Coloeeians,  for  the  aitupi  Is  used 
properiy  only  of  such  atsence  aa  arises  ftvm  tlie  per. 
tan't  ktniag  gam  lUKtj  from  Ibti  placo  of  which  hb  ab- 
aancela  pndicaled.  In  aopportof  tho  same  view  have 
bean  adduced  Paul's  having  twice  visited  and  gone 
UiRHighPbi7gia(AcMxvl,ei  xviil,i3),  in  which  Co- 
lowe  was  a  chief  city ;  his  familiar  aequalntanco  with 
sotnanyoftbeColDssian  ChriatUna,  Epaphras,  Archlp- 
pBs,  Phileinon  (who  was  one  of  his  own  converts,  ITiil. 
13,19),  and  Apphia,  probably  the  wife  of  Philemon; 
hii  apparent  acquaintance  with  Ouesimns,  the  alnvo  of 
Fh!len»D.  w  that  be  recosnised  him  again  at  Rome ; 
the  cordhdity  of  friendship  and  Interest  subslallng  be- 
tween the  apostle  and  the  Coloasians  as  a  liodv  (Col.  t, 
U,!£;  11,1;  iv,  7,  etc.);  the  apoaUe's  familiar  ao- 


1  COLOSSIANS 

qualntanca  with  their  atate  and  relationi  (t,  6  j  Ii,  6, 7, 
cCc.))  and  their  knowledge  of  so  many  of  hie  compan- 
ions, and  especially  of  Titnotby,  whose  name  the  spot- 
tie  aatocUtes  with  hia  own  at  the  commencement  of 
the  etdstio,  a  circumstance  which  is  worthy  of  consld^ 
I  eration  from  this,  that  Timothy  was  the  companion  of 
Paul  during  hia  first  tour  through  Fhri-gia,  when  prob- 
ably the  Gospel  waa  first  preached  at  Colossie.  Of 
these  considerations  It  must  be  allowed  that  the  cumu- 
lative force  is  very  strong  in  fiivor  of  the  opinion  that 
the  Christiana  at  CoIdbbe  bad  been  privileged  to  enjoy 
the  personal  mlniatralions  of  Paul.  At  the  pame  time, 
if  the  Colusaisns  and  Laodiceans  are  not  to  be  included 
among  thoae  of  whom  Paul  saya  they  had  not  seen  his 
face,  it  ac«ms  unaccountable  that  in  writing  to  the  Co- 
loasians he  aboald  have  referred  to  this  clafs  at  all. 
If,  moreover,  he  had  visited  the  Coloaalans,  was  it  not 
atrange  that  he  abould  have  no  deeper  feeling  towards 
them  than  he  bad  fur  the  multitudea  of  Christians  scat- 
tered over  the  world  whose  faces  he  had  never  seen  7 
In  fine,  as  it  Is  quite  pouibU  that  Paul  may  have  been 
twice  in  Phrygia  without  being  once  in  CoIohb,  ia  it 
not  easy  also  (o  account  for  his  interest  in  the  church 
at  Colosso,  bis  knowledge  of  their  affairs,  and  his  ac- 
quaintanca  with  individuals  among  them,  by  supporing 
that  memben  of  that  church  had  frequently  vifiled 
him  in  different  places,  though  he  liad  never  visited 
ColoasB?     See  Laodiceans  {EfUlh  toy. 

A  great  part  of  tiiia  epistle  ia  directed  against  cer- 
tain false  teachers  who  had  crept  into  the  church  st 
ColossB  (>ee  Rheinwald,  De  pKuda  dodoribiu  Colai- 
anuiius,  Bonn*,  18S4).  To  what  clasa  these  leachen 
liclonged  has  not  been  fully  determined.  Heinrichs 
iNot.  Tal.  Koppian.  VII,  il,  156)  contenda  that  they 
wero  disciples  of  John  the  BaiHIst.  HIcbaclis  and 
Storr.  with  more  show  of  reason,  conclude  that  they 
wero  Essence.  Hog  {Imtrod.  Ii,  44D)  tiaces  their  sys- 
tem to  the  Hagian  philosophy,  of  which  the  outlines 
are  fumlahed  by  lambllchns.  But  the  best  opinion 
aeems  to  bo  that  of  Neander  {Ptantiitg  and  Traimtig,  I, 
S74  sq.),  by  whom  the}'  are  represented  aa  a  patty  of 
■peciiiatists  who  endeavored  to  combine  the  doctrines 
of  OrienUl  theosophy  and  asceticism  with  Cbrtstitn- 
ity,  and  promised  thereby  to  their  disciples  a  deeper 
inaight  into  the  spiritual  world,  and  a  fuller  approxi- 
mation to  heavenly  purity  and  intelligence  than  sim- 
ple Christianity  could  yield.  (Sea  below.)  AgaiOFt 
this  party  the  apoetlo  arguea  l>y  reminding  tho  Coloa- 
sians that  hi  Jesus  Cfarict,  as  set  before  tbem  In  tho 
Gospel,  they  bad  all  that  they  required  ;  that  he  was 
tho  image  of  the  Inviaililo  God ;  that  ho  woa  lefora  all 
things;  Ihatbyhim  all  things  consirt;  thatthaywcro 
complete  in  him,  and  that  bo  would  prcjmnt  them  to 
God  lioly,  unblamable,  and  univpiovablr,  provided 
they  continued  steadfast  in  the  £iitfa.  He  then  shows 
that  the  prescriptioDS  of  a  mero  carnal  asceticism  am 
not  worthy  of  being  submitted  to  by  Christians,  and 
GOnclodra  by  dhrecting  their  uttentinn  to  the  elevated 
princlplea  which  should  regnlalo  the  conscience  and 
conduct  of  sacb,aiid  the  duties  of  social  and  domeatia 
lid  prompt,     (IJee  Jour,  Sue 


Lit.'' 


ii.) 


e  I'll 


;lea  therefore  were 
and  practice  of  tho 
ro  particularly  from 

three  specifications :  1.  A  pretentious  philosopby, 
which  affected  an  esoteric  knowledge,  received  through 
tradition,  and  which,  aliandonlng  Christ  tbe  Bead,  in- 
dulged in  unhollovcd  speculations  on  the  number  and 
nature  of  the  spiritual  beings  with  which  the  Invisibla 


hiirch  »e  d 


world  is  peopled  (Col.  ii,  8,  18).  !.  The  ol 
if  not  tho  asserted  obligation  (for  this  does  not  appear;, 
of  Jewish  ordlnaneea  (Col.  11, 16,  30-32).  3.  Tbe  prac- 
tice of  ascetic  regulations  (Col.  il,  23).  A  question 
hen  at  once  arises.  Were  these  varfooa  erron  fonnd 
united  in  the  same  pariy  or  Individual  ?  At  flnt  sight 
they  aoem  mntoally  to  exclude  each  other.    The  phaiw 


COLOSSIANS  42 

blia  Judaliera  exhIUted  ao  pronenau  ellhir  to  B  apec-  ' 
alatJvB  K"*'"''  <"'  to  ucetkli-m;  the  Unostic  iicedca, 
on  tlie  other  lund,  wire  uiuall)'  oppoced  to  a  rigid 
ceremDnUlirm.  It  is  ao  improbable,  bovevrr,  that,  in 
■  small  commanit}'  like  that  of  ColoesB,  tline  diitlnct 
pirties  ebould  have  axiMcd,  that  we  are  driven  lo  the 
conrluelon  that  ths  corrupt  tendencies  In  queatlon  did 

the  difflculty  will  perhaps  be  alleviated  if  we  l»ar  in 
niiodthitio  the  apnatolic  sgo  two  clanaes  orjudalting  , 
teachen,  equnlly  opposed  to  tho  simplicity  of  the  apoa- 1 
tolio  meisa){e,  thou);ta  in  diffcrrnl  waya,  baaied  them-  . 
aelves  in  k>»<D'(  tares  among  tho  wheat  In  the  visible  I 
Church.  The  former  cunaisted  of  the  ri)^d  formaliats,  ' 
'Chiefly  rharlaeea,  who  occupy  so  pn>inlncnt  a  place  In 
the  hiBlory  of  the  Acts  and  in  several  of  I^anl'i  epis- 
tles, and  who  contended  for  the  continued  obligation 
of  the  law  ofMoaea  upon  Gentile  converts;  the  litter 
were  speculative  udherenta  of  the  Alexandrian  rchool, 
wboae  principle  it  was  to  Bubordinato  the  letter  to  the 
apirit,  nr  rather  to  treat  the  former  as  a  mere  shell, 
which  the  initiited  were  nt  lilHrrly  Co  cast  away  as 
wortlileaa,  or  intended  only  for  tho  vul  nr.  Wilh  this 
blse  apiritualbm  was  usually  combined  an  element 
of  Oriental  theosophy,  with  its  doctrine  of  the  eiaen- 
UjI  evil  of  matUr,  and  the  aacetic  practices  by  which  ; 
It  was  suppoaed  that  the  mdI  ia  to  be  emancipated 
fiom  ths  material  thraldom  under  which  it  at  present 
labors.  To  angelology,  or  the  froming  of  anjrelic  gen-  ■ 
ealoglos,  the  Jewa  In  general  of  that  age  were  nolArl- 
ooily  addicted ;  in  the  pastoral  epistles  (ho  1  Tint,  i,  4}  ' 
we  again  meet  this  idle  form  of  speculation.  Thdt 
persons  imimed  with  these- various  notions  shonid,  on 
becoming  Christians,  attempt  an  amalgamation  of  . 
them  with  their  new  faith  ia  but  natural;  and  the  ili- 
Bssoited  union  seems  to  have  given  birth  to  tho  GnoA' 
ticism  of  a  subsequent  age, ' 


iridled  i 


laginati 


Teachers 


then,  or  porh^pa  a  sinilo  teacher  (Col.  ii,  16),  of  tbl* 
caat  of  Jud.iism  had  effected  an  entrance  into  tho  Co- 
loeaian  Church,  and  seems  to  have  there  experienced 
a  favorable  rocoptlnn.  In  a  Gentile  cmnmunity  like 
this,  pharisalc  Judaism  could  not  bo  easily  have  gained 
a  footing;  but  the  mixture  of  mystical  apecnliition  and 
■aceUc  iliacipline,  which  diatlnguisheil  the  section  of 
the  Alexandrian  school  alluded  to,  was  Just  adapted  to 
attract  the  unstable,  especially  in  Pbri-gia,  from  time 
immemoiial  the  land  of  mystic  rites,  such  aa  thoeo 
connected  with  the  worship  of  Cybele,  and  of  magical 
superatitkHi.  From  this  congenial  bcmI,  in  a  sutiac- 
quent  age,  Hontaniam  apran)(;  and.  ss  Neander  re- 
marks {ApottdgetdiiclOr..  i,  Ui\  it  is  remarkable  that 
In  the  4th  centary  the  Council  of  Laodicea  was  com- 
pelled to  prohibit  a  apeciea  oFangel-worahip,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  maintained  its  ground  In  these  regions 
(Csn.  85).  We  most  not,  however,  suppose  that  these 
tendencies  hail  worked  themselves  out  into  a  distinct 
system,  or  had  brought  forth  the  bitter  practical  fniiU 
which  were  their  natural  conaeqoenco,  and  which,  at  a 
liiler  period,  diatinguiahed  the  hersaiarcba  aliudeil  to 
In  the  pastoral  ejH^Ues,  and  the  followt        "-    -    ■ 


Dpostle  therefbri;  recommends  no  hsruh  moasntos,  an 

of  ignorance  and  inexparience;  as  that  of  erring  1 
sincere  Christians,  not  of  active  opponents ;  and  set 
by  gentle  persuaaion  to  win  them  luck  to  tholr  al 
glance  to  Christ.    See  UNoariciaM, 

IV.  f^oafnb.— Ul(c  tho  majority  of  PbdI'b  cpistl 


a  COLOSSUKS 

ant  ceasing  that  tbey  may  bo  frultfol  in  good  worki, 
and  esp«ci.illy  thankful  lu  the  Father,  who  gave  thaa 
an  inheritancD  with  bis  uliita,  and  tranalated  tbtni 
into  the  kingdom  of  his  Son— Ais  Son,  Ihi  imagt  oj'lht 
mtUibU  God,  the  first-born  before  everj'  creature,  the 
Crmtor  of  all  things  earthly  and  heavenly,  the  McmI 
of  the  Church.  He  in  whom  aii  ibin/s  subsL-t,  and  by 
whom  all  things  have  been  reciinciled  to  the  eternal 
Father  (i,  S-HU).  This  recoDciliitiun,  the  apoFtlc  T«- 
uiinda  them,  waa  exemplified  in  their  own  cases ;  tbey 
wore  once  alienated,  but  now  so  reconciled  as  to  La 
presented  holy  and  lilutneless  befon  God,  if  only  thc]r 
continued  firm  in  the  Cilth,  and  were  not  moved  fruan 
the  hope  of  which  the  Gospel  waa  the  aourc*  and  «^ 
igin  (i,  21-84).  Of  thb  Gospel  the  apostie  dMbrea 
himself  the  minister;  the  mystery  of  salvation  waa 
that  for  which  he  toiled  and  for  which  he  auBcred  (I, 
34-29).  Nor  were  bis  anScrings  only  for  tb«  Chudi 
at  large,  bnt  also  for  them  snd  others  whoai  be  had 
not  personally  visited,  even  that  they  might  come  to 
thc/uU  biowieiffi!  a/  Ckrul.  and  might  not  fall  vktima 
to  plaosible  sophistries  ;  they  wen  to  walk  In  t'hrirt 
and  to  be  built  on  him  (ii,  1-7).  Here  the  apoatla 
brioga  In  the  particular  theme  of  the  epistle.  &pB> 
clslly  were  the  Coloaslans  to  be  careful  that  no  ^i]aa> 
ophv  was  to  lead  tbem  from  Him  in  whom  dwelt  all 
the  fulness  of  the  Godhead,  who  was  Ike  Btad  ofaK 
gpiriluat  poirtn,  and  who  had  quickened  them,  for- 
given them,  ond  In  hla  death  had  triumphed  over  all 
the  hosts  of  darkness  (ii,  8,  16).  Surely  with  sncb 
i-piritual  privilegca  they  were  not  to  be  Judged  in  ib» 
matter  of  mere  ceremonial  observances  or  begoikd 
into  creature-wonhip.  CVisf  inu  On  load  of  An  hoif; 
if  thoy  were  tmlv  united  to  him,  what  need  waa  then 
of  bodily  aasteritiea  ?  (ii,  IC-SS.) 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  episUe  the  apoatie  enfotrea 
the  practical  duties  flowing  from  tbne  truths.  The 
Cnlnsslanswere,  then,  to  mind  tilings  above— epiritual 
things,  not  carnal  ordinances,  for  their  life  was  hidden 
■iUCiiw^Oil,  1-4):  tbey  were  to  mortifp  their  mem- 
bers and  the  evil  |»inciples  in  which  they  once  walk- 
ed ;  the  old  man  was  to  be  put  off;  and  the  oew  Bun 
put  on,  in  which  all  am  one  tn  Otrvi  (iii.  5-12).      Fu:^ 


:ial  duti 


The 


one  of  whi<di  contains 
tical  maUer. 


lo  doctrinal,  the  other  the  prac- 


bia  usual  aslut:ition  (cbap.  i,  1-3), 
nttums  thanks  to  God  for  the  faith  of  tbo 
the  spirit  of  love  tbey  had  shown,  and  the  pro^^i 
which  the  Gospel  hud  raailc  among  them  aa  preached  , 
by  Epapbras  (i,  3-8).     This  leads  him  to  pray  with-  j 


forgiving  and  loving,  as  waa  Christ. 
In  tho  conaciousneaa  of  his  abiding  word  were  they  to 
sing ;  in  hi*  name  were  tbey  t»  be  thankful  (iu,  13- 
i;>  Wives  and  husbands,  children  snd  pa^ent^  wen 
all  to  pnfonn  their  duties;  sarvsnta  were  to  b«  bitb. 
ful,  masters  to  be  Just  (iii,  IB-iv.  1). 

In  tho  last  chapter  the  apostlu  gives  further  special 
precopta,  strikingly  similar  to  those  given  to  hia  Epha- 
sian  convens.  Thoy  were  to  pray  for  tbc  apoetle,  and 
for  his  success  in  ptieBebing  the  Gospel ;  tbey  wen  to 
walk  eircumspectlv,  and  lo  be  ready  lo  give  a  saaaori. 
able  answer  to  sll  who  qneslioncd  them  ( iv,  !-7> 
TychkUB,  the  bearer  of  the  letter,  and  Onesimus  wonld 
tell  them  all  tho  stato  of  tbe  apostle  (iv,  7-0)  :  Aria- 
tarchus  and  others  acnt  them  friendly  greetings  (iv, 
10-14).  With  an  injunction  to  interchange  this  letter 
with  that  sent  to  tbe  neighboring  church  of  Laodkea 
(iv,  III),  a  special  message  to  ARhippns  (iv,  IT),  and 
on  lutagrapb  salutation,  this  abort  but  striking  epiatle 
comos  to  Its  elnse.     See  EfirtUi; 

V.  Ownirientorwi.— The  foUowing  are  expressly  on 
this  Epiatle  (including,  in  some  instances,  one  or  more 
of  the  other  Pauline  letters),  the  most  important  bring 
designated  by  an  asterisk  (*)  preiixed :  Jerome,  Cbn- 
mntf.  (in  0^-^  fSdjipoi.]  ii):  Chrysostom,  Horn.  (In 
Opp.  ii,  B«8);  Zuingle,  AiutolaUnnf  (in  0pp.  iv,  61i)i 
Melanetbon,  £iwmilUoiKt(WitteDb.  l&iS,  4to);  Zan- 


:hius.  Cammtal.  (in  0pp.  vi);  Mnaculi 
tu  (Basil.  166S,  l&TB,  169.%  fal.) ;  Aretins,  CoiwiiewXirn 
(Morg.lSaO,  Bvo);  Olevbnua.  ffi*r  (Gen.  1580,  Bto): 
Orj-nsus.  Rr,j:aUia  (Basil,  ISWi,  8vo) ;  Rnllock,  C<mt- 
nirM'<in'u>([iMinM<WO,  8vu:  Genev.  lEOS);  al^o  I.re- 
(Lend.  1603, 4to)-,  Cartwiight,Cro>uanJar3i  (Load. 


COLT  4S 

Id!,  41a) :  *B7ncld,  EjjnnlJM  (Lond.  1616,  fbl. ;  bIm  i 
KJi,  1649);  Elton,  £//«t(w»  (l^nd.  1616.  4lo;  1630,  I 
ICil.fui.);  Qv.iri>t,CommTniaruu(\ti  Dirjml.,hugd.U. 
ISffl);  CrtltiQ.,  CsmmttariM,  (in  0pp.  i,  6S3)j  Coc-  I 
olu,  Tm  Ep.  ad  Vot.  (in  0pp.  xil,  313);  AlUng,  ^ih(- 
fdi  (in  i;^.  Iv)  ;  •Darenant,  tixpiMtio  (Cantab.  16£7,  I 
loL;  ■!»  16S0, 16B9,  fell. ;  Gcnev.  Itibi,  4(ii;  tn  Eog- j 
lipb.  Londnn,  IKH,  !  vok.  Svu);  Calixtiu,  Kxpatilio  , 
(Bnmaw.  ICM,  4to)  j  DallU,  ^crmoiw  (in  French,  Gen.  ! 
IWt,  2(1  n1.  S  voU.  Svo ;  in  Engligb.  Lond.  ISTS,  fol.) ;  ! 
and  Etio^HuK  (Und.  1811,  8vo)  ;  FerKHHon,  Cuaam- 
ranH(l.or.d.  166K,  Sva);  Martin,  yliw/ytit  (in  £Vp- >^i 
mf);  ■D-Outrein.^tWAnV/elcCAnirt.  1695,11a:  In 
Gcfmao,  FnniirDrt,  1G»a.  4to) ;  Schmid,  foauHiKur/u 
(Haml).  1696,  4to;  *1k>  1704);  Saint,  Cotumtnlariia 
(TiiCDil,  1699,  4Io):  Smso,  UtdiUOvma  (Amat.  1706, 
Kto):  Gleicb,  i>fi^F«(DTewkn,  1717,  4to);  Latkeu, 
PrrtSgtfK  (Ganlei.  1718,  17S7,  4to)  ;  Haiavott,  Vrr.  \ 
U,aiHg  (Lufcd.  B.  17S0,  Ho)\  Van  Til,  CDimHabiruu 
(Anst.  1726,  4(o);  RmII,  txtgau  (Tn^.  1731,  4t(i); 
lVirw,/^irap4ra«  (London,  1788, 4lo)i  Koning.Clpric 
lijy'iV  (l~  B.  1739,  4to);  Stoir,  ItUerpnlatio  (in  liii 
(^i«Hr..'1i9idii,I»)-94I);  Boyaen,  friUrun^  (Quedll. 
17«-1781>i  Jon«,re™oi. (London,  1820, limo);  Jun- 
kR,('uMn«i(ar(UBnnbeiin,lSS8,gva);  Baliintr, .1  uWr. 
fms  (Hto,  Berl.  1829 ;  Brwilau.  ISSoJ ;  Flatl,  ErUdT. 
ad.  \>j  Klint;  (Tblt.  1829,  8to)j  *Bilbr,  Ci-mmaUar  (Ba. 
iel,lB33,  Sto);  yiiXeon,  DtKOtrta  (Lond.  1834,  tit-o; 
alu  1838);  Steiger,  Utbm.  a.  ErUdr.  (ErUng.  ITOS, 
8n);  Schlelamiacbar,  PmSfflat  (Berlin,  IfSe,  2  vol*. 
8ro};  Langs,  y/<H(in>  (Barmen,  ]S.''.9);  Dtrker.  BtaT- 
intU9(Han]b.l848,Kva):  Hdther, CourmeiKar (Hamh. 
1841,  i  ToU.  Sro) ;  *De  Welle,  frUdruns  (Lpi.  1848, 
1847, 8to);  lVfl«on,  rytHtort  (Undon,  1846,  Hvoj  alao 
1816),-  BiBBigarten-CraaiDS,  Comiaailor  (Jena,  1M7, 
8tb);  Merer, //>»UwA(i;att.  1848,  Kvo.pt.  ix):  KIb- 
ler,  Aiukffimy  (Eisleb.  1863,  8vd}  ;  Bi'pinp,  ErUdnmg 
(UDnst.  1855,  Kvo) ;  'Eadie,  CommnlaTj  (Clang.  1^66, 
8va):  Dalmer,  AuiUamg  (Rotba.  1858,  Kro);  *ElIi- 
cotl,  CoauHnCo/y  (London,  1858,  lf61,  8to  ;  Andnver, 
ISOJ.  8to);  nisbotna.  EipomtioH  (Lond.  I860, 12niD); 
UcMmer,  AVjbUno^  (Brixen,  186:1,  8vn):  PaPHrant, 
Awtlfyimg  (Basel,  1865,  8ro)  ;  •Bleek,  Vorlamigm 
(Berlin,  186S,  8vo).     3ea  Cohhuttabt. 

Colt  (prop.  I^y,  d'jrtri  ■  TonoS  ""i  Jadg.  x,  4; 
xiii.l4:  Job  xl,  iS;  Zech.  ix,  0;  wiZXot,  Matt,  xxi, 
2,  etc.),  apoken  of  the  joung  of  the  botae,  ua,  or  cani- 
»L    See  FoAi_ 

Colton,  CalviK,  D.D.,  waa  born  in  Lonmneadoir, 
Haa.,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  181?.  He 
Nodied  divinity  at  Andovcr,  and  waa  ordained  a  Prea- 
bjtarian  clergyman  In  1816,  wben  he  settled  at  Ba- 
tarla,  K.  ¥.,  where  be  preached  nntil  182r>,  at  which  , 
tJmt  he  loal  hie  voice,  and  thenceforth  devoted  hia  time  i 
to  writini!  for  periodical*.  He  travfllHl  in  Eumpo  ri:r  | 
Mveial  yeara,  retaming  to  Mew  York  in  1P36.  when 
be  took  ordera  in  the  Protestant  Eidsrofial  Chnrrh.  , 
After  tbit  be  tamed  bis  attention  to  political  subjects, 
aad  ttam  1888  to  1842  wrote  manv  pamphlet*.  Ho  . 
held  for  KHne  years  before  bis  death  the  chair  of  Po. 
lltkalEconomy  in  Trinity  Collegr,  Hartford.  Among 
hia  tbeologirral  writings  are  Tlir  Ctnlwi  and  Mutitm  of  , 
tts  VnltiUmt  Kpun^il  Ckunk  i*  ike  United  Stain 
(llrao);  rAeffe*>'ow.S(«Vn/**eCoiBi*rjr(]2mo).  Ha  j 
died  at  Savannah,  Mareh  :0,  IS&7. 

Colnmba  was  the  first  of  the  nnmennl  1rl>h  mla- 
^onaries  of  ttie  sixth  and  seventh  centories.  He  was 
tnm  abont  A.D.  520,  In  Donegal,  Ireland,  of  the  royal 
(knuly.  Hia  real  name  was  Cnlum,  hot,  from  his  dnve- 
Uke  appnuaoce  in  chlldhaad,  it  wan  Utinir^  to  Co- 
Umba  (dove).  Among  hia  own  conntrrmen  he  waa 
aHed  Cnhm  M  CkOt.  or  ColamU-illr.  Colnm  of  the 
Charch.  His  mottwr,  Eihena,  was  of  the  myal  house 
oTLdiutiT.  Before  Columha  went  ahnHiil  on  his  mis. 
tfaa  be  had  trardled  o*ar  Ltliuter,  Cowiaught,  Heath,  , 


3  COLUMBA 

and  other  parte,  preaching  and  calling  open  all  lm> 
mediately  to  repent  and  beliete  in  Cbriat.  The  Ven- 
erable Bed*  {EecL  Hltl.  lib.  <il)  aayr,  "Before  Colnmh 
came  into  North  Britain  he  fonnded  a  noble  monaa. 
lery  in  Ireland,  which,  In  the  language  of  the  Scot* 
[Irish],  waa  called  Dalrmach,  that  i^  the  '  Field  of 
Oika.'"  Archbishop  Uahcr,  who  atudled  the  life  of 
thia  eaint  carefully,  aaya  "that,  directly  or  lodirect- 
Ij,  Cfdumba  founded  nearly  one  hondred  monnateriea 
in  Ireland."  Tha  bitht^p  may  have  meant  timply 
Cbrittlan  Bchoole;  for,  like  bis  prototype  St.  Patrick, 
wherever  be  hsd  built  a  cburch  be  founded  a  school. 
With  these  eaily  Irish  Christians  religion  and  learn- 
ing were  twin  slaters.  But  Culumba  is  better  known 
In  history  aa  "IbeApoftle  of  the  Pkla,  or  the  West- 
ern Isles."  Pasting  over  on  a  religious  visit  to  the 
Irish  coloay  In  Albjn  ar  Korth  Britain,  the  chief- 
tains of  whlcb  were  hts  own  relattrea,  for  the  Knt 
thne  he  was  brongbl  into  contact  with  the  Picta, 
who  were  then  paguns.  From  that  moment  ha  re- 
solved to  devote  hit  life  to  their  evangelization.  For 
this  pDipore,  about  A.D.  £68,  Columba  (bnned  a  coiD- 
pony  of  twelve,  and  embarked  for  Druids*  laland,  situ* 
ated  weft  it  Mull,  hi  the  country  aflcrwards  called 
Scotland.  Here  he  foonded  the  monsrter^-,  or,  mere 
properly,  the  great  Ibrolc^cal  rcboul  known  on  the 
Continent  Onring  the  Dark  Ages  sa  "  The  W»tem 

wholly  wilbin  Itfclf,  presbytcrian  and  rrpublican ;  the 
abbot  or  head  invariably  to  bo  a  jireabyter,  and  to  he 
cbofen  only  by  the  inmates.  Havlpg  built  bis  buta, 
and  left  icme  of  bis  men  to  till  the  ground  for  their 
support,  with  a  few  attendant*  be  set  out  to  preach  ta 
the  Plcts  and  the  Hij(hLindcn  on  Ibc  north  aide  of  Ihe 
Gr>m[dan  Range.  At  firat  bo  was  sternly  resitted  by 
the  chiefUin  and  hia  Druidic  prirtt.  At  lasl,  how. 
ever,  tho  king  not  only  imbraccd  Chrl»ianity,  Init 
became  active  In  rpreading  it  among  Ills  people.  Co- 
lumba and  his  c(rmpi,nlFna  afterwards  act  aail  for  the 
Western  and  Orkney  Islands,  and  founded  several 
churches  and  arbcols  upon  tbcm.  Having  thus  e*- 
tahlished  hta  mirclon  beyond  tlie  Grampian  HillF,  he 
returned  to  lona  and  Albyn.  For  wveral  years  hia 
lleld  of  lalor  waa  vei^-  large,  extending  from  Iha 
Weetem  Itlsnda  to  the  I-owbod  PictA,  to  Ibe  Irihb  col- 
ony in  Arg^Icahirc,  to  the  Antrlr-Saxona  In  Korthnm. 
bw]and,and  orcaah)nally  to  Ireland.  Although  nev. 
er  ppisco|i>lly  ordaineil,  he  thus  liecame  the  greateat 
miaahinary  hithop  of  bis  day.  Rla  laatrisitto  Ireland 
was  one  of  peace,  to  adjust  a  political  difference  be- 
tween two  princes.  On  reaching  lona,  "the  isle  of 
hi*  heart,"  as  he  usually  called  it,  he  waa  very  feel  le. 
Finding  that  he  was  drawing  near  the  close  of  life, 
be  was  Uken  to  ■  little  eminence  ttom  which  be  could 
Fee  the  holy  aettleinent,  and  from  which  he  Invoked 
(Jed's  hlcFsing  upon  it.  Having  returned,  ho  began 
lihi  favorite  cnijilnyment  of  tranfcribing  Ibo  Pm'p. 
turn.  That  nl^ht,  Irlng  W  to  the  alUr,  he  fell  on 
his  knees  and  legan  to  ]  rty ;  roon,  however,  he  waa 
direovered  leaning  agsiuf  t  the  railing  In  a  dying  Elate. 
Tho  lirotherbood,  now  gathering  tmund  him  with  Ihrir 
lighted  torrhea,  began  to  werp  and  to  crave  his  last 
blessing.  Recovering  for  a  moment,  and  feebly  open- 
ing his  eye*  and  smiling  on  all  around,  be  attempted 
to  raise  hia  hand  tu  pronounce  Ibe  blearing,  but  it  im- 
mediately fell.  He  then  swik  down  In  death,  and 
breathed  his  last.  In  the  Tfth  year  of  hia  age. 

ColumUi  was  no  ordinary  man.  In  pernin  he  Is 
said  to  have  lieen  very  comely — beautiful  even  to  old 
age.  He  wa*  never  idle.  When  not  engaged  in  ntudy, 
prayer,  or  miaalonary  daty,  he  employed  himself  In 
Iranw-rihing  the  Holy  Scripture*.  When  travelling  he 
waa  always  seeking  for  opporlanitiee  to  do  good.  If 
he  met  a  cblld,  he  gave  It  his  blessing;  If  an  adult,  ha 
inqdirrdln  reirardtohls  souL  On  entering  Bhatiar,li* 
Invoked  God's  lilrRring  upon  It;  and  often,  when  reach- 
ing tha  tbreshiog-floor,  he  woald  request  all  to  atop 


COLUMBANUS  4 

work  tU  Qmy  had  thanked  God,  ths  giver  af  bmd. 
Uia  florly  Uogrsphen  nj  thit  he  wb>  ■  pawerrul 
preacher,  ipukiD^;  tbe  Iri^  anil  I^tin  with  equal  eow, 
and  both  with  great  fiaency.  Hli  voice  wai  tender, 
tiemalaiiB,  mueical,  and  lofflcieatly  tlrong  to  im  haird 
at  a  great  dietance.  His  laul  wuB  in  big  preacbing, 
and  woB  coDStaatij'  manifettlnj;  iUelf  tbrongh  fals 
Torda,  tones,  and  gesture'.  He  wet  a  man  of  great 
prayer;  the  spirit  of  davolion  seemed  to  have  been  tbe 
atmotphere  in  which  he  iired.  If  be  entered  a  l»at, 
mounted  a  horse,  administered  tnedicinc,  or  parted 
with  a  Mend,  in  all  these  he  aclinDw lodged  God,  and 
aalced  hia  protection.  He  was  not  a  Kunianiat^Ko- 
manism  proper  hod  not  reached  Ireland  in  biiday.  He 
enjoined  on  all  his  disciples  to  receive  nothing  as  relig- 
loos  truth  that  was  not  snatained  by  proof  drawn  rrom 
the  Holy  Scriptures  {Pnlatii  lacnt  Scn'plura  IfHi. 
Monis).— Adamniin,  I.i/e  o/ColmiAa ;  Bede,  Ecd.  B'at. 
iil,  4',  Moore,  Bitt.  nf  Inlaitd,  often;  Pict.  /fut.  -/ 
Enghiid.  1,277;  Montolembett,  Jfuiub'/fAe  ITivf,  vol. 
lli;  Todd, <1iKi(9lt/ri((CABrcA.- Smith, /iti^M  >/ .1*- 
dtat  Britain,  p.  266;  WeL»ar,  Ciruiiia  JUiuimi  in  lie 
Middle  Ago,  Lood.  18G3;  PratcetmRtv.3m.  1867,  p.  5. 
ColumlMIUtia,  a  mlssionjry  of  the  sixth  century, 
was  born  in  Leinster,  Ireland,  about  A.D.  5(3,  and 
dowended  from  a  noble  r^mily  of  that  province.  In 
early  life,  fnim  bilenta,  position,  and  property,  tbe 
world  opened  In  him  with  unusual  sttravtiona,  but  ha 
decided  to  enter  tbe  monastor}*  of  Bjnchor,  in  Ulster, 
then  itiTinginatructiantoaboutone  thousand  students. 
Hiiving  furmed  a  compicy  of  missionaries,  Columbia  us 
aet  out  for  France,  and  iettl«l  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges 
Honntilns,  among  the  wildest,  poorest,  and  most  un- 
civillied  of  ail  the  Franks.  Here  ha  built  huts.  The 
dally  routine  of  the  (hiternity  was,  in  their  cabins,  read- 
ing, praying,  and  transcriliing  the  Scriptures  and  oth- 
er iKKtks;  in  the  Held,  cultivating  the  ground  fur  their 
■QStenance  and  to  give  to  tbe  p^ior ;  and  when  abroad, 
visiting  the  people. and  inviting  them  to  he^rUie  Gos- 
pel. Their  establishment,  altliough  geacmlly  called 
a  Rionastory,  was  far  mora  like  one  of  our  modern 
missionBTy  stations.  After  a  fg  w  yaars  another  wai 
commenced  at  Fontaines — "The  Springs" — which 
aoon  became  a  pljce  of  general  resort,  and  which  great- 
ly enlarged  their  sphere  of  usefulness.  In  Ibase  places 
they  conUnued  for  about  twenty  years,  exerting  the 
most  benign  lafluence  on  all  the  Burrounding  country; 
■nd  throngh  the  wives  and  diujhCers  of  the  seml-bar- 
barooB  cbieftains,  Cbristlant^ag  its  political  instito- 
tlons.  "  Ttie  common  people  had  followed  these  mis- 
alonaries  gladly;  but  the  keen  rebukes  of  Golumbanus 
liad  long  chafed  the  most  of  the  ruling  classes.  At  a 
royal  festival  a  gissa  of  wine  was  presentad  to  him, 
which  he  dashed  on  the  floor  because  It  hod  *been  pol- 
luted by  the  tonch  ofan  adulterer'  "  (Godwin's  Aadail 
Omd,  p.  S33).  At  another  time  four  illegitimate  chil- 
dren of  Thenderik,  or  Thierry,  the  king,  were  placed 
before  him  to  receive  his  blessing,  which  he  refused, 
and  pronounced  them  to  be  the  offspring  of  sin.  Upon 
this  tbe  bmous  Brunehilda  vowed  his  destruction. 
When  the  soldiert  came  to  disperse  his  estatdislimeDt, 
be  met  them  with  Intrepidity.  But  the  monastery  was 
broken  np.  Tlie  brotlwrbood  now  rallied  amnnd  him, 
and  were  willing  to  die  with  him;  but  he  advised  them 


ny. 


Coiumbinus  went  to  Italy,  where  new  troubit 
awaited  bim.  Holding  with  the  Irish  Church  in  regard 
to  the  Three  Chapters  (q.  v.)  and  the  time  of  keeiriug 
Easter  <q.  v.),  he  learned  that  the  Roman  Chuich  had 
condemned  these  views  under  severe  penaltiee.  He 
found,  however,  a  protector  in  Theodolinda,  tbe  pious 
queen  of  the  Lombards,  who  agreed  with  him  about  the 
Three  Chapters.  He  bad  everywhereavowed  bis  prin- 
ciples, and  even  addressed  a  letter  to  pope  Bonitkce,  in 
which  he  charged  him  and  the  General  Council  with 
departing  from  the  lalth  of  Um  apostles.     He  remind- 


!4  COLUMN 

ed  him  that  In  Ro;iie  ai)d  Italy  there  ttad  been  mai^ 

disputes  and  dlEScnsIons,  Khile  in  Ireland  "  there  never 
had  been  a  heretic  or  schismatic  but  that  from  the  be- 

the  true  catholic  faith."  Soon  afterwards  lie  retireO 
to  Bobblo,  in  tbe  Apennines,  where  he  founded  bis  Ust 
monaster}-,  and  died  prematurely  alMut  A.D.  615. 

Cuiumbanus  was  one  of  those  men  who  cannot  paaa 
easily  through  this  world.  The  subjects  of  his  re- 
bukes were  generally  sbining  marks— kings,  qneens, 
dukes,  popes,  and  others  in  high  places.  By  nature 
he  was  a  poet ;  and  tbe  fragment*  of  Irish  poeirr  left 
by  him  are  said  by  competent  Judges  to  have  been  im- 
itated in  llucpherson's  Oitian.  He  has  been  almoet 
overlooked  In  Engibb  lilfrature,  while  Ihe  authors  of 
tlie  IMerary  Hiitorj  of  f'rwiet  aro  even  extravagant 
in  bis  praise.  He  left  a  tnsatise  on  I'enltenc*,  fVnm 
which  it  is  evident  that  commnntoa  Id  both  kinds  was 
allowed  in  the  Irish  Church  in  hu  day.  Of  the  works 
written  by  Cuiumbanus  are  still  eiUnt:  Dt  octo  •  Wit 
JirinapiiIitmM,  Paaittn/iak,  ImafnctionrM  di  n^CrsLI  £%/w- 
tiaid,  snd  some  letter*  and  p«ms.  They  luve  ben 
published  by  Fleming  (I«avatn,  1607),  and  in  GalUn- 
dins,  BiU  v^lenm  Putr.  torn.  sil.  Colamtanns's  mo- 
nastic rule  hat  been  published  in  Holsten-ltrockie.  Ot- 
dex  Rigid.  1,166  sq.  lliograpbiet  of  Colnmlianus  wera 
written  by  his  comptnion  Jonss  and  by  tbe  nwok 
Walafrid  Strabo,  l«tb  of  which  are  given  by  UabU- 
lon.  Acta  SS.  Ord.  S.  S-n.  i,  sec.  2.— See  Welxer  c 
Welte,  Kirck:a-Ijix.  il,  700;  Herwg,  AeoI-SirylV 
ii,  789 ;  Hefele,  Gtnh.  dr  Eirfakr.  da  CkriH.  U  Sid- 
dartnrA.  p.  363-380;  Knotlenbelt,  Ditp.  de  Coimkma 
(Leyd.  18ii9) ;  Bidoin  LiU.de  la  Fnamt,  Hi.  279  MB; 
Usher,  vt,  881;  Zi™  rfiaast.  Mr*  e/Irrimi,  i,  129 
(Dublin,  ISSa);  Moore's  Hiil.  o/Irrland,  p.  1S6  (Phils. 
delphia);  Neander,  L^  6i  i)art  noou,  p.  167 . 

Coltmui  (Lat.  coAmiKi),  a  pillar  to  support  a  roof 
or  otiier  part  of  a  building.  It  is  mole  usu^y  applied 
to  ancient  architecture,  tbe  columns  of  Gothic  buildings 
being  usually  termed  jriSars.  Still,  this  distinctioD  of 
terms  is  not  universally  observed.  A  column  grner- 
aliy  has  a  base,  shaft,  and  capital.  The  propnrtiona 
vary  with  the  style  i^  architecture,  end  the  size  and 
purpose  of  the  building.  It  was  frei^uentlv  merely 
an  architectural  ornament,  and  was  nscd  in  all  culti- 
vated ages.  Thoae  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  and  Persians  may  be  taken  as  tbe  bat 
and  meet  claseical  examples  of  antiquity.     Sea  Pii^ 

I.  Egyi>tian  columns  may  be  classed  In  eight  ortli^ 
as  in  the  accompanying  wood-cut,  where,  being  drawn 

shown.  For,  though  columns  of  the  same  order  vaiy 
verj'  much  in  dllTerent  buildings,  an  average  propor- 
tion may  be  assigned  to  them,  which.  )ndee<),  is  ail 
that  can  be  done  in  those  of  Greece,  though  they  va- 
ried less  than  in  Egyptian  arcbitectnre.  In  point  of 
antiquity,  the  firn  was  certainly  the  square  inflar; 
then  the  polygrmal  and  roond  fluted  column  of  tbe 
second  order ;  and  soon  afterwards  the  third  and  foorth 
came  into  nee.  But  the  foarth  and  fifth,  though  used 
long  twfure,  were  not  common  till  the  18t^  dynasty, 
and  the  fourth  assumed  a  larger  eite  than  any  Dthn, 
as  Bt  Kamak  and  I.uxor.  The  sixth,  though  mostly 
in  Ptolemaic  snd  Roman  templer,  dates  at  least  as  rar- 
ly  as  the  18th  dynasty;  as  does  the  eighth, which  it, 
in  fact,  the  square  pillar,  with  a  tignie  attached,  and 
Ihe  evident  original  of  the  Carj-atide  of  Greece ;  bal 
tbe  sevouth  Is  limited  tn  the  a;^'  of  the  Ptnlemie^  and 


endlesi 


its  cai^tal.     It  was,  bo* 

no  way  indebted  to  Greek  t 

Of  the  aame  kind  were  tbe  col 

nieos  (v,103).  with  drcuhir  capluls,  set  round  nith 

roae-like  ornaments,  or  with  flowers  and  interiind 

leaves,  some  of  which  were  made  of  the  long  tapering 


MIL  5th. 


•Ih.  Ilh,  orUimiHlto.         Bifa,  or  Uilrida. 

Andml  Egrptlu  Colamu. 

linn  tued  Id  (heir  boOH},  to  irhidi  be  alM  >lli]d«f. 

Then  w«a  lUo  a  piluler  Burmounled  by  ■  cow's  head 

(WakiDKiii's  Aftc.  Egnitiaiit,  li,  285,  386.  tbriil|{m.)- 

a.  Among  (he  Greeks,  iIbo,  the  gnodeor  of  the  tem- 
ple*, which  were  very  simple  in  form,  wu  greatly  ow- 
ing to  the  baaatlful  coinbinatioBa  of  columna  vrbicb 
■domed  the  inleiior  u  well  u  the  ontaide.  These 
coIuTTini  either  iurroDDded  the  building  entirely,  ot 
were  ttrtami  in  portloaes  on  one  or  more  of  its  fki>nti, 
ud  ■ccoidiay  to  their  number  and  diMributibO  Cem- 


25  COMBEFIS 

I  pies  have  lieen  claulfled  both  by  andent  and  modern 
writer!  on  architeotare.  Columni  wen  originally 
I  oled  simply  to  support  the  roof  of  the  edifice ;  and, 
,  amidat  all  the  eluborationa  of  a  kter  age,  this  object 
I  was  alwjiys  kept  in  view.  Hence  we  find  the  column 
lupporting  a  horizontal  mau  technically  called  the 
I  entablature.  Both  the  column  and  the  entabUtUTe 
gain  divided  into  three  distinct  iwItB.  The  for. 
xmsiata  of  the  base,  the  shaft,  and  the  capital; 
the  latter  of  the  architrave,  the  frieze,  and  the  cornice. 
The  architrave  is  the  chief  beam  (iiridriiXioi',  giiifj- 
lium\  resting  on  the  summit  of  the  row  of  column) ; 
the  frieie  (iia^upoc,  tapMona)  rises  above  the  trcbi- 
trave,  and  is  Crequenly  adorned  by  figures  in  detoi' ; 
and  above  the  fHeza  projects  the  cornice  (jropuvic,  cv- 
'  X  forming  a  bandaotne  finiah  (Smith's  Hiitory  of 
Greect,  p.  lU ;  see  Moller,  AndciU  Ah  [Lond.  1842], 
"277). 

3.  The  Persian  style  of  columns  (see  Aesiria; 
achik)  greatly  resembled  the  Ionic,  having  a  circu- 
a  and  ornamental  base,  a  fluted  shaft,  and  a  capital, 
coaaisCing  either  of  two  half-farmed  animals  (Ihe 
hone-bead  or  den<i-bu1ls  were  the  fnvoriUs)  crosswise 
of  the  architrave,  urof  a  complex  pyramidal  ornament 
lunted  by  volutes  (Ferguaaon's  A'mmA  and  Ptr. 
Mpo/w,  p.  IBD  sq.).  See  Abchitectdue. 
Comander.  See  Kouampek. 
Comb.  See  HoMET. 
Combat.  See  Sinoi-e  Combat. 
CombafiB,  Francois,  a  learned  Dominican  ntonh, 
as  born  in  November,  160S,  at  Marmande,  in  the  De- 
portment of  Lot^t-Garonne,  in  France.  He  was  edu- 
~  by  the  Jesuits  at  Bordeaux,  and  in  1624  entered 
the  Dominican  order.  After  completing  his  theoloe- 
ical  etudies,  be  was  appointed  professor  of  philosopbv 
and  theology  in  eevetal  houses  ofbls  order  (in  KHOa't 
Paris).  But  Boon  he  withdrew  from  his  prof essort  hip 
in  order  to  devote  all  his  time  to  litcran'  labor*,  and, 
In  particular,  to  tbe  study  and  publication  of  Ihe  an- 
cient writers  of  the  Church.  Aftir  pnblisbin»r,  in 
1644.  tbe  works  of  Amphilochint,  bishop  of  Iconium, 
of  Methodius  and  Andteui  of  Crete  (3  vols,  fol.,  Greek 
and  Latin,  with  notes),  and  in  IMG  the  Scholia  of  St. 
Haximna  on  Dionysius,  be  attracted  great  attention 
by  the  publication  of  the  Norwn  Avi^riaiit  Gtoob- 
IjiHaa  BibSolhreir  Palnm  (Pari?,  1C48),  which  consiils 
of  an  esegetical  and  a  biatoricai  part.  The  former 
contains  homilies  and  sennona  of  St.  Asterius,  bishop 
of  Amasea,  of  St.  Proctus.  of  St.  Anartneins  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  of  several  other  Church  fathers  and  writers. 
The  second  part  contains  a  history  of  the  Monothe- 
litep.  which  was  not  well  received  in  Rome,  and  Ihe 
writings  of  several  Greek  writers,  ecclesiaptical  and 
ecular.  In  1666  he  published  tbe  Chronography  of 
the  Byzantine  writer  Theophanea,  vhich  had  been  b«- 
.n  by  Ihe  Dominican  monk  Goar,  but  left  unfinished 
his  death.  Id  order  to  encourage  these  literaiy 
labors,  tbe  Frenrb  bishops,  at  a  meeting  in  Paris  In 
eU,  assigned  to  Combcl^e  an  annual  salary  of  SOO 
ivre!^,  which  in  the  next  year  was  increased  to  800, 
ind  later  to  1000  livies.  In  16S6  he  publixhrd  several 
vorks  of  Chrysostom  ;  In  1G60  tbe  acts  of  martyrs  of 
the  Greek  Church  {Illuitnim  CkriiH  Jfanfnwi  Ucli 
TVwmpAi,  Greek  and  l.atin).  In  16GS  appeared  one 
of  his  greatest  works,  the  BSiSolhecti  Pairam  Cohcuw). 
byria  (S  vols.  Paris).  Among  the  most  important  of 
his  lalCT  works  are  the  following:  AvUiiriam  noeaii- 
mum  Biblialhtnr  Granmm  Piitrvm  (Paris,  1672,  J 
ro\t.),ennU.iamg  Uber  Flnvii  J'^epAidtimpeHoratiimu 
in  taudfm  .Vaccoftmin™,  two  liooks  of  HIppotytus,  one 
essay  of  Methodius,  two  works  against  the  Maniche- 
ans  by  Alexander  of  Lycopolis  (formerly  liimwlf  a 
Manichean).  and  by  Didymus  of  Alexandria  ;  aome  es- 
lyst^tbeHosychast  Palamaa  and  his  opponent  Han- 
el  Kalahas,  who,  on  account  of  bis  Romanizing  ten- 
dencies, had  been  expalled  (torn  the  Greek  Chnrch  and 


COMBER  i'. 

bad  entered  the  Dominimi  order ;  tbe  EaJtitatlfi  GnB- 
cut  (Par.  1674),  contiining  a  Latdii  truiuUtioa  of  lelect 
wiaki  of  Bull  tbe  Great  and  Ba<il  bisbop  of  Seleucii ; 
and  new  editionB  of  the  workt  of  Maximus  Confeuor 
(PuHs,  16T&,  2  vols.  fol. ;  this  work  wu  left  ineom- 
plets  in  consequence  al  tbe  death  uf  Combefii)  ind  of 
Baail  Uie  Great.  The  edition  of  Uregciry  of  Nazlan- 
Eiu,  and  of  the  works  of  tbosa  Briantine  writen  who 
wrote  after  Tlieophanes,  were  preparad  by  Combelis, 
but  not  (inlafaed.  The  latter  was  puliliibed  by  I>a 
Freens  (Paria,  1685);  the  fonner  waa  made  uaa  of  bj- 
theManrineLoovatdforhia  edition  of  Gregory.  Com- 
beliadied  March  23, 1679.  See  Wetzer  u.We1te,A"m*. 
ea-lex.  li,  'Ol  aq.;  QaeCit  and  Ecbard,  Script.  Ord. 
PratUe.  li,  6TB  aq. 

Comber,  Thomas,  a  learned  Engliah  divine,  wa« 
born  at  Westerham.  Kent,  March  19, 1644.  It  la  raid 
that  be  could  read  Greek  at  ten  yeara  old.  Admitted 
B.A.  at  Cambridge  in  16US,  be  waa  made  Prebendary 
of  York  in  1677,  dean  of  Dnrbam  in  1691,  and  died  in 
1899.  Hia  chief  works  are :  Camjiaition  to  At  Timple 
(new  edit.,  Oxford,  1841,  T  Tola.  8to,  one  of  the  mocl 
compUCe  worka  extant  on  the  Book  of  Common  Pray- 
er):—SAort  Diicmn-Ki  on  Ike  Common  Prayir  (I0S4, 
Svo):— RoFnm  Forgaitt  in  tht  Comrilt  o/OujiTilf.  bj- 
Centuria  (London,  1089,  4ta).  Hia  Mrmtiir,,  by  hia 
great  g-sndaon,  T.  Comber,  were  publlafaed  in  London 
In  1799  (8vo).— Hook,  EkItm.  BiKgrapig,  iv,  166;  Kip- 
pia,  Butgraphia  Brilannicaj  iv,  45. 

Comber,  Thomaa,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
paased  M.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1770,  and  LL.D.  in  1777. 
He  WM  rector  uf  [iickby-Mishertnn,  Yorkabire,  afler- 
wanls  or  Muiboiie,  aud  died  rector  of  Buckworth  in  177a 
He  wrote  The  Uralktn  Rejedioa  ofChriiliamly  in  IhtfiTil 
Aga  nmiidered  (U,ni.  Hi', »yo):  — Examination  of 
MidiUrton't  Diieoune  agaiMt  Uiradei  (8ro)!— r>fu(- 
iK  o/Laai.from  tht  Grak  of  SglbaTgiia  (1776,  Svo). 

Comeiiltu(properly  iTomfiutjr),  John  AKoa,iru 

bom  at  Comna,  In  Horavia,  March  38, 1693.  Rar- 
ing studied  at  Uerlwrn  and  Heidelberg,  he  entered  the 
miniatiy  of  the  Bohemian  Brelhren'a  Church,  and  took 
charge  (1616)  of  the  pari^  of  Prerau,  aa  alao  of  tbe 
rectorship  of  ita  theological  aeminary.  In  1G18  he  re- 
moved to  Fulneck,  wbere  he  Blted  the  aame  offlcea. 
Driven  from  bis  native  country  in  tlie  Bubemian  anti- 
Reformation,  he  aettled  at  Liaea,  in  Poland,  where  he 
■uperintended  the  high  school  of  tbe  Brethren.  In 
1633  he  tiecBme  one  of  their  biahopa,  and,  aa  auch,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  ttielr  renewal  aa  a  church,  caring  in 
particular  for  tbe  continoance  of  their  epiacopul  auc- 
eaasion.  Hia  skill  as  an  educator,  eapeciully  hia  new 
method  of  leaching  Latin,  gave  him  great  celebrity, 
and  be  traveled  through  a  large  part  of  Protestant 
Europe  to  improve  the  methods  of  education,  being 
called  to  England  for  tbia  pnrpo-<R  in  1641.  and  to 
Sweden  in  1643.  He  became  closely  connected  with 
the  myatio  Anloinelte  Bourignon  (i|.  v.),  and  in  1657 
pnbliahed  Lax  in  TenArit  (4Ia),  in  wbicb  be  reported 
the  "visions"  of  KoCter,  Fonlatovia,  and  Drabicina. 
Id  after  years,  however,  he  regretted  this  connection, 
■nd  acknawled)^  that  "be  had  been  entangled  In  an 
inextricable  labyrinth."  He  settled  Aiiilly  at  Amster- 
dam, where  be  died  Oct.  \b,  1671.  Hia  prindpal  works 
•re :  ThtatTva  it'enuni  (Prague,  1616)  -.—UAfrntA  dfr 
lreA(rTaKUe,  16.11;  Berlin,  1787) i-Vcnun  jin^unrnm 
Toerala  (1  Jssn,  1631),  translated  into  many  langnsges, 
■nd,  among  others,  into  I'ersian  and  Arabic,  an  ele- 
mentary encyclope<lia  divided  into  100  chapters  and 
10:vi  parjiin^pbs:— f^-ru  Jidnelica  ontnri  (Amst.  l&'iT, 
fol.) : — Salia  diiciplina  oriUnitqae  ted.  tn  Uailulf  f'ra- 
Iram  fi'NirnDmin  (Liaaa,  1632;  Anii^tcrd.  166U;  Halle, 
1703;  inUermanbvKAppcn;  in  English  by  SeiOerth, 
Ch,  Corul.  oflkt  Boh.  Brrthrm  (Lond.  IBGT). 

Comer,  Jmi;*.  one  at  the  early  Baptist  ministers 
in  America,  was  bom  in  Boelon,  Au|j.  1,  ITIM.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  glover,  but  at ' 


16  COMMANDMENT 

ence  of  Increase  Hatber,  he  waa  released  by  bis  idm- 
ter,  and  soon  entered  Harvard  College,  whence  he  re- 
moved, aAer  a  few  yaon,  to  Yale.  In  1731  be  Joinad 
tbe  Congregattonallat  Charch  at  Cambridge,  but  in 
1735  became  a  Baptist,  oonnectiug  himself  with  Mr. 
Callender's  church  in  Boston.  In  the  same  year  be 
began  preaching,  and  in  1726  be  was  ordtined  co-paa- 
lor  at  Newport.  In  1729  a  dispute  about  the  "laying 
on  of  bunds"  in  admitting  ttaptized  members  into  tbe 
Church  led  to  bis  dismissal  fram  his  charge,  la  17G1 
be  Iwcame  pastor  at  Old  Behoboth,  about  ten  milca 
frocD  Providence,  whore  ho  died  of  conanmption.  May 
33, 1734.  He  left  a  Diarg  in  MS.,  which  ia  of  great 
interest  for  the  early  histnry  of  tbe  Baptist  Church  in 
America. — Sprague,  Atmali,  vi,  42. 

Comforter.    See  Panaci-ETB. 

Coming  {rafovvia,  ieiHff  pmt»r)  or  Chbut.  a 
phrase  employed,  (1.)  literally,  in  reference  to  our 
Lord's  first  appearance  In  the  flesh  (I  Jobn  r,  20;  2 
John  vil),  or  to  his  future  appearance  at  tbe  last  day 
to  fulfil  hia  promises  to  raise  tbe  dead  and  judge  the 
world  in  righteousness  (Acts  i,  11 ;  lil,  SU,  31 ;  1  Tbeaa. 
iv,  15;  2  Tim.  Iv,  1 ;  Hob.  ix,  28). 

(2.)  Metaphorically,  Christ  is  said  to  come  when  bis 
Gospel  Is  introduced  or  preached  in  any  place  by  bis 
ministers  (Jobn  xv,  3i;  Ephes.  ii,  17);  when  his 
church  or  kingdom  Is  visibly  or  powerf\;lly  established 
in  the  world  (Uatt.  xrl,  38);  wbeu  be  IwEowi  Bpan 
lielierers  the  influence  of  his  spirit,  and  tbe  peculiar 
tokens  ofhia  love  (John  xiv,  18,  S3,  38);  when  be  ex- 
ecutes bis  jndgmenton  wicked  communities  who  rejte* 
or  corrupt  his  Gospel  (2  Tbess,  ii,  »);  and  when  his 
providence  calls  us  away  ftvm  the  world  by  death,  as 
preparatory  to  the  Jndgtnent  of  the  last  day  (Matt 
ixlv,  43).  The  basis  of  this  metaphorical  usage  in 
regard  to  the  coming  of  Christ  is  the  aame  as  in  rela- 
tion to  the  coming  of  God ;  that  a*  be  governs  tbe 
world,  ever}-  specillc  act  o(  hia  providence  and  author- 
ity indicates  his  presence  in  a  more  strikmg  manner 
to  human  conception,  on  the  i^rinclpte  that  DO  a^Dt 
can  act  where  he  is  not.     See  EacBATOi.<>OT. 

Commandery  or  Commandry,  a  kind  of  bett- 
pflce  lielonging  to  a  military  order.  There  are  also 
"  commanderies"  in  the  orders  of  Bernird  and  An- 
thony, and  for  the  knlgbla  of  Malta,  accorded  for  dia> 
tinguisbed  services. 

Commandment.     See  DECAL.oaDE. 

COMMANDMENTS,  THE  FIVE,  or  Conmasi>. 
MENTS  OF  THE  Cmurch,  Certain  mlea  of  the  Boman 
Catholic  Church  which,  within  the  last  threa  c«Dto- 
rtes,  have  been  considered  to  be  as  obligatory  oo  Iha 
laity  as  the  ctmmandmmU  of  lit  dtealognt.  These 
dve  commandments  are  generally  staled  as  fbDowt: 
1.  To  keep  hoiy  tbe  obligatory  feast-days ;  2.  Devout. 
ly  to  hear  mass  on  Sundays  and  feast-days;  3-  To  ob- 
serve the  days  of  fast  and  al»tiDence ;  4.  To  conbia 
to  tbe  priest  at  least  once  a  year  (at  Eastar)  (_Cimc. 
Lai.  IV,  Can.  31);  G.  To  partake  of  the  sacrament  at 
least  once  a  year,  towards  Easter.  As  these  diflitreDt 
roles  have  no  common  origin  In  the  regulationa  of  the 
Church, 'and  are  not  even  Uken  trom  the  CatechitmiU 
Romowii,  it  is  not  to  he  wondered  at  that  tber  have 
undergone  several  modiRcationa.  Among  other  nri- 
atlona,  it  has  l:een  a  general  practice  to  jinn  tlie  fauth 
and  Hfth  commandments  together,  and  to  replace  tbe 
flflh  bv  "Not  to  marry  at  certain  prohibited  times." 
Others  have  made  various  alterations.  Bellannise  in* 
eludes  the  paying  nf  tithes  among  tbe  commandmentt 
of  the  Chnrch,  whilst  some  of  the  J'rench  catechisnu, 
unable  to  include  all  the  rules  nnder  (be  five  heads, 
have  added  a  sixtb,  yet  without  reaching  Iheir  object 
In  the  United  States  tbe  "commandments"  are  en- 
joined in  the  follawinu  form : 


I  works  DB  Ifaoee  dayi,  ud 


COJIUESDAM  427  COJIMESTARY 

'  [  Hnted  tbc  pipil  bull  of  inviUlion  and  letters  to  the 

,  beiDg  returned  nnopenad  ajid  the  invitation  declined, 
i  Sabieqaent  eSbrt*  to  prevul  upon  the  elector  of  Bmt> 
a  pwctul ;  dgnbDig  and  the  klnga  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  to 
send  depntie*  to  Che  council  remained  likewise  without 
airai,  nor  effect.  Uore  Bucceaaful  was  ■  miialon  to  I\>1ind  in 
aiimuiit  murlKge  u  i^ge.  Whilst  staying  at  the  Polish  court  he  was  «p- 
pointad  a  cardinal.  In  1666  and  1668  he  was  srnt  to 
Wafaave  said  tkitthe«!  commancJmfnts  are  aa  obli-  (b.  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  was  suspected  oflean- 
gatorr  for  the  Komanist  Uyman  at  lA*  commowfoteni*  ing  toward  ProtesUntism,  In  order  to  deUirt  him  from 
o/Cod.  The  Council  of  Trent  has  dogmatically  set-  ^,^i„g  ™n«^ion,  ^  the  Protestant..  Soon  after 
tied  the  point  (SeM.  VI,  De  Juil,/.  Can.  i«).  The  ,,,  ,„  .^^  „ot  ^  p„,,aa  ,„  „a„  to  h.cu»  the 
Proteatant  opposition  to  this  great  wrong  was  com-  election  of  a  Punch  prince,  who  was  known  aa  a  fa. 
HKnced  by  such  wriUng.  »  Luther's  lit  ™p(«*<ifc  ^tj^,,  p.rtisan  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  as  king  of 
Babyl..mca  and  Zwmgle  e  Vo«  Artaani  and  fryhiil  poUnj.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  1678,  and  died  in 
At  .'pjfKn.  The  Evangelical  Confessions  express  the  ,684.  Hi.  life  wa.  written  l>y  A.  Maria  Graliani.  hi. 
same  opposition,  as,  for  instance,  the  Augatlima,  In  jecetary,  and  subsequently  bishop  of  Amelia.  See 
the  «ti.le.  XV,  XVII.  XXVI,  the  fl.(««ca  ,n  23,  Wet«ru.  Welle,  K^km-'Ux.  I,  T07  «,.  j  l-ri.ac,  Di> 
H  »nd  27,  Ttb-ajMi.  cap.  7,  «,  9, 10.  The  clearly^x-  pflp,,^.*™  Ltgalen  C(™f««<to«  md  Cappaccini  » 
pressed  pmleatatiun  contained  in  theH  passages  does    BfrBn  (Neuss  184C] 

in  BO  *y  «ek  to  overthrow  the  dutiful  obedience  I  Commentary  (.■.iro^.wi^or.apoc.  L.t  c«mm>«la. 
commanded  towards  pa.ton.  and  rulers  (Heb.  iid,  1,\  „■;  j  ^^^^  ji,  ig)_  Biblical  (.ee  Carpentrr's  CuMe 
or  towards  decency  and  order  [1  Cor.  jiiv,  40),  and  the  I  ,„  ^^  g,^  „^,i,  jig,^^  pt_  [_  jh.  (n,  ^_  i_4 .  Dg^ij. 
power  of  goreniment  held  by  the  Church  in  the  per-  |  „o^  ;„  Home's  Inlrod.  new  ed.  11,  HTT-WB;  M.  Stuart 
wna  of  its  constituted  organs.  All  this  is  entirely  ■  ,„  (^e  Am.  Bib.  Rfp"*-  Ui.  18»  «q->-  See  INTEBFI.RT4. 
different  fiom  the  commandments  eslahlished  by  tlie   „oh. 

Komish  hierarchy  in  opposition  to  the  Word  of  God,  I  ,.  DrfiKi&m.—fiy  ammmtmy,  In  it.  theological  an- 
as  expressed  in  Col.  ii,  16,  18,  20-23;  Malt,  xv,  17  ;  pHeadon,  i.  usually  meant  an  exhibition  of  the  mean- 
1  Tim.  It,  1-4;  1  Cor.  vll^  8j  vl^  6;  iii,  21;  Mark  ,  i„g  .U^h  the  aacred  writers  inlOTded  to  convev;  or  a 
J,  23;  Gal.  iv,  9-11.  The  old  plea  constantly  pre- ,  de^j](,p„,„tofthetnith.  which  the  Bolv  Spirit  willed 
senled  by  tho  Bomidi  apologist.,  that  the  doctrine .  („  communicate  to  men  fbr  their  uvi'ng  enlighten- 
of  the  commandments  of  the  Church  has  Its  fbunda- I  „,„t.  This  is  usually  effected  by  notes  more  or  leas 
tion  in  the  power  of  the  keys  and  In  the  command- ;  extended— by  a  Krie.  of  remark.,  critical,  philologi- 
ments  of  God  himself,  Is  of  no  weight.— Hersog.  Bral-  ^^  grammatical,  or  popular,  who«  purport  i.  to  bring 
£a(jt(op.  iv,6H ;  W  etier  u.  Welle.  Kink-la.  iv,  344. '  (,„  into  view  the  exact  sentlmenta  which  the  inspired 
Conunendam.  When  a  vacant  living  I.  tcm- '  authors  meant  to  express.  It  is  trao  that  this  can 
•aaiifsd  in  the  Church  of  England  lo  the  charge  of  a  only  lie  imperfectly  done,  owing  to  the  various  causes 
clergyman  until  it  can  ba  supplied  with  a  pulor,  the.  by  which  every  language  Is  affected  ;  but  the  ni^once 
benefice  i.  uid  to  he  anpplied  m  eowmaidam.  An- '  of  revelation  may  be  adequately  embodied  In  a  great 
ciently   tho  administration  of  vacant  bishoprics  1  e-    variety  of  garb. 

longed  to  tho  nearest  tilshop,  tlienc«  called  «™tm«ido-  (1.)  The  cAurnc/mrtiM  of  commentary  are:  Co.t  An 
fory.  This  custom  was  at  a  very  early  period  Intro-  elucidation  of  the  meaning  belonging  to  the  words, 
doced  into  the  Church.  Athanasius  says  of  himself,  phnucs,  and  idioms  of  the  original.  The  signification 
acmrding  to  NicephOTUs,  that  there  had  been  given  of  a  tenn  Is  generic  or  specific.  A  variety  of  signi- 
him.  M  roamseniJaiii.  another  church  beside  that  of  Al-  (icatlon.  also  belnngi  to  the  same  term,  accotding  to 
exandria,  of  which  ha  waa  the  stated  bishop.  When  a  the  position  it  occupies.  Now  a  commentary  points 
priest  is  made  bishop,  his  parK>naEe  become,  vacant,  i  out  the  particular  meaning  l>elonging  to  a  term  in  a 
but  be  may  still  bold  it  in  nmnaiJani.  It  has  been  the  I  [wrticnlar  place,  together  with  the  reBHin  of  its  l>ear- 
practlce  lometinies  in  England  Gir  the  crown  thus  to  |ng  such  a  sense.  So  with  phrases.  It  should  like- 
annex  to  a  bishopric  of  small  valoe  either  the  living  ■  »Ih  explain  the  conrtruction  of  sentences,  the  pcruH- 
which  had  been  held  by  the  newly  mude  bishop  and  |  arities  of  the  diction  employed,  the  difficulties  belong. 
of  which,  in  virtue  of  such  elevation  of  its  incumbent,  Ine  to  certain  combinations  of  words,  and  tlie  mode  In 
the  patronage  became  at  the  disponl  of  Ihe  crown,  or  which  they  aff'ecl  the  general  meaning. 
some  other  in  its  stead.— Eden,  CSBn:*«i™'»  Dia.:\  (ft.)  Another  chsracteriMic  of  commentary  Is  an  ex- 
Farrar,  £*a:I.  Diet.;  Wetzer  n.  Welte,  KireL-lAx.  ii,  hiliition  otthe  writer's  i>cope,  or  the  end  ho  lias  In  view 
706.  I  in  a  particular  place.     Eveiy  panicle  and  word,  eveiy 

Commendone,  GiorA^mi  FiuiiCBaco.  a  cardl- '  phrase  and  sentence,  forms  a  link  in  the  chain  of  rea- 
nal  and  |Mpal  legate  In  Germany,  was  bom  at  Ven.  soning  drawn  out  by  an  Insplml  author— a  step  in  the 
ics  March  17,  1623.  After  studying  law,  be  went '  progress  of  his  holy  revelations.  A  commrnlaiy 
(ISM)  to  Roma,  where  he  attracted  the  attention  of  '  should  tfans  exhibit  the  dcKign  of  a  writer  in  a  certain 
Pope  Jnlius  III,  and  was  employed  as  early  as  15&1 '  connection— Ihe  argnmenta  be  employs  to  establish 
tuT  a  political  mission.  In  15&2  be  went  a.  papal  en-  bia  positions,  their  cohennce  with  one  another,  their 
vof  to  the  Netherlands,  and  from  there  to  Enidand,  i  genenl  harmony,  and  the  degree  of  importance  tt- 
wbere  he  badan  important  secret  interview  with  Marv.    signed  lo  them. 

tbedauL-hterofHenri-VlII,  who.  on  thedeathofherl  (r.)  In  addition  to  (his,  the  train  of  thought  or  rea- 
liFothor  P^ward.  was  to  ascend  the  English  throne. '  soning  pursued  throughout  an  entire  iHwk  or  epistle, 
Uary  inve  him  an  autograph  letter  to  the  pope,  and  the  various  topics  discussed,  the  great  end  of  ihe 
pimnised  that  (he  Roman  Catholic  religion  should  be  whole,  wlili  the  sobotdinate  r«ticn!a™  It  embraces, 
reestablished  as  the  state  Church.  Commendnne,  I  the  digressions  made  by  the  writer— thcM,  and  other 
having  now  gained  the  entire  confidence  of  the  pope,  particular,  of  a  like  nature,  ahould  be  pointed  out  liy 
was  at  once  employed  for  other  important  miMlons  to  the  true  commentator.  The  connection  of  one  argu- 
Portuinl.  Sl«io.  and  France.  Paul  IV  made  him  pn.  raent  with  another,  the  eonsi.tency  and  otHmalt  bear- 
pal  secretary  and  bishop  of  Zante.  Pius  IV  sent  him  ing  of  all  the  statemeau  advanced— In  short,  their 
U>  Germany  lo  invite  the  Protestant  princes  to  send  various  relatkns,  as  far  a.  these  sre  developed  or  Intl- 
delegatea  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  addressed  the  mated  by  the  author,  ahonld  b«  clearly  apprehended 
PteMant  conrcntion  at  Naumbnrg  (IJGl),  and  pre- 1  and  inleUlgently  staled.  IC 


COJIMENTARY  428  COMJIENTAKY 

(<L)  Anotbei  chuactBrirtic  of  commenUiy  I>.  tbkt  It  th«  aid  ot  leilcona  and  gnmaiarB  csUmI  in  In  ■upport 
preaeota  ■  comparison  of  tbe  eendmenU  coaUinsd  in  or  conlinn  a  carUin  mterpreUtion.  Z.  Ptjmlar  corn- 
one  book,  or  one  entire  connected  portiun  of  Scripture,  mentary  sttites  in  penpicuout  nait  untocbnical  phraatt- 
wiCb  tbow  of  aaother,  and  with  tbe  general  tenor  of  ology  tbe  sentimeDts  of  tbe  boty  writ* n,  niiully  witb- 
reTebtion.  A  beautiful  harmony  perrades  the  Bible,  out  detailing  the  stepe  by  which  tbat  meaning  baa 
Diverdttea,  indeed,  it  exhibita,  juat  aa  we  should  as-  been  discovered.  It  leaves  pbiloloKical  obaatvationa 
pectit  k priori  to  do;  it  preaenta  difficulliea  sod  mya- 1  tu  those  wboae  taale  leads  tbem  to  luch  atndiea.  All 
terias  which  wa  cannot  f-itbom,  but  with  thia  variety  '■  acientiAc  investl^tions  are  avoided,  lla  ^reat  object 
there  la  a  uniformity  worthy  of  the  wiedom  of  God.  !  is  to  present,  in  an  attractive  furro.the  thoughts  uf  the 
A  coninienLilcir  thuuld  thercfDre  be  able  to  aecannt  sacred  autliors,  ao  that  they  may  vividly  Impiwa  tbs 
for  divBTsiticB  of  sentiment,  in  reference  to  Che  aame  [  mind  and  intfrest  the  heart.  It  avolda  every  thing 
topic,  thabappeur  in  the  paj^ea  of  books  written  at  dif.  !  that  a  reader  unacquuinted  with  Hebrew  and  Gre«k 
ferent  periods,  and  addressed  to  individuals  or  commn-  j  woubJ  not  undcratand,  and  occupies  itself  solely  with 
nities  whose  circumstances,  intellectual  and  physical,  j  the  theology  of  the  inspired  authora  —  that  holy  sense 
were  dissimilar.  Without  it  relii^oua  truth  will  be  which  enlightens  and  saves  mankind.  This,  hiiwever, 
seen  In  disjointed  fragments;  no  conaecled  system,  j  is  rather  whiit  popular  commentsiy  should  do,  tiLia 
compact  and  harmoaious  In  its  paita,  vrill  meet  the  I  what  it  has  bilherto  done. 
eye.  I     The  limits  of  tritKiil  aai  popular  commeDtar)'  are 

(2.)  From  what  bas  been  stated  in  regard  la  the  not  so  wide  as  to  prevent  a  partial  union  of  both, 
constituents  of  commentary,  it  will  abto  be  seen  tbat  Their  ultimate  object  is  the  same,  vii.  to  present  th* 
it  difTers  from  fraiu/ariun.  The  latter  endeavora  to  '  exact  meaning  which  the  Holy  Spirit  intended  to  ex- 
find  in  another  language  equivalent  terms  expressive  press.  Both  may  state  the  import  of  words  and 
of  the  ideas  which  the  words  of  tbe  Hebrew  and  Greek  i  phrases;  both  may  investi^te  the  course  of  thought 
languages  were  framed  to  convey.  It  is  easy  to  see,  i  pursued  by  prophets  and  Bpostles.  They  may  devel- 
however,  ttut  in  many  cases  this  cannot  be  done,  and  i  op  processes  of  argumentation,  the  scope  of  tbe  wrH- 
that  in  others  it  can  be  effected  very  Imperfectly.  I  en'  remarks,  tbe  boarini;  of  each  particular  on  a  co* 
There  are  and  must  be  a  thousand  varieties  of  concep-  [  tain  purpose,  and  the  connection  between  different  por> 
tion  expressed  in  tbe  original  languages  of  Scripture,  j  tions  of  Scripture.  Yet  there  Is  much  difficulty  In 
of  which  no  other  can  afford  an  adequate  representa-  |  combining  tbeir  respective  qualities.  In  popufarizsnf 
tion.  Tho  inhabitanta  of  the  countries  where  the  sa-  the  critical,  and  In  elevating  the  popular  to  tbe  stand- 
cred  books  were  writMn  lived  amid  ctrcumstances  in  '  ard  of  intelligent  interpretation,  there  Is  room  for  tbe 
many  reapects  diverse  ftom  Iboae  of  other  people,  exercise  of  great  talent.  The  former  is  apt  todegen- 
Theae  circumstances  naturally  gave  a  coloring  to  their  erate  Into  philological  sterility,  tbe  latter  into  trhe  r«- 
language.  They  affbcted  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  '  flection.  But  by  vivifying  the  one,  and  solidifying  tbe 
terms  for  which  there  are  no  equivalents  in  the  Ian-  other,  a  good  degree  of  affinity  would  be  effected. 
guages  of  tribes  who  are  conversant  with  diffennt  ob-  '  Critical  and  antiquarian  knowledge  should  only  .ba 
jects,  and  live  amid  different  relations.  Id  such  a  .  regarded  as  a  means  of  arriving  at  the  tmlh  taught. 
case  no  expedient  is  left  bat  circumlocutian.  By  tbe  Geogtaphical,  chronolnglcal,  and  historical  reunrki 
help  of  sereral  phrases  we  must  try  to  approximate  at  should  solely  subserve  the  educement  or  CDofirmatioD 
least  tbe  sentiment  or  shade  of  thought  which  tbe  in-   of  Jehovah's  will. 

spired  writers  designed  to  express.  Conmealanf  is  111.  The  prominent  ir/trb  of  existing  cotntnentk 
thus  more  diffuse  than  (runilalion.  Ita  olijecl  la  not  ries.~l.  ProSrilg.  Tbis  defect  chietly  applies  to  the 
to  find  words  in  one  language  corresponding  to  those  '  alder  works;  hence  tbeir  great  slie.  It  ia  not  nn- 
of  the  original  languages  of  the  Scriptures,  or  nearly  common  to  meet  with  a  large  folio  volnme  of  cmn- 
resembljng  them  in  significance,  but  to  set  forth  the  mentary  on  a  book  of  Scripture  of  moderatA  extent. 
meaning  ofthe  writers  in  notes  and  renurks  ofconsid-  Thus  Byilcid,  on  tbe  Kpistle  to  the  Coiosstana,  filla  a 
arable  length.  Parapiriut  occupies  a  middle  place  folio  volume ;  and  Vencma,  on  Jeretniab.  two  quartos. 
between  translation  and  commentary,  partaking  of  Peter  Martyr'a  "most  learned  and  fruitful  commen- 
greater  diffuseness  than  the  termer,  but  of  less  extent  tariea  upon  tbe  Epistle  to  the  Ramans"  occupy  a  folio, 
than  the  latter.  It  aims  at  finding  equivalent  terms  and  his  "commentaries  upon  the  book  of  Judges"  ap- 
to  thoae  which  the  socrcd  writers  employ,  accompanied  other  tome  of  the  same  extent.  But  Venema  on  tbe 
with  others  that  appear  necessary  to  All  up  the  sense,  :  Psalms,  and  CBr>'l  on  .lob,  are  still  more  extravagant, 
or  to  spread  it  out  before  the  mind  of  the  reader  in  [  tbe  former  extending  to  no  less  than  six  Toloma 
auch  a  form  as  the  authors  Ibemselvea  might  be  sup.  quarto,  the  latter  to  two  goodly  folios.  It  is  almost 
posed  to  have  employed  in  reference  to  the  people  to  superfluous  to  remark  that  sucb  writers  wander  away, 
whom  the  paraphroat  iwlongs.  Seholin  differ  from  :  withont  confining  themselves  to  exposition.  We  do 
commentary  only  in  brevity.  Tbey  are  short  notes  i  not  deny  tbat  even  their  extraneous  matter  may  be 
on  paaaages  ot  Scripture.  Sometimes  difficult  places  good  and  edifying  to  those  who  have  the  patience  to 
alone  are  selected  as  their  abject ;  at  other  times  they  <  wade  through  its  labyrinths,  but  still  it  is  not  towimnt- 
embrace  continuously  an  entire  liook.  .  tan/.     It  is  very  easy  to  write,  currmte  adamo,  any 

II.  There  are  two  hinda  of  commentary  which  we  '  thing  however  remotely  connected  with  a  passage^  or 
shall  notice,  viz.  tbe  critieat  and  the  pnpalar.  1.  The  to  note  down  tbe  Ihoogbts  as  they  rise ;  but  to  lUnt 
former  contains  grammatica]  and  philological  remarks,  .  oat  the  meaning  of  a  place,  to  exercise  independent 
unfolds  tbe  general  and  special  significations  of  words,  mental  effort  upon  it,  to  apply  severe  and  rigid  exam- 
points  out  idioms  and  peculiarities  of  tile  original  Ian- :  ination  to  each  Fentence  and  paragraph  of  the  origio- 
guages,  and  always  brings  into  view  the  Hebrew  or  |  nl.  is  quite  a  different  proceas.  To  exbildt  in  a  lucid 
Greek  phraaeology  employed  by  tbe  sacred  writers,  '  and  self-satisfying  manner  tbe  results  of  deep  thought 
It  dilates  on  the  peculiarities  and  difficulties  of  con-  and  indomitatile  industry,  is  far  from  the  intention  of 
atruction  which  may  present  themeelres,  referring  to  those  prolix  interpreters  who,  in  their  apparent  aaxie- 
Tarious  readings,  and  occasionslly  bringing  into  com-  ,  ty  to  compose  ajidi  commentary,  present  the  reader 
parison  the  sentiments  and  diction  ofprobne  writers,  with  a  cbnos  of  annotations,  and  bury  the  bnlr  wuh 
where  they  resemble  thow  of  the  Bible.  In  a  word,  of  the  inspired  writers  iwneath  the  rubbish  of  their 
it  takes  a  wide  range,  while  it  etutes  tho  prncesHs    prosaic  musings. 

which  lead  to  resullji,  and  shrinks  not  ftom  employing  \  J.  Some  conimentatora  are  fond  of  det^ling  vsrinna 
tbe  technical  lam.'uafte  common  tu  scholars.  Extend-  opinions  without  sifting  them.  They  ptocon  a  inm- 
ed  dissertations  are  sometime*  given,  in  whith  the  Ian-  berof  frnmer  expositions,  and  write  down  out  of  each 
guage  ia  made  the  direct  subject  of  examination,  and  ,  what  is  aaid  span  a  text.    They  tell  what  one  and 


COMMENTARY       429       COMMENTARY 

mother  leinwd  uinotBlor  affirmn,  but  do  not  Narch  '  ciilly  on  (he  nliler  cnmnirniBiira  and  Ihoae  beat  koaim 
BT  Krutinin  hit  affirnutiom.     No  doubt  an  mray  of     in  mndern  timi^ 

■Mine*  looks  imposing;  anil  Che  reader  miy  (tare  with  I.  Such  ai  are  mmt  acceasible  by  having  been  writ- 
■urpriM  at  the  extent  of  mearch  dinplsyed  i  butnotb-  ten  in  Engliih  or  La^,oi  translated  into  one  oithoie 
ing  is  easier  than  to  iiU  up  p*K**  *'"*  ■'"='■  patchwork,  Ungoages.  (See  a  select  list  of  this  kind,  with  criti- 
and  to  be  as  entitely  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  coin-  clenti,  In  the  Supplem.  to  Jenks'a  Comprtimtivt  Com- 
□wntar?  aa  befure.     The  inlellig«nt  reader  will  b«  in-    mtntary.') 

dined  to  say,  What  matters  It  to  me  » hat  this  rabbi  (1.)  J.Calvin  ("  Cmnmmfani,"  etc.  in  bis  OjT; 
has  Hid,  or  tbat  doctor  ba*  ttated  ?  1  am  anxious  (o  translated,  Edinb.  1B46-56,  bi  vole.  6vn).— In  all  tbs 
know  the  true  sense  of  the  Scriptores,  and  nnt  tba  va-  higher  qnallAcations  of  n  commentator  Calvin  is  pre- 
rylni;  opinions  of  men  concerning;  tbeni.  It  la  a  wnik  eminent.  His  knowledge  of  the  original  languages 
of  BnpererDgation  to  collect  a  multitude  of  annotations  waa  not  so  great  as  Ihat  of  many  later  expositors,  but 
from  various  Boarces,  most  of  which  tbe  industrious  col-  in  developing  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  wtllers  bo 
lectnr  knows  to  be  improliaUe  or  erroneous.  It  is  folly  has  few  equals.  It  has  been  well  remarked  that  he 
to  addnce  and  combat  interpretaUons  from  wbicb  tbe  chiefly  attended  to  the  logic  of  commentary.  He  poa- 
cmnoKiD  sense  and  simple  piety  of  tbe  unaopbistlcated  sensed  singular  acuteaess,  onited  to  a  deep  acquainl- 
reader  turn  away  with  instinctive  aversion.  If  plan-  ance  with  the  human  heart,  a  comprehension  of  mind 
sible  views  be  stated,  they  should  be  tboronghly  ana-  by  which  be  was  aljle  to  survey  revelation  in  all  its 
lynd.  Bat  in  all  cases  the  right  meaning  ought  to  be  featores,  and  an  enlightened  understanding  competent 
»  prominent  thing  with  the  oomnientiitor,  and  promi-  to  perceive  sound  exegetlcal  principles,  and  resolute  in 
nently  abonld  it  be  manifested,  sarrnnnded,  If  possilde,  adhering  to  them.  He  can  never  be  consulted  with- 
with  those  bnes  whirh  Heaven  itself  has  given  it,  and  out  advantage,  although  all  his  opmions  should  not  be 
qoaliHed  by  such  circnmstancea  as  tba  BiUle  may  fur-  followed,  especially  those  tbat  result  from  bia  doctrin- 
niah.  i  al  prepossessions. 

a.  Another  defect  consists  In  dwelling  on  Ote  tatg  ^  <I.)  T.  Beza  ("resf.ref.e.sciof.Tremellii  et  Junil, 
and  evading  Its  diffimll  paaaga.  This  feature  be-  Apocr.  c.  mtii  Junll,  et  N.  T.  c.  nolit  Beue,"  fol.  Oo- 
long* eapec^ly  t«  those  English  commentariea  which  nev.  1575-79,  Lend.  I&9B,  and  often;  '•  BOOe  wUk  An- 
are  most  cnrrent  among  us.  By  a  series  of  appended  twtiUirmt,"  tbi.  Gen.  I&GI-2,  and  often). — Beta's  taJ- 
remarka,  plain  statemeDts  are  expanded ;  but  wher-  ents  are  seen  to  preat  advantage  In  expounding  tbe 
aver  there  is  a  real  perplexity,  it  Is  glosed  over  with  argumentative  parts  of  the  Bible.  He  poasesaed  many 
marvellona  snperflciality.  It  may  be  that  much  is  of  the  beat  exegetlcal  qualities  which  characterized  his 
said  oAonC  it,  but  yet  there  is  no  penetration  beneath  great  master.  In  tracing  the  connection  of  one  part 
the  aorfiu^e;  and  when  the  reader  asks  himself  nhst  with  another,  and  the  successive  steps  of  an  argu- 
is  the  true  import,  he  finds  himself  in  the  same  state  ment,  he  displays  much  ability.  His  arnteness  and 
of  ignorance  as  when  he  ilrst  took  up  the  Commentary  learning  were  conskltrable.  He  was  better  acquaint- 
in  qaeetion.  Pious  reflections  and  mulIitDdinous  infer-  ed  with  tlit  ihtoiogf  tl^xt  tie  crificim  of  the  KewTea- 
enceaenterlargely  Into  our  papular  books  of  exposition,    tament. 

They  sfMriCnaliie,  hut  they  do  not  expound.  Tbey  (3.)  H.  Hammond  ("/'orapAroM  and Aiaolalion*'' 
SennoiilienponBbDok,but  theydonot  catch  its  spirit  on  the  N.  T.,  Lond.  1659,  best  ed.  1702;  on  tbe  Psalms, 
or  comprehend  its  meaning.  When  a  writer  unde%  in  bis  IForl*,  4  vols.  fnl.  1674-84). — This  leahied  an- 
takes  to  educe  and  exhibit  tbe  true  sense  of  the  Bible,  notatorwaa  well  qualifled  for  interpretation,  and  many 
he  should  not  give  forth  hit  own  meditations,  however  good  specimens  of  cridciam  are  found  in  his  notes. 
Juat  and  proper  in  themselvea.  Put  hi  the  room  of  Yet  he  bas  not  entered  deeply  Into  the  spirit  of  tbe 
apotiAm,  they  are  wboUy  ont  of  place.  The  simple  original,  or  developed  with  unirorm  success  tbe  mean- 
portions  of  the  Bible  are  precisely  those  which  require  Idr  of  tbe  inspired  writers.  Many  of  the  most  dlfli- 
little  to  be  said  on  them,  while  to  the  more  difflcult  su-  cult  portions  he  has  superHcially  examined  or  wholly 
perUtive  attention  should  be  paid.      But  the  reverse    mistaken. 

orderof  procedure  l*  followed  by  our  popular  commen-'  (4.)  M.  Poole  {"  A'miitaiiimt"  oa  the  whole  Bible, 
tatora.  Tbey  piously  descant  on  what  It  well  known,  Lond.  3  vols.  fol.  1700  and  before,  best  ed.  Lond.  18^0, 
leaving  the  reader  in  darkness  where  he  most  needs  8  vols.  8ro). — Poole's  annotations  on  the  Holy  Bible 
assiatance.  {  contain  several  valuable,  judicious  remark*.    But  their 

4.  A  very  common  fault  with  modern  commentator*  defects  are  numerous.  The  pioas  author  had  only  a 
b  the  attemptto  gaovertoDmoch  ground  of  text,  and  partial  acquaintance  with  the  original.  He  was  re- 
thu*  do  the  whole  work  auperilcially.  Many  are  am-  .  markable  neither  for  profundity  nor  acntenene.  Vet 
Utiona  of  writing  a  commentary  on  Che  whole  Khie,  '  be  had  luety  and  good  sense,  amaaing  industry,  and 
often  with  very  inadequate  preparations,  or  leisure,  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  older  commentators. 
or  research,  and  thus  do  but  little  else  than  rebosrse  Poll  "Synnpt't  Ciilinnm"  (ful.  4  vols,  in  &,  Lond. 
tbe  conclusions  of  others,  with  scarcelv  any  original  1660-76,  and  several  eds.  since  ;  best  ed.  by  Leueden, 
inrcMlgaCion  themselves.  The  commentator  should  tllr.  16H4).— In  this  large  work,  the  annotations  of  a 
com«  to  bis  work  only  after  a  long  and  matured  study  great  number  of  the  older  commentators  are  collected 
of  the  Scrlptnroa  as  a  whole,  and  then,  with  great  de-  and  condensed,  many  of  them  tmra  the  still  more  ex- 
Uberation.  and  patient  study  and  balancing  of  varioua  tensive  collection  known  as  the  Criiiei  Sacri  (q.  v.), 
viewn  uid  conflhitiDg  opinions,  proceed  step  1>v  step  edited  bv  Bp.  Pear>on  and  others  {ii  edit,  with  teo 
whb  one  book  at  a  time;  not  ba!<tily  run  over  the  en-  supplemental  vnbi.  Prcft.  a.  H.  1696  ITOI,  9  vol*,  fol.). 
tin  rolnme,  and  prodoce  the  crude  and  lirst-caught  But  they  are  seldom  sifted  and  criticised,  so  tbat  the 
materials  that  he  has  gathered  suddenly  and  by  one-  reader  is  left  to  choose  among  them  Ibr  himself, 
sided  investigations.  Hence  those  annotations  are  a1-  (5.)  H.  Orotlus  (.••  AnnoUrHiMn"  on  all  the  Bit.Ie 
mnst  always  the  bestwhere  a  writer  has  confined  him-    and  Apocr.  in  his  Ojtp..  also  ed.  Moody,  Lond.  17!7,  3 

self  to  a  single  book  or  epistle,  and  has  perhaps  made    vols.  4tn) This  very  learned  writer  investigates  the 

H  bia  life-long  study,  looking  at  it  fhim  every  possi- '  literal  sense  of  the  Scripture*  with  great  diligence  and 
hie  point  of  view,  and  verifying  bis  conclusions  by  re-  ^  success.  He  had  consideiable  exegctical  tact,  and  a 
seated  comparisons  and  researches.  Commentaries  ^  large  acquaintance  with  the  heathen  clB^wic»,  from 
"  written  to  order"  have  almost  invariably  been  which  he  was  accnslomed  to  adduce  parallels.  Hi* 
wortbleaa.  ^te  Ameriam  Bib'.ia^  BqxMtoni,  itwaiy,  '<  ta*te  wa*  good,  and  his  mode  of  unfolding  the  mcan- 
ISBS,  art.  iv.  i  ing  of  a  pasaage  aimple,  direct,  and  brief.     His  judg- 

IV.  Wa  ahall  briefly  rmins  the  principal  work*  of  ,  ment  was  sound,  IVee  from  prejudice,  and  liberal  be- 
thi*  clan  oo  the  llihle  at  large,  with  crilicismi  espe- ;  yond  tbe  age  m  which  he  lived.    / 


COMMENTAEY  430  COMMENTARY 

be  was  dlatingnished  for  his  uaUonaly  good  atnte.     It  i  bat  be  hud  id  eicelUnt  judgnwDl,  ind  ■  Calm  candnt 

hu  been  said  without  reawn  that  be  found  Christ  no  .  of  jnquiiy.  Hla  [uripbcue  leii'es  much  uaeiplunwl, 
where  ia  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  true  that  he  op-  while  it  diluusthestreDgth  c/Ueor'jjMoJ:  The  prac- 
posed  the  Cocceian  method,  bnt  in  this  he  was  often  tical  observations  are  excellent  1  ha  notes  are  few, 
correct.     Bia  chief  defect  is  in  tpiriiuai  diteenmunl.    and  ordinarily  correct. 

Hence  he  resta  in  the  literal  meanintt  in  mao}' casea,  (IS.)  T.  Scott  ("Holy  Bible  with  JVols,"  etc. 
where  there  Is  a  higher  or  nlterior  reference.  Lond.  1796,  and  often  aince ;  Lond.  1841,  6  toIi.  Ato ; 

(6.)  J.  Le  Clerc  ("V.  T.  c.  Paraphrat!,  ConnetOa- 1  Bost.  1827,  6  vols.  8vo).— The  prevailinK  chaiacteriilic 
rio,"  etc.  4  vols.  tal.  Amst.  1710  sq.). — Kxcelleot  notes  of  Scott's  commentary  is  Judicionsaess  in  the  opiniona 
are  interspersed  throughoat  the  conirnentaries  of  tbia  advanced.  The  greater  portion  of  it,  however,  ia  not 
author  (his  work  by  ■  simiUr  title  uii  the  N.  T.  was  proper  ezporiHm.  The  pious  author  preaches  about 
bated  upon  that  of  Hammond,  2  vols,  in  l,r<il.  Amst.  and  paraphrases  the  oiijdnal.  Hb  simplicity  of  pur- 
1699).  His  judgment  waa  good,  and  hla  mode  of  in-  pose  generally  preserved  him  from  minakes ;  bat  aa 
terprotstion  perspicuous.  From  bis  ricbly-«tor«l  mind  a  commentator  he  wis  neither  acute  nor  learned.  He 
he  could  easily  draw  iliustratinDs  of  the  Bible  both  wanted  a  competent  acquaintance  with  the  origioal. 
pertinent  and  just.  Yet  be  was  very  defective  in  the-  power  of  analysis,  a  mind  unprepoaaeaaed  by  a  (kw- 
ological  discrimination.  Hence,  in  Ibe  prvp/ielic  and  trinal  system,  and  penetration  of  spirit. 
doctTHud  books  he  ta  onaatiabctory.  It  has  been'  (13.)  A.  Clarke  ("Holy  Bible,  with  ConawwCory," 
thought,  not  without  truth,  that  he  bad  ■  rationalistic  etc.  S  vols.  4to,  Land.  1B1U-2S,  and  often  since ;  beat 
tendency.  It  ia  certain  (hat  be  exalted  his  own  judg-  ed.  tond.  IS44,  6  vols.  Svo,  N.  Y.  1843).— In  many  of 
ment  too  highly,  and  pronounced  dogmatically  where  the  higher  qualitiea  by  wbich  an  interpreter  should  Lc 
he  ought  to  bave  manifested  a  modest  diffijence.  diatingnisbol,  this  man  of  much  reading  was  wantinir. 

(7.)  A.Calmet  ("  (7oinnni'Lrir«  LitUrat'  on  the  ;  Hiscommentary,hD«eveT,whlchwaBthechief  literary 
entire  Bilile  and  Apocr.  Par.  17:>4,  8  vols,  in  9,  fol. ;  labor  of  his  life,  ia  repUta  with  profbund  and  varied, 
transt.  Into  Latin,  with  the  iJuseHfUioau  by  J.  D.  Manse,    though  not  alvays  accurate,  and  often  inapposite,  learn. 

19voIs.4tD,Wirceb.l7g9} Calmet  is  perhaps  the  moat    ing.    He  is  always  thoroughly  earnest  and  practically 

distinguished  commentator  on  the  llilile  belonging  to  spiritual.  Same  of  bis  notions  are  indeed  eatravaganl, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  hiubcr  qualities  but  tbey  are  never  the  errors  of  the  heart.  Uany  of 
of  commentary  bis  voluminous  work  is  very  deficient,  i  the  diisertations  acattered  th rough  the  work  poaarsa  a 
It  contains  a  good  collection  of  bistoricul  materials,  i  permanent  value  for  their  diligent  research.  Its  hia- 
*nd  presents  the  niieaning  of  the  original  where  it  la  I  toricai  notes  are  tbe  beet.  11a  quotations  from  ancient 
already  plain ;  but  hia  historical  apparatus  needs  to  be  |  and  Oriental  authors  are  abundant  and  nsnally  apt. 
pnrltied  of  its  irrelevant,  eironeous  statements,  while  Its  remarks  In  vindication  oftfae  truth  and  consisteory 
on  the  difficult  portions  no  new  light  is  thrown.  of  Scripture  are  also  often  worthy  of  cousnltalkin. 

(B.)  Patrick,  Lowth,  Arnald,  and  Whitby'  (]4.)  E.  F.  C.  Rosenmuller.— The  "Scholia"  of 
("  Crilieal  Cunuaentarg,"  etc.  on  the  0.  and  N.  T.  and  this  Uborioua  writer  extend  over  tbe  greater  part  of 
Apocr.  6  vols.  4to.  Lond.  1822j  4  vols.  Bvo,  Pbila.  and  the  Old  TesUment  (11  pta,  in  23  vols.  8vo,  Lpi.  I7»& 
N.  Y.  1S45).— Bishop  Patrick  had  many  of  tbe  ele-  Fq.;  "in  Cmnpendiiim  rrdatta."  by  Lechner,  6  vola. 
nients  belonging  to  a  good  commentator.  Ilis  learn-  Svo), — Tbe  last  editions  eapeci ally  are  unquestionably 
Ing  was  great  when  we  consider  the  time  at  wbich  he  of  high  valn^.  They  bring  together  a  mass  of  anno- 
lived,  his  method  brief  and  perspicuoos.  Lowth  is  tatiun  such  as  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  deaire*  of  moat 
Inferior  to  Patrick.  Whitby  presents  a  remarkable  ,  BiUIeal  students.  Yet  the  learned  author  nndertook 
compound  of  excellences  and  imperfections.  In  phi-  too  much  to  perform  it  in  a  masterly  style.  Hence 
losophy  he  was  a  master.  In  critical  eluddations  of  hismelerials  arenot  properly  silted, thechsffftmn  tbe 
the  text  he  was  at  home.  Nor  was  he  wanting  in  wheat.  He  has  not  drunk  deeply  into  the  cpiritof  the 
acuteneas  or  philosophical  ability.  Hb  Judgment .  inspired  authora.  He  seems,  indeed,  not  to  have  had 
was  singularly  clear,  and  bis  manner  of  annotating  a  soul  attuned  to  the  spirituality  of  their  utterances,  or 
itraigbtforward.  Yet  he  had  not  much  compreben-  i  impregnated  with  the  celestial  fire  tlist  touched  their 
siveness  of  intellect,  nor  a  deep  insight  into  the  sidtit- 1  hallowed  lips.  His  father,  J.  G.  KosenmOller,  tbe  an- 
nal  nature  of  revetation.  '  thor  of  the  "Scholia"  on  tfao  New  Testament  (f>  vol:. 

(9.)  M.  Henry  ("£.rpM((i«iof  the  O.  and  N.  Test."  ;  8vo,  Numbg.  3785,  and  eince).  i"  a  good  word-eipiaiBo- 
Land.  1704  sq.,  6  vols,  fbl.,  and  various  eds.  since,  ;  for  students  Iwginning  to  rud  tbe  ori^nal.  Ho  baa 
latest  Lond.  1849,  8  vols.  4to,  condensed  with  Scott's  '  not  produced  a  masterly  specimen  of  eommentaiy  on 
JVotu  and  Doddridge'a  Practkai  OhtenaHont,  besides  '  any  one  luok  or  epistle. 

additions  from  other  sources,  in  Jenks's  Compivifluire  '  (IS.)  H,  Olsliancen  (_" BibHtdtt  CommeHlnr"  on 
Commentarg,  Brattletioro,  Vt.  133S  sq..  S  vols.  8vo).—  tbe  N.  T.  conUnned  by  Ebrard  and  utben,  7  vds.  Svo. 
Tbe  name  of  this  good  man  is  venerable,  and  will  lie  Kitnigsb.  l!'S7-.'>6i  tr.  in  Chike's  LOtrani,  Edinb. 
held  in  BVerlasdng  remembrance.  His  commentary  1847  sq. ;  ed.  by  Kendrich,  N.  Y.  1866  sq.,  G  vols.  Svo, 
does  not  contain  much  ezporition.  It  is  full  of  d-r-  have  hitherto  appeared). — One  of  the  best  example* 
nmixing.  It  is  snrprising,  however,  to  see  bow  far  '  of  commentary-  on  the  Kew  Testament  with  which  we 
bis  good  sense  and  simple  piety  led  him  into  the  dno- 1  are  acquuintee!  has  been  pven  iiy  this  writer.  The 
trine  of  the  Bible,  apart  from  many  of  the  higher  arranj^ment,  however,  being  semi-bistnrical,  has  smne 
qualities  belonging  to  a  successful  commentitor.  Hii ;  inconveniences,  especially  as  tbe  text  ia  not  given. 
prolixity  is  great.  PraclictU preaching  is  the  burden  The  expoi<ition  is  almost  wholly  (Vee  from  tbe  influ- 
of  his  voluminous  notes.  j  ence  of  Getnian   neology.     Verbal  criticism   is  but 

(111.)  ,1.  Gill  i"  Expoiition  of  the  0.  and  N.  Test."  sparingly  introduced,  altboagh  even  here  Um  hand  of 
Lond.  1763,  9  vols,  fol.,  and  several  times  aince).— The  a  master  is  apparent.  He  is  intent,  however,  on  highet 
prominent  cb:iractcristic  of  Gill's  commentary  Is  Aeav-  '  things.  He  investigates  tbe  tbonght,  tracee  tbe  t«a- 
in*H.  It  lacks  condensation  and  brevity.  The  mean-  nection,  puts  himself  in  tbe  same  position  as  the  writ- 
ing of  the  inspired  authora  is  often  undeveloped,  and  ors,  and  views  with  philosophic  ability  the  holy  rave- 
more  frequently  distorted.  Gill's  cliief  merit  waa  his  '  lations  of  Cbriat  in  their  comprehensive  tendencies. 
Babbinical  leaminu'.  The  critical  and  the  popular  are  admirably  mingled. 

(U.)  P.  Doddridge  C'Familg  Ejpoiiior  of  the  N.  The  continuation  of  the  work  by  other  hands  is  scaicn 
T.,"  Lond.  1739,  B  vols.  4tn,  and  often  since ;  Amherst,  ;  ly  equal  in  value. 

Maas.  1837, 1  vol.  8vo).— The  Wsle  of  thi«  pii.us  com-;  (16.)  A.  Tboluck.— The  commentaries  of  this  ami- 
mentator  waa  good,  and  bis  style  renin rkably  pure,  nent  writer  on  various  books  of  tbe  New  Teatamint, 
Ha  bad  not  much  acumen  or  comprehension  of  mind ;    especially  those  on  the  Epistles  to  tbe  Romaua  and 


COMMENTARY  4; 

H*bnwti,  azUbtt  the  bigbrat  extgtiicil  eneplUnCH.  I 
While  he  ciitlcall;  invetttgetoa  pbiueBand  I>t1aini>,  hi 
lacaida  into  the  pare  region  of  the  ideas.  UDfuldidK  ths 
MDie  vlth  much  skill  and  dlscernmeaL  His  com. 
mnitaiy  on  John  ii  of  >  iDore  popular  cut.  Hu  in- 
terpRtation  of  the  Bergprtiigl,  or  Sermon  on  the 
MoQnt,  ii  very  viiliubU.  That  on  the  Pealmi  1>  Ivh 
thonMKfa.  (Fat  the  edrtkin?,  see  each  of  theee  booka 
to  their  pU«.)  I 

(17.)  E.  W.  Hengitenberg Tbli  writer  is  too' 

EucifUl  in  his  exegeeii,  too  arldtrary  in  his  philology, 
u>d  too  eitrente  in  bis  Iheology  to  tw  Futlj  tmstwnr' 
thT  u  a  commentator;  yet  his  exponitlnna  of  tbe 
pMlm*,  EccleeiiUee,  Revelation,  etc.,  m^iy  be  consult- 
ed witli  advantage,  if  and  wilh  comparison  of  other 

(18.)  E.Henderion.~-ThiscommentBtnl''itranBla- 
tioa  and  notee  on  the  Hinor  Prophets,  as  well  as  Isai- 
ah, Jemnlah,  and  Eieklel,  ere  idmirabte  spedtnens 
of  toaod  Isaming,  good  judgment,  and  evangelical 
^atf.  Their  only  fkalt  In  tbe  expusllion  is  an  excess- 
ive leaning  to  literaliein. 

(19.)  A.  Barnes.— This  series  of  Notit  on  the  New 
Ten.  (N.T.  12  voU.  ISmot  Lood.  lSSO-5!),  and  por- 
tioDS  of  the  Old  (Job,  Isaiah,  Daniel),  have  had  a  pop- 
ularity which  abows  tbelr  adsptition  to  an  extensive 
want.  They  are  simple,  lucid,  and  practical,  end  writ- 
ten with  the  aQthor's  happy  flow  of  style,  and  are 
marked  by  genuine  spirituality ;  but  they  are  not  char- 
acterized by  critical  or  cxlenrive  learning. 

(».)  J.  A.  Aleiander.— The  notes  of  this  eml- 
DRtt  scbolar  on  Isaiah  are  a  thoroii):h  and  welMlgest- 

hiitorical  iKwks  of  the  N.  T.,  however,  are  too  popular 
to  add  anvtbing  to  hfa  reputation. 

(n.)  C.  T.  Kninfll.— The  commentaries  of  this 
writer,  especially  on  the  Gospels  and  Acts  (in  Latin. 
hest  ed.  London,  ISSfi,  6  vols.  8vo),  although  strongly 
tinrtued  with  rationalism,  are  among  the  best,  criti- 
ratly  and  pbilokigicall;  considered,  extant.  Learn. 
iai;,  acateness,  and  candor  are  everywhere  apparent. 

(«.)  a.  nusb.— This  author's  annotations  on  sev- 
eral of  the  fint  books  ofthe  O.  T.,  altbough  intended 
fir  popular  use,  are  generally  characteriied  by  good 
sense,  genuine  learning,  and  pkius  sentiment ;  and  are 
the  mnre  vainatile  as  being  nearly  the  only  good  eom- 
ntfntary  on  these  portioris  of  Scripture  available  to 
the  common  reader. 

(13.)  M.  Sluarl.— His  commentaries  on  Romans, 
nctirewa.  Daniel,  Revelation.  Proverbs,  and  Ecclesi- 
astes,  albeit  rather  diffuse  and  graniniatical,  are  yet 

ligation,  and  general  apprehension  of  tbe  genius  and 
■cope  ofthe  writers.  To  the  yoang  student  especially 
ihty  are  indispenwhle, 

(M.)  S.  T.  Bloomflold.  — This  author's  critical 
D^  (S  vol*.  Hvo,  Lond.  183MI),  aa  well  as  hia  Com- 
menUry  (Und.  ]SSO  sq.  3  vols.  8vo;  Phila.  1836)  and 
it)  Svpplement  (London,  1840, 1  vol.  8vo),  all  on  the 
S.  T..  give  very  much  sonnd  and  Jndlciona  exposition, 
sad  have  the  advantage  of  placing  before  tbe  render 
tbe  views  of  earlier  Interpreters.  Without  any  threat 
■Itenpt  at  nriginallty,  there  is  generally  a  careful  sift- 
ing of  oidniont  and  balancing  of  arguments  that  make 
hia  comments,  on  the  whole,  tbe  best  synopsis  of  sim- 
ple exe^sis  vet  prod  need. 

(Ji.l  H.  Alford  ('Cr.  Tat."  with  critical  appara- 
toaaadnntea.Lond.  1853-61,  fi  vols.  Svd;  vol.  i.  N.  Y. 
1W»)— This  sehnliriy  edition  of  the  Greek  Test,  con- 
tains a  critically-revised  text,  a  cnplons  exhiint  of  va- 
rlona  readtngs.  valaaMe  pndegnmena,  and  a  series  of 
analyliral.  philolo^eal,  and  expo-itory  notes.  There 
is  not  niBch  iitrirtly  new  tn  any  of  these  departments. 
bat  a  eoDvenlcnt  assemblage  of  materials  not  usually 
acccHlble.  The  whole  is  wmiriiht  out  with  grcnt  care 
sod  kaming.  and  presented  in  the  most 
tern.    A  very  aarioaa  drawback  apnn  its  ^ 


II  COMMENTARY 

ever,  is  tbe  latltndinatianlsm  evident  In  the  author's 

tbeologkal,  or,  perhaps,  rather  hermeneutical  princi- 
ples, which  leads  him  in  very  many  difficult  passages 
rather  to  array  tbe  sacred  authors  against  one  another 
than  to  reconcile  their  apparent  diicrepancies.  Un- 
der arrogance  of  soperior  "honesty,"  he  too  often  de- 
clines the  prime  task  of  an  expositor  by  pronouncing 
dlffiL'ultles  insoluble.  Tbe  critical  apparatus  Is  per- 
vaded by  the  awne  subjective  proclivity,  insomuch 
that  thd  writer  has  himself  once  or  twice  comjiletely 

modelled  it 

(26.)  F.  J.  V.  D.  Uaurer  ("  Ommmtaritu  in  V. 
T."  Lps.  1886-17,  *  vols.  8vo).— This  \t  a  series  of 
tations  on  the  Old  Test.,  considerably  full  on 
the  poetic  portions,  and  characteriied  by  great  acu- 
men, with  much  accuracy  of  scbnlarship,  bnt  little  or 
na  combinaUon  ofthe  spiritnal  Insigbt  into  Holy  Writ. 
It  is  chiefly  valuable  to  students  for  expounding  the 
literal  meaning. 

(27.)  J.  C,  Wolf  (■■  Ci™  in  N.  T."  6  vols.  4to,  Ha- 
idl.  1741).— This  author,  although  somewhat  old,  de- 
serves especisl  notice  for  hi*  valuable  mass  of  sound 
annotations. 

Besides  the  above,  the  following  English  comment- 
aries on  portions  of  Scripture  are  entitled  to  particular 
mention,  including  several  German  works  presented 
in  an  English  dress  by  the  publishers  Clark,  of  Edin- 
burgh (vsluable  additions  to  our  llteratuni  these  last. 
I>at  sadly  In  need,  as  a  general  thing,  of  judicious  rdit- 

the  Miracles  and  Parables ;  Stier  on  tbe  nords  of 
Christ ;  Kltto's  Pictorial  Bibit  and  Daify  KMe  lUvHTa- 
tivru :  Conybcare  and  Ho*pon>  Life  ondFpuOa  of  SI. 
Paul;  Watson  on  Matt,  and  some  <i(her  parts  of  the  N. 
T.;  Bengal  on  the  N.T. ;  Baumgarten  on  tbe  Acts; 
Eadle  on  several  ofthe  Pauline  ejuitles;  Hnrsley  on 
Hosea;  Elliott  on  Revelation;  Lo«tb  on  Isaiah;  We. 
mysaand  Fry  on  Job;  Ellicott  on  the  pailflral  epistles; 
Good  on  the  Psalms  andCanticlea;  Steiger  on  iFt  Pe- 
ter; UmlTeit  on  Job;  Billroth  on  Corinthians;  Titl- 
mann  on  John ;  Liglitfo-it's  Bora  Ifehrniar;  Keil  on 
Joshua  and  Kings;  Anl.erlein  on  Daniel;  Raltsch  on 
Gen.  and  Exod. ;  Stanley  on  Corinthians ;  Jowett  on 
several  of  Paul's  epistles;  Ginsburg  on  Cant,  and 
Eccles. ;  Phillips  and  De  Bur^'b  on  tbe  Psalms  i  Mac- 
lean on  Kebrews;  Preston  on  Eccledastes,  and  many 
othera  which  space  does  not  permit  us  here  to  enumer^ 
ate.  There  are  romoienlaries  on  the  entire  Bille 
by  Girdleslone.  Welllclovcd,  Wesley,  Coke,  Bcnscn, 
Cobbin,  Sutcliffr,  and  others;  on  the  New  Test,  by 
Baxter,  Barkitt,  Gillies,  Trollcpe,  and  othera  ;  on  tbe  . 
Gospels  by  Quetnel,  Campbell,  Norton.  Ryle,  and  oth- 
ers ;  on  the  Epistles  by  Micknipht,  Pyle,  and  others. 
Ibere  are  also  serviceable  annotations  on  varioui 
parts  of  Scripture  by  several  of  the  early  Cbareb  (k- 
Ihers,  especially  Origen,  Jerome,  and  Chrj'sostom  (sea 
CatSXa),  by  the  mediieval  theologians  and  reform- 
crs,  especially  Luther,  and  an  almost  innumerable  se- 
ries of  Inter  commentators  more  or  less  extensive, 
sufficiently  complete  lirts  of  which  ate  given  under  the 
appropriato  beads  in  this  Cyclopedia.  There  also  ex- 
ist an  Immense  numt  er  of  academical  dissertationa  of 
an  exeKftlca!  ebaractcr,  chiefly  by  Germans,  for  cer- 
tain rollecllons  of  a  few  of  whicb,  well  known  on  the 
Cuntinent.  see  Walcb,  Biil.  JhfJog.  Iv,  920  sq.  Se* 
»lsfl  the  several  lw>ks  and  divisions  of  .'Scripture  in 
their  proper  plnee  in  Ihia  work.  For  Hthrtir  com- 
mentaries on  the  whole  Jewish  Scriptures,  see  Kab- 
ttimc  \\\«l.W>. 

a.  The  modem  Gtrmmu,  prolific  as  they  are  In  theo- 
logical works,  have  seldom  ventured  to  undertake  an 
extMsitiun  of  the  whole  Bible.  Each  writer  usually 
confines  himself  to  the  task  of  commenting  on  a  few 
iKiohs.  In  this  their  wisdom  is  manifested.  Tet  they 
do  not  usually  excel  in  good  spedntens  of  commen- 
j  tary.  at  least  in  the  more  aacred  elements.  They  are 
;  vvrd-erflaimtn.     In  pointing  ont  various  readings,  in 


COJDIENTABr 

gtsmmatlcal,  btntorioil,  >Tid  geognpbtcal 
aa  iSso  in  lubtle  ipacnlatioos  rarpcctini;  the  f[Biiias  or 
the  timeii  ia  which  th«  orlWn  of  tbe  Bible  lived,  thev 
■n  at  home.  Id  tbe  loiter  erilidm  «s  willingly  ait 
U  their  feet  and  Iram.     But  wlih  resani  to  the  Aigh- 

doTetopment  of  tlie  aenu  In  ita  balr  reUtk>n>,  tbe 
grett  msjority  at  tbem  are  Umentably  wanting.  K«- 
fined  aoUona  nanrp  the  place  ot  pntcllcal  piety  In  their 
minds;  and  the  mtnutia  of  verbal  criticiBin  fdmiib 
them  nutriment  apart  tiom  the  rich  repaat  of  theolog- 
ical aentiment  and  unctifyiDg  trath.  But  then  are 
some  noble  azcepdoni,  seTeral  of  vbivh  are  deaignalcd 
above 

One  of  the  moel  coroplele  and  recent  aeriea  of  Ger- 
man comnientariei  (although  aomewhat  meagre  in  de. 
tail)  »  that  publiahed  by  Hiriel  (Leipzig,  3841-67), 
c«n«iating  of  a  Kim^j:iuleM  argitiickfi  //aadbuck,  on 
the  Old  Test.,  bv  Hitiig,  Hinel,  Theniua.  Knobel, 
BertheaD,  and  J.'OlahauacD  (in  16  Tola.  Svo);  on  the 
New  TesL  by  De  Wette,  with  additions  by  BrLckner, 
Heaaner,  and  LQcke  (in  11  vols.  8vo} ;  on  the  Apoc- 
rypha by  Friluche  and  Grimm  (in  5  vola.  8va).  A 
moat  copious  and  (in  the  Gennan  aense)  valuable  ae- 
rlea  la  alao  the  SriiitA  txtgtti$chir  Kai*meitlar  cum 
Neutn  TnlamatI,  by  Dr.  H.  A.  W.  Meyer  and  othere 
(GOtt,  in  16  pta.  lately  completed,  with  new  eds.  of  tbe 
earlier  portioni).  Another  is  the  Hits-  Handb, 
Brirfea  da  ApoHdl  Pauliu,  by  A.  Bia{Hng  (Mhneier, 
1858);  and  allll  mors  deserving  at  notice.  Die  ffeUgt 
Sc^r^if  m.  EiiMl.  K.  erU.  Anmerhntgm.  by  Otto  von 
Gerlach  (id  ed.  B;ll.  ISaH):  to  which  m<iy  be  added 
Vie  po>tiwA«i  Barhtr  da  idltn  Bmia  erilSrl,  by  H. 
Ewald  (GatL  1S36-M,  4  vola.  8vo),  togetber  with  hia 
firei'  EnU  Evaiiffdtat  (ibid.  IKAt.  Hvo),  Sendtthrribtn 
del  FOoIhi  (lb.  IBi7,  Svo),  Dai  U.  Ijot  (iU  18U,  Svu); 
D't  Proflieitn  li'i  alhn  Bmdn  ertldn  (Stuttg.  IMS,  i 
vols.  8v..),  and  Comment,  in  Apocaiyptifi  jLipa.  18a8, 
evo):  likewise  K.  W.  C.  Umbteit'a  CanmeiUar  Hb.  d. 
Pr-^Atten  (llamb.  1812-6,  4  vola.  Svo),  JtSmir  (Gotha, 
ie&6,  8vo),  PiaUer  (lb.  1846,  Svo),  Sprudit  Salomoi 
(ib.  1836.  8vo),  KoMrl  (ib.  1820.  8vo),  and  fiiob.  (ib. 
168S,  8vo);  also  the  B-mrib.  d.  EMat.  d.  ApoayjAm, 
by  G.  Volkmar  (TDb.  I860  aq.).  A  new  aeriea  of  crit- 
ical  and  exegelical  commentHrlea  of  great  value,  in 
GemuD,  on  the  booki  of  tbe  O.  T.,  Is  alao  In  piogrHs 
by  Delitiach  and  KeU  (Lpz.  1861  aq.),  which  wUl  doubt- 
leaa  include  the  aubatance  of  thoae  already  pDblitbed 
by  these  writsn  on  aererul  of  the  boaka  (Genesii, 
Psalma.  Canticles,  Habakkuk,  Joahua,  Kinga,  Chnin. 
.  sepirately) ;  it  is  in  coarae  of  publication,  En  an  Eng- 
liah  drees,  by  the  Messra.  Clark  of  Edinburgh. 

J,  P.  Luige,  aaslstad  by  aeveni  evangelical  scholars. 
It  also  leaning  B^eries  of  admuvble  homiletical  com- 
neniaries  oathe  books  of  the  0.  and  N.  T.,  of  which 
improved  tranalationa  are  in  course  of  publication  in 
tbia  connliy,  edited  by  Vr.  Scbaff  (N.  Y.  1864  aq.). 
IVetatcin'a  JVoeun  Tritaianitum  Graevm  (Amat.  ITfil,  2 
vols.  fol.),and  Grinltpld'e  Hetlenixtic  EdMo  anil  SeioHa 
on  the  New  Teat.  (Lond.  lSi.\  1848,  4  vole.  8vo)  af- 
lord  much  valuable  philological  elacidation  of  the  test. 
Bnnsen'a  BOeliotri,  now  in  progress  of  publication 
(Lpi.  1868  sq.  8ro),  although  eccentric  In  many  re- 
apecta,  has  alao  its  valuable  exsKetical  foatnrea,  eape- 
cially  the  new  translation  of  the  text. 

In  addition  Co  these,  Germany  has  produced  many 
other  specimens  of  commentary  that  occupy  a  high 
place  in  tbe  estimation  of  competent  J  ndgra.  but  atill 
remain  imtranilated.  Among  these  are  LDcke  on 
John's  wridnga,  eapeclally  in  tbe  iMird  edition;  Qe- 
aenios  on  laalab  ;  De  Wette  on  the  PKalma ;  FriUache 
on  Matt.  Hark,  and  Bom. ;  Bahr  on  Colosriana :  Phil- i 
ippi  on  Romans ;  Bleek  on  Helircna ;  Hiipfcld  on  tbe 
Psalms;  Gramberg  on  Chroniclea:  Ruckort  on  Ro- 
mans and  CorinthUns;  FUtt  on  the  Eplatlra ;  Len- 1 
gerke  on  Daniel ;  Stler  on  AcH.  He1,^cw^  Jimca,  and  ' 
Jude;  Uavemick  on  Ezt'kie)  und  Daniel;  llarleae  on 


12  COMMENTARY 

Ephesiana ;  TTiner  (in  Latin)  on  Galatlans «  ScbnlteM 
(La(.)  on  Job  and  Proverlie;  and  Tuch  on  Geoeaia: 
with  numeroua  othera,  which  poaseas  much  merit,  a^ 
companied,  it  is  true,  with  some  serious  fiuUa.  Dr. 
Kast,  of  Cincinnati,  is  pnblishing  in  this  country  a  com. 
meutary  on  the  New  Test,  in  German  on  an  escelkot 
plan,  of  which  an  edition  in  English  ia  alao  isaoed. 

B.  To  tbese  may  be  added  the  Americiui  eomnten* 
tariea  of  Turner  on  Genesla,  Romans,  John,  Ephesiana, 
Galatlana,  and  Hebrews;  Hacfcett  on  Acta ;  Hoar*  OD 
Haggu,  Zechariah.  and  Malacbi ;  the  notes  of  Owen, 
Whedun,  Ripley,  Jacobus,  Hodge,  and  others,  on  the 
Gospels,  Epistles,  etc. ;  and  nomeroua  other  less  im- 
portant works  that  might  be  apedfled,  but  which  are 
given  more  fully  andet  tbe  reapective  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, We  may  also  refer  to  the  notaa  accompanying 
tbe  revialoD  of  the  Engl.  Bible  now  in  progrtaa  by  the 
Am.  Bible  Union,  aa  fumjabing  much  exegetical  tdi^ 
cidatian.  (See  a  coDTanlcnt  list  of  worka  moat  accea- 
aible  and  naeftil  to  American  students,  with  prices 
attached,  and  jadicloua  practical  hlnta  on  the  general 
aubject  of  aids  to  Biblical  knowledge,  in  tbe  Jfctlodiik 
Qaar.  Bev.  April,  1854,  p.  S88-S97.)    Kotwittaatanding 


the  al 


t,  it  must,  h 


be  admitted  that  a  convenient  and  satjafadnry 
lanual  of  ezpoaitjon  on  the  entire  Bible,  adajited  to 
It  wants  of  tbe  public  in  iJiis  cmmtiy,  ia  still  a  d^ 
j  aideratum. 

I  4.  Tbe  following  ia  a  chronological  conapeetaa  of 
professed  Commentaries  On  the  whole  canonktl  6cri|»- 
turea  (excloslve  of  merely  improved  Trisioaa  or  edi- 
tions), aa  complete  aa  we  have  been  able  to  make  iL 
For  those  covering  the  Old  or  Ihe  Sew  Taatament 
slnne,  see  under  those  tillee.  The  mmt  important  of 
those  here  enumerated  are  designated  by  an  asterisk 
(•)  preflied :  Origen,  Commeiilaria  (ed.  Hoetiua,  Bo(b- 
magi,  1668,  !  vols,  fbl.) ;  Augustine,  SngtSea  (in  Ofp. 


ii-vi),  al 


1  Us  A' 


■.(ib.^ 


(Lugd. 1661,  Svo);  Paterius,  &po«ifw  (from  Gregoiy, 
in  the  letter's  0pp.  I V,  li) ;  II  ugo  de  S.  Caro,  PnHilbi 
(S  vol*.  fol.,Ven.  et  Baail.  1487,  Basil.  1498,  16M,  PM. 
1M8.  Colon.  1621;   8  vols,  fol.,  Lngri.  1G46,  lGe»); 
•WaUfHduB   Sttabo,  Gloaa,  etc.  (a  sort  of  Catena, 
including  entracta  ftnm   Rabanua  Msuma,  and  the 
PaHilli  of  De  Lyra,  6  vols,  fbl.,  Noremb.  14»4 ;  also 
more  complels,  EhiacI,  1617,  and  Aatw.  1634) ;  Meieo, 
Opemtitm/i  BibUea  [fVom  Luther's  expositionsj  (Jen. 
llilO-n.  !  vols.  4to)i  Dlonyaiua  Carthnaianoa,  Com- 
mtmlanm  (Olon.  IGSS  sq.,  IS  vols,  fol.);  •Pellican, 
Commentani  [except  Jonah,  Zoch.  and  Rev.]  (Tignri, 
163S  sq.,  7  vols.  fol. ;  with  Meyer's  notea  on  the  Apoo- 
al}-per,  Tlgur.  IMS,  10  vols,  fol.) ;  Bp.  CUrio,  Aama- 
KUioiia  [Ihoae  on  the  O.  T.  are  chiefly  ftvra  Seb.  UoD- 
ster]  (Venice,  IMS,  1&&T,  1664,  fol. ;  also  in  the  CHlici 
5am):  Gastius,  Commnitiirii  [6vm  Augnsline]  (B»- 
-"  1542,  2  vols,  41«);  VaUblua,  adiUia  [Onm  hi*  lee- 
a]  (in  Stei^ns'a  Latin  Bible,  Paris,  1645,  1551; 
separately,  Salamanca,  1684,  2  vols.  fol. ;  and  in 
Crilici  Sacri,  and  since);    Dmccioli.   Commaila 
(Venice.  1646.  7  pta.  fol.);  CasUlio,  BiftdVi  Sarra,  etc. 
(Basil.  1561,  fol. ;  later  with  various  additinna,  eape- 
cially  Francfort,  1697,  fol.;  also  in  the  Crih'ci  Sam) ; 
MarioratuB.  Comiatatarii  [on  many  portioiw  of  Scrip- 
ture] (variona  placea  and  forma,  1662-86,  etc.);  Stii- 
geliuf,  ScMia  (on  the  booka  of  tbe  O.  T.  ac|iarate1y, 
.  etc.  1S66  aq.,  18  vola..8vo)  and  IfspomnemiUa  (ou 
i.  T.,  I.lp.  16C6,  8VD,  and  later) ;  L.  Oaiander,  A»- 
ionei  (Tub.  1678-84, 8  vola.,  1687, 1  vol.  4to,  1689- 
u9'.  Franc.  1609.  3  vols.  foL;   alao  in  German, 
Ic.  1600,  and  often) ;  Tremelliua  and  Beia,  Sdulia 
'  el  Xula  [chiefly  notea  by  Tremelliua  and  Junius]  (Gen. 
1 157fi  S,  Lond.']59S,  (ol..  and  later);  BrenU.  Cua.»a 
(n™[Mrmona]  (in  hia  Oj^. i-vli, TOb.  1676-90);  •CaJ- 
vin,  Cammrntarii  [exapt  Judges,  Ruth,  2  Sam.,  Kings, 
Chron.,  Esther,  Neb.,  Exra.  Pmv.,  Eccles.,  Cant.,  and 
Rev.]  (at  variona  limes  in  dilTennt  langnsges:  la- 
aether  in  Latin,  in  bis  C/tra,  Geneva,  1678,  tS  vols.. 


COMJIENTART  433  COMMENTARY 

IfilT,  7  *ola.,  Amrt.  1671,  9  volt.  fot. ;  in  Englbh  [ex-  •  •toclc  Zellar,  J4g«r,  PfafT,  and  HncbsteUar,  Simma- 
(•pt  1  S«ni,  »nd  Job],  Ed inb.  1845-56,  62  Tola.«vo);  rim  [byordor  of  the  duke  of  Wllrtemberg]  (Stuttgirt, 
•LacuBnigtnsii,  A'o(iKtMK«(Aatw.  la8U,4to;  also  in  1G67,  Lpz.  171)9,  RudeaL  ITIl,  4to,  l.pi.  1721,  fo].  in  6 
thB  CntitiSMr{)i  kUo  liii  ind  MoUnut'a  and  othen'  voU.)i  i"-  and  II.  fiuiiatut,  Bibd  (Amtt.  1669,  fol.)( 
ncCH  in  the  BibSa  Loeanaiot  (AdLw.  1580, 1682  rq. ;  *ronle,  Sgnopnt  [In  large  part  a  condeouitioii  of  the 
1690.  tol.;  »l»o  in  the  CWlid  SawO ;  Chyttmat,  Cunt-'  Critki  Sucri,  De  la  UBfe'i  AtUia.  and  BimiUr  works] 
memtani  [on  moat  of  the  booka  of  Scripture]  (in  0pp.  (Loud.  1690-IG76,  4  Tola,  in  6,  fol. ;  Franc.  1670,  b 
£»9.Vitemb.lfiM-2,Lipa.  1698-8,  2  voli.  fol.);  ■Sa,  r  vols,  fill.;  DItraJ.  1685,  b  vola.  fol.;  Franc.  1694,  5 
A'ataHata  (4to,  Ant*.  l&Sa,  1610,  Lngd.  160)1,  1647,  ^vali.4to;  1712,  5  vole,  fol.);  a  different  work  i»  bis 
CokiD.  lGli>,  16201  tol.  Lagd.  1641 ;  aiwi  in  Mariana'a  original  AmUatiimt  [completed  Ly  other*]  (London, 
Sckuiia,  Antw.  ISU,  fill.,  and  in  Da  la  Hiye'i  AiUiu,  :  1683-6,  alao  1700,  !  roll.  fbl. ;  Edinb.  1803,  4  vola. 
Par.  1643, fol.);  Piacator,  (7tntaw>fani(Herb.  16U1  aq., '  410;  Lond.  1S40.  8  Tola.  8vo);  V*  Smcy,  aoialf  BibU, 
24  vola.  8va!  ltl4.t-6,4  vola.  fol.,  N.  T.  atra  aepanite);  etc.  [chiefly  Patriitic]  (Par.  167S,  SO  vola.  8toj  Levd. 
Diolati,  ^nobidbiHi  (Gener.  1607,  ful.;  In  EagUafa,  1696,  B'J  vola.  ISmo ;  Bruxollea,  i;23,  B  vola.  4to;  Ly. 
Lond.  1608,  enlarged  Ifiol,  fol.};  Cramer,  Hiu^juv  !  one,  1702,  3  vols,  fol.,  and  other  eda,);  Calot-iu,  At- 
(Argent.  1619,  B  vols.  4to;  without  the  text,  1727. 4lo  i ,  'u  Uluib-ata  [in  opporitlon  to  Grotiua]  (P.ad  M.  1672- 
V.  ad  M.  I7H0,  2  voli.  41o)  ;  •Mariana,  £cAo/ia  (Mad- ,  6,Drasd.i;iB,  4  vola,  fol.);  OKKeina. CbminflUani  [on 
rid.  1G19,  Parii,  1620,  Antw.  1624,  fol.) ;  *fC>tiiu,  An-  !  many  portiuns  of  Scripture]  (at  vnrions  timea,  aepa- 
MXoluiKt  (Antw.  1621, fol.  1  Colon.  1622, 4ta;  enlarged  |  ritely  ;  alio  in  Opera,  i-v,  Amat.  1675,  fol.  and  later)  i 
bT  (I'emiui,  Duad,  I62S,  Antw.  1663,  Par.  1663,  I68S,  Otearina,  ErUar.  (Uf».  1618-81,  6  vols,  fel.);  'Pat- 
Hognnt.  leSf,  fol.,  and  in  De  la  Haye;  abo  with  the  I  rick,Loiith,  Arnold,  Whitby,  and  Lowman,ConiiWBtii- 
aatbor's  excellent  notea  do  the  Epiatlea,  Antw.  1699,  |  ry  [originally  in  aeparate  portjoni  bv  each  author  on 
fol.);  Paceua,  Commtntaria  [on  moat  of  the  bwka  of  |  tbe  encceaaive  booka,  Lond.  1679  >q.]  (Lond.  1738  »q., 
the  Bilile](atdiS'erenttimea,  lUo  collected  Fraocfort,  7  Tola.  fol. ;  ed.  Pitman,  Lond.  1821,6  vola.  4to;  Phila. 
1618,  1641.  1648,  Gen.  1642,  fol.;  and  in  0pp.  Eirg.  1 1844,  Lond.  1853,  4  vola.  Bvo);  '^chmid,  t'MRRuntorii 
Franc.  1647,  3  vola.  fol.)  ;  Haraua,  Exptmlumi  [Pa-  i  [on  moRt  of  the  booki  of  Scripture]  (at  virioua  placea, 
triatic  and  myatlcal]  (Antw.  1630,  fuL) ;  ■Menocbius.  aeparatelj-,  1680-1704,  IS  vola.  4to) ;  AUix,  Sejediota 
Expitiria  ytol.  Colon.  16.'i0,  8  vula. ;  Antw.  1679,  Lugd.  .  (Lond.  1688,  S  vola.  in  1,  Svo ;  1809,  8vd  ;  Oif.  18^3, 
)G83, 1696, 1  vol. ;  with  Important  addiliona  by  Toor.  8vo;  alao  in  Biahop  Wataen'a  Tlvot.  Traclti  alao  In 
remine.  Par.  1719,  2  vole.,  Van.  17S3,  1  vol. ;  alao  in  ,  French,  Land.  1687-9,  8ro  (  Amat.  1689.  2  vola.  Sro) ; 
D«  la  Haye,  etc.);  ■Tirinua,  Cimmtntanm  [chiefly  ,  S.  Clarke,  Amtotatiimi,  etc.  (Lond.  1690,  1760,  GUag. 
cooipiled,  eapsciaUy  from  A  Lafude]  (fol.  Antw.  1682, '  1765,  foL);  Keae, //■«.  amJ  Jfy«ci>  (Lend.  1690-96.  4 
8  vola. ;  1645, 1656, 1668,  I6BB,  1719,  Lugd.  1C64, 1678, !  vota.  fol.) ;  L.  de  Carriirta,  Conmna/mVe  (Paris,  1701- 
ISM,  lii»T,  1702,  Venice,  1688,  1704, 1709,  1724.  Aug.  !  16,  !4  vola.  l£mo);  Haase,  ^mnrrl:.  etc.  (Lpa.  1704, 
Vind.  17M,  S  vols. ;  also  bi  De  la  H  aye's  £iilui  and  .  1710, 173.S,  Bvo;  1707,  fol.;  alao  in  Dutch,  Amat.  1Ti6, 
Poole's  Srtoptit);  Strabo  Fuldenais  [rd.  Leander],  |4to)i  Du  Hamel,  ^  iiiKMatr'iHWJ.  etc.  (Par.  1706,  2  vota. 
Glo-a  [with  Lyra'a  PotOla']  (Antw.  1634, 6  vols,  fol.) ;  !  fol.) ;  KmniT,,  Bible BrpSqutr  (Amat.  i:07,  2  vola.  fol.); 
UtMk.DiOek  AnmgbjUaiu  o/  Srn.  of  Dort(_\.ond.lS3^.  .'Benry.EipiiiHoit,  etr.  [completed  troni  Acts  by  otb- 
1657,  3  vola.  foL) ;  Gordon,  Cemmntarf'a  (["ar.  1686,  B  era]  (London,  1707-16,  6  vola.  fbl. ;  4th  ed.  ci  mplele, 
ToU.  fol.);  Card.Cajetan,C«n«nK<iri<'  (Lugd.  1689,  5  '  London,  1787,  6  voli.  IbL,  and  often  since;  new  ed. 
vols.  All.):  the  Nuremberg  (otherwise  Tinarian  or  I  Lond.  IMS,  6  vols.  4toi  condensed  in  Jeuka'a  Ohh- 
Enirstian,  Erkldrmg  [by  various  authara,  edited  by  prnteuiv  Conmitlory);  ■Calmet,  Commnilairr  (Par, 
Gerhard,  Major,  and  other  Jena  professor-]  (NOmb. '  1707-16,  28  vols.,  1718^  26  vols.  4to;  17S4,  8  vtls.  in  9, 
1640-^  and  often  aflerwarda,  fol.) ;  Qutatorp,  Ammia-  i  fol.;  tbe  DiiMttationt,  etc.,  separalelv,  Par.  1715,  5 
labaa  (Rost.  lft<3,  !  vola.  4to);  'De  la  Hayo,  fiiU'n  i  vols.  Svo.  1720,  S  vols.  4tai  (he  lael  in  LBti^b}-UaIU^ 
JVd^H  [a  collection  of  tbe  comments  of  G*gnau^  '  Lncca,  17^9,  2  vols,  lol.,  and  Ibe  whole  by  the  asme^ 
Eate,  Sa,  Menoch,  and  'Hrinns]  (Par.  1648,  6  vols,  fol.) '  .  U'irceb.  1789-93, 19  Tola.  4to;  also  in  German  by  Uos. 
also  his  BMia  Maxima  [sn  enlarged  but  less  cnrrecl  I  hehn.  Drein.  1738-47,  6  vols.  Svo ;  abridged  in  French, 
edition  of  the  preceding,  with  some  omissions,  and  the  Par.  1721,  Svo;  many  of  lis  notes  were  inserted  in  tbe 
addition  of  Ds  Lyta'a  and  some  original  cnmmente]  I  Abl  j  Vence'a  BOh,  Paris,  1767-73,  17  vola.  4tn,  and 
(Par.  1660,  IS  vola.  fol.) ;  Bp.  Hall,  ConlanplaliiHu  (in  j  later) ;  Wells,  PamJAnut,  etc.  (In  parts,  Oif.  1708- 
l»'ari:>,i,ii,  Und.lG47:  also  often  since  separately);  27,  7  vols.  ItoandSvo):  RaI>heliu^  ^ Rnorali'anei  [il- 
Friedlib,  Oitnalioiirt  (Stral.  1649-60,  !  vola.  Ibl.  i  en-  Instratlons  from  Xeoopboo,  etc.]  (flrat  sepamlely  on 
larged,  F.adM.1650);  the  Wastminater  Assembly's  the  0.  and  N.T.,  Hamb.  1709-16,  2  vols.SvO)  togeth- 
(q.  v.)^iiiioftiffnu  [by  various  divinea]  (Lond.  1650-^7,  er,  Lunenb.  1781,  Svo;  enlarged,  L.  Bst.  1747,  2  vols. 
1  vols. ;  Sd  ed.  ]6o7,  8  vob.  fol.) ;  Eacobar  and  Hen-  Svo) ;  Horche,  ErUanng  [mystical— Cant,  and  Rev. 
doia,  Commmlarii  (Lggd.  1662-67,  9  vols,  fnl.);  May-  |  omitted]  fMarb.  1712, 4to) ;  Mdnie.GayDn,£ip;fRifKiM 
er,  Onuninstary  [chiefly  compiled]  (Lond.  165.1,  6  vola.  [mystical]  (CoL  et  Amst.  1713-5,  20  vols,  l2mo)!  0»- 
fel., and lvoLln4to,etc.);T>*pp,CoMBinifary  [quaint]  terwald,  Obtrrvalufiit,  etc.  [tr.  fhmi  his  Frencb  BiUt, 
(Lond.  1664,  6  vols.  ful.  i  1867  aq..  Svo) ;  •Gr»liu^  An-  .  Amat.  1714,  fol,]  (by  ChamberliTiie,  Lond.  17*2,  Svo ; 
aomHima  (O.  T.,  Par.  1664,  3  vols.  fol. ;  Venice,  1668, 1  5th  edition  enlarged,  Lond.  1779,  2  vols.  Svo);  Anon. 
M. ;  K.  T.,  Par.  1644,  1646, 1649,  foL,  etc. )  together,  ;  SiM,  etc.  (Stnttu.  1TI6,  lb).) ;  Parker.  CoamdUarg  [in 
Load.  1660,  foL  ;  alao  in  C^igra,  i,  U;  and  tbe  Crtbn  ,  large  part  compiled]  (Oxf.  1717-25. 4to};  Anon.  Ma', 
«aer.',vii,ahridgedbyMoody,Lond.l727,2vols.4to)iletc.  (l.emgD,  1720,  fol.);  the  Berleburg  (q.  v.)  BOitl 
the  t>irici^(n'(q.  v.),  ed.by  Bp.Pearvon  and  other*  '  [pietistical],  by  vatloua  anonymous  editen  (Berle- 
[an  immente  collection  of  eiegelkal  traatiaea  bv  vari-  hirft,  1726-9,  7  vols,  fo).);  Pitscbmao,  Ammtrk.  (Zitt. 
nns  eminent  acbalars]  (Limd.  1660.  9  vols,  fol.';  with  '  1728,  4to) ;  •Gill,  Eipotition  [largely  horn  Rabbinlcat 
the  2  additional  volt,  called  Sa^J^iepttiii,  V.  id  M.  I  sonrcea]  (originally  in  separate  works.  Lond.  1728-67, 
1696-1701.  9  vola.  fol. ;  and  with  4  aiorv  vols,  called  9  vols.  fol. :  together.  Lond.  1810,  9  vols.  4to  ;  1854,  6 
TJieaaarw  TkfUo^m-pliiUogirat  et  Thaaant  Noau.  !  vols. Svo);  PrBS'BndKlrmni.,4n»eri.(Tijb.l729,  fol.); 
Amst.  1698-1732,  IS  vola.  fol.;  condensed  bv  Poole  in  >  "Lanfr,  ft'rilir.  [in  part  by  Adler]  (in  separate  works, 
hb£ywj»ia);Pmckner.aMin'Mar/ain(F.aiI.M.16CB,  Hal.  1729-37,  7  vols.  foL);  also  auhitantially  con- 
8  vols.  foL) ;  F.  de  CairiAres,  Commrnlaria  (Lugd. ,  densed  in  hia  Bih^  pernuhrticn  Hn  German— an  el- 
1663,  fol.)  1  BmiBB,  A  i»otnli'«if  [Socinian]  (ed.  Cu-  ,  liptical  or  paraphrastic  elucidation]  (Lpi.  174B,  2  vola. 
per,  Amat.  1664,  fol.)i  A  Lapide.C"tMteii(un'n  [except  fol.);  .Teltner,  fnUanm;;  (Alt  17110,  8vo;  1740,  4to); 
Job  and  tbe  Paalma]  (Antw  1664, 1671,  16HI.  Ifi9t,  ,  W.ll,  AWM(London.  1780-39,  3  vol..  Svo);  Wllliacb, 
1706.  Venice,  1708, 17::0, 10  vola.  fol.);  Ueinlin.  Rab.   jU6i(.£>jcUr.  [completed  l.y  Haymann]  (Fratb.  1731^ 


COMMENTARY  434  COMMERCE 

fbl.)  1  Scliraidt,  ErUar.  (Erf.  1740.  tto) ;  Stank,  A  lu-   Cimpr 

/ey«IBjni(O.TeBt,  Lpi.  »nilH»l.lHl-7,  4toIb„N.  T.,  '  mimi  (London,  1827,  2  toI«    .      ,, ,  ..  . 

Lpi.1733-7,  Svols,  [uDdatotliertinieiiinparM],  4to);  [chiefly  from  Scott]  (1-nndon,  18S4-S6,  8  voti.  Bro  »n™ 
*Ctasu  [completed  by  MadBmsJ,  CoauoFnlairt,  etc.  lllmo);  Abbi  GlaJre,  iVstcj,  etc.  [from  varlona  wilhori<] 
[from  tbe  best  English  iolerpreterB]  (Hague,  1743-90,  7  |  (Par.  1886-88,  B  vols.  4to) ;  Jonb.,  OympTtMauiK  Com- 
voU.  4to ;  the  former  pert  also  in  tienrnn,  I.ips.  1749-  ^  tarntarn  [chieflj  an  usemblage  of  Heniy,  Scott,  and 
C2, 4  vola.  4to) ;  Laca  ed.  [by  order  of  the  pope],  Com-  '  Doddridge]  (Brattleti.  18SA-38,  &  vols,  Sroj;  Ulrdle- 
vteslarii.  etc.  [from  varioua  authors]  {Ven.  1746,  4to)  ;  '  stone,  Ltctara  (Lond.  1836-42, 8  vols.  8vo) ;  DavidHm, 
also  [by  the  sanio  anthoritv]  ed.  Csrtier,  Commaaarii  Poehet  CanmaUars  (Edinli.  18BG,  8  vols.  »mo);  WfIU 
[a  more  extensive  work,  with  a  Germ,  ver^on,  tbr  the  |  l>eloved,  fiattt,  etc.  [Unitarian]  (London,  1838.  2  mis. 
use  arthemonai>ter7orEttenheim](CantMmine,  1761,  .8vo);  *KIito,  Pkt  rial  Bibli,  etc.  [valuable  for  II Ins- 
ftil.);  Edwards,  Xola  (in  ICarii,  II,  €76);  Koke,  ..4  s-  tratkins  of  OrlenUl  costoms]  (Lond.  1888-39,  4  volt. 
meri.(Hild.I750,4to);  Sltzim,  Cammailaritit  {Pngaa,  !4t«i  1866,  4  vols.  8vo;  also  without  the  text,  as /Iba- 
17a7-8(),  1770,  4  vols,  4to) ;  Goadby,  lUvMn^ort  [Ari- '  tratid  Coamfmtaiy,  Lond.  1840,  S  vols.  Bvo) ;  Cobbln, 
an]  (London,  1759-70,  3  vole,  fol.,  and  Inter)!  Kider,  Condautd  Connvntary  (2d  ed.  l^ond.  1889.  8vn)  ;  alee 
fltmiy  BibU  (Lond.  1768,  B  vols,  fol.)  j  Wesley,  Xola  I  Porlablr  Commmtury  (Lond.  1848,  ISmo) ;  Abbe  Migne, 
[those  on  the  N.  T.  are  ehort,  bat  valuable]  (London,  j  Commtnlariui  [chieflv  cnmpilod]  (Paris,  18.')9-4.').  !7 
1764,  4  vols.  4to;  also  In  IVorjb);  Allen,  ^rpof/hun  vols.  8vn) ;  *Blnieon,  Ditceuria  [mostly  practica]] 
[Antlnomian]  (Umlon,  17l3o,  3  vols,  ftd.,  and  later);  |  (Lond.  1840,  21  vols.  8vd);  SutcliRe,  Connai/aff  (Sch 
Lielnch  ed.,  .4nm<nt.  (llirschberg,  1765,  S  rola.  8vo);  i  ed.  Load.  I860,  2  vols.  8vo;  1864,1  vol.  8vo);  BonHn, 
■Elodd,  CimmmlaiTi,  etc.  [in  part  extracts  barn  HSS.]  nOtherrt  [Intended  as  a  popular  elticldatian — leanied 
Qanuml«ni,  Lond.  1765;  complete,  1770,  B  vols.ftil.);  and  Ingenious,  bat  extravagant]  (Lpi.  1868 *q.,  9  vols. 
Hawii.',  KxpoBloT  (London,  1766-6fl  [also  published  In  i  [m  half  vols.]  8vd  [pt.  I,  translation ;  ii,  eipositiun;  ill, 
America],  2  vols.  fi>l.) ;  J.  S.  Braun,  ErkOrmg  (Erf. :  hiatoi7,  with  suppl.  AtU>]} ;  Longe,  Bihrlwrk  [mostly 
1768,  3  vols,  fol.) ;  Michaellfs  Amatrk.  (GOtt  and  Go- '  theological  and  honiiletical]  (Bielefeld,  18M  rq  ,  8vo 
thi,  1709-83,  and  1790-2, 17  vols.  4t«;  also  In  Dutcb,  ^[alaT|;e  part  of  the  N.  T.  has  Iwen  iuuEHl,  and  sevenl 
Utrecht,  1780-86,  8vo;  and  friansnii^ni  on  the  same  !  books  oftfaeO.T.,  in  succjssive  volames,  a  consider*. 
by  Scbuls,  UaBe,  1790-4,  6  vols.  4to):  K6mer,  .In-  ble  nanib:r  of  which  have  been  translated  in  Clark's 
merk.  (Lpi.l7J0-S,  8  vole.  4to)j  Moldenhauer,  EHSiit.  Foriigo  Tkeol.  i».,  Edinb.,  and  some  of  them  In  N.Y., 
(Qaedlinli.  1774-87,  IOtoIs.  4ta  and!  toIb.  fol.) ;  Wei-  greatlvsnl  irged  t>nd  improved  under  the  editorship  of 
tenaaer  [Kom.  Cath.],  Animrk.  (Augsb.  1777-82,  14  .  Dr.SchafF]):  W.>rdBworth,A'ot«s(Lond.IB65  f>q.,8vo); 
vola.  fivo);  Heiel,  Anmtrk.  (Lem^,  1780-91, 10  vols.  Jamieson,  etc.,  CjnwioiAiry  (Lond.  1B68  sq.,  8to). 
8vo;   condensed  ijy  Schenk,  Lemgo,  1787,  8vn;  with        „  .    .       ,  ,       ,. 

the  aathor's  partial  enlargement,  Hollo,  1786-90,  9  ,  Commerce,  a  word  tliaC  doei  not  occur  in  th. 
v(.ls.  8voi  and  this  airaln  snnoUted  by  Roos,  Tfthing.  Aoth.  Vera.,  which  uses  the  tarm  tnde  or  •'traf- 
!788,fol.)i  l!p.WilK>n,A-c*r.,etc.(Lond.l;e6,3volB.  "==  but  the  idea  is  designated  by  two  Hob.  worde ;  1. 
4to)i  H.  Braun.  Antaerk,  (KUmh.  1786,  8vo;  ed.  by  "jS"^.  rekvUah'  (Geaenjus,  7»M.  Bfb.  p.  1389);  Sept. 
Feder,  1803,  3  vols. ;  by  Allioll,  1830-2,  6  voir.)-,  slso  j  in  Eiek.  ixvi,  12,  rd  irapxotTa,  Volg.  ntgatiatiamtt ; 
his  [patristic]  Bmerk.  (Augsli.  1788-1806, 18  vols.  8vo ;  |  in  jsvii,  6, 16, 18,  J/jwopio,  tugo&itie ;  from  ban,  ra. 
with  a  Laihm,  1808,  2  vols,  fol.)  ;  Yoom,  Commaitarj    i„y  jo  Iravfl  (on  fool) ;  8.  niho,  Jfciora*'  (Gosen. 

ed.L™d.lB41,6vols.4tOi  often  reprinted  in  England  1°=  *<»"  ^"^^^  ""*'^  '  '»  "'^  (mig™te).  See 
and  America;  also  condensed  in  Jenks'sQiniwieiow'K  .  Tbadk. 

Commnlarii);  ■Rosenmitller  and  Son,  Seho&a  [on  all  1.  Commerce,  In  Its  nsual  acceptation,  means  the 
the  books  except  Sam.-Ezra]  (0.  T.  Iiy  the  son,  [i|r>.  exchange  of  one  thing  for  another — the  exchange  of 
1788-1817,  etc.,  22  vols.  8vo ;  also  abridged,  by  Lech-  what  we  have  to  spare  fbr  what  we  want,  in  whatever 
ler,  Lips.  1828-36,  6  vols.  8vo:  theN.T.  bylhe  father,  I  country  it  is  produced.  The  origin  of  commerce  mnst 
Norlmb.  1777,  6th  ed.  enlarged  by  the  son,  1815.31,  6  have  been  nearly  coeval  with  the  world.  As  patita> 
vola.  8vd)  ;  Brentaoo,  Erklar.  (Ftkft.  1797-9,  13  vols.  I  age  and  agriculture  were  the  only  emiilovments  of  tbe 
8vo)l  Horst,  Bullmann,  Scherar,  and  others,  Commin-  i  first  inhabiWnts,  so  cattle,  flocks,  and  the  fraits  of  the 
tar  (Altenb.  1799-1809,  7  vols.  Bvo) ;  Alher,  /Blrrpre-  earth  were  the  only  ol>Jects  of  tbe  Brst  comoMrcc,  or 
lalio  (Pesth,  1801-4,  IS  vols.  8vo);  Balkley,  A'olra  that  species  of  It  called  barter.  It  would  appear  that 
[chiefly  illustrations  from  the  ancients]  (ed.  by  Toul-  some  progress  bad  been  made  in  mana6ictaies  in  the 
min,  Lond.  1802,  3  vols.  8vo);  Priestley,  A^otrt  (Korth-  ages  before  the  flood.  The  building  of  a  city  or  vil- 
nmb.  1803,  4  vols.  8vo);  Coke,  Conmeatary  [mostly  n  lage  by  Cain,  however  insignificsnt  the  honHs  may 
reprint  of  Dodd]  (Lond.  1800,  6  vols.  4to) ;  Webster,  have  lieen,  supposes  the  existence  of  some  mechanical 
[Rev.  T.],  Nolet  [chiefly  from  the  Genevan  Bible  and  knowledge.  The  musical  Instruments,  such  as  harps 
Beia]  (London,  1810,  4to);  *A.  Clarke,  CommnUaTy  '  and  organs,  the  works  in  brass  and  in  iron  exhiliited 
(Lond.  1810-26, 8  vols.  4to;  N.T.  1811-25,  6  vols.  4Ui;  i  by  the  succeeding  (.'eneratlons,  confirm  the  belief  that 
new  ed.  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  18:<2,  6  vols.  8vo ;  Lond.  1844. !  the  arts  were  considerably  advanced.  The  constmc- 
6  vols.  4to  and  8vo);  Hewlett,  .Vnta  (London,  1811,  .t  tinn  of  Noah's  ark.  a  ship  of  three  decks,  covered  over 
vols.4to):  Fawccit,  Of  ro'iona/  BiW?  (Undon,  1811,  2  with  pitch,  and  moch  larger  than  any  modem  eflbrt 
vols.  4to);  Benson,  OmmriUory  [largely  after  PooIb]  of  architecture,  proves  that  many  separate  trades  wet* 
(Lend.  1811-18,  5  vols.  4to ;  6th  ed.  1818,  6  vols.  8vo  i  at  that  period  carried  on.  Then  must  have  been  par- 
N.  Y.  1839,  5  vols.  8vo) ;  Hawker,  Ommmtani  (Ixmd.  \  ties  who  supplied  Noah  and  hia  three  anns  with  the 
1816-22,  10  vols.  ISino,  and  later);  Mrs.  ComwallL>,  '  great  quantity  and  variety  of  materials  which  thry  r»- 
OhitrBal'ont  (l.andon,  1817,  4  vols.  Svo);  D'Ojly  and  quired,  and  this  they  would  do  in  exchange  for  other 
Mant,  jVofr*  [chieflv  comfdlcd]  (Oaf.  1817,  3  vols.  4to,  commodities,  and  perhaps  money.  That  enormnos 
and  often  since;  N.  Y,  1818-20.  2  vols.  4to;  London,  pile  of  bull  din  ^r,  the  tower  of  Babel,  was  «>ni<trarted 
1856, 1861,  3  vols.  8vo);  Von  Hevor,  Anmerhmg-n  (F.  of  bricks,  the  proceH  of  making  which  appean  to  have 
ad  M.  1819, 1822,  3  vols.  Svo) ;  Anon.  Erlaat.  (Qucd-  been  well  understood.  Soma  learned  astronomers  are 
linb.  1819-21,  5  vols.  Svo) ;  the  Richters'  BaiuhiM  of  ojJnion  that  the  celestial  observations  of  the  Chi- 
(Barn).  1820,  8vo) ;  Mrs.  Stevens,  Onmrnte  (Knnresb.  nese  reach  back  to  2249  years  before  the  Christian  atra; 
182.3-31,  20  vols.  8va) ;  Boothroyd,  Vtrtioo,  etc.  (Hud-  and  the  celestial  observations  made  at  Babylon,  c<n- 
dersf.  1824.  8  vols.  4tn;  !.«nd.  1853,  Svo);  Williams,  i  tainedin  a  calendar  of  above  nineteen  centuries,  trans- 
C  Uop  Biile  (Lond  1825-27,  3  voU.  8vo);  Grecnlield,  ;  mittad  to  Greece  by  Alexander,  iMcb  hMik  to  witUa 


COMMERCE  4; 

IfiMn  Twr*  of  tham  aicribed  to  Urn  Chinene.  The 
Indi«iuapp«u'tohavebidubMrv*tiaa>  quite  ns  urly 
u  ths  Babf  lonluu.     See  Artedildvianb. 

Such  of  the  dcKandanta  of  Noah  u  lived  neai  the 
water  may  b«  pnaumol  to  hare  mule  dm  of  veuelt 
built  in  imitadun  of  the  ark—if,  as  •ame  thlnh,  that 
wu  Uw  fint  flnalJDg  ve»el  aver  aeaD  in  the  world — 
bnt  on  B  rinaller  Male,  lor  the  porpoac  of  cnMsing  riv- 
an.  In  the  wune  of  time  the  deacendanti  of  his  Mm 
Japfaetli  Httled  in  "the  blea  of  the  Gentiles,"  by  which 
are  nodentood  the  islands  at  the  east  end  of  the  Hed- 
itcrransaa  Sea,  and  those  between  Asia  Minor  and 
Gnecfl,  whence  their  cotonin  spread  into  Othkb,  Ita- 
Ij.  and  other  WesteiD  \tDi».     See  K 

In  short,  from  the  time  that  men  u 
cities,  trade,  In  some  shape,  moat  luH 
on  to  supply  the  tovn-dwelleca  with 
Heeren,  A/r.  Nat.  i,  409) ;  but  it  is  also  clear  that  in- 
lemaCional  trade  must  have  existed  and  affected  to 
•otne  estent  eten  the  pastoral  oomade  races,  for  we 
end  that  Abraham  was  rich,  not  only  in  cattle,  but  in 
mlveT,  gold,  and  gold  and  silver  plate  snd  ornaments 
(Gen.xili,2:  uiv, :i3. 53) ^  and  funtaer.t'^atgold  und 
silver  in  a  manufactured  state,  and  lilver,  not  Improl)- 
■btj  in  coin,  were  in  use  both  amon);  the  settled  inhab- 
itants of  Palestine,  and  the  pastoral  tribes  of  Svria  at 
that  date  (Gen.  11, 16;  ixiii,  16;  xuvUi,  Vi;  Job 
xlij,  11).  to  whom  tboM  metals  must  in  all  prolwbili^ 
hare  l«D  ImpoRed  from  other  countries  (HuBfrv,  A  v. 
If'e^bi,  c.  lii.  8,  p.  198 ;  Kllto,  ny.  HiH.  af'pal.  p. 
109,  llOj  see  Herod.  I,  nb).     See  Citt. 

3.  Among  triidio.:  UdlionB  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Egypt  holds  in  very  early  Limes  a  prominent  position 
(see  Habl«rd,  CDmncrre  n/'^iKi>a<  Ajn)7><,  inthc  BAH- 
cal  Rfpimlory,  April,  \SM\  thongh  her  external  trade 
was  carried  00,  not  bj'  her  own  citiienf,  bat  by  foi^ 
eigneni,  chieflv  of  the  nomade  races  (Heeren,  Afr.  flat. 
i,  468;  ii,  371^  Bia),  It  was  an  lahmaellla  c.ravsn, 
laden  with  apicea,  which  carried  Joseph  Into  Egi'pt, 
and  the  account  shows  tliat  slaves  formed  sometimet  a 
part  of  the  merchandise  imported  (Gen.  xxxvli,  lb; 
xxiix,  1 ;  Job  vi,  19).  From  Egypt  it  ia  likely  that 
at  all  times,  hat  eepeciallyin  times  of  general  scarcity, 
com  would  be  exported,  which  was  paid  Ibr  by  the 
non.expurtlng  nations  in  i>llver,  which  was  alwsvs 
weighed  (Gen.  xll,  67 ;  ilii,  R,3a,  Bfi;  iliii,  11,]!,31). 
These  caravans  also  brought  the  precious  stones  as 
well  a*  tbe  tplcea  of  India  into  Eiopt  (Exod.  xxv,  3, 
T;  Wilkinson, ^ne.%.ii,2.')6,2S7).  Intercourse  with 
lyre  does  not  appear  to  hare  taken  place  till  a  later 
period,  and  thai,  though  It  cannot  be  drtfrmined 
whether  the  purple  in  which  the  Egyptian  woollen 
lioeD  cloths  were  dyed  wss  Imiunht  by  land  from 
Phtenicia.  It  In  evident  that  colored  dotha  bad  ~ 
been  made  and  di-ed  in  Egypt,  and  the  iise,  at  I 
of  them  adopted  by  the  Heltrews  for  the  tabernacle  as 
earlv  aa  the  time  of  Hoses  (Exod.  xxv.  4,  6;  comp 
Hee'ren,  Atinl.  Nat.  i.  ?lbi ;  see  Heroil.  I,  I).  The  pas 
ture-gronnd  of  Shcchem  appears  fium  the  story  of  Jo 
seph  to  bare  lain  in  the  way  of  these  caravan  }numey 
(Geo.  xxxvii,  14,  SG),  probably  a  thoroughfare  frim 
Damascus.    See  O'IIiavan. 

At  the  same  period  It  is  clear  that  trade  was  carried 
on  between  Babylon  and  the  Svrian  cities  (see  Hui^ 
hard,  Cemmrra  0/  Anc.  Bab.  In  the  BiblieaJ  Bepoi, 
Jiit7,  18.17),  and  also  that  gold  and  silver  nmarnrntu 
-<ere  common  among  the  Syrian  and  Arabian  races;  a 
trade  which  wss  obvinnnly  carried  on  by  lind-can'ia"e 
(Sam.  xxxi,  50;  Josh,  vii,  !1 ;  Jadg.  v,  30;  viii,  Ii; 
Job  vi,  19).     See  BABTLnM. 

Sidon,  which  aflerwawls  became  so  celehralfd  for 
the  wonderful  mercantile  exertions  of  ita  Inhabitants 
was  fonndcdaboutS^UOyears  before  the  Christian  «ra. 
Tbe  neighboring  mountains,  being  covered  with  excel 
l*nt  csdar-trees,  rumlFhed  the  best  snrl  moat  dumlili 
timber  for  ship-buildiag.  The  inhablUnta  of  SiiJor 
accordingly  built  nomerous  ships,  and  exported  thi 


15  COMMERCE 

produce  of  the  adjoining  coantiy,  and  the  various  ar- 
ticles of  their  own  manufaoture,  ancb  aa  line  linen, 
ibroiderj,  tapestrj',  metals,  glass,  both  colored  ana 
figured,  cut,  or  carved,  and  even  mirrors.  They  were 
ivalled  by  tbe  inhabiUnta  of  the  McdiUn'aneiin 
coasts  in  works  of  taate,  elegance,  and  luxury.  Their 
great  and  universally  acknowledged  pre-eminence  in 
the  arta  procured  for  the  Phnniciana,  whose  principal 
seaport  was  Sidon,  the  hnnor  of  being  esteemed,  among 
tbe  Greeks  and  other  nations,  as  tbe  invenlon  of  com- 
merce, ship-building,  navigation,  the  application  of  as- 
tronomy to  nautical  [lurpoaes,  and  particularli'  aa  the 
diecoverers  of  several  stars  nearer  to  the  noith  pole 
than  any  that  were  known  to  other  nationa ;  of  naval 
war,  writing,  arithmetic,  book-keeping,  maasuree  and 
weights— to  which,  it  ia  probable,  they  might  have 
added  money.     See  Sidon. 

Tbe  earliest  accounts  of  bargain  and  sale  reach  no 
higher  than  the  time  of  Abraham,  and  his  transaction 
with  Ephrun.  He  is  said  to  have  weighed  unio  him 
"4C0  shekels  of  ailver,  current  money  with  the  mer- 
chant" (Gen.  xxiii.  16).  The  word  merchant  implies 
that  the  standard  of  money  was  fixed  I?  usage  among 
merchants,  who  comprised  a  numerous  and  ref  pectablo 
diss  of  the  community.  Manufactures  were  by  this 
time  an  for  advanced  that  not  only  those  more  immedi- 
ately connected  with  agriculture,  auch  oa  floor  gtotmd 
from  crrn,  wine,  oil,  butter,  and  also  the  most  neces- 
sary articles  of  clothing  and  furniture,  bnt  even  those 
<^  luxury  and  magniRcence,  were  much  In  oae,  aa  ap- 
pears ly  the  ear-rings,  bracelets  of  gold  and  of  silver, 
and  other  precions  thing*  presented  by  Abrnham'a 
steward  to  Rebecca  (Gen.  xxlv,  22,  63.)  See  Bas- 
in the  btKik  of  Job,  whnfe  author.  In  the  opinion 
cf  the  meet  learned  commentators,  resided  in  Arabia, 
and  was  nearly  contemporary  with  Abraham,  mDCh 
light  is  thrown  upon  the  cummerce,  minnfacturee, 
and  science  of  the  age  and  country  In  which  he  lived. 
There  is  mention  of  gold,  Iron,  brass,  lead,  crystal, 
jewels,  the  art  if  weaving,  merchants,  gold  brought 
from  Ophir,  which  implies  commerce  With  a  rcmnte 
country,  and  topatee  from  Ethiopia;  ship-building,  so 
far  improved  thit  some  ships  were  distinguished  fur 
the  velocity  of  their  motion ;  writing  in  a  book,  and 
engrai  ing  letters  or  writing  on  plates  of  lead  and  on 
stone  with  iron  pens,  and  also  seal-engraving;  fishing 
with  hooks,  and  nets,  snd  spears ;  mn^cal  instru- 
ments, the  harp  and  organ ;  astronomy,  and  names 
given  to  particular  stars.  These  notices  tend  to  prove 
tiiat,  although  the  patriarchal  ayatem  of  making  pas- 
turage the  chief  object  of  attention  waa  still  main. 
tained  liy  many  of  the  greatest  inhabitants  where  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Job  resided,  the  acienceA  were 
actively  cultivated,  the  uaethl  and  ornamental  arts  in 
an  advanced  aiate,  and  commerce  prosecuted  with  dil- 
igence and  success ;  and  this  at  s  period  when.  If  the 
chronology  of  Job  ia  correctly  settled,  the  arts  and 
wiencea  were  scsrcely  so  far  advanced  in  Egj-pt,  frcm 
whence,  and  from  the  other  countriea  bordering  upon 
the  eastern  part  of  the  tiediterranean  Sea,  they  after- 
wards gradually  found  their  way  Into  Greece.     See 

The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  appear  to  have  availed 
themselves  at  a  very  early  period  of  their  advanta- 
geous situation  l>etwern  the  two  fertile  and  opulent 
counfries  of  India  and  Eg\-pt,  and  to  have  obtained 
the  exclufiro  monopoly  of  a  verj-  profitaljle  csrrjing 
trade  Iwtneen  those  countries.  They  were  a  class  of 
people  who  gave  their  whole  attention  to  merchaodlae 
as  a  regular  and  established  proTe^^aion,  and  travelled 
with  caravans  between  Arabia  and  Egypt,  carrying 
upon  the  backs  of  camels  the  spiceries  of  India,  the 
halm  of  Canaan,  and  the  mvrrh  produced  in  tbehr  own 
country,  or  of  a  superior  quality  fium  the  opposite 
coast  rfAbysainU— all  of  which  were  in  great  demand 
among  the  Egyptians  fur  embalming  the  dead,  in  theil 


COMMERCE  436  COMMERCE 

rellglaiu  cereiDcmtee,  *nil  for  mIniiitarlTig  to  (he  pleu-  KangaHou  ofllie  Indian  Otxan,  Loud.  tSOT ;  Heetm's 

urea  of  tbiit  BaperntiCiDUS  and  laxuriaus  people.      The  AeMorcAu;  Barae*  on  tbe  .liKwat  Ctmmavt  of  H'M- 

merchanls  of  aneoftb«HCHraTinB  bought  JoKph  from  em  Ana,  in  the  BitBcal  Jtipomlory,  Oct.  1840,  Jan. 

hie  bnithere  for  twenty  pieces  of  tilver,  and  ctrrisd  1841 ;  Gilbtrt,  LecU.  im  Ane.  Cmnwrn,  Land.  1S47.) 

bim  inlfl  Eg>'pt.     The  goathern  Arabs  wen:  sniinent  See  Albxandeh. 

traden,  and  enjoyed  a  large  proportion,  and  in  geneial  8.  Until  the  time  of  Solomon  the  Hebreir  natioa 

the  entire  monopoly,  of  tbe  tmile  between  India  and  may  be  e^  M  have  had  no  fbrei^ni  trade  (see  Tychaen, 

the  weitent  world  from  tbe  earliest  aget,  until  the  sya-  De  Comm.  H  Nau.  Hdmrorvn,  in  the  (Jim.  tiM,  GotL 

tem  of  that  imporHmt  commerce  was  totally  over-  180H,  p.  160-79).     Foreign  trade  waa  Indeed  contem. 

turned  when  the  inhabitanta  of  Europe  diacevered  a  plated  by  the  Law,  and  atiict  tdIcs  for  piorality  ia 

direct  roate  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     t>ee  commercial  deaUugs  were  laid  down   bv  it  (Dent, 

Ahabia.  xxviij,  IS;  xxv,  lS-16;  Lev.  xis,  BS,  S6X  and  thn 

At  the  period  when  Joseph's  brethren  visited  Egj'pt,  tribes  near  the  sea  and  the  Pbceniciaii  territory  appear 

Inns  were  established  for  the  accommodation  of  ttav-  to  have  engaged  to  Mine  extent  Id  maritime  aflkin 

ellora  in  thai  country  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  {Gen.  icUx.Ifl:  Deut.  xiitiii,  18;  Judg.T,17);  butthe 

Arabia.     Tbe  more  civilized  southern  parts  of  the  pe-  spirit  of  the  L^w  was  more  in  favor  of  agTicultnr*  and 

ninsula  would  no  doubt  be  furnished  with   caravan-  against  foreign  trade  (l>enL  xvii,  16,  IT ;  Lev.  xxt  ; 

•erais  still  more  commodious.     See  Cabavamsekai.  see  Josephus.  Apii/it,  i,  12).     See  Alliamce. 

During  the  residence  of  the  Israalitesin  Egypt  man-  During  the  reign  of  David,  king  of  Israel,  that  poW' 
nfactnres  of  almost  every  description  were  carried  to  erful  monarch  diapoaed  of  a  part  of  the  wealth  obtained 
great  perfection.  Flax,  Ane  linen,  gsrmenta  of  cot.  Ly  his  conquests  in  purchasing  cedar-timber  from  Hi- 
ton,  rings  and  }ewelB  of  gold  and  silver,  works  in  all  ram,  king  of  Tyre,  with  whom  he  kept  up  a  friendly 
kinds  of  materials,  chariots  for  pleasure,  and  chariots  correspondence  while  he  lived.  He  also  hired  Tjrian 
tot  war,  are  all  mentioned  by  Moses.  They  bad  ex-  masons  and  carpenters  fist  carrying  on  his  works.  See 
tensive  manufactories  of  brick.  Literature  was  in  a  David.  SolDnion,  however,  organiied  an  extensive 
flourishing  state ;  and,  in  order  to  give  an  enlarged  trade  with  foreign  countries,  but  chiefly,  at  least  *o  tax 
kleaofthe  accompliebraenta  of  Mosfo,  it  Is  said  he  was  as  the  more  distant  nstions  were  concerned,  of  an  im- 
"leamed  in  alt  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians"  (Acts  port  character.  He  imported  llnsD  yam,  hones,  and 
xli.  S2).     See  Eoiirr.  cbariola  from  Egypt.     Of  the  hoiaes,  some  appear  to 

The  expulsion  of  the  Canaiinites  from  a  great  part  haye  been  resold  to  Syrian  and  Canaanitish  princes, 

of  their  territoriea  by  tbo  Iaraelit«  under  Joshua  led  For  all  these  he  paid  gold,  which  was  imported  by  sea 

to  the  gradual  estililisbment  of  colonies  in  Cyprus,  from  India  and  Arabia  by  his  fleets  in  conjunction  with 

Rhodes,  sud  several  islands  In  tbe  iEgenn  Sea;  they  the  Phcenicians  (1  Kings  n,  22-29;  see  Gesanius,  TV*. 

penetrated  Into  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea,  and,  spread-  H,b.  p.  1202;  comp.  Herrcn.  A:  Nat.  1,  834).     It  wu 

Ing  along  the  shores  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Gaul.  Spain,  '  by  Phcenlcians  also  that  the  cedar  and  other  timber 

and  Africa,  established  numerons  trading  places,  wbich  for  bis  great  architectural  works  *ras  broogfat  by  sea 

grailually  rose  Into  more  or  less  Importance.     At  this  to  Jnpps,  whilst  Solomon  Ibund  the  pnivislons  neees- 

period  mention  is  first  made  of  Tjtb  as  a  strong  or  sary  tor  the  workmen  in  Mount  Lebanon  (1  Kings  v, 

fortified  city,  whilst  Sidon  is  dignified  with  the  title  6.  D;  2  Chron.  ii,  ifl).     The  united  fleet*  osed  to  aril 

of  Great.     See  CASAAStTB.  into  the  Indian  Ocean  every  three  years  from  Elatii 

The  rising  prosperity  of  Tyre  soon  eclipsed  the  an-  and  Eiinngrl  ler,  ports  on  the  £1anitic  gulf  of  tbe  Red 

cient  and  long-Bonrishing  commercbl  city  of  Sidon.  Sea,  which  David  had  probably  gained  from  Edom; 

About  61)0  years  liefore  Christ  her  commercial  spleo-  and  they  brought  back  gold,  silver,  ivoty,  sandal-wood, 

dnr  appears  to  have  lieen  at  its  beij^ht,  and  is  grapiiic-  ebonv,  precious  stones,  apes,  and  peacocks.     Some  of 

•Uy  described  by  Ezekict  (xxvil).     The  imports  Into  these  may  have  oome  from   India  and  Ceylon,  and 

Tyre  wore  fine  linen  from  Egj'pt;  blue  and  purple  from  some  from  tbe  cosats  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  east 

the  isles  of  Elisbab  i  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lend  from  cOMst  of  Africa  (2  Sam.  vlii,  14;  I  Kings  ix,3G;  x,l], 

Tarshish— the  south  part  of  Spiln;  slaves  and  braien  !2;  2  Chron.  viii,  17;  see  Ueind.  ili,  114  ;  camp.  Liv- 
vessela  from  Javan  or  Greece,  Tula  1,  and  Mesbech;|  in . -stone,  rroiwfc,  p.  887,  662).     See  0 phi R, 

horses.  sUves  bred  to  borsemanthip.  and  mules  from  i       But  the  trade  which  Solomon  took  *o  much  pains  to 

Togarmuh;  emeralds,  purple,  embndder)-,  line  linen,  encourage  was  not  a  maritime  trade  only.     He  boilt, 

corj|>,  and  a^Jtes  from  Syria ;  corn,  balm,  honey,  nil,  or  more  prahnlily  fbrtilied,  Baalliek  and  Palmj-ra ;  tbe 

and  gum  tmrn  the  Israelites ;  wine  and  weed  front  Da-  latter  at  least  expressly  as  a  caravan  statioD  Ibr  tlM 

mascus;  polished  ironware,  precious  oils,  and  cinnn.  '  land^nvmmerce  with  easC^m  and  soutb-eastam  Asia 

mon  from  Dan,  Javan,  and  Utal ;  magnlHcent  carpets  (1  Kingsix,  18).     See  Solomon. 

from  Dedjn ;  sheep  and  gouts  from  th*e  pastoral  tribes  ,      After  his  death  the  maritime  trade  declined,  and  an 

of  Arabia;  costly  spices,  some  the  produce  of  India,  attempt  made  hvJohofhapbat  to  revive  it  proved  nn- 

preciousstones,  and  gold  from  the  merchants  of  Sb?hn  successful  (1   Kings  xxii,  48.  49).     See  TAsaiiisa. 

or  Sabaa,  and  Ramab  or  Regma,  countries  In  the  scuth  \Vc  know,  however,  that  Phcenicla  was  supplied  from 

part  of  Arabia ;  blue  cloths,  embroidered  works,  rich  Jndea  with  wheat,  honey,  oil,  and  helm  (I  Kinire  r, 

apparel  in  corded  cedar.cbeste,  snppoeed  to  be  ori|;inai  11;  E(ek.  xxvii.  J7;  Actaxli.SO;  see  Josephos,  H'lir, 

India  packages,  and  other  goods  from  Sheba,  Ashur,  >  ii,  21.  2;  U/r.  IS),  whilst  Tyrian  dealers  brongbt  Ssh 

and  Chilmad,  and  from  Haran,  Canneh,  and  Eden,  and  other  men^handiie  to  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of 

trading  ports  on  the  sonth  coast  of  Arabia.     The  vasX  the  return  from  captivity  (Ifeh.  xili,  16),  as  well  a* 

wealth  that  thus  flowed  into  Tyre  from  all  quarters  ,  timber  for  tbe  robuilding  of  the  Temple,  which  then, 

IsDuiEht  with  it  its  too  general  concomilanis — e^trav.  I  as  in  Sdomon's  time,  was  brought  by  sea  to  Jopp* 

agance,  dissipatbn,  and  relaxation  of  morals.     See  j  (Exn  ill.  7).     Oil  was  exported  lo  Egypt  (Hos.  xii,  I), 

Tras.  and  fine  linen  and  ornamental  girdles  of  domestic  man- 

The  subjection  of  Tyre,  "the  renowned  dty  wbich  |  ufactura  were  mid  to  the  merchants  (Pror.  xxxi,  24). 

whose  trafBckera  were  tbe  honorable  of  the  earth,''  bv  |  jecced,  involving  both  large  abstractioa  of  treaanre 
Cyrus,  and  its  subsequent  overthrow  by  Alexander,  '  by  invaden>,  and  heavy  imposts  on  tbe  inhabitants  lo 
after  a  determined  and  most  formidable  resistance,  purchase  immunity  or  tn  FatlifF  demands  for  tribute, 
terminated  alike  the  grandenr  of  that  city  and  the  his-  must  have  impoverinhed  the  country  from  time  to  tima 
tory  of  ancient  commerce,  as  far  as  they  are  alluded  ,  (imder  Kehoboam,!  Kings  xiv,2G;  Asaxv,  Ifl;  Joaah, 
to  in  Scripture.  <See  Anderson's  ^itforyo/Cuninerer,  'i  Kings,  xii,  IS;  Amaiitih,  xiv,  1.1;  Ahnx.  xri,  6; 
Lond.  1764,  and  latest  ISOl;  Vincent's  ComnerM  and  .  lleKhlab,XTiii,IS-16;  JehoalkaiaBdJcboijkin,xzii^ 


COMMINATION  4! 

■8,  36:  JeboUchln,  xxlv,  13):  bat  it  )«  also  clear,  aa 
tbe  cleDDnciatlaiu  of  the  propheta  beai  witneu.  that 
nueh  «c«ltb  must  •amawberB  have  exialcd  In  tbe 
eooDtcy.  and  much  (oniijn  merchiuidiic  huvs  bean  im- 
ported; ao  mncb  io  thai,  in  the  lnD^puge  ot  Exekiel, 
Janualem  appaan  as  the  rival  of  'ijre,  and  throagh 
Iti  poit,  Joppa,  Io  have  carried  on  trade  with  fareiKD 
conntneaClaa.  ii,S,16;  ui,  11,23;  Hoi.xii,Ti  £» 
xxvi,  i;  Jonah,  i,  8;  comp.  Heeren,  Ai,  Nat.  i,  p. 
Si«}.     See  Phonicia. 

Under  the  Hsccabees  Joppa  wu  fortiflod  (1  Mace. 
SIT,  34).  and  later  (till  CsHrea  wa>  built  and  made  ■ 
port  by  Herod  (Joee(>h.^ii/.  xv,9,6;  Acta  zxvii,  i). 
Joppa  became  afterwarda  a  haunt  fur  piralea,  and  wu 
talieD  bj  Ceaciua  ;  iifterwards  l>;  Veapasiiin,  and  de- 
Mniyed  by  blm  (tUfab.  xtI,  p.  758;  Juaepbut,  War,  ii, 
18, 10 ;  ili, »,  1).    See  Palewtinb. 

4.  The  ioternal  trade  of  the  Jewi,  ■■  well  aa  (he  ex- 
ternal, waa  much  pionoted,  as  waa  the  caee  alauln 
Eg7pt,  by  the  resUvala,  which  tffonght  lai^e  numbers 
of  persona  to  Jemsalam,  and  caused  gtfi  ODtlaj  in 
Tietima  for  aacrifices  and  in  incense  (1  Kings  tiii,  68 ; 
camp.  Heenn,  Afr.  Nat.  ii.  B6tl).     See  Forivit.. 

Tbe  places  of  public  market  were,  then  as  now, 
chletlj  tbe  open  spscea  near  the  gates,  to  which  goods 
were  brought  tat  tale  by  those  who  came  from  the  Ont- 
■ide  (Neb.  xili,  15, 16 ;  Zeph.  i,  10).     See  Gats. 

The  traders  in  Idter  times  were  allowed  to  Intmde 
Into  tbe  Temple,  in  tbe  outer  courts  of  which  victims 
wen  publicly  sold  for  the  sacrifices  (Zech.  xiv,  SI; 
Matt,  xxi,  12;  John  it,  14).     See  Tbnfli. 

In  the  malUr  of  buying  and  selling  (treat  stress 
ii  laid  by  the  Law  on  faimesa  in  dealing.  Just 
weights  and  balance*  are  slringently  ordered  (Lev, 
xix.8fi.S8;  Deut,  xxt,  IS-IS).  Kidnapping  siaves 
is  forbidden  under  the  severest  penallv  (Kiod.  xxi, 
16;  Deut.  xxiv,  7).  Trade  in  swine 'wsi  forbidden 
by  ihe  Jewish  doctor*  (see  Surenhusiiis,  Muckiui, 
de  Jam*,  c  7,  ToL  iv,  60;  Ughifoai.  Hor.  Hit.  an 
Xaiik.  viii,  83;  StabcbUti,  Arch.  Hdir.  e.  15,  16). 
See  Mhbchant. 

CotmnUiatlon,  an  office  in  the  Liturgy  of  thi 
Church  of  England,  nhich  contjiint  God's  tkreaieningi 
aKainat  impenitent  sinners.  It  b  directed  to  be  used 
on  tbe  first  dsy  of  Lent,  and  at  other  times,  as  tbe  or- 
dinary shall  appoint.  It  is  called  Comminution  Ihim 
the  opening  Eiborlatlon  to  Repentance,  in  which  tbe 
cursea  of  Ciod  against  sin  are  recited.  The  office  for 
"A  CommiDation,  or  denouncing  of  God's  anger  and 
Judgments  agaiost  cinuera,"  was  left  out  of  tbe  Amer- 
tctn  Prayenbook.  but  the  ihree  concluding  prayers  of 
that  office  were  introduced  Into  the  serrice  for  Ash- 
Wcdnesday,  immediately  after  the  Collect  for  that  day. 
8«  Procter  on  d-mmem  Praytr,  429;  Hook,  Chvrck 
JOeliimanf,  t.  v. ;  Eden,  C^nrcAntaa'i  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Commlanary.  1.  In  the  Chnrch  of  England,  an 
olBcer  who  fills  the  bishop's  place  in  exercising  eccle- 
siastical Jurisdiction,  In  places  so  tar  distant  l^m  the 
chief  city  that  the  chancellor  cannot  call  tbe  people  to 
tbe  bishop's  principal  consistory  court  witbont  great 
tronlile  (o  them. — Eden,  Ciurekraan't  DkiioiuiTf,  s.  v. 

1.  In  the  Church  of  Rome,  archbiahoji*.  Idnhope,  at 
other  dignitaries  are  deputed  as  Papui  Commiiiarirf 
Tor  tbe  exercise  of  functions  properly  belonging  to  the 
pope;  snd  in  the  same  manner  bishops  msy  depute 
rpiteopai  comnnanrin.  If  they  are  deputed  for  one 
particular  act  they  are  temporniy  commissaries  (om- 
miitarii  trmforarii).  If  seversl  individusls  are  con- 
Jointly  deputed  for  such  a  function  they  are  called  a 
fvamftnon.  If  perrons  are  clothed  by  the  pope,  orlty 
a  hlsbop,  with  power  Ui  exercise  regularly  ftinctions 
belonging  to  them,  they  are  called  prrTHVualrommiMo- 
rit4  (cflMtuHrn  perjtetui).  Sea  Wetier  und  Welte, 
KirflKa-Ltx.  11, 7M. 

9,Eira  viii. 


in,  1.  r^,  dalli  (a 


7  COMMON  PRATER 

36;   elsewhere  "decree,"  etc.);   3.  i 
cAoiyf,  AcIbiktI,12), 

COMMISSION,  ECCLESIASTICAL.     See  Con* 

CominiBsioiieT,  a  gloss  rendering  (1  Hacc.  U,  !&) 
for  lii'^ii,  man,  i.  e.  officer. 

I  CommodiillinB,  a  Christian  hlslorian,  supposed 
'  to  have  been  bom  in  Africa  in  the  second  half  of  the 
3d  century,  snd  Io  have  been  converted  from  heathen- 
ism. He  wrote,  in  a  sort  of  acrostic  verse,  LXSX  ub 
tlituiiona  adv.  gniiam  iltoi,  which  ridicules  beathen- 
tsni  and  exhorts  the  Christians  to  lead  s  pure  life.  It 
also  contains  Chilisstic  notions,  and  gives  out  the  idea 
that  Mero  was  the  Antichrist.  It  is  one  oflhe  oldest 
monumEnts  of  Christian  history.  It  was  published  by 
Kigali  (1660);  by  Prinrius,  together  with  the  works 
of  Cyprian  (Paris,  1686);  iiv  Schurzfleisch  (Wittenb, 
1704, 4lo);  and  by  Dsvisius  {CamLridKe,  1711).  See 
Clarke,  Saecrtii-n  of  Sac.  Lit.  1, 171 ;  U'etzer  u.  Welle, 
j:,r<-*.-£a.ii.T16. 

Commodns.  Lccicb  Mlivb  Avrblics,  b  Roman 
emperor,  was  bom  A.D.  161,  and  Eucceeded  his  father, 
Mark  Aurelius,  as  emperor  in  180.  From  early  youth 
he  was  noted  for  weakness  of  churacter,  UcenUDusners, 
and  cruelty.  His  fhtbet  was  the  first  emperor  who 
issued  a  decree  of  persecution  against  the  Chrbtisns. 

secution  ceased,  owing.  It  was  said,  to  tbe  influence 
of  bis  concubine,  Uarda.  According  to  Irencus, 
Christians  were  found  during  tbe  reign  of  Commodus 
even  in  the  palace,  and  In  the  service  of  the  emperor. 
But.  though  Commodus  did  not  decree  to  persecnte 
the  Christians,  there  were  laws  according  to  which 
Christians  who  were  informed  against  were  to  lie  tried. 
Thus  the  lesmed  senator  Apollonius,  who  was  inform- 
ed against  by  one  of  his  alavea,  was  condemned  to 
death.  Partial  persecutions  during  the  rei..'n  of  Com- 
modus are  mentioned  by  Tertallian,  and  Irensus  like- 
wise speaks  of  martyrs  of  this  time.  But,  a*  Commo- 
dus was  supposed  to  be  favorably  disposed  toward  the 
Christians,  the  governors  of  tbe  provinces  fell  no  in- 
clination to  carry  out  tbe  lavs  against  the  Christians. 
— Metier  u. Welte,  Kirch.-Ltx.  Ii,  717. 

Common  (teoit^').  The  Greek  term  properlv  sig- 
niHes  wluilbilaiigt(oall(,aii  in  Wisd.  vii,  8,  toifU-'''in-\ 
but  the  Hellenists  applied  it  (like  the  Hebrew  ^n)  to 
what  waa  profane,  I.  e.  not  Wy.  and  therefore  of  com- 
mon or  promiscuous  use  (Acts  i,  H).  They  also  ap- 
plied tbe  term  Io  what  was  Impart,  wlwther  naturally 
or  legally  (as  in  Hark  vii,  2,  compared  with  I  Msec. 
i,  47,  62).  Finally,  it  was  used  of  meals  forbiddi'n,  or 
RDch  as  had  been  partaken  of  hy  idolaters,  and  which, 
as  they  rendered  the  partakers  thereof  impure,  were 
themselves  called  roivo  (common),  and  omihaprn  (un- 
clean) (see  KninCl  on  Acts  x,  14).     See  Clean. 

Common -honne.  A  room  in  a  monastery-  wliera 
fire  is  conManlly  kept  for  tbe  monks  Io  warm  them- 

Common  Iilfe.  See  Bbethbcn  or  the  Com- 
ox  Ufe. 

Common  I^t.  BROTHERS  OF  THE.  See 
Bketdren  op  the  Cum  HON  Lifb. 

Common  Prayer,  the  wrvlce-lwok  of  the  Chnrch 
)f  England  and  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
It  is  m  called  because  it  contains  the  prayers  which 
the  members  of  those  churches  use  «  common,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  their  devotions  as  private  individuals. 
In  the  view  of  those  churches,  the  devotions  of  sepa- 
rate  bmilies  or  persona  may  be  conducted  in  any  mode 
which  best  suits  the  circumstances  of  each  ;  but  Joint 
worship,  cuBiiBoii  prayer,  must  be  in  forms  on  which 
all  are  previously  agreed,  because  these  alone  can 

9S,  Church  of  England,  on  the  obligation  to'use  Ihe 
Book  of  Common  Prayer-,  Eden.CAiircAmaii't  J^'ov 


COMMON  PRAYER  4! 

art/,  ■.▼.).  Aa  to  the  qDCStion  of  tha  v»Iue  of  roth 
formi,  Bee  Forks  of  rBAYER.     On  litai^lea  proper 

bera  h  hrief  sketch  of  the  b'utory  of  Engliab  and  Amer- 
ican Pnyer-booke. 

I.  The  EngUih  /Vf/yrr-fcx*.— The  "Common  Pr»y- 
Bt"  contains,  in  one  volume,  the  »Tticlei  of  f.iith,  and 
■II  the  rites  ceremonies,  nnd  pntcribed  forms  oF  the 
Church  of  En|{lHnd ;  and  it  \*  tlius  not  only  ■  I'r.iyer- 
tMiok,  but  ■  Uitual  and  Cunft^uion  of  Faith.  Befure 
the  licformiitioD,  tbo  Miasals,  Droviuieg,  etc..  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  were  in  use  in  Engliind.  In  li3T  lllo 
Convocation  put  forth,  in  Englbh,  "  The  godli)  amlpi- 
imt  liutilutiaa  of  a  Chriili/m  Afan,"  containin);  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  tha  CommindiiieDta.  and  the 
Ave  Uaria.  In  1547,  the  tint  of  Edward  VI,  a  com- 
mittee wu  appoioted  to  dr^iw  up  a  litur^  in  English, 
tteo  from  Popish  error*.  Cranmer,  Ridley,  atul  other 
eminent  reformers  were  of  this  comniillee,  anil  (heir 
booii  was  eonflrmed  In  Parliament  in  IMX.  This  i> 
known  as  tim  fint  Prager-took  of  Edie  td  17.  Great 
part  of  it  was  taken  from  the  old  services  nsed  in 
England  bedire  the  Reformation ;  but  the  kbors  of 
Melancthon  and  Bucer  helped  to  give  tha  book  its 
Protestant  form.  "  About  the  end  of  the  year  1660 
esceptiODB  were  taken  igainst  some  parts  of  this  book, 
and  archbishop  Cranmer  proptvied  a  new  review.  The 
principal  alterations  occasioned  bj  this  second  review 
were  the  addition  of  the  Srulrwxi,  Exkariaiiim,  Omjft- 
ntnif  and  Abaoivtiaiy  at  the  beginning  of  the  morning 
and  evening  services,  which  in  the  nrst  Common 
Prayer-book  Iwgan  with  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  the  iiddl- 
tion  of  the  Commandmrntt  at  the  beginning  of  the 
communion  office ;  the  removing  of  some  ritrs  and 
ceremonies  retained  in  the  fbrmer  hook,  such  as  the 
QH  of  i^  in  conltrmatlon,  the  unction  of  the  sick, 
prayers  for  tha  departed  souls,  the  invocation  of  the 
Boly  Ghost  at  the  consecration  of  the  euchariit,  and 
the  prayer  of  oblation  that  nsed  to  follow  it ;  the  omit- 
ting tha  rubric  that  ordered  water  to  be  mixed  with 
the  wine,  with  several  other  less  material  variatians. 
The  bsbitJ,  likewise,  which  were  prescribed  in  the  fbr- 
mer bonk  wen  In  this  laid  aside ;  and,  lastly,  a  rubric 
was  added  at  the  end  of  the  communion  office  to  rj!- 
pliin  the  reason  of  kneeling  at  the  !ucr.>ment"  (Hook). 
The  liturgy,  thus  reviiied  and  altcrnd,  was  again  con- 
firmed by  Parliament  A.  D.  1551.  This  is  cited  as 
the  Kcond  Prnytr-boot  o/Edaard  tV.  See  Cardwell, 
Tiro  Hookt  ofCummm  Pr.'g,r  ^/„tHi  im/lrr  Ed-rarJ 
VI  cnmpamd  ([jind.  18»8,  8vo);  Kellev,  Tht  (ire  /,(- 
■t^,  A.D.  I&ia  and  1663  (edited  for  the  Parker  Soci- 
ety, Svo,  1644).     See  Cranhkr, 

Queen  Uary,  on  her  accession,  repealed  the  acts  of 
Edward,  and reslured  the  KonianisI  iirayer-book.  "On 
the  accession  of  Eliiabetb,  however,  this  repeal  was 
nvenmd,  and  the  second  book  of  Edward  V  [,     * ' 


COMMON  PRAYER 


This 


■ur^-y  cc 


tinu«l  iu  use  during  the  long  reign  of  Eli 
received  further  additions  and  improvements.  An 
■ccnrst.:  edition  of  it,  and  of  the  Latin  translation  of  it 
nude  by  Alexander  Alas,  was  published  for  the  Par- 
ker Society  by  the  Rev.  W.  K.  CUy,  B.D.  It  is  pnli- 
lled  IJlargirt  and  xatriimrU  Formt  nf  PragfT  triforlh 
in  Ihe  Itfiffa  of  Qaeat  EliiabrlJUCambiiige  Univer<ity 
Press,  1847,  Hvo).  Earij  in  the  reign  of  James  I  it 
was  again  revised.  At  this  revision  a  collect  in  llia 
dolly  looming  and  aveninK  service,  and  a  particular 
intercession  in  (he  litany,  were  appointed  tor  tha  royal 
family ;  the  fbrnis  of  thanksgiving  upon  several  occa- 
sions were  then  added ;  the  questions  and  answers  con- 
cerning the  sacraments  were  sulijoined  to  the  catB- 
chism;  and  the  administration  of  b*|itism  was  by  the 
rubric  expressly  coniined  to  the  lawful  minister. 
These  and  some  otiier  additions  and  improvements 
were  made  by  the  authority  of  James  I.  thuogh  thej- 
were  not  reiifted  1>y  Parlisment.  In  1G6I.  the  year 
after  the  restoration  of  Charles  1 1,  the  commissioners, 


1  [«. 


8AVOI 


=-.].  ■ 


ai^reed  to  the  following  altantioni  and  sddiliont,  visL. 
several  lessons  in  the  calendar  wen  changed  lor  others 
more  proper  for  the  days ;  the  prayers  upon  paRicDiar 
occauons  ware  disjoined  ftoai  tbt  litany;  screnil  uf 
the  collects  were  altered;  the  epistlea  and  goaprla 
were  Uken  out  of  the  last  tnnilacion  of  the  Bible. 
publisbed  in  1611,  instead  of  being  re«d  from  the  old 
veiliou.  Further,  the  prayer  for  the  Parliament,  that 
for  all  conditions  ut  men,  the  general  thanksgiving, 
the  office  of  liaptism  for  Ihoae  of  riper  years,  the  fbrma 
of  prayer  to  be  nsed  at  sea,  for  the  annlversar}-  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Charles  I,  and  for  the  resloratian  of  tha 
royal  family,  wera  added;  and  thiooghout  the  wfaol* 
liturgy  ambiguities  were  removed,  and  various  in^ 
provrmenis  made.  The  whole  book,  being  Sniibeil, 
pussed  both  houses  of  Convocation ;  it  was  snbeciibed 
by  the  lAibops  and  clerg}',  and  was  ratified  by  act  of 
Parliament,  and  received  the  rayal  assent  May  19^ 
1662.  1  his  wag  the  last  revisal  of  the  Ant  ^Cemmam 
J^ag*r  in  which  anv  alteration  wis  made  liy  pnblic 
authority.  {Wheatly'sytfiut.q/'fAeConnMi/^jwr.ap- 
pendix  to  introduction  ;  Nicholl's  Frrf.  (o  kU  CrmmaU. 
mtktHouk-fCvnmonPrayT!  Tomline's  C*™(.  TheoL 
ii,  W-W;  Dr.  Cardwell's  HiHory  of  Cmftratea  a*d 
olirr  pTKatdiitgi  eamreifd  ttUk  tiu  Jieriiion  o/lkt  Book 
of  Commn  Praj/ir.fnm  tit  jmr  1568  (o  lie  frar  1690, 
Uxfoni,  1040,  fjvo).  Uomon  lEstrange's  AlSnnrt  of 
DiviM  Offica  (Lond.  1669,  fol. ;  reprinted  at  Uxford  in 
1844  in  Hvo),  exhibits  all  the  liturgies  of  tha  Church 
of  EngUnd  since  the  Reformation,  aa  also  the  service- 
book  Introduced  into  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  ISST  : 
il  is  illustrated  with  ample  annoUlians.  The  IJOayi- 
or  SnbnHiae,  published  by  the  Kev.  William  Keel- 
ing, B.D.,  at  London  in  1B4^,  exhibiU  the  several  edi- 
tions of  the  fiooi  0/ Cowson  Praifir  of  the  Chnreh  of 
England  thim  its  flrst  compilation  to  Its  last  revisioti 
in  ia6J,  together  with  the  litnrgv  set  forth  for  the  use 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  ScWland.  The  Rav.W. 
K.  Clay's  Book  of  Common  Pra^tr  lUmWaltd  (Land. 
18t],  Svo)  most  commodiously  shows  its  various  modi- 
licatlons,  the  dale  of  its  serenl  parts,  and  the  authori- 
ty on  which  tbey  rest.  An  appendix,  containing  va- 
rious important  ecclesiastical  documents,  conclude* 
the  volume.  To  those  who  can  procure  more  expensive 
publications,  the  complete  colleclion  of  the  authentic 
editions  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prvgrr,  published  at 
London  in  l»iS,  in  six  large  folio  volumes,  will  donbu 
less  tie  preferred.  Tha  collection,  which  is  nniformljr 
printed  in  black  letter,  like  the  original  editions,  com- 
prises the  lita-gies  of  king  Edward  VI,  IMO  and  166!; 
the  Hrxt  Prayer-book  of  queen  Eliubeth,  1560  i  king 
J;imes  the  Ursta  Prayer-book,  ss  settled  at  the  Kamp. 
tonCoortConferpnceinieOli  the  Scotch  book  of  king 
Chsries  1 1  and  Charles  the  Second's  bonk,  as  seltlMl 
at  the  Savoy  Conference  in  1662.  By  the  Act  of  UnU 
formity,  IS  and  14  Car.  II,  c.  4,  sec.  SX,  it  was  enacted 
that  true  and  perfect  copies  of  that  act.  and  of  the  SoeA 
ifComnum  Praytr.  1C62,  should  be  delivered  into  the 
respective  courts,  and  Into  the  Tower  of  London,  to  be 

cni;ie.  These  copies  are  usually  termed  '  the  Seal(4 
IkaJis,'  from  their  being  exemplified  under  the  great 
seal  of  Englsnd.  From  the  copy  in  the  Tower  of  I^od- 
don  the  folio  fac-simila  edition  of  IA4»  was  chieflv 
printed.  In  1849-50  Mr.  A.  J.  Stephens  publish^] 
an  edition  of  the  Book  ofC'immom  Prayr  in  three  oc- 
tavo i-olumes.  with  notes  legal  and  liistoricsl.  The 
textoftfaisedition  is  taken  from  the  '  Sraled  Bonk' of 
Court  of  Chancery,  collated  with  the  o 


orved  in  the  cc 


tsofQue 


ilso  with  the  cofde*  in  the  I'nv 
the  library  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  l«ndon :  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford  :  at  Ely;  and  witb  the  manaacript 
Book  of  Conmen  Fragtr  originally  annexed  to  tfa* 


COMMON  PRATER  439  COMMON  PRAYER 


Iriih  rtatnta  17  tad  18  Car.  II,  c.  6,  nov  prtMrrcil  Id  Ma  new  communion  office,  were  Tour,  vli.  mixing  wa- 

tbt  Kulls  Office  t  DuUlin.     In  lS4!)-6f>  Mr.  Stephena  Icr  with  the  wine,  pruyer  for  the  deud,  pni.ver  for  the 
abo  published  (3  TOle.  8vo)  the  text  of  the  B<>ot  of  .  dcMent  of  the  Holy  Si^rit  on  the  elements,  and  the 

C'iMHHm  /Vojwr  for  the  lue  of  the  Church  of  IreUnd.  prayer  of  oblation.     1'ho»  urcre  called  the  uiaga,  end 

fnta  the  ume  minuicript,  with  an  intrwIuctioD  and  those  who  practised  them  were  culled  aiaptrt.     Tliree 
Dotee"  (Eadie,  Ecda,  Sna/clijKtilia,  t.  v.).                    [  other  csremoniea,  apart  from  tbeie  uae^^,  are  fr»- 

Sevend  attempt!  have  been   mode  to  revise  the  qnentlyreclioned  among  them,  vii.  trine  Iminertion  at 
book  since  1^62  withaul  snccess.    1  he  first  was  in  the  ;  baptism  ;  chrism,  or  consecralied  oil  in  canfirmatinn  ) 

reign  of  William  III,  farthered  li?  'lillolMio  and  Stil-  and  unctian  at  the  visitation  or  the  aick  (ibid,  vol.  i,p. 
Uii«aeet,  who  in  1668  hwl  united  witli  Bdler,  Manton. '  ixxviii).     (3.)  A  Cimipltal  CoUttliim  of  Dnolujut,  tat- 

and  Baxter  in  preparing  a  bill  for  the  "  cnmprehendon  mfhm  tie  ApoMlolical  ComtiiuHoiu,  Iht  Anc-'tttI  Liiut' 

of  Diseenters."     Falling  then  and  in  lti81,the  scheme  gei,  (md  lit  Comnon  Frayer-tioot  if  lit  Ciareh  ifEti^ 

waa  reanmed  after  the  Ravolntion,  and  In  l<i8l>  a  cum-  Uud.     Pari  I  numprchmdiag  Ihr  Publick  Ofioa  nfthe 

miasion  was  fonned  to  revise  the  Prayer-book.     A    Chunk Part  II  a  Mfhod  'fPrimIt  Piayrr 

niunber  of  allerationa  were  suggested,  in  order,  if  pw-  (London,  1T84,  8vo).  Part  I  is  reprinted  in  Hall's 
•ibie,  to  gnlify  the  Dissenlen  (see  the  Rtviitd  Liturgy  FTtgmaitn  Lilargica  (Esdie,  s.  v.). 
ofl«B9,Bbiue-book,Jft56).  Nothingcame  of  the  prop-  II.  CoBoioii  Pmsfr.booti  of  DiueaUrt  fnm  At 
odtion.  A  full  account  of  this  and  other  proposed  re-  CKurck  of  England.— (!.')  "The  earliest  of  these  la  j4 
Tiauma  ii  given  by  Procter,  RiH.  ffiht  Bool  tfCvm-  Boats  of  Ihe  Forme  of  Commcn  Prageri;  Adminitlra. 
■BOB  Frngtr  (Camb.  ISM,  2d  edit.).  There  is  now  a  UtmofOn  aacramam,  tic,  agrrnAlt  to  Cod'i  Worde 
Lilanjic(d  Aovtw  Socitls  in  England,  which  in  its  and  Ou  ute  of  lit  Hfformtd  CAirrtin.  This  liturgy 
Deriaratioa  of  Primeipla  and  OtjreU  proposes  the  fol-  was  printed  )>;  Waldegrave  at  London,  without  date, 
lowing  chingei:  "l.The  Rohric:  the  word  priest  to  und  at  Middtebnrg,  in  Holland,  In  Ifi86,lMT,  and  1602. 
tK  changed;  3.  The  Ordination  Service:  words  ah  utcl  Ihc  text  of  Wsldegrave's  edition  is  reprinted  in  HaH'e 
to  the  purjioses  of  sacerdotal  asanmptiDn  to  be  altered,  f'rogmtnla  Uturgira,  vol.  1;  and  that  of  Ihe  Uiddle- 
8.  The  VinlUlion  of  the  Sick :  the  absolution  to  Ih<  burj;  edition,  I5«6,  in  his  Hdijuia  Ulargiia,  lol.  i. 
omitted  or  qoalliled.  i.  The  Baptismal  Offices :  words  (2.)  At  the  confer* nee  held  in  the  Savoy  in  1S61  be- 
ancrting  the  spiritual  regeneration  of  each  recipient  iween  the  royal  ccimmissionen  for  reviewing  the  lit- 
to  lie  aiiired.  6.  The  Catechism  to  be  revitied.  G,  urgy  and  the  Nonconformists,  the  office  of  drawing  up 
The  Burial  Service :  general  langnaga  to  l«  employed  certain  additional  forme  was  aaaigned  to  Baxter,  who 
in  expressing  hope  for  the  departed.  T.  The  Alhsna-  presented  a  new  form  of  prayer  of  bis  own  crmpoei- 
aisii  Crerd ;  the  damnatory  ciaoses  to  be  omitted.  8.  tion.  entitled.  The  Rrfomalion  of  Ihe  Liturgy  ai  it  wai 
The  Apocryphal  Lessons  to  be  replaced  by  Scripture.  '  pretmted  lo  Ihe  fli>M  Rrvertnd  Iht  Bahofl.  bg  U<  Di- 
A  careful  examination  of  the  chani^es  here  spcclHed  vitfi  appninltd  bg  lot  Majtiliet  Comiaiiiiin  lo  litnl  icili 
wilt  illuitrale  the  chief  aim  of  this  society,  which  is  to  Ihm  abmd  Iht  alteration  of  it.  This  fonn  of  prsyeia 
ttring  the  Ant  ofCotimon  Prayer  into  closer  conform-  is  now  more  generally  known  as  the  Savoy  Ijtnrgy. 
ftty  with  the  written  ward  of  God  and  the  principles  of  It  has  been  repeatedly  reprinted,  and  will  be  found  in 
tbe  Reformation,  by  exclnding  all  thnee  expressions '  the  fourth  volume  of  Hsll's  firHqmie  Lilargiat,  A 
which  have  been  asaamed  to  countenance  Romaniiing  new  edition  of  Tht  Book  if  Common  Prayrr,  at  tmatd- 
dodrine  or  practice.  It  is  believed  this  olijrct  will  \m  td  by  Ihe  WrttwrntUr  Drvimt  ta  ]6GI,  edited  by  the 
jTeally  advanced  by  the  combination  of  numbers,  and  Rev.  Dr.C.W.  Shield^  was  published  In  Pbllailelpbia 
the  abandonment  of  desultory  for  systematic  action.  (1866).  The  Savoy  Liturg}'  comprises  forms  of  pray- 
All,  therefore,  who  ar«  friendly  to  the  cause  uf  Protest-  er  for  'the  ordinary-  pulilic  worship  of  the  Lord's  day; 
autism  in  our  Church — all  who  would  gladly  see  Ihe  the  order  of  celebrating  the  sacrament  of  Ihe  body  and 
letter  of  our  fcrmulariea,  which  have  been  altered  for  blood  of  Christ,  and  Ihe  celebration  of  tbe  aacrament 
Iha  wane  more  than  once  since  the  Reformation,  of  baptism  i  a  short  discourse  of  catechiiinir,  and  the 
btfDught  again  Into  hamtony  w^ith  the  tpirit  of  Ihat  approbation  of  those  who  are  to  be  admitted  to  the 
glorions  epoch — are  invited  to  cooperate  in  this  work,  .  Lord's  Supper ;  the  celebration  of  matrimony ;  direc- 
and  to  aid  tbe  society  with  their  contributions,  their  tioni  for  the  vifitatinn  of  the  sick,  and  Ihcir  commun- 
influenco,  and,  above  all,  their  prayers."  Four  hun-  ion,'  with  prayere  ;  '  Ihe  order  for  the  iiurial  of  tha 
dred  and  sixty  English  clergymen  siL'ned  a  petition  in  dead,  prayer  and  thanksgiving  for  particular  membeia 
18G0,  presented  by  Lord  Ebury,  asking  for  a  commis-  of  tbe  Church;'  a  iliacouree  'of  pastoral  discipline,' 
aioD  to  revise  tbe  Boot  ff  Common  Pragtr.  On  the  with  forma  of  'public  confession,  aliFo1i>tion.  snd  ex- 
dher  hand,  the  clerical  declantion  againat  the  pro-  elusion  from  the  holy  communion  of  Ihe  <'hurcb.' 
poeed  RTlfion  received  between  six  and  »K\»u  thou-  (3.)  Willum  Whiston  (q.  v.)  was  deprived  of  Ills  pro- 
•and  dgnaturea.  See  also  Fisher,  Lituryical  Parity  fessorship  aa  an  Arian,  and  being  for  a  time  suspend- 
our  Rightful  Inherilana  (Lottd.18i'',liaio').  '  ed  from  communion  with  Ihe  Church  by  Ln  a<-t  uf  con- 

Tbe  Konjurori  (q.  v.\  whose  qoasi-separatinn  from  vocation,  be  formed  a  religious  soeiely  at  bis  I  oute  in 

tba  Church  of  England  laated  from  ir«e  lo  17TS.  gen-  London  for  public  worship.     There  he  rmployed  Tht 

eraUy  used  the  authoriaed  Prayer-hook,  except  in  the  Ltliirgy  nfUie  Churrh  of  England  rediicrd  n/airr  lo  Ihe 

pnver  for  the  king.     "I>r.  Hicks,  whose  example  was  primttipv  Mfandard,  htimbly  pripot'd  fo  publick  cvneider* 

prniably  followed  by  Jeremy  Collier,  used  the  com-  ation.     This  liturgy  was  fir»t  published  at  London  in 

monion   office  in  the  flrst  Iwok  of  king  Edward  VI,  1718.     Whiston  believed  the  pseudo-Apostolical  Con- 

which  ho  regarded  as  more  conformalde  to  the  ancient  stilulinns  lo  be  the  genuine  wotk  of  the  ajioftlos,  and 

practice ;  but  most  othen  continued  lo  use  tbe  Enr/luh  has  made  use  of  Ihrm  in  Ihe  composition  of  fome  of 

Prager,iook  ontil  the  year  1718  (Lathbiiry's  llinory  his  prayers.     (1.)  The  Book  if  Common  Piaytr,  Rr- 

of  tie  yanJuTort).     The  followintl  are  the  principal  fiirmrd  ocrardin^  to  iht  PUm  of  Ihe  late  Dr.  Sonmtl 

Utargiea  of  the  Nonjoron;  (1.)  A  Commminn  Offier,  C.'avie;  or.  as  it  is  designated  in  Ihe  prefatory  adver- 

(aln  partiyfrom  tie  Primiliir  l.ilurg'rt,  and  jarlly  tisement.  TAe  IJlurgyiflhe  CkarcA  of  f:tigl.-nd,  toA 

fnm  Iht  pa  KngUA  Reformed  Common  Prayer-io-k :  ih'  AmndmtitU  of  Dr.Clarbr,and  mkfmlher  Allrr- 

Itgeihtr  icitk  nffieeifor  Cunjirmatiim  and  Ihe  lutrafr'na  iilimt  oi  vtre  jm/grd  neeenaiy  la  nndir  il  Unexeep. 

oflkr  Std  (London,  1718,  8vo.     Reprinted  in  the  fifth  rtonoifc  teilh  rrepeet  lo  Ihe  Object  ofRrUgioui  Wonhip, 

volume  of  Hall's  Fnigm>nta  IMurgica,  in  1M8.  ISmo).  wus  first  pnblihhed  in  \"i  by  the  Rev.  Theophilna 

From  the  puldlcatiun  of  these  oaGei>  the  Konjurora  Lindsay.  Bl. A.,  who  Sucinlanired  the  Arion  alterations 

were  divided  into  two  parties — those  who  adopted  tlie  proposrd  by  Dr.  I'amuel  Clarke,  rector  of  Rl.  James's, 

new,  and  those  who  retained  the  old  offices.     The  d1>-  Wrrtminster.      Tiiin    Prayer-lwok   baa   auhsequentiy 

■>!<(«,  not  to  aay  snperslitioas  ceremonies,  revived  in  passed  through  numerans  edilianB,      It  contsjiu  a> 


COMMON  PRAYER  4- 

moit  all  Uw  offleei  in  tbe  Boo*  o/Comman  Prnyrr,  ei- 
capt  tbe  urder  of  Imptism  fur  perMiu  of  riper  yearn  and 
tbe  cumminatian.  'I'be  KK*t  objeet  of  the  »bo1e  u  tu 
■ddreM  tbe  eatire  wonbip  lo  Gud  the  Father,  to  tlio 
utter  excloaion  of  G-id  the  Son  and  God  tbe  Uuly 
Spirit.  This  liturKV  ia  the  basis  of  ,4  liturgy  collcet- 
ti  prvmpatlfi  from  tie  Book  of  Common  Ptoftr^far  lAe 
Vte  of  the  Finl  EpUcapai  Ciapeliit  Bottom  [Masuchu- 
■etts],  lugttSfr  with  lit  PmUtr  or  Ptolmi  of  Daoid 
(Boston,  i;85,  8vo).  This  waa  reprinted  in  IHll,  and 
■gain  in  1898,  with  further  alteratiaoa.  (li.)  Tie  Book 
t^CiMi'Oon  Prayer,  ampiledfar  lit  Ui  tjfOe  Eagl'iA 
Ciureh  al  Dimhrt,  logtAer  teUh  a  Oollettioa  of  Pi  tiait, 
ma  printed  at  Dunkirk  tn  ITSl.  Tbe  anonjaiout 
compiler  etJiea  that  he  followed  thron^houC  the  plan 
proposed  by  Dr.  Clarke.  This  book  dertatca  leM  from 
tbe  lltur^  of  the  Church  of  England  than  the  Socin- 
ian  liturify  above  noticed"  (Eodie,  a.  r.).  (6.)  The  8ta~ 
dag  Senice  of  lAi  MllioditU  wa*  originally  prepared 
bji  John  Weeley.  On  cnmpjring  a  copy  of  tbe  edition 
of  Tie  SiBiJag  Stnict  of  lie  MeliodUu,  vith  other  Oe- 
aatimat  ^iervieet  (reprinted  in  1826),  with  tlie  BB:it  of 
Commim  Prayer,  we  flod  that  tbe  flrat  leuons  for  Sun- 

inomiug,  a  chapter  ant  of  the  four  Goepela  or  the  Acts 
of  the  Apoitlea  is  to  l>e  read,  and  in  Ibe  evening  a 
chapter  out  of  the  epistlea  In  regnlar  rotation.  Many 
verbal  expreuiona,  which  have  been  excepted  aeain^t, 
an  bera  corrected.  Select  pMlms  are  appointed  to  be 
read,  while  others  are  abridged.  The  Only  creed  read 
is  thjt  of  the  apoatles.  Tbe  atficea  fiir  the  baptism  of 
fnbnta,  or  of  persons  oF  riper  yean,  tbt     ■  '      ■ 


t,  the  I 


and  the  burial 


The  oSoes  far  tbe  ordl- 
nation  ofprieats  and  descona,  and  for  tbe  consecration 
of  irishops,  are  altervd  into  forms  for  the  onllnation  of 
deacona,  eldera,  and  anperintendents ;  and  the  Thirty- 
Dlne  Articles  are  reduced  to  twenty-Hve.  Tbe  Nlcene 
•nd  AthanoMiin  Craeds,  and  the  apocryphal  hooka  of 
the  Old  Testament,  are  omitted.  Some  obsolete  wordu 
an  replaced  by  othen  which  are  mon  easily  under- 
stood. Ad  edition  of  this  book  was  prepared,  with  the 
necessarv  modlflcations,  for  the  use  of  tbe  American 
Methodist  Church,  by  Mr.We8ley,in  1784j  a  second 
edition,  slightly  modifinl,  in  1786.  Tbls  Prayer-book 
was  used  for  some  time  In  tbe  American  Uethodlst 
Church  ;  but  it  gradually  dropped  out  of  use,  without 
any  prohibition,  however,  on  the  part  of  the  General 
Confennce.  A  moditied  form  of  it  eppesn  in  T^ 
Saaday  Srnjice  of  the  Metioditl  Epiecvpal  Churd  South, 
edited  liy  T.  0.  Summers,  D.U.  (Nashville,  IBfiT).  (7.) 
Tie  Liturgy  of  the  Nae  Church,  ttgnified  by  the  Aew 
Jerutaiem  in  lie  Rereiation,  prepared  by  Order  of  lie 
Genend  Confrrenee,  was  published  in  1828,  and  super- 
seded all  tbe  litur^BB  which  bad  preriouslv  been  used 
by  the  Swedenborgians,  or  foilawera  of  Emanuel  Swe. 

III.  SroUiii  Commoit  Prayfr-boob. ^"  1.  Aadeal 
Lituys  oflheKiri  of  Scotland.— Atlbecommeaixmfnl 
Of  tbe  Keformation  in  Scotland  the  Proteatunt  nobles 
and  barons,  assembled  at  Edinburgh  in  December, 
lb67,  agreed  that  they  would  rest  satisAed  for  the 
[■resent  with  tbe  reading  of  the  prayen  and  lessons  in 
English,  according  lo  the  order  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  that  is,  the  litur(,'y  of  king  Edward  VI. 
in  every  parish  on  Sundays  snd  other  festival  days. 
This  roKUlatlan,  however,  continued  in  force  onlv  a 
short  timei  for  in  1662  tbe  JBoot  o/Comnwa  Order, 
common ty  termed  'Knox's  Lllnrgy,'  was  partially  in- 
troduced; and  by  an  act  of  the  General  Assembly. 
paSEwil  December  26,  1564,  its  use  was  authoritatively 
ordained  in  all  the  churches  in  Scotland.  This  liturgy 
was  taken  from  the  order  or  Ittartry  used  by  tbe  Eng- ' 


Itcc 


IS  form) 


and  evening  prayer,  the  celebralinn  of  hi 
Lord's  Supper,  and  marriage;  and  for  the 
anperintendents  or  pnwliytere  who  were  ini 


10  COMMON  PRATER 

:  episcopal  functions ;  the  order  of  ecclesiastical  diict- 
pline,  of  excommunication,  and  of  public  re|ienlancc: 
a  treatise  on  fasting ;  and  furms  of  prayer  (or  domeatic 
and  private  use.  A  new  edition  of  The  Litargg  of  the 
Cluvch  ofSadland;  or,  John  Knoit  Boot  of  Common 
Order,  was  published  by  tbe  Rev.  Dr.  Cumming,  at 
London,  in  1810,  In  IBmo.  The  Kea  Booke  of  C«mm«n 
Prayer,  according  lo  (Aa  forwe  o/tl«  JTirie  of  Scot- 
land, oar  Brethren  im  Faith  and  Corenant,  printed  in 
1644,  ia  a  very  brief  abalnct  of  Calvin's  Genevan 
.  I'rt^^er-book,  or  ratber  of  Knox's  Boot  of  Common 
Order.  It  is  reprinted  in  the  first  volume  of  Hall's 
Fragatenta  Litargica.  See  Diuhctokt. 
I  "2.  Utnryy  of  the  Epinxtml  Church  in  ScoOimd.— 
The  liturgy  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  is  at 
present  nearly  Ibe  same  ss  that  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Charles  I,  In  1S37,  made  an  nnsnccesiful  at- 
tempt  to  introduce  into  Scotland  a  Boot  of  Common 
Prayer,  cop'ied,  with  some  alterations,  from  that  of 
En,;land.  which  produced  the  Solemn  League  and  Cov- 
enant. That  liturgy  was  prepared  by  srchbishop  Spot- 
tlswoode,  of  St.  Andraw'a,  and  Lindsay  of  Glasgow, 
assisted  by  Wedderbnm,  dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal  at 
Edinbnrgh,  and  by  blsbop*  Guthrie.  Maxwell,  and 
Whitford.  On  its  being  sent  to  Londun,  Charle*  I 
referred  It  to  tbe  examination  of  archbishop  L^ud.aad 
of  Wnn,  bishop  of  Ely.  It  was  published  at  Edin- 
burgh in  folio,  and  entitled  Tie  Booke  of  Common  Pref- 
er and  Admtmetrc^iiin  of  the  Sacrtimentt  and  other  parit 
of  Divine  Serriee,for  Me  Ute  oftheChnrrh  ofScotlamd. 
This  liturgy  ia  reprinted  in  the  second  volume  of  Hall's 
JCeliqtaa  Liturgica ;  a  copious  bibliographieal  and  his. 
torical  account  of  it  will  be  found  in  voL  i,  p.  xiii- 
XXXV.  From  161S  until  after  the  rastoration  in  1660. 
the  Wettmimler  Directory  was  adopted,  but  by  no  means 
strictly  adhered  to,  in  varfajua  instances  (aa  in  that  of 
praying  for  the  civil  government);  and  when  episco- 
pacy was  restored  together  with  monarchy,  it  was  ott 
tbou){ht  advisable  to  renew  tbe  attempt  to  introduce 
a  public  iituriry ;  so  that,  except  at  ordinations,  when 
tbe  English  forms  were  used,  as  far  as  local  circonk- 
stances  would  adniit,  nore^^ar  fbtm  of  prayer  was  In 
general  use,  while  episcopacy  continued  to  be  the  foru 
of  ministry  in  the  Established  Chonh.  Mony.indeed, 
of  the  episcopal  clergy  compiled  forma  to  be  used  by 
themselves  in  their  particular  congregations,  with  some 
petitions  and  collects  taken  ont  of  the  English  book, 
and  all  of  them  unifbmily  concluded  their  prayen  with 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  their  singing  with  the  doxolo- 
gy.  Prayertfor  the  Momixg  md  Eoeniag  Servire  eff 
lie  Caliedral  Chun:h  of  Aberdeen,  composed  by  tbe 
Rev.  Henry  Scougal.  professor  of  thmlogy  in  tbe 
King's  College,  continued  in  use  nntn  the  Bevolotion, 
when  the  Presbyteriane  would  no  longer  tolerate  a 
written  prayer.  At  length,  in  1713,  the  English  Bool 
of  Common  Prayer  was  universally  adopted  by  Ibe 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church  with  little  variali<»i,  ex- 
cept in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  In  that  ser~ 
vice  the  order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Sap- 
per is  EUbstanUally  that  in  the  liturgy  authorised  by 
Charles  I,  but  with  alterations  made  to  make  it  mora 
conformable  to  the  flnt  and  comparatively  imperfect- 
Ivreformedliturgy  of  king  Edward  VI.  By  thetwen- 
tV-fint  canon  of  Tie  Code  ofCanoni  of  tie  Ejitcopul 
Chireh  in  ScoUimd,  as  revised,  amended,  and  enacted. 
Iiy  an  ecclesiastical  svnod,  bolden  for  that  purpose  at 
Edinburgh,  fttim  August  SO  till  September  6,  1838 
(EdinbuTwh,  1838,  Bvo),  after  ratifying  and  confirrrJng 
the  permission  formerly  granted  1^  tbe  bishops  '  lo  all 
those  who  profess  to  be  of  the  episcopal  persuasion  in 
Scotland  ....  to  retain  the  use  of  the  English  office 
in  all  congTegalions  where  the  said  office  bad  previoas- 
ly  been  in  use,' it  is  enacted.  That  in  the  use  ofettlier 
the  Scotch  or  English  office  no  amalgamation,  altera- 
tion, or  intcrpnlation  whatever  sball  tdie  place,  nsr 
shall  any  substitution  of  the  one  for  the  other  be  ad- 
mitted, unless  it  shall  be  approved  by  the  biabop. 


COMMON  PRAYER 


441    COMMUNICATIO  IBIOMATUM 


prom  reaped,  boweveT,  for  tbt  •othorlty  wbicfa  ortg-  I 
iaally  unctioDrd  the  Scotub  liturgyi  xnd  for  other 
^nfictant  reuona,  It  it  bertlij  enacted,  thit  tbe  Scotcb 
commiiiiioa  office  continue  to  be  held  of  primiry  au- 
thorily  in  thii  Cliureb,  and  tbal  it  ibill  be  lued  in  all 
con>ecnCion>  of  liiahopa,  but  alto  at  tbe  DpenIn)C  of  all  I 
gnunl  rjnixls'— p.  !9,  SO.  AlthDa(;h  Ibc  Scotch  com-  I 
miinlon  officii  ia  thus  cetubliBhed,  It  Is  wortby  or  notice 
that  tbis  canon  does  not  preacribe  what  specific  edition 
Ii  to  lie  oaed,  almost  crory  tingle  bishop,  in  tbe  lipao 
of  yttn,  bavins  nude  addiliona.  and  even  tome  | 
chaogee,  aicatdinK  to  tbcir  own  Jadgment  or  prefer- 
ence. In  point  of  doctrine,  the  dlSbrenco  between  Che  j 
English  and  Scotch  offices  is  clear  and  nneqiiirocal— 
the  Englith  cffiree  being  cxeluairel?  commemontive, 
and  the  .leottiah  moat  diatinctly  sacrificial.  Besides 
which,  the  following  usacea  are  practised,  not  one  of 
which  is  adopted  in  the  Englith  offices,  \ii. :  1.  The 
mixing  of  water  with  tho  wine  in  the  Enchaiiat ;  2. 
CoaimemoTating  tbe  niltbfnl  departed  at  tbe  altar ;  3. 
Consecrating  the  elements  hy  an  oxpreaa  iniriKation  ; 
4.  Using  the  oUnlorv  proycr  before  diatrlbutlon" 
(Badie,  i.  v.).     See  Comhdnto:!  Service. 

IV.  The  Amrian  /Vujw-Sm*.— .4fter  the  Ameri- 
can HerolBtioti  tbe  "  Protertant  Episcopal  Church" 
waa  eslablbihed  aa  en  organization  separata  from  tbe 
Charch  of  England  in  VM.  la  ITSG  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  adapt  the  English  lltargy  to  use  in  this 
onntr)',  and  tbej'  prepared  a  bwk  wbicli.  boKevrr, 
•wrerwent  into  generjl  use  (7Ae/VDpiwd  fool-,  i;SG; 
raprinlrd  in  Hall,  JbL'qu'a  Ijilnrgierr,  Lond.  JiH'i). 

"At  the  General  Cnnventioo  in  October,  ITBO,  the 
vhole  subject  of  the  liturgy  was  thrown  open  by  ap- 
pointing commiReea  on  the  difforent  portions  at  the 
Prayer-booli,  «tK«e  tevcnl  reports,  with  tba  action 
of  the  two  houses  Iheronpon,  were  consolidated  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  etc.,  as  it  Is  now  In  use,  the 
whole  booli  being  ratilied  and  set  forth  by  a  vole  of 
the  Convention  on  the  IGtIi  of  October,  17^0,  its  nse 
being  ptHcrilied  from  and  after  the  tat  day  of  Octo- 
t«r,  1790.  The  Amiriciin  lilurgj  reUlns  all  that  is 
excellent  In  the  English  service,  omits  several  of  its 
rcallj'  objectionablo  featun»,  briniis  tome  of  tbe  offices 
(tbe  commnnion,  for  example)  nearer  to  tbe  primitive 
|iattam,  roodiJIei  other*  to  suit  our  peculiar  institu. 
tiooa,  and,  on  the  whole,  is  a  noble  monument  to  the 
wisdom,  prudence,  piety,  and  churchmanship  of  the 
(itben  of  the  American  Churcb.  By  tbe  4Glb  canon 
of  less,  it  Is  required  that  ovai7  minister  tball,  before 
all  sermons  and  lectures,  and  all  other  occasions  of 
public  worship,  nse  the  Book  of  Comnien  Prayer,  as 
the  same  is  or  may  be  estaMiabed  b;  the  authority  of 
the  General  Convention  of  this  Church.  And  In  per- 
forming said  service,  no  other  prayers  tball  be  used 
than  those  prescribed  by  tbe  said  book"  (Hook,  aurch 
Dicliamary,  Am.  ed.  a.  v.). 

There  seems  to  be  a  widely  •diffused  conviction,  bulb 
fai  EogUad  aiMl  America,  qnite  apart  trtim  doctrinal 
eonaidieratiotis,  that  the  formi  of  morning  service,  which 
are  compoeed  of  what  were  formeriy  several  distinct 
services,  are  too  long  for  use.  Dennett,  in  his  Para- 
fkromtilk  Aimolatoiuim  lie  Boot  f/ComwmPToiirr 
(Lond. ITOOfflvo),  observes  that  the  using  of  tbe  morn- 
ing prayer,  tlw  litany,  nnd  communion  service  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  in  one  continued  order,  is  eonttary 
to  the  first  Intention  and  practice  of  tba  Church.  On 
Ibis  tob^ict  the  Chtrd^  of  Kitglond  Quarter^  (Un- 
don,  tSafi,  p.  Kl)  remarks,  "That  oar  services  are  too 
long  is  generaliy,  sltbounh  not  univenally  conceded. 
There  i^  no  one  will  d^ny,  much  repetition  in  them 
aa  they  are  at  present  conducted ;  and  the  recitation 
of  the  I.ord't  Prayer  sin  times  on  a  sacrament  morning 
may  be  taken  aa  an  in^binca.  We  recognise  our  iit- 
■rgy  asdeservedlyendcaredEoonr  peofde;  and  neither 

Btlnns  in  it  which  would  tend  to  tower  its  tone,  A  few 
verbal  cbaDgev,  the  omission  of  a  few  mbrict,  a  new  ar- 


too,  most  at  all  timea  bo  left  to  tl 
clergy,"  On  this  and  other  quettiout  as  to  needed 
changes,  see  tbe  Memorial  Paptii,  containing  the  C'ir- 
mliirimd  Qutilumi  of  an  Episaipat  Commiaioi  ordered 
by  the  General  Convention  of  tbe  1'.  E.  Church  in  1869, 
edited  by  Bp.  A.  Potter  (Phila.  It57,  l!mo){  Powys, 
ReomitTtK^ion  oflhe  Uturgf  (Ixind.  18W). 

"A  writer  in  tbe  London  Dailg  A'ncs  (18(r7)  relatea 
the  discovery,  in  the  library  of  tlie  HoDie  of  Lords,  of 
the  copy  of  the  Act  of  Unllormily,  U  Charles  II,  1CC2, 
with  Ihc  roil  affixed  containing  tbe  words  of  tbe  Book 
of  Common  I'nycr,  which  had  been  detached  and  lott 
from  the  copy  deposited  with  the  House  of  Commons. 
Technically  and  practically,  thrrefore,  the  writfT  re- 
marks, the  two  rolls  form  one  engrossed  act,  and  'noth- 
ing can  be  so  distinct  a  proof  that  tbe  prayers,  pstlmt, 
rubrics,  etc.,  are  the  law  of  the  land'  "  (Xoliim,  Sept. 
13, 18C7). 

1  be  most  important  works  on  the  Common  Prayer, 
iiesides  those  cited  in  the  course  of  this  article,  arc 
Wheat!}-,  Sntioiml  lUnitralion  n/  the  Committ  jyayr 
(London,  1720,  fbl. ;  new  ed.  184?,  Bvo ;  also  in  Bobn'a 
t^tandatd  Library,  ISmo);  Comber,  Companum  lo  Ii* 
I'etuple  (new  ed.  Oif.  ]«41, 7  volt.  Bvo) ;  Sparrow,  Jta- 
lionaU  apm  ihe  Boot  ofCamman  PTaytr  (new  ed.  Oif. 
1839,  em.  8vo);  Balliy,  Tlit  Liturgg  cm-pond  uitk  tkt 
Bible  (Lond.  1IS3S,  3  vols.  8vo)j  Palmer,  Ongiutt  U- 
lur^oe  (Oxf.  IBS!,  S  vol*.  Bvn);  Betcas,  ZcrfUfet  c» 
CaUdiitm  Bad  (J^lOxf.  ]B23);  Procter,  ifMtory  d/" 
the  Boot  r/Cummtm  Prayr  (Lond.  185(1,  Id  ed.  8w); 
Csrdweil,  The  Iko  LUargiti  a/ Kdward  VI  rompand 
(Oxf.  1K;8,  evo) ;  Hifkell,  Uoiamtnia  RitMidia  Ectle- 
tla  AmgHmna  (Lond.  184G,  8  vols.  8vo);  Freeman, 
Priiuiptt$  <•/ Diane  Serv'et  (Lond.  18SG,  evo)j  CAru- 
lian  SrmtmbraiKtr,  Oct.  1858.  art.  vii ;  Lathbury,  //if 
loryofHu  Bott  of  Ctmflwn  I-nferfrim  the  !•■•  forma- 
/i«.(l8S8,  !ded.  8vi>);  C»Ki*t»,  HitlMy  of  Vorfrr. 
tnrnfor  revitioit  of  the  CotHman  Pragtr  fnm  loGM  to 
1690  (Oxf.  1849,  Bd  td.  8\a);  Humphrey,  Htilonail 
and  Eip'oneioTg  Trtalitt  an  lie  Common  Proger  (Lend. 
2d  ed.  I8fi6, 8vo) :  Stoddart.  The  Hiilory  of  the  Progtr- 
boci,  and  •fill  Fornol'tm  fnrm  prmi.iu  Liluroiit,  rOi 
a  Draft  ikonSiig  Ai»  our  pretrnl  Ijtnrgg  might,  icith 
tome  alferalioni,  be  aifrantagronilg  rttiied  and  rear, 
ranged  m  more  varltd  irrtiea  (l.ond.  IBM,  crown  Bvn)  [ 
The  Annelatrd  Boat  if  Common  Prater,  being  an  Hit. 
lorieai.  Ritual,  and  7  htolagieal  CoonnrtUarg  on  Ihr  Dt~ 
eoHomil  Sgilim  of  Ike  Clar.  h  offvgland,  edited  by  John 
Henn-  Blunt  (Lond.  1SG6,  imp.  8vo).  On  the  Amer- 
ican book,  tee  Brownell,  Familg  Prager-book  (K,  Y. 
1864,  royai  Bvo);  Butler,  Common  Pragrr  inttrprtitd 
bg  itt  BiMorg  (Boston,  18J6, 12nio):  Am.  Charch  Re- 
viea,  Jan.  IC5B,  art  i.     See  Forms  of  Phaiteb  ;  Lit- 

AMY  ;    LlTUROT. 

Commiuie,  or  Commniilcate,  a  term  made  nse 
of  to  denote  tbe  act  of  receiving  the  Lord's  Supper. 

CommtUllcuita.  (1.)  a  sect  of  Anabaptists  (q,  v.); 
(3.)  a  term  used  tu  designate  churcb-mcnibers  who  par- 
take of  the  Lord's  Supper  (q.  v.). 

Commnnlcatlo  IdlomXtum,  a  doctrine  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  at  to  the  person  ofChrbt.  In  lbs 
ancient  Church  the  question  arose  if  a  real  personal 
uni^ofthedivine  and  the  human  elements  bi  the  per- 
son of  Christ  could  be  eHbctad  without  destroying  tbe 
distinction  of  natnrea.     The  ancient  Charch  maintatn- 

meiits  by  condemning  ths  Nertorian,  Munophysite, 
and  Honntheletic  doctrines.  The  Lutheran  theology 
undertook  to  show  Ihr patiibHitg  of  this  union,  Luther 
In  id  the  foundation  of  the  doctrine  by  the  asrertion  that 
Chritt,  according  to  his  humanity,  fillt  all  things,  and 
ia  ubiquitous.  He  did  not  use,  however,  the  expres- 
kftonofnai,  which  was  lirst  employed 


COMMUNICATIVE  LIFE  44 

In  tfae  Formula  Coiteardia  (q.  r.).  Thnn  cUim*  of  I 
Scriptutfl  |»Hage«  wen  adduced  hj  tbt  old  Lutbenn 
wrllcrs  in  behalf  of  tb<s  docCrine :  1,  tbou  In  which 
qujlities  iMlon^nK  to  one  nature  only  are  attrilnitcd 
to  tho  whole  person ;  2,  tfaoao  wbich  predieato  of  ona 
nitura  an  actiTity  which  lielonga  lo  the  work  of  re- , 
damptinD,  caniFqacncBy  to  the  whola  person  ;  8,  thou 
which  transfer  divine  attrihutea  lo  Chriet'i  hnmun  na- 
ture. Tho  f'armiUi  Camcord'a.  however,  expresaly 
ToJecM  ■  reatricUon  of  tha  divine  naturo,  In  eonee- 
quencB  of  Itfl  nnion  with  the  human.  Zwingla,  with 
wham,  on  the  whule,  tba  theolo^ana  of  the  Keformed 
Chari'b  agreed,  rejected  tbe  doctrine  of  a  real  cnmaii- 
nieai'a  idomiaiim  (peculiar  quBlmoa  of  tiie  (wo  na- 
tures), and  explained  the  paasugea  adduced  by  the  Lu- 
therans as  ItKuree  of  ipeech  (dAXoiuHTit;)'  Tlie  Sapra- 
naturatutic  school  of  the  Uter  German  theologf  doca 
DoE  eipreiwly  reject  the  doctrine,  hot  explains  it  ■  war. 
Tho  lUtionaliatic,  ^ithetic,  and  Speculative  Kchcnla 
of  Germany  either  raject  it  entirely,  or  partly  put  upon 
ttau  ethical  or  specnUtlve  constrDCtloD.  Tbe  revived 
Latberan  orthudoxy  of  tbe  19th  century  partly  rc- 
Mrictsilaelfto  &  mere  rerivjl  of  tho  old  doctrine,  and 
partly  attempts  to  complete  it  hy  assertin.{  a  setf-rc- 
itrictlon  of  the  divine  nature  in  CbrlBt,  In  consequence 
of  his  nniun  with  tho  human.  According  to  this  doc- 
trine, which  wu  in  particular  developed  liy  SartiTlus 
IDorpaltr  Batrage  n  dm  theoiofiMuit  Wiufiuehaftat, 
Hamliuric,  1832)  and  Thomaaiiii  {BatrAgt  air  Idrch- 
Utkat  Clvittol<^'e,  Erlanjjcn,  1B46),  the  Logo*,  from 
tbe  moment  of  his  incarnation,  renounced  his  dirine 
ity-caiKioamai  ia  order  to  develop  himself  in  a  mere- 
ly  human  fonn.  See,  boi<ldee  tbe  works  already  men- 
tloncl,  Doraer,  Hittorff  o/lht  P,Tvm  o/Chnit.  Edlnh. 
translation,  vol.  11;  Hase,  ErangtSiei*  DigmcUik,  p. 
tSlsq-i  GieBoler,C»an:A//u(o>^edltedl>y  Smith,  vol. 
Iv,  ;  37 !  Ha;^nhach,  HitUry  of  Dodrintt  (Smith's), 
g  -iBG.  367 ;  Pearson  Oh  rlu  Crerd,  art.  il ;  and  the  arti- 
cle Christolooy,  p.  281. 

Commiuilcctlve  Iiifs.     Ecclesiastical  writers, 
lad^acrtbing  the  hnl)its  of  monks,  distinguish  between 


8  COJIMUNION 

according  to  tbe  ancient  CMionieal  law.  In  conDcctkia 
with  depoal^n,  but,  according  to  the  later  law,  only 
in  consaqnence  of  degradation  (q.  v.).  See  IVeUcr  u. 
Welte,  Kirckem-Lax.  il,  718 ;  Bingham,  Orlg.  Eed.  xrii, 
3 ;  Famr,  Eni.  Diet.  a.  y. 

Commnnio  Peregrlna.  In  the  early  Church 
the  term  cmmiunia  denoted  not  only  a  participottoo  of 
tho  Eucharist,  but  also  a  right  of  partaking  of  the 
bounty  of  the  Church.  When  treveliera  or  strangers 
came  to  anj'  church  without  bringing  letten  bafuunu- 
d/,  by  which  they  might  be  ascert'inod  to  lie  niembm 


plan  was  for  candidatei  to  take  a  aolemn  vow  of  piiv- 
erty.  and  consequently  to  renoancc  the  world  by  dis- 
posing of  their  estates  to  charitable  uses,  before  they 
entered  into  a  community,  where  they  were  to  have  all 
things  in  common.  Others  kept  Ihsir  eetales  in  their 
own  hands,  and  yet  cn}oyed  no  more  of  them  than  if 
thoy  had  paiied  over  to  ntbersi  for  they  di!<tributcd 
their  whole  yearly  revenue  to  the  poor,  and  to  such 
nsej  IS  tbe  daily  necesMtiea  of  men  required.  Tbe 
latter  was  called  the  dmnumicatlei  life.— Parrar,  Eed. 
Dictiimarg,  s.  V. ;  Bingham,  Orig.  EtxL  vli,  8,  S. 

CoDimtuilo  I^oa,  in  tbe  langnaga  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  means  properly  the  rank  of  the  laity,  bnt  ts 
more  commonly  used  to  signify  tho  itatut  of  a  clei^gyman 
transferred  from  the  privileged  ciasa  of  the  clergy  to  the 
liy  community.  Only  tbe  clergy  of  the  lower  grades 
(«r  Ci.EBOT)  could  voluntarily  go  hnck  to  the  rank 

ordirs  (opwsrda  from  the  diaconotc)  could  bo  transfer- 
red buck  to  the  luity  only  by  legal  dispsnsiitian  grant- 
ed by  the  pope,  or  by  degredatlon.  Clergymen  of  tho 
lower  grades  can,  according  to  the  canon  law,  con- 
tract a  valid  marriage,  but  thereby  loae  their  beneflceB 
and  the  privilege*  of  the  clergy.  Tbe  Council  of 
Trent  ullowed  that  in  exceptional  cases  the  lower  or- 
ders lie  conferred  upon  married  men  (in  case  they  bad 
not  been  married  oflener  than  once),  and,  on  cooditinn 
of  their  wearing  tbe  tonsure  and  the  clerical  habit, 
granted  to  them  the  primlrgia  ammiM  et  fori  (see 
Ci.KHor).  Papal  dispensation  far  memliers  of  the 
higher  clerjy  to  re-enter  the  rank  of  the  laity  (in  par- 
Uculur,  for  the  patpoae  of  marrj'ing)  has  only  been 
given  in  rare  instances.  The  transfer  of  a  clergyman 
to  the  rank  of  tbe  laity,  as  a  punishment,  took  place, 


le  Chria 


ch,  they 


under  the  censure  of  tbe  Church 
they  had  belonged.  Until  they  could  thus 
clear  themselves  (h>ni  impnta^on,  Ihey  wen  not  ad- 
mitted to  the  Lord's  table,  but  were  allowed  to  derive 
their  means  of  tempoml  maintenance  from  the  Church 
fund.  In  thla  way  delinquent  clergymen  were  eomc- 
times  treated  in  their  own  churches,  and  this  was  call- 
ed conHnuwa  ptrtgrvut.  They  were  not  pennittfd  to 
officiate  ortobeprcacntatthccflcbratlonorthe  I^Ard's 
Supper  until  they  had  given  Htisfaction  to  tho  Chorrfa. 
— Farrar,  Eeet.  Diet.  a.  v. ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Ecel.  svU, 

a,i. 

(taiva;),  in  ordinary 

soDSJoin  and  partake  together  of  one  thing;  heDCe  ila 
application  to  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  aa 
an  act  of  fellowship  among  Chriatjans  (I  Cor.  x,  10); 
and  it  Is  to  tbhi  act  of  participation  or  fellowship  that 
the  word  "  communion,"  in  tlie  religious  sense,  is  imw 
chiefly  applied  in  the  English  language.  In  !  Cor.  iri, 
14,  it  takes  the  derived  sense  of  DtHKonJl  The  "coD- 
munion  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (i  Cor.  xUI,  14)  aignifinttol 
spiritual  intercourse  with  the  divine  Spirit  wbich  tba 
child  of  Ood  maintains  by  faith  and  prayer.  The  Greek 
term  has  also  a  secondary  meaning  of  baloral  in  chai- 
ity,  in  other  passages,  where  it  is  rcndcrol  "  cnntribB- 
tion,"  "distribution,"  or  "communication"  [which 
Fee].  The  irord  is  elsewhere  translated  aimply  '■fel- 
lowship" (q.  v.).  For  a  large  number  of  tfeatisc!'  on  this 
subject,  see  Volbeding,  Iiuirx  O.Mirrlaliomim,  p.  147  sq. 

thesAarn^somcthlngHicDiRinoii  with  snnther.  Hrneo, 
in  the  Christian  sense,  it  algnilles  the  sharing  dirime 
cmtierK  or  intercourse  (1  John  i,  S) ;  and  aa  this  ti.kea 
place,  aacramentally,  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  tbe  word, 
in  a  third  atam,  aienilies  t,  joinl partUipttiim  In  a  apin- 
Itual  sense  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  i.  e.  of  bis 
Spirit  (John  vl,  63)  in  that  sacrement  (I  Cor.  x,  16). 
Some  explain  the  coivkivia  in  the  Lord's  Supper  to  Le 
n  commmicatioH  of  the  '  body  and  blood  of  Christ,' 
aa  though  theao  were  given  by  the  Church  to  the  r«- 
ceiver,  but  the  above  acoannt  of  the  order  in  which  the 
senses  of  the  word  have  grown  out  of  one  another 
shows  that  such  an  inlerpretation  is  untenable.  The 
Church  lias  not,  nor  pretends  lo  give,  anything  aa 
ftom  herself  in  that  oidlnance,  but  Christians  couio 
together  to  hold  'communion'  with  each  other,  and 
with  their  (occe-sacriliced)  Lord,  of  the  iMnefit*  of 
whose  death,  aacramenlolly  exhibited,  they  arc  in  a 
special,  thoogh  only  sirfritual,  manner  then^Hrtofcra. 
'Communion'  (tmwavio)  is  that  which  bi  aou;;ht  snd 
B[rfritUBlly  partaken  of  by  tha  reeweer,  not  that  which 
is  actually  conveyed  by  any  person  aa  the  gitrr.  Of 
the  several  names  by  which  the  Supper  of  the  lyird 
has  been  at  dilTerent  times  diatingnished,  that  of  tha 
'Holy  Commanion'  is  the  one  which  the  Cbureh  of 
Englaml  baa  adopted  for  her  memberi.  The  Ba- 
brics,  Arliclea,  and  Canons  alnuai  invariably  employ 
this   deeignstion."      See  Euchahibt;    Lobi>'b  Sui^ 

(2.)  In  a  historical  senne,  ermmiimm  denotes  pai<- 
ticiputlon  in  the  mysteries  of  tho  Christian  relicini. 
and.  of  coume,  Church  fellowship,  with  all  its  rieh'a 
and  pririleges.    Hence  the  larm  "  excomrouuicjtiDK.'' 


COMMUNION  44 

!■  tU*  WDM  the  Tord  b  Died  ilso  witli  nhnnni  to  ' 
Ibe  admUaion  of  peraons  to  the  Lord'*  Supper.  This 
i*  Hid  to  lie  opaa  wben  all  ue  admitted  wlio  apply  j  to 
be  ilriel  oben  confioed  to  the  memlien  of  a  ■ingla 
(ociety,  or  at  lettM  to  members  of  the  ume  denum- 
ination ;  *nd  it  la  niued  when  penons  are  admitted 
ftvm  aocietiei  of  diflferent  denoRiinatioiu,  on  the  pro- 
femon  of  their  fallfa  and  evidence  of  their  piety,  an  la 
the  rsM  in  ProteaUnt  churcbea  generaUy.  Tbe  prin- 
cipal diffimlty  on  thit  point  ariaes  between  the  atrict 
Baptists  and  l>Hlo-bapti(ts. 

Ci^SE  Co!t>inmo:(,  (bttitiim  d/.— Among  the  Bap- 
tiiti  there  ia  a  controveray  on  the  aobject,  in  which 
tbe  two  partiea  (called  Frte  and  .sirici  Commnnton- 
iia>  may  be  repreeentod  respectlvply  b;  Robert  Hall 
■nd  by  J.  O.  Fuller.  The  following  al.itcmEnt,  embrac- 
ing me  dubaiiiice  o(  the  oaatniTeny,  repteienta  tbo 
opp«ire  aiUee  i.f  tlie  auojeet, 

(a)  "  The  oidnion  of  Ur.  HaU  that  bapUam  ta  not  a 
prerequiiile  to  the  participation  of  the  Euchariet  mna 
thron.;h  all  bia  raaBonintca  in  favor  of  anrestricted 
comDi union,  and  I*  tbe  real  fonndation  on  wbicb  they 
rest.  Hia  poailioDsare  thefoIlDwini^;  1.  The  baiitlam 
oT  John  waa  a  aepjrate  inHtitution  from  thut  appidnted 
bj  Chriit  after  Ilia  rsauirection  j  from  which  it  follows 
that  the  I^rd'a  Sapper  waa  anterior  to  Chriatian  bap- 
tiun,  and  that  Ibe  irrl^nal  cnmmunicanla  conaisted 
entirely  of  such  as  had  not  received  that  nrdinsnce. 

ture  of  thinga  or  by  tbe  divine  inatitution,  betweaa 
baptieiD  and  the  Encbarist  na  remlers  it,  under  all  dr. 

(«lo  the  latter.  8.  That  admitting  this  to  be  the  pre- 
•cribcd  order,  and  to  be  sanctionod  by  tbe  nniliirm 
piactice  of  the  apostles,  tite  cose  of  pious  Pedo-bap- 
tisU  is  a  new  case,  calling  for  some  peculiar  treatment, 
in  which  we  ought  to  regard  rather  tbe  ipirit  than  the 
Mlrr  of  apostolic  peecedent.  4.  That  a  achbni  in  the 
Chorch,  the  mystical  body  of  Christ,  ia  deprecated  In 
tha  New  Teatament  aa  the  greata-t  evil.  G  That  a 
rcoeption  to  Chnrch  fctlowahip  of  all  aucb  aa  God  has 
reeeiTed,  notwlthatanding  a  diversity  of  opinion  and 

presely  enjoined  in  the  New  Teatament  (I'om.  xit,  1- 
6;  XT,  ],  S-;).  &  1  hat  to  withheld  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per from  those  with  whom  we  unite  in  other  acta  of 
Christian  worship  Is  a  palpable  inconriatency.  And, 
laaUy,  that  it  is  as  impolitic  as  it  la  illiberal,  being 
calculated  to  awaken  a  powerful  prejudice,  and  place 
beyond  the  reach  of  conviction  oarPado-baptietlneth' 
ren,  and  to  engender  among  tbe  Baptists  themselvea  a 
narrow  and  aectarian  feeling,  wholly  opposed  to  the 
enlarged  spirit  of  the  preaent  age  (Omplrlt  Worti  of 
Babm  BaO,  it,  M7-I30 1  also  t,  283-MH). 

(1)  "The  positions  ni^ied  on  the  opposite  side  by 
Mr.  J.  O.  Fuller  are  these :  1.  That  all  tbe  arguments 
which  are  need  to  destroy  tbe  identity  of  baptiam  aa 
practiced  by  John  and  the  apostles  before  ths  death  of 
Chriat.  with  that  practiced  afterwards,  smonnt  only  lo 
proof  of  a  ciraautiHitial,  not  sn  aienlial  diBhrence, 
and  cannot,  therefote,  warrant  the  inferences  of  Mr. 
Hall  in  any  one  point,  g.  That  tbo  commiaaion  of  oor 
Lord  (Matt  xxvlii,  19,  30)  fDmlabrs  the  asms  evi- 
dence that  baptism  is  an  indispensalle  prerequisite  to 
eztemsl  Church  fellowihip  aa  that  fnilb  la  an  indis- 
pensable prerequisite  tn  liaptinn.  S,  That  the  unl- 
fonn  examplea  of  the  ipontirs  la  an  Inspired  expUna- 
Uon  of  the  commiaaion  under  which  they  acted,  and  a 
pattpm  Intended  for  tbo  Instruction  of  the  Church  in 
all  iDcceedlnir  ages.  4.  That  strict  confiinnlty  to  the 
commiaaion  of  Christ,  tbas  explained,  is  not  snUtm, 
but  the  only  possible  mode  of  restoring  and  perpetua- 
Ung  Ctrirf'm  iia'M.  6.  That  tbe  mutual  forbearance 
•n}Dined  on  Christians  In  tbe  New  Testament  lelsted 
lo  matter*  of  real  IndllArcnce.  not  involving  the  sur- 
nmlerofsny  positive  Instllntion  of  Christ,  and  tathere- 
Un  iiMppUcable  to  the  jretent  case.    9.  That  to  nnito 


3  COMMUNION 

with  PBdo-Baptist  brethren  in  all  such  acts  of  wonblp 
and  benevolent  effort  as  do  not  imply  sn  si  andonn.cnt 
of  tbe  commission  Is  not  an  Inconsistency,  but  the  dic- 
tate of  Christian  cbari^-.     And,  la.  tly,  that  to  what- 
ever imputations  a  strict  adherence  to  tbe  commission 
of  Christ  may  sabject  the  Baptist  churcbea,  It  Is  better 
to  auffsr  them  than  to  ain ;  and  that  a  deviation  In  def- 
erence to  modem  error,  however  con*cien(ionaly  main- 
tained, Is  neither  charity  nor  Cbriatian  wiadom,  since 
"  whatever  la  right  is  wiae."    Chrt'lions  may  cordiilly 
in  tbe  evangelisation  of  the  world,  but  they  ifo 
nor  eon  the;',  without  a  change  of  sentiments, 
in  the  constitution  of  their  churches  {ComiTia- 
HoHt  on  Strict  and  Mixed  OnnnJon,  by  J.G.  Fuller)." 
It  is  ssid  that  moat  of  the  Engljali  Baptists  t.vor 
ee  communion ;  those  of  the  llnitod  Stales  arc  moat- 
cloae  Gomm unionists,  except  the  Free-will  Baptifta, 
bo  are,  aa  a  body,  cpen  ci  mmunionlsts.    See  Curiis, 
nnmtiw'im,  a  Rmra  of  Oit  A  rgumtnlt  of  Hall  and 
Norl  (Phila.  1850,  ISmo),  for  a  full  a^ument  for  close 
lunion;  alto  Otrvfim  Sertae,  xvi,  310,  and  au 
able  article  bv   Dr.  Hovey,  Bik'iallUra  Sarra,  Jan. 
art.  V.     See  alao  the  aame  Joump),  July,  18U, 
art.  i,  and  July,  1867,  art.  iii.     See  Baptibts. 

II.  A  similar  controversv  has  been  going  on  in  the 
Lutheran  Chnrch,  In  which  the  High-Church  party  ro- 
fuate  the  sdmleaion  of  members  of  the  Keformed  and 
all  non-Latheran  churches  to  communion.     See  Ln- 


III.  Tbe  Relbrmed  Presbyterians  (Covenanters^  In 
Scotland  and  the  United  States,  and  the  Tnited  Prcs- 
byteiiana  in  the  United  States,  are  alao  believers  in 
the  doctrine  of  close  communion ;  but  in  all  these 
churches  there  ia  a  party  which  strongly  contends 
sgainat  this  doctrine,  and  in  favor  of  open  communion. 
At  the  United  Presbyterian  General  Assemblv  of  18G7 
the  subject  of  close  cummnnlon  waa  the  chief  topic  of 
discussion.  The  Rev.  W.  C.  McCune,  the  author  of  a 
book  againrt  close  communion,  was  censured  by  a  larce 
majority.  See  W.  C.  McCunc,  Chie  Cummwiion,  or 
CItunA  FiBokA'p,  bg  lin.  J.  T.  Prtufy,  D.D.,  of  I  he 
VmUd  PtfiiyUrian  Tieological  Sritm-iTy  al  A  H/yiong, 
Pom.  (Cineinnati,  William  Scott,  IE66,  p.  UT);  lUo 
W.  Annan  (O.  S,  Proahyterian),  Til  Doarine  ofCIoie 
Camimmiaa  trUrd  hg  Seripturt  and  Jlraitm  (Pittsburg, 
1867).  Mr.  Annan  endeavors  to  catablisb  that  tha 
views  entertained  and  defended  by  the  leading  men  at 
present  in  that  Chnrch  are  not  those  which  were  held 
by  the  fatheis  of  tbo  AsH>clale  Reformed  Chnrch.  In 
discussing  the  subject,  Mr.  Annan  presents  tbe  views 
of  Drs.Usson,  Smith,  and  Annan,  father  of  tbe  author, 
end  othera,  down  lo  18CT,  In  aupport  of  his  positions. 

COMMUNION  IN  BOTH  KINDS.  ■■The  com. 
munlon  was  universally  administered  in  loth  kinds 
(bread  and  wine),  to  both  clergy  and  laity,  until  about 
Ibe  twelfth  century,  when  the  cup  began  to  be  gradual- 
ly  withdrawn  from  the  laity  in  the  Weslsni  Church, 
on  account  (as  was  affirmed)  of  the  diaorders  to  which 
tha  use  of  it  hsd  given  rise.  Communloo  In  one  kind 
ia  intimately  connected  with  tbe  dnclrine  of  tranaub- 
stantiation.  Romanists  prortaa  lo  believe  that  Christ, 
whole  and  entire_snul,  body,  and  divinity — is  con- 
tained In  either  apecicf,  and  In  tbe  amalleet  particle  of 
each.  Hence  they  infer  that,  whether  Ibe  commnni. 
cant  receives  tbe  bread  or  the  wine,  he  enjoys  the  full 
benellt  of  the  sacrament.  Thus,  to  support  Ihia  absurd 
and  monstnua  dogma,  a  Christian  ordinance  is  di- 
vided; transubeUntiation  justiflcB  communion  in  one 
"   ■       "  "   "  ■     truth 


This  11 


nclpal  r 


assigned  in  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
After  alleging  many  frivoloua  reasons,  aucb  a*  that 
there  ia  danger  of  spilling  the  wine  in  a  crowded  as- 
sembly, and  thus  inflicting  an  indignity  on  the  blood 
of  Christ;  that  many  cannot  bear  the  smell  or  taats 
of  wine ;  that  it  may  beccme  vapid ;  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely scarce  In  some  places,  and  wonld  invdva 


COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS         444 


COMMUNISM 


great  eipenM  to  procare  U — it  mj>,  'A  clrcnmitaDce 
which  principal]]'  influenced  the  Church  In  estulilish- 
tng  thU  practice  wM|  tlut  meuiB  wen  to  be  devised  to 
crush  the  bereij-  which  denied  that  Cbriat,  whole  imd 
eatjre.  ie  contained  under  dther  specie*,  and  suerleil 
that  the  body  ii  contained  uodei  the  epecice  or  bread 
without  the  blood,  and  the  blvod  under  the  ipecieB  of 
wine  without  the  body.  Tills  object  waa  attained  by 
communion  under  tho  speciei  of  bread  alone,  which  j 
place*,  as  it  were  Nnsibly  before  our  eyea,  the  truth  ; 
of  ths  Catholic  fdlth.'  Protestants  believe  that  with- 
out the  cup  there  con  be  no  ucrament  at  all,  and  there- 
fore the  Eucharlit  b  not  celebrated  in  tho  Romish 
Church."  For  the  hliloiy  of  this  question,  sou  Lokd'b 
SdpfeR. — Bingham,  Orig.  EecU  iv,  5 ;  Pairar,  £cclu. 
Diet.  t.  r. 

COMMUMON  OF  SAINTS,  aaa  of  the  pomts  of 
a  Chriatian'a  failb  according  to  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

1.  According  to  the  Roman  CadLoSc  definition,  it  is 
the  "  union  between  the  Church  triumphant  (in  hear. 
^n).  the  Church  militant  (on  earth),  and  the  Church 
■ufTering  (in  purgatory).  These  three  form  the  ono 
tiodj,  of  which  Christ  is  tho  Invisible  head,  and  of 
which  the  pope,  Christ's  vicar,  is  the  viiibli   ' 


died  in  tho  true  blth  and  tear  of  God,  and  now  en>7 
the  preseace  of  the  Father,  and  who,  in  their  state  idT 
glory,  still  sympathire  with  the  fiitfaful  below,  assUt- 
iog,  comforting,  and  praying  for  them  (Heb.  lii,  32, 
S3).  The  belief  of  this  communion  of  aalots  sbonld 
excite  and  cncoarago  us  to  bolineia  of  lilc.  if  *  we 
walk  in  tho  light  as  God  la  in  the  light,  wo  haro  fel- 
lowsbip  one  with  another;'  but  'if  we  say  that  wo 
lahlp  with  him,  and  walk  in  dukne*>,  we 
not  the  truth'  (1  John  i,  6,  7).  It  should 
all  mankind,  and  to  render 


theiT 


Bvery  ( 


Kiln 


o  thos. 


dbya 

of  intercessions  and  prayers"  (Bergler).  This  defini- 
tion, it  will  l>e  seen,  prepares  the  way  for  the  Roman 
superstitions  of  the  invocation  of  Bainla  and  prayers 
for  the  dead.  The  saints  in  heaven  are  to  be  vener- 
ated and  invoked  by  the  Church  militant,  and  tho 
members  of  the  latter  are  to  be  supported  by  the  in- 
tercessions of  the  former.  The  Chnrch  militant  is  to 
support  by  herpraj'ors  the  Church  suObrtngi  snd  Iho 
members  of  the  Church  militant  may  aire  oflcr  pray- 
ers for  each  other.  Son  Wctzer  nnd  Wello,  KinAtn- 
Ltxim,  iv,  930  M). 

2.  The  ProlalanI  definitions  varv  somewhat,  (n) 
The  HTatn^ntsr  Cm/raiou  says :  "All  saints  that  are 
united  to  Jesus  Christ,  their  bead,  by  his  Spirit  and  iiy 
f^th,  hive  fellowship  with  him  in  his  grjces,  suffer- 
in'^  death,  resurrection,  and  glory.  And  being  unit- 
ed to  one  another  in  love,  they  have  communion  in 
ojch  others'  gifts  and  graces,  and  are  obliged  to  tho 
psrCormanco  of  such  dulies,  public  and  private,  as  do 
conduce  to  their  mutual  good,  both  in  the  inward 
and  outward  man.  Saints  by  profession  aro  bound 
to  msintain  a  holy  fellowship  and  communion  m  tho 
worship  of  God,  and  tn  perfurming  such  other  spirit- 
a  their  mutual  edincation,  aa 


reliev 


:hings,  V 


whicli 


In  j  to  their  several 
communion,  as  God  oRereth  opportunity,  is  to  bo  t:x- 
tended  unto  all  those  who  in  overy  plocc  call  upon  the 
name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  This  communion  which  tho 
saints  have  with  Christ  doth  BOt  make  them  In  any- 
wise partalcers  of  the  substance  of  his  Godhead,  or  to 
bs  equal  with  Christ  in  any  respect;  cither  of  which 
to  affirm  Is  impkius  and  blosphemuns."  (t)  Pearson 
and  Leighton  agree,  substantially,  in  stating  that 
"Christians  hare  communion  or  fellowship  with  tho 
Father,  from  whom  cometh  every  good  and  perfect 
gift  (1  John  i,  3 ;  2  Pet.  i,  4),  with  his  son  Jesus  Christ, 
throu.:h  whom  forgiveness  and  mercy  are  conveyed  to 
ns  (1  John  i,  S;  John  xvii,  20,  23),  and  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  whose  sanctifying  i^sces  are  conferred  on  those 
whose  hearts  are  duly  prepared  for  tlieir  reception 
(Phil.ii,  1;  2  Cor.siii,lJ);  that  ChristUns  hi 


mmunlon 


ngels,  w 


it  forth  to  minister  for  them  who  shall 
be  heirs  of  solvation  (lleb.  i,  14;  Luke  xv,  10;  Matt. 
xviii,  10) ;  that,  besides  tho  external  fellowship  which 
they  have  in  the  word  and  sacruments  of  the  Church, 
they  have  an  intimate  union  and  conjunction  with  all 
the  saints  on  csrtli.  as  the  livin)(  memliers  of  Christ 
(John  1,7;  Col.ii,19);  and  tiiat  Christians  have  com- 
munion not  only  with  the  saints  on  earth,  but  are  of 
one  city  and  one  Csmily  with  all  those  who  have  ever 


obtained  the  like  precious  Ciith  with  onn 
sllU  more  nearly  related,  aa  being  in  a  peculiar  aensa 
children  of  the  same  Father,  disciples  of  tho  same  Uaa- 
ter,  anhnatod  by  the  aamo  spirit,  and  memiien  of  the 
same  body"  (Seeker,  On  Cattdiim,  lect.  xiv ;  I'eanoi, 
Oa  Iht  Creed  (ed.  1710,  p.  769) ;  Loighlon,  On  /**  Crrtd 
iWoHcM,  ii,  ill),  (c)  Another  view  is  given  l.y  WU- 
son,  who  remarks  that,  while  the  Romish  view  la  u&- 
Bcriptural,  that  of  Pearson  and  others  Is  vague.  His 
work  aims  to  show  that  the  bond  of  union  amoDK 
Christians  (denoted  by  tho  commmiim  of  Haul*)  is  not 
to  bo  sought  (1)  in  identity  of  doctrinal  belief.,  or  (2) 
in  identity  of  religious  fbeling  or  experiencr,  a*  feel- 
ing, or  (3)  in  identily  of  forms  of  Church  govcmmeDt 
in  worship,  but  in  mond  unity,  foundal  in  the  action 
of  the  grjce  of  God  not  merely  in  the  hearts,  but  in 
the  activities  of  Christians.  See  Wilson,  Bamjilait 
Leeturts  (Oxford,  19S1, 8vo). 

COHUCNIOHOFTHESICK.    See  Lobd's Svr- 

COMMUNIOtf  SERVICE,  tho  om«  for  tho  ad- 
ministration 0f  the  Eucharist,  or  aacnuuent  of  tba 
Lord's  Supper.     9ee  Lituimit. 

COMUUNIOy-TABLE,  a  table  on  which  the  sac- 
ramental bread  and  wine  are  placed  for  the  commun- 
ion in  Protestant  chutches.  At  the  Reformation.  Mama 
altart  were  rejected,  as  likely  to  support  the  notion  of 
a  material  sacriAce,  against  which  the  Reformera  pro- 
tested.     SeeALTAB;  Lord's  Siipfeb. 

Communisin,  a  theory  of  "community  of  proper- 
ty," often  attempted  tu  be  reallied  m  practice. 

I.  Commtmigtic  Ideaa  in  the  rt^gioiu  amd  pkiL^ai:jJiual 
Sjrfwu  n/inidtnl  Pagan'jm, — Tho  most  ancient  form 
of  communism  known  to  oa  li  found  in  the  monaster- 
ies of  Buddhism,  in  attempts  to  roach  an  ideal  ctaano- 
ti^  by  renouncing  marriago  and  property.  In  the 
history  of  Gre»»,  a  fom  of  society  based  npon  c«n- 
munity  of  goods  is  ascribed  to  tho  <.rdcr  of  Pytlugne- 
ana.  Dut  1>}'  far  the  most  important  rcptCKntative  of 
communistic  ideas  in  pagan  antiquity  it  Plato,  wbosa 
worii  on  tho  ideal  state  still  ranks  among  the  best 
that  has  ever  liecn  written  Id  favor  of  communism. 
Plato  regards  the  possession  of  private  property  as  the 

tJsm,  of  a  low  cliarscter.  He  therefore  allows  only 
the  lowest  of  the  three  classes,  into  which,  according 
to  him,  tho  state  is  divided,  and  which  be  excludes 
from  a  participation  In  tho  government  of  the  state,  ta 
possess  private  property.  'The  two  ruling  daaies,  the 
archontea  and  the  warriors,  are  suljocted  by  Plato  ts 
compulsory  communism  in  tho  widest  sense  of  the 
word.  As  both  classes  were  to  live  esciusively  for 
the  stale,  and  any  private  possession  appeared  to  Pla- 
to as  productive  of  egotism,  he  not  only  demanded  for 
these  two  classes  comrannity  of  property,  but,  under 
certain  restrictions,  to  i>e  regulated  by  law,  communi- 
ty of  women.  After  the  eMablithment  of  Christian- 
ity, the  Neo-Platonic  philosopher  Plotlnus  was  a  ptmn- 
inent  representative  of  communistic  ideas,  and  applied 
to  the  Roman  Einpemr  Gallienus  for  permission  to  es- 
tablish a  state  accotdlng  to  the  Platonic  ideal,  upon 
the  ruins  of  a  destroyed  city  of  Calabria, 

II.  Communinn  ammg  At  Jtnt. — Among  the  Jew^ 
the  sects  of  the  Therapeutie  and  tho  EsKnea.  wboH 
fundamental  principle  waa  the  dualiam  of  the  East4.)a 


COMMUinsM  4! 

I^giona,  fbniMd.  Ilka  tiie  Bnddhiata,  comrnuDlttic  so- 
elttw,  the  r<irtder  on  Luke  Moeria  In  E^pC,  the  lit- 
tsr  Id  the  dcHtU  near  the  Deid  Sem.  twe  EaiEHXS, 
TniBAPEirT:C. 

111.  M^HiatHc  Cjmmimitm  ami  SodaUm  m  lAe  oa- 
cimt  CiraHan  C\urdi.—Tbe  infiuit  Ch^timi  Cliurch 
■t  Jcnujlem  bu  liecn  beld  up  as  at  ones  bd  example 
ofoKiiinanbin  and  ac  a^amrDt  fur  It  (Ai^  [I,  42,44, 
4«>.  But  the  pasaags  is  Acts  doei  not  implf  aitfaer 
an  abmlate,  totil,  or  compubory  cominnnity  of  goods. 
There  !■  no  trace  la  tbo  New  Testament  of  Jewish  £■• 
nnain  or  of  modem  contmuDJam.  CbriiEuuilly  care- 
tallj  i;u.uds  the  individnalit}'  of  each  member,  and 
oanaidera  love  as  the  only  Uw  by  which  Chrisdans  are 
boand.  It  Is  true,  however,  on  the  other  bund,  that  a 
omnianialic  tendency  eilstud  In  Ihs  Chimh,  which 
dentoped  itself  in  tb:  4th  csnturj'  in  the  ettiblish- 
ineDt  of  the  DomiDAnities  of  anjchorsts  and  mnnki'. 
Sse  Ho:t4CH[9V.  Tha  reformstion  of  tho  monastic 
otden,  began  principally  through  the  ofbrti  of  Bernard 
da  Claimnx  in  the  ISth  century,  f!*ro  a  new  social- 
isUc  and  commnniBtic  impalM  to  the  laity,  and  led  to 
the  ft^maUon  oF  rell^ous  liodlas,  united  liy  vows  of 
lite-Ion'{  poverty  and  ascotlclsm.  Such  wera  the  Bu- 
mSatri  tq.  v.),  who  mido  vows  of  voluntTy  poverti', 
ehutity,  and  fjatin j.  but  were  not  distin^ishod  from 
the  people  in  dress,  thnugh  living  together  as  ■  relig- 
looB  commnaity;  the  Brghardt  (q.  v.),  a  society  of  un- 
muTiBd  men,  who  lived  in  community  under  ■  muter, 
and  devoted  thimssives  to  minunl  \ibar  and  devo- 
tions; and  a  similar  female  association,  formod  as  ear- 
ly** tha  11th  century,  under  the  nimo  at  Btguma  (q. 
v).  Thaa  liy  asaociatlona  dltfared  fro.n  the  clerical 
communitim  by  considering  poverty  »ni  continence 
u  euintial  mlet,  and  bora  more  of*  aociilisUc  than 

Ittatieaiit  onttrt  (q,  v.)  united  the  socialistic  organ- 
iutJDS  to  the  clerical  character,  and  cut  the  Uy 
brotherbonds  in  the  shada.  Another  sort  of  comma- 
nistic  anion  was  thit  of  the  Fralret  el  lororaBberiip'r- 
iin  (see  Bhetiirr^  of  thb  Pkeb  Spirit)  (13th  ccn- 
tuiy),  who  bild  that  tbo  orlginil  state  anterior  to  tha 
Fall  should  be  rattored,  and  that  the  distinctions  cre- 
ated by  (lie  Uw,  of  Cbnrcb,  state,  society,  should  lie' 
abolished.  In  their  secTet  asaemhlie^  (paraiUif)  the 
priaciplea  of  the  community  of  gnod^  and  of  womsn 
was  advocated  by  naked  preachers  liefora  naked  audi- 
ence of  both  sexes.  This  aect  extended  under  diflbr- 
eot  names  through  France,  Inly,  »nd  Germany.  A 
iimlUr  sect,  under  tha  name  of  Adimllti  (q.  v.),  ad- 
Tocatjng  the  commonity  of  women,  arose  during  thj 
HuHlte  wi 
er.ll  Ziska. 

IV.  CflHiunutie  and  aodiUnie  AmKtatiom  of  &e 
Tiaut  ofiht  Rrjiyrnatiim — A  sochliatic  impolse,  tend- 
ing to  a  universal  division  of  proporty,  Uy  *t  the 
fDiin4>tion  of  the  peasant  war  of  Germany  in  tbe 
eariy  day*  of  tha  Raturmatlon.  Tbe  twelve  articles 
of  the  peasants,  however,  demaaded  only  tha  abo- 
lition of  fetidjl  privileges,  not  a  total  subvenion  of 
society.  The  /TeaHn/y  PropkUt,  inaUtnted  hv  Nkho- 
lai  Slorch  in  IfiSl,  went  furlh-jr ;  they  advocated  the 
community  of  gnoda,the  subsUtutlon  of  polygamy  for 
monogamy,  and  the  abolition  of  all  civil  and  ecdosias- 
tical  BDtbority.  MOnier  (q.  v.)  went  still  further;  his 
doctrine  of  the  absolute  community  of  all  possessions 
wu  pnra  communism.  The*e  doctrines  were  admit- 
ted to  the  fullest  extent  by  the  Anabaptists  (q.  v.)  of 
Mnnater,  Some  isolated  followers  of  Anabaptism  In 
the  Netherlands  disaeniinateil  these  doctTines  afte> 
wiids  ID  France  and  the  north  of  Germanv.  Follow- 
ing in  the  same  rad  we  find  Che  IJbcrtma  of  Geneva, 
whom  Calvin  atnnuonslv  opposed,  and  the  FamilitU 
oC  Hollatid  and  England,  about  1M5.  The  commu- 
Bistic  element  Is  also  apparent  in  a  pare  form  in  the 
organiiatlon  of  the  Hermhuters  (Moravian)),  and  in 
wme  coomianltiea  of  Anvergne,  wbleb  are  nnbtna  of 


5  COMMUNISM 

famjliei  under  one  head,  by  whom  work  is  divided  ae- 
cordin.;  to  different  Individual  capacities. 

V.  Sfodem  GiaimiMiim  and  Sotialitm.—hj-  the  side 
of  tha  above  leligians  communistic  doctrines  arose  tbe 
modern  communism,  taking  its  source  In  the  now  an- 
tagonism to  the  institutions  of  the  Middle  Aget^  which 
lecognlaoj  two  classes  of  people—the  rulers,  nobUs 
and  clerks,  snd  the  ruled,  civilians  and  peasants.  All 
the  pHvileges  lielonged  to  the  former,  all  the  hurdene 
to  tbe  latter.  For  the  old  divisions  of  society — nobira 
and  peasants  —  were  sulistltuted  gradually  two  now 
classes,  a  niowyal  aristocracy  and  a  prolrlarial.  Tlie 
recognition  of  ths  principle  of  equality  tended  to  over- 
throw ail  conventional  authority  and  privileges. 

In  Great  Britain  the  germe  of  communbm  are  to  be 
feund  in  Roger  Bacon's  Xevj  Allanlii;  in  Uore's  JM 
spf.W  rnpuiJ.'cs  ftofu  (I&IG);  and  In  Harrington's 
Octaaa  (!666)  j  but  no  practical  form  of  eocialiam  ap- 
peared  till  tbe  18th  century,  when  the  BttcAasileM  (q. 
V.)  of  Scotland  formed  a  religions  communistic  associ- 
ation, wbicb  lasted  fully  for  half  *  century.  In  the 
19th  century,  Robert  Owen  (q.  v,)  attem|it?d  to  better 
the  condition  of  the  cotton-weavers  of  New  Lanark. 
He  pB'jlished  his  system  (.1  neuVieio  o/Sopitlf,  181S), 
in  which,  starting  from  tho  principle  that  all  men  are 
bom  oqnil,  he  maintains  that  they  become  good  or  bad 


la  inSuo: 


But 


It  waa  put  down  by  the  Hussite 


leave  England, 
here  he  fonnd«d 
the  colony  of  New  Harmony.  The  experiment  was 
successful  BO  hmg  a*  money  lasted,  but  this  failing,  it 
was  abandoned  in  leSC.  See  Owen.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  Oraeiuta  had  founded  another  colony  at  Or- 
btslon,  near  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  under  the  guidance 
of  Abram  Combe,  but  it  was  dissolved  after  hia  death 
in  1837.  Owen,  having;  returned  to  England,  became 
the  founder  and  director  of  the  National  Labor  Eqidla- 
bit  Exchaagt,  and  the  Coiamumts  Frimlls  Sa.~ielg  of 
Manchester.  These  Owenlta  working  associations 
brought  forth  the  ChariiMlt,  who  aimed  at  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  powers  of  the  clergy,  the  land-ownera,  tbe 
large  capital IsIa,  and  all  privileged  clasaea. 

In  France,  the  D^daratimi  r/lki  It-gkli  a/ifat,  In 
1789,  Uid  down  the  principle  of  equality  as  the  found- 
ation of  the  state  organization.  The  Constitution  of 
1791  acknowledged  the  rigbt  of  property,  but  recog- 
nised also  the  corresponding  ri^ht  of  employment  for 
those  destitute  of  property.  Tho  Constitution  of  1793 
aimed  to  eatahliah  greater  material  equality,  and  He- 
rat often  expressed  the  Idea  that  real  equality  could 
only  be  established  on  the  basis  of  equality  of  right* 
and  eqanlity  of  taste*.  Under  Napoleon  and  the  Etes- 
toration  these  ideas  were  for  a  time  forgotten,  until  tha 
Revolution  of  July,  1830,  showed  again  their  existenc* 
*nd  power  amoni;  the  pnklnrial.  The  Socialists  be- 
fore tbe  Revolution,  whose  way  had  been  proparrd  by 
other  Utopists,  such  as  Finelon  {Rfpublifiie  tk  Siiltnle, 
yo!/agt  daiu  rUedrt  plamrt.ete,).Mnbat  few  in  num- 
ber, if  considered  as  distinct  ^m  tbe  advocates  of 
equality.  Among  their  works  the  most  remarkabl* 
are  La  BaiUiadi,  *  novel  by  Morelli  (Paris,  JTS3) ;  Le 
Cod-  dc  III  yaturr  (1755).  presenting  the  idea  of  system- 
atizing labor.  The  materialist  and  atheistic  works  of 
Holbach,  Helvetiua,  Diderot,  Voltwre,  Rousseau,  Rey- 
nal,  full  of  Utopian  theoricp,  greatly  damaged  the  au- 
thority of  existing  institutions.  Commnnlsm  did  not 
praclteally  take  its  modem  form  until  after  the  end  of 
the  Reign  of  Terror;  but  after  the  Constitution  of  1799 
bad  nude  the  franchise  of  voting  to  depend  on  proper- 
classes  in  their  opposition  to  ail  right  of  individual 
property.  They  jmed  at  bringing  lack  society  to  the 
state  nf  naloie,  claiming  that  in  a  true  state  of  society 

education  would  make  all  equal  in  their  attainmenta. 
The  heads  of  (he  party  were  Baleuf  and  his  followers. 
After  the  fall  of  Babeuf,  and  under  tha  military  rule  of 


COMMUNISM  449  COMMUNBM 

Hiri-ieon,  aroM  tha  KcUUitic  doctriPM  of  St.  Himon  dcpIeUd  b;  tbe  latter  in  hi*  Coyqfii  em  leant  (18H) 
■nd  Fourier.  Tbe  fanaa  eipluined  bis  vicwi  in  Le  1'he  statu.  In  tliia  tytUm,  hw  nu  pruperty,  mooey,  a 
O^fofai  da  Indaitridt  xai  Lt  mmean  Chr't:iia^mi,  distinct  fanctiun;  tlwre  are  no  diitiiiL-IJiiiia  o(claw« 
in  tbi!  rmnier  of  which  he  propuud  to  aalal'liih  urn  in-  or  nnk>,  uud  }'et  the  itite  ia  Immeiuely  lich,  kt  t-rrTj 
diutrial  ayatem  on  the  buis  of  [xTfect  equality;  while  thing  lielonga  to  it;  the  integri^  of  the  (iniilj  i~  pn. 
la  the  latter  be  atieinpta  M  deuiomtr^te  tiut  tbia  equal,  wrved,  and  maninge  held  wcred,  bat  the  women  tn 
Ity  if  B  reeultof  the  divine  coinmaudnwnttu  love  one  employed  In  the  genenl  workibopi;  all  efFain  trv  t4 
uioUwt  u  brethren.  In  order  puctically  to  uiive  aX  he  aeUled  Ly  the  Cunale,  from  wboM  deciaion*  them  v 
the  object  of  St-Sinuin,  Bttuni  pro|iaiied  tiiat  after  the  no  appeal.  Theie  Idnaa  were  further  dliwminalFd  in 
i.eaia  of  a  prrwD,  the  community  at  large,  inatead  of  Cabet*>  itewapaper,  ^  Popaluin.  An  extivme  arct  n* 
Ut  faiuily,  should  inherit  his  eaL-te.  Fourier  expound-  these  conimnni>t«  was  erUlililhed  in  lUfl  hy  D^umf. 
ed  his  Eysleni  in  Zd  Tkeorie  da  qiiatrt  ilimttmatU.viA  who,  bringing  Evarything  back  to  the  indtvidnal,  ai- 
LtTniiUideC'AuodalionDoiiuti'iutAgTitolr(l^ii,U  rived  at  the  fUndamentiil  niaxim,  Wt  awit  d>  oa  ra 
edit.  18^1 1.  He  alms  at  the  practii»t  perfevtiou  of  nun-  can;  consequenlly,  one  may  talce  all  he  requires  lor 
kind,  and  coiuiders  happinesa  ■>  the  aim  of  all  living  tlio  time  tiein^.  in  thia  syt-tem  no  God  is  neceeaaiy, 
creaturea.  Wealth  ia  to  be  inenasedanddisseininBln),  and  man  aiitiiSea  himaelf  with  what  be  finda  ia  na* 
andthia  Isto  be  accompllahod  by  dividing  the  comDton   ture. 

property  and  by  reguUUng  lubor,  uniting  penons  to  VI.  (kmmatiatn  and  Sadaliim  tiatt  tiw  Anv-'afraa 
work  in  Jiroops,  industrial  serlea.  and  pliaUnf(ee,  a^  /•/  Fibnuinf,  1848.  — This  revolutiaD  |.-*ve  al  flrrt  a 
cording  to  their  capacity  for  labor ;  the  result  of  Lba  new  impalne  to  socialism.  Tbe  words  Librrlr,  KgaUli, 
>)lat  IbUot  to  be  divided  among  the  producers  in  pn>-  /'r  ilinati,  poated  on  all  the  walla  and  appended  to  ill 
portion  to  tbcir  capital,  lalior.  aodtulpnt.  Fourier  sue-  the  decrees  of  the  republic,  seemed  to  contain  all  that 
ceededin  gaining  the  public  ear  after  bfae  (all  of  Sl  Si-  Socialists  could  wish  for.  The  government  ilstlfwu 
tnouism.andwasgreatlyhelpedby  VicturConsidirant.  compuacd  In  part  of  Sucialistr.  The  result  vas  tla 
He  published  a  nawipaper,  ic/'iotoufsre,  in  188!,  and  organiutjon  of  the  natlnnal  work-ehops,  nhirh  only 
in  1836  another,  La  Phahnpc,  Journal  dt  la  Sdfnce  Su-  served  U  prove  again  the  inipracUcability  of  these  the 
tiali,  to  disseminate  his  ideas.  oiirs.     But  comitUDLtm  began  to  lift  its  head  liy  Ibe 

St.  Simonism  atid  Fourierlsoi  gave  rite  to  an  Im-  side  of  socialism,  and  made  fieat  progtvrs  with  the 
mense  number  of  publications  In  France.  Among  the  lower  classes.  Both  united  In  the  insurrectian  af 
most  eminent  writers  arc  found,  among  (he  Socialists,  June,  1848.  Tbe  puttinK  down  of  the  moranrnt  liy 
Lamennaia.wba.in  hia /.'Miit  (Krr/a(i!ii;lraKr(1827),  General  Cavaitjuac  dispcraed  the  leaders,  Hime  «F 
attempts  to  bring  the  socialistic  Idea  Into  unison  with  nhoin  took  refuge  in  England ;  but  their  doctiinea, 
religious  do^ma^  while  in  his  pamphlet  D'avmir  he  nevertbelesr,  coutinned  to  gain  adherents  among  the 
calls  the  people  back  to  union  with  tbe  Church  of  lower  clasers  of  France.  In  1860  a  secret  Mvialistic 
Roma  on  the  ground  Jut  It  upholds  the  doctrine  of  society  was  liiicoveitd,  whoae  nunifieatiotu.  from  ita 
equality  before  God,  from  which  social  equality  will  centre  at  Beiiers,  extended  almost  throui  b  the  whole 
follow.  For  thia  be  waa  put  under  tbe  ban  by  the  of  louthem  France,  and  which  had  completed  a  plan 
pope.  Stung  by  this  treatment,  he  puliUshed  the  Par- '  of  gcneml  inaurrection.  Thla  also  led  to  the  difcor- 
otrt  it'un  Croymli  PoOlitpui  a  FL'iage  duPeigtU;  Paji  erj',  in  Paris,  of  the  secret  society  Za  A'rai«iji,  whose 
el  Uonttratmeiil,  which  are  among  the  most  radical  memben,  at  their  initiatinn,  swore  to  defend  tbe  laal- 
works  extant.  Of  a  more  abstract  and  speculative  Icnable  rights  at  man  to  liberty,  equality,  and  fnto- 
character  are  the  works  of  rierro  Lrrouz,  ijtait  nr    nity. 

tEgalilf  (IKRT),  and  De  FUiimaniti  (1840),  wherein  he  <  Tho  SoclaUrm  and  Commonlfm  of  Switaariand  and 
considers  the  principle  of  equality  as  a  dogma,  and  Germany  prcH-nt  no  p.irticubirly  new  features,  being 
recognises  no  distinctions  of  country,  family,  or  prop-  mostly  bused  on  French  tbauriea.  Alter  llie  Ciilin 
otty.  The  latter  point  ia  the  foundation  of  I>n>udhon's  of  tbe  Revolution  of  1848,  the  leaden  fled  fmoi  Grr> 
doctrine;  he  attempts  to  prove  that  llw  right  of  prop-  many  to  Engiond,  from  whence  they  continiKd  la^ 
srty  is  unnatural  in  bis  work  QH'nt-etipalaPr<fivii1 ,  rvcttheopcratirau  of  tbaOmaraaut  <laaBaa(«.a^i'i- 
(IMoX  to  wbleh  qoeatloD  he  returns  tbe  significant  au-  i  tor,  divided  in  drcuita  and  oommnnltiea,  and  sUoaiJy 
•wer,  L^  PmpriM  c'tit  It  VoL  This  work  was  folhnr-  organized  in  Germany,  But  the  alliance  of  the  gov> 
edhy  Ih  la  CrialitmdtCOrd,rdiuitriliimaii!tHl«iS),  emmenU  in  1860,  tbe  lack  of  energy  among  tbe  cee- 
^oi  tbt  Piilutiipkg  of  Miiery  0»i6).  As  tbe  advocate  federates,  and  the  publication  of  the  ahns  of  (be  mcib- 
of  socialism  among  the  newspapers,  I jHi is  Blanc  stands  ty  in  June,  1851,  by  a  tailor's  apprentice,  Peter  Ni«h- 
first.  His  principal  object  is  the  organiiotion  of  lal  or,  ]nng,  at  Leipsig,  materially  injured  the  organiutioa. 
to  be  acciimplbihed  by  usmg  state  competition  to  de-  In  Belgium  French  communistic  ideas  also  obtsind 
Btroy  private  competition;  thestateactingascapilallst,  to  aome  extent,  and  were  upbeU  in  aeveral  newipa- 
and  rewarding  each  worker  according  to  his  deserts,  pen.  In  184A  Considirant  went  to  Btuaael*  to  tdn- 
Bnonornltia  (t  1837)  IJiil«ry  ofth:  CoiupinKy  of  Ba-  cato  the  Fourierite  Iheoriei,  but  found  no  opportniity 
tev/(/jiCaiupira(wn(fe£a6eii/(Psris,]>'28XKavefreah  of  carrying  them  into  practice.  These  Ideas,  howeitr. 
circulation  to  Balffuf's  lheoTie^  which  found  organs  In  took  a  firmer  hold  among  tbe  lower  classes  of  Italy; 
LtMointearRrpiiblirmn.'\iS:-6ii,iaii:iiommtttbrr,t(.  Pius  IX.in  a  letter  to  the  Italian  bishops  and  aidi- 
ter  Auj'ust,  18.'I9.  A  practical  application  of  these  prin-  1  bihopa,  December  9th,  1819,  leeommended  tbemtoiiat 
ciplea  was  prevented  by  the  inaurrection  of  Ibe  AkvI^  all  eflbrts  to  prevent  the  propsgatioa  of  rodalisD. 
(Ju£uisoiu,Marl2th,lg3!l.ledby  BlanqulandBarb^.  That  the  existence  of  these  communistic  Focittieids- 
Tlie  fiiiluTe  of  that  enterprise  damped  the  communis-  pends  on  the  peraonalily  of  their  foondrrs,  and  nctoa 
tic  spirit,  and  for  a  while  there  were  only  a  few  rail-  their  own  excellence,  has  been  demonstrated.  >Aa 
laty  B((em|M  made,  such  as  Quenlsset's  (1841).  Still,  the  death  of  the  leading  spirits,  the  anranlxstwM  ia- 
■ecret  societies  continued  lo  be  organiied,  such  as  the  i  variably  degenerate,  if  they  do  not  entirely  dispens. 
SonVd;  (fcirnirui'toMrs^joitoirer,  composed  of  tbe  re- I  In  the  United  States  a  numlier  of  attempt*  haTehrt 
mainin)*  followers  of  Barliiii,  who  pushed  the  commu-  made  to  establish  communistic  colonies,  portly  npu  a 
nistic  principles  to  extremes,  and  considered  material-  merely  bumHuitarian,  and  partly  npon  a  religious  bafis. 
ism  as  the  immutable  law  of  nsturp.  Opposed  to  i  Among  the  former  belong  the  communistic  colonj  es- 
■  them  were  theflf/onnMret,  comprising  the  greater  part  I  tal.lished  by  Calet  at  Nauvoo,  aeveral  colonics  ««b- 
ofthe  workiugmen,  who  aimed  at  community  of  labor; .  lished  by  the  Germsn  communist  Wellling  and  bifsd> 
a  newspaper  advocating  their  princlpli's,  I.'Alr'irr,  ap-j  herenta,  and  several  phslonges  eatubUshed  by  lie  sd- 
peared  in  IMO.  The  /mrian  CnmmvmHi.  headed  by  i  mirera  and  followera  of  Fourier.  They  have  oii  p•^ 
i^bel.  strove  torealiie  an  ideal  system  of  communism,  j  lebed.     Among  tke  Koond  elaia  afcommuniftk  aMO- 


COMMUNITY  OF  GOODS        447  COMPLETORIUM 

^Uow  belong  Ibe  Shaken  (q.  v.)  and  tbe  Gemuu  Str-  I  Keandsr,  PtOHtmg  and  Trmmits  (Bobn'*  ed.>,  i.  ViS ; 
"iyB»pUit»(q.v.).whoeoioiiiuniv»r8»lcelil>«cy,    il,  W, 

Cominatatloa  or  PeNiKCB  in  the  Rommi  Cath. 
olic  Churtb.     Sea  Pkham^e. 


a  Econam;  and  Zcw,  enUbliihKl  bj  Sepur- 
■tlMl  fTDTD  WuTtcmbcrif,  and  the  Oneida  Commuulty 
(q,  T.),  wbich  taachcs  a  coiuiDUniCy  of  wamen  aa  oetl 
u  of  property.— Pierer,U«i«r«iii-Z«iiti«,  a.  v. ;  Hei^ 
iBf,  Rcd-EiKskiopaMt,  iii,  21 ;  Komang,  fiednteiis  ■ 


Compaaa  (uaoally  33D,  nwXJw,  to  tumund)  li 
'  "  ,  etpekiall^r  Id  tb«  pbtJM 


CmttammM  omm  dm  CtjidUiptmcl  tUi  Ckriiiiuium*  ,  •'Ittcb  >  conipasg"  133D,  Kan),  xxxiv,  (>;  Jo>b.  XT, 

(B«ni,lS47);  Keyhtui.  OiaUi  tar  la  Sf/ornairurM  ou    ^     ^  g^n,,  „    28;   2  Kii'ig*  iii,  9;   Wiw^i.vmioi,  AcU 

AnoSiAv  Modtma  (S  torn.  Paria,  1843)  ;  Sudro,  Hiil.  \  ^y^^;^  m  i  t  go  arKnaid. 

4Cbiiwi™a™«C4th  edit.  Paris,  IMO):  I..  Slein,  i>fr|      „  ,  .     „  ,.        „j,  „    „    l 

ad  *1.  IMHI ;  C«Ql.  rf.«Kinfc«  ftf^jwaj,™  >-™t«a    "?  "t"  ^n<i«ring  of  the  A.  V.  for  tbe  twbnKal  term 

Grin.  M,  ««ufe  B^ofg^  E.  /V™ir.ir*  «.  i.^^    """«];    °  l-"k«  ""v   28  («™r.«t«.  often  U>  "ccn. 
(IMS  i  Th.  Mnndt.  B>  C«r».  A  C«tf«*ofl  m  «r™    "t^^",).  "  "^  «  ""iW"  »>n.e,  .  e.  .-je  r-tbcr  tban 
Ucr;,  BmbMtd«,g^  ..  J-KAfca-ea  (1841)  f  WillUm^    ""e  fuU  mennlng  of  <«.w  (.a  elae^hew). 
TV  llamony  Socirtg  at  Ecoitoaq,  Ptmus/lvaiiia  (New        Coinplega«.  Synods  or  (CWmdu  ConpmfiAa. 
Haren.  1867).     Sw  SocialuM.  \ti;  CawiKan  Conipmfviue).      Tbe  aynods  held  in 

Comiiianitr  of  Oooda.  (I.)  ^Vom  the  fict  Cainpie,mc  bei.'an  Hret  in  tlw  middle  of  the  Slh  and 
"that  tbe  earl;  Chrittiana  'iad  all  lUaif  rommim'  ended  in  the  14(h  century.  The  Diet  held  by  Pepin 
(Acts  ii,  44),  some  have  auppoaeil  that  to  renuunce  all  [he  Liltk,  A.D.  7S7,  at  Com[dv|tne,  i*  counted  among 
property,  and  to  share  one')  giioda  with  feltow-Cbria-  the  aynoda,  became  the  priTilegei  of  the  archbiahop 
liana,  a  tbe  perpetual  duty  of  Chriitiani>.  But  it  is  to  Chrodei^ng  were  ratified  and  elgned  LeTorc  the  aiaem- 
be  obKrved  that  no  precept  is  given  In  Serlpturo  to  bled  biahnps(MnDBi,(7aiuifiur»niwrac[iiiiipr.CoJ'(e<iD, 
thii  elTpct;  we  hare  ddIv  the  Cict  recorded  that  tbe  vii,  693  aq,,  Morent.  176G).  Whether  the  few  church 
early  diKl plea  vrere  inditf.'rent  to  property,  oDaclHah,  laws  whicli  were  iMued  under  Charlemagne  in  the  year 
and' willing  to  commnnlcate.'  And,  if  history  is  to  775  aa  capitularies,  which  relatedpartly  to  church  gOT- 
be  our  help  in  thin  matter,  It  aeoma  never  to  have  been  ernmont,  partly  to  eccleaUaticat  revenues,  and  partly 
a  part  of  Chnrch  diacipline  that  goods  abvuld  iw  com-  to  monastic  discipline,  were  patabliahed  at  a  eynod  In 
mon.  It  ia  aiually  euppnsed  that  the  renunciation  of  Complegneia  very  doubtful,  became  In  the  recant  of  tbe 
privUe  property,  and  tlie  ayatem  of  community  of  capitulary therelsonlymenduDmadeofajjnifJalticiM- 
r«A\  waa,  for  a  time  at  least,  adoptfid  hy  the  teMe  niif(u(see  HBrduinne,^r(a  PiMnf>arKa>,iii.\!DaG,PariB, 
of  the  Infant  Chnrch  of  Jerusalem.  That  tbe  eyptem,  1714).  A  synod  held  tlipre  in  82S,  at  which  the  bitbopa 
if  arer  so  adnpted,  waa  soon  discontinued,  is  perfectly  s|^ke  of  the  usurpations  practised  by  laymen  In  church 
eiidenl.  Tboee  'ie*o  were  rich  U  tiii  »orlS  were  ex-  matters,  mav  Indoeii  be  regarded  a»  a  dift  (Slanal,  I.  c, 
borted  to  be  '  rra^  to  gin,  and  glad  to  d-HrUuilr.-  xlv,  dlD,  Venet.  1769).  The  synod  held  in  Compicgne 
vUch  impliea  both  (bat  there  were  rich  men  In  the  la  S-)S  was  of  real  importance  In  the  development  of 
ehnrchea,  and  that  they  were  not  required  to  sell  all  the  Cliurch.  In  the  year  S29,  a  Council  al  Paris,  In  a 
that  they  had,  and  ceaae  to  possess  property,  which  letter  to  the  kin^  l»u[s  and  I.oIhairo,  relerriDg  to  an 
wDold  have  left  them,  fur  the  future,  nothing  to  give,  explanation  which  It  was  said  (he  Emperor  Cunstan- 
Aodlhe  same  may  be  learned  from  all  (hat  we  read  tine  had  given,  aet  up  the  opinion  that  tbe  bishops 
Bhoat  the  collections  made  In  Graeoe  for  the  poor  were  the  judges  of  kings,  but  (hat  the  bishops  them- 
Ckriitluia  of  Jndoa,  and  from  many  other  eircun-  aelvea  could  nut  be  judged  by  men.  This  thesis  Arat 
atance*  In  tbe  sacred  history.  found  a  practical  application  at  the  above-mentioned 

(!.)"BDt  It  has  been  contended  that  even  in  the  in-  synod  In  Compiegne,  as  the  sons  of  Louis  desired  their 
bncy  of  the  Churcb  of  Jerusalem,  tlie  community  of  father  to  tie  sentenced  to  a  public  penance  by  the  Idsh- 
Eami  wu  hi  reality  contlQed  to  M^ie  engngtd  in  Ike  opa,  and  thus  declared  unfit  to  reign  (llaiduinus,  I.  c. 
miti^ry,  inelading  the  feniale  catecbiats,  or  deacon-  It,  1878,  Par.  1714 ;  Mansi,  1.  c.  xiv,  047).  The  synod 
eates,  who  were  called  'widows,'  Jurt  at  first,  thia  of  1095  declared  a  nobleman,  lingo  de  Juiaco.  under 
dtaeription  may  have  included  lII  the  believers  ;  that  the  ban ;  that  of  USB  citabllshed  aDveral  regulations 
b,  those  who  were  the  flrst  to  embrace  the  Gospel  may  which  aimed  at  securing  ecclesiastical  liliertiea ;  and 
oil  have  been  employed  In  some  depirtment  of  the  that  of  1^0  declared  against  the  nnlawfnl  possession 
■nhlsliy.  That  Ananias  and  3apphlra  thus  oiTered  orecclcnlasticat  benefices, whicb  was  regarded  as  Hcri- 
tlumselrea  for  the  ministry  is  (doubtiess)  both  a  coi^  [ege  (see  Ilaidulnus,  1.  c.  vii,  6M,  Par.  1714 ;  Mansi, 
lert  sappodtion,  and  one  which  will  make  the  whob  1.  c.  x:<iv,  18,  Venet.  1782).  More  Important  was  the 
of  tbe  ImnaactloD  recorded  in  Acts  t  intelligible"  synod  in  1301,  as  it  made  several  decisions  concerning 
(Eden,  CttnAmim-4  Dictiimanf,  s.  v.).  This  view  is  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  (Hardulnns,  I.  c,  p.  1847; 
taken  liy  Hinds,  fuWji  Cilrutiaiulji  (pt.  U,  ch.  li),wbo  Mansi,  I.  c.  xxv,  87,  Venet.  178!).  Tbe  last  synod  In 
refers  to  Eoaebliu  (lib.  iil,c.  187)  for  confirmation  of  Compiegne  issued  only  some  decrees  for  the  mainto. 
tbs  MggeMloo.  nance    of  Church  discipline  (see  Harduinus,  I.  c.  p. 

(3.)  Uoihelm  treaU  the  stit^ect  largely  in  hia  treat.  linS;  Manal,  I.  c.  p.lIT}.— Her»>g,A«ii-fn7jtl<})a<fi<, 
Im  Di  Vtra  Natura  Camauumna  bimonm  m  ecrl.  Hi-    Sajyilfmntbd.  L  Mb. 

<rw>I.(Dies.  ad  Eccl.  Hist,  pertln.  vol.  i),  and  seeks  to       _  ,    \  .        ,    .    .  ,    ,i.        . 

•hsw  that  the  passages  in  Act.  ii,  44 :  iv,  82,  Imply  a  ^  *=TP*<.""^**  '  '''^  <*  "'*='""~°' '" '»"  «"'/ 
con,n,u„ionm^^the  use,  n;.tiie  ;.«;,««  of  Chnrch.  See  Caiec«™«s. 
impeity,  iBd  that  only  for  a  temporary  purpote.  But  Completotlttm,  Completbiiim,  or  CampUiM 
tbe  more  likely  view  ia  that  the  Infant  Church  of  Jem-  (from  LaL  compltrt,  to  JiB  up),  the  last  service  in  Ibe 
■lem  "went  to  far  in  the  ardor  of  their  Arst  love  as  evening;  the  bed-time  service.  According  to  the  ca- 
lo  abolish  the  external  distinction  of  rich  and  poor,"  nonical  hours,  llxed  bonra  for  public  prayer  were  tn- 
partaaps  as  "a  prophetic  anticipation  of  the  state  of  traduced  into  the  Church  with  the  institutions  of  the 
tUngs  in  the  perfected  kingdom  of  God."  Tbe  oiTcr-  monastic  life.  In  the  Western  Church  tbe  practice  of 
inc  was  entirely  volioaarf,  and  not  tbe  fhdt  of  any  praying  seven  times  a  day  was  adopted  in  the  6tb  <C 
nrnmand.  On  the  contrary,  the  N.T.  abounds  in  pr»-  Clh  centuiy,  and  tbe  ampUtonum  waa  tbe  last  or  lln- 
»pti  r<r  (he  right  nae  of  property,  implying  its  aepar-  Ishing  canonical  hour.  See  Procter,  Hat.  o/lAt  Com- 
•■•  and  proper  possession.  See  Binds  (I.e.);  .Schaff,  tnon  PrOfer,  ]t.  11 ;  Freeman,  PrntopUi  of  Ditme /ia' 
^iACLUiil.ilUi  EMUn,  Aneitnl  Charek,  p.G2i    eiea^  p.  B8.    Comi).  CAnomcaLUomui  Bbetiabt. 


COMPLUTENSIAN  POLYGLOT   448 


COMTE 


Complntenalau    POLYGLOT.       Sn    1'oi.t-j 

CompOBtello,  HiLiTAKf  Ordbr  of  St.  Jahkb 
OF.  "  l>t.  Jsmoi  tho  Elder  wu  adopted  u  the  |ititTon 
uint  of  Sp*in  after  the  victory  of  CUvijo,  nnil  his  rei- 
ki were  preserrec]  at  Compmlella.  The  mancla  aup- 
poMd  to  1«  peribnned  by  tbeM  ralice  drew  vMt  num- 
tore  of  pilgrims,  fnr  whom  Mpport  bMpitMli  were  es- 
tablished I)v  the  canona  or  St.  Eloi.  1  be  vicinity  or 
the  Moon  having  rendered  the  Tonds  unsafe,  thirteen 
no'jleman  anjted  tar  the  pmtectlon  of 
tho  pilgrims,  and  vith  the  canons  re- 
ed to  feudd  an  order  of  Uw  MPto 
A  aa  that  of  the  Uospitallen  or 
'  Tcmplara.  The  pope  granted  his  ai- 
:  in  ■  bull,  dated  &th  July,  II" 
impaniccl  with  the  statute's  of 
:i.  Whatever  conqDests  « 
made  frtrm  the  infjdtl  were  declared 
the  property  of  tlio  order,  end  a  coun- 
cil ef  thirl4^en  kuighls  was  vested 
"  'i  authority  to  elect  and  depoac  z 
nd  moElcr.  TliD  knight*  msdi 
TOWS  of  poverty,  obedicnco,  and  celi- 
bacy, and  profcsfed  thdj  belie/  in  tho  iininaculat< 
conception.  To  prutect  Cbristifna  nod  convert  infi 
deb  Ihcy  vowed  to  bo  the  only  object  in  their  wars 
with  tho  Saracens.  In  moat  of  the  great  lialtlea  be- 
tween Cbriatiin  and  Hocr  the  red  ctlsb  of  the  order 
wu  conapicuoua.  The  conqueats  of  tlie  order  itself, 
combined  willi  the  KwaittiA  miiniflctnce  nf  the  na- 
tion, apeedily  increasol  iu  wealth  aiul  piiiver  beyond 
those  of  any  of  the  cither  ordera  of  kiiiifhlbonl.  In 
■ddiiiiiii  In  the  three  tarjie  cotnmanilerie*  of  Leon, 
CoBlile,  and  Montalraii,  it  poaacaaed  nearly  SOO  mi- 
nor commanderies,  compriaiiig,  it  is  said,  more  than 
300  priories,  with  many  Ber*,  cloiaten,  hnsptlala, 
eutlea,  bomogha,  two  tuwns,  and  178  villagea,  ■ 
ctiuive  uf  ita  possession!  in  Portugal.  This  er 
mou*  wealth  aiiid  power  of  (he  order  exeiteil  the  jr 
ousy  of  the  crown,  in  which,  in  1522,  the  (tniul  n 
tership  waa  petmsoenlly  vested  by  "' 
iiijj  thus  become  merely  bonntiry  i 
the   eroiin,  the  order   rapidly  decreaaed   in    import- 

Compoatella,  SAimAoo  dk,  >  town  In  Spain, 
and  one  ufthe  three  most  famou*  places  of  pilKiimaiga 
In  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  two  others  Leinic  Itn 
■nd  Jerosahm.  The  place  was  rumierly  called 
SaneiVH  Jaedmm  Apmlolam  or  Cioowio  /'otiotB,  whei 
liy  abbreviatiun  L'ompostella  was  formed.  Acconii 
to  a  Spanish  tradition,  the  apostte  Jainea  tho  Elder 


le  IVrci 


at  Com 


pmlflla.  The  ie^nd  of  the  ipostlo  bavin)C  preached 
In  Spain  b  firU  mentioned  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
tiai  generally  been  repudiated  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic writers,  altbongh  it  was  defended  by  the  Bol- 
landiata  (Arta  Samel,  torn,  vi,  JulU,  Apptndix;  and 
torn,  i,  Aprilu,  Diatriit),  and  by  tbe  ProtOFtant  J.  A. 
Fabriciua  (SalutBru  Lax  Erang^i,  c.  16,  §  S).  The 
claim  of  Compostella  to  the  body  of  the  apostle  has 
found  more  advnrates  among  the  Roman  Catholic 
writers,  although  the  church  of  St.  SaCtimina  at  Tou- 
louse prefers  the  same  claim.  Tbe  rival  clBim)>  have 
been  compromised  by  aaauminj;  Ibal  each  church  bad 
one  half,  as  a  division  of  famntia  relics,  it  is  alleged, 
(tequently  occurred  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Compostella 
was  made  a  bishopric  in  the  beginniniz  of  tbe  Dth  cen- 
tury, and  in  11^0  on  arch  bis  hai>rtc.~Welur  u.  Well«, 
Kirektn^tjtz.  ii,  73C. 

Conprebeiieion.  In  En utisb  history,  "the  scheme 
finil  pn>i>oi>ed  bv  Sir  Orlando  Hridgman  in  IW8  for  re- 
laiilne  tbe  terms  of  ronformlty  to  the  E-tn1.liphed 
{'hurcli  of  Enjflsnd,  and  admitting  Pmtrslant  disEvnt- 

Ijngfleet  renewed  the  attempt,  and  tbe  term*  were  set- 


tled to  the  aatiafactlon  of  the  noDConlbrmlati :  but,  dM 
bishop*  unanimously  refusing  their  consenl,  the  {4VJ- 
ccl  fell  to  the  ground.  Immediately  after  the  ilevo- 
the  scheme  was  renewed  at  the  iavti^nce  <if  Wil. 
liam  III.  but  ofter  two  attempts  the  design  of  onkoi 
waa  alwndoned,  and  tbe  Ad  of  ToleritiaD  paHwd  in 
its  stead."  See  Macaulay,  llulnrg  ofEnghad.  iii,  ei, 
.180;  art.  EholaNd,  CiiURCU  of;  Eden, Cbirdfaaoi i 
Dirliimary,  a.  v. 

ComptOD,  Hbhrv,  biiJiap  of  London,  aon  of  Iba 
aecoud  Earl  of  tfurthainpton,  waa  bom  it  Coinptoo  in 
1632,  and  was  educated  at  Queen's  CoUt^,  Oxirrd, 
which  be  loft  in  1C&2.  After  some  year*  spent  in 
travrl  on  the  Continent,  he  rotnnnd  to  England  oa 
the  resloraUon  of  Charles  II.  For  n  short  lima  he 
«t*  B  comet  in  the  army ;  then  went  to  Cambridj«, 
passed  H.A.,  took  orders,  and  was  tnodo  caimi  cf 
Christ  Church,  Oxibrd,  In  1GC6.  Afler  Tarioua  prs- 
fetmenls,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Oxford  in  1G74,  snd 
waa  translated  to  tho  see  of  London  In  167&  or  IG7G. 
Ho  lieeame  tutor  to  tbe  princeaae*  Mary  and  Anne, 
and  Imbued  them  witfa  his  own  eameally  ProtesUnt 
acntimeuts.  On  tbe  ■ccession  of  Jame*  II  be  wu  dts- 
mlaaed  IVom  tbe  caancil  and  IVom  his  deanciy  of  lb« 
Royal  Chapel  on  account  of  hla  vigorous  cpposition  lo 
popery.  In  1C86  be  waa  tried  before  the  lords  com- 
misi>ionera(tfao  notorious  JcOVics  preaiding)on  a  charge 
ordL'ohedicnce  to  (he  king's  mandate  (for  the  suspen- 
siou  of  Dr.  Sharp),  and  waa  suspended  from  bis  epuro- 
pal  functions.  He  was  restored  in  lEFS,  and  on  Ibt 
accession  of  William  he  recovered  all  the  uBice*  from 
which  he  had  been  expelled.  HL-bop  Comptoa  sought 
10  conciliate  Disaontera,  and  to  Bud  means  of  naiut- 
ing  them  to  the  Church  of  Em-land,  tlis  t<y<aiM 
" ultra- ProtcBtautism'  made  bim  nnpopolar  with 
DiKb-cbnrchmcn.  He  died  July  ',  ITIS.  He  pub- 
lished A  Titaliie  <ij  At  Bofif  Commmtiim  (Looilrin. 
1677)',  ■  number  of  e[ntc<qHd  Ictura  and  charges, 
etc 

Comntook,  llKo%'EBS.,a  Baptist  mittionaiy,  w« 
bom  at  Ulytaea,  M.  Y.,  March  21, 1809.  He  giwlua- 
ted  at  Hamilton  College  in  ISS7,  studied  law  atttr- 
ward^  and  was  admitted  to  tbe  bar  in  It'.SO.  Cndtr 
tbe  ministry  of  tbe  Rev.  C.  Q.  Finney  be  was  conven- 
ed, and  then  studied  thafdo^^y  at  the  Madison  Univen- 
ity.  Deciding  t.i  devote  his  lite  to  missions,  be  en. 
tered  the  servicv  of  the  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary 
Board,  and  suled  from  Boston  for  Barmafa  on  Jalv  1 
I8SI.  He  remained  »omc  time  at  Amhcrrt  and  Maul- 
main  studring  tbe  Isnicnatre,  and  then  choae  Airacai 
for  his  Held  of  Ia1«r.  In  1837  be  organized  a  nsliie 
church  at  Kyouk  I'hyou  ;  and  he  remained,  in  spite  et 
a  deadiv  climate,  to  which  his  wife  and  two  childm 
fell  victims  in  1843,  unremiuing  in  la1>or  until  tbe  ill- 
ness which  ended  in  his  death,  April  26,  I8M.— Jimt- 
iam  Mimmary  Memoriat^  p.  1 56. 

Comte,  AfODSTE,  founder  of  the  siMalled  Pntitir. 
ism,  was  bom  at  Montpellier  Jan.  12. 1798,  and  died  at 
Paris  Sept  b,  1657.  He  was  the  prapoundrr  of  ai 
elaborate  system  of  philosophy,  to  wbich  he  gave  the 
nsme  of  Poaitive,  In  denote  Its  feientilic  and  praclicil 
character,  and  to  distinguifh  it  fhHn  all  tcheraca  of 
metaphysical  ppecnlation. 

He  sprung  from  a  fumfly  eminently  Roman  Cathii- 
lic  In  religion  and  Rnialist  in  politics,  and  these  infla- 
ences  affected  the  development  of  his  theories,  ant- 
withstanding  tbe  fever  of  innovation  which  alwiji 
'•ed  him.     He  was  edonted  in  Parts  at  Ibt 


Polyte. 

instructor  in  KSt.  His  lirst  dreams  of  pbiloMpUc 
reform  are  ascribed  by  him  to  bis  fburteenth  yeatifr- 
haps  in  rivalry  of  the  precocil)-  attribute*!  to  Ban". 
In  181C  he  conten  plated  emigration  lo  the  Cait^ 
Slates,  and  the  trani-planting  of  bis  nascent  phikMf'i- 
icsl  rareer  to  America.  In  August,  1817,  be  hectiH 
acQUainted  with  the  nol<irioiis  St.  Simon  —  halfisB. 


COMTE  449  COMTE  , 

hilt  chatlatan— ind  «>*  so  *troDgl7  impreuad  nilh  j  «|dntioii,  and  fi  dedicated  to  b«r,  with  s  comnioiium. 
bii  visionHiT  npCnres  as  lo  be  considersd  hit  niMt  Uon  of  her  viitoea,  in  languags  which  would  sound 
bopeCal  cliscipla,  snd  tfas  sncceeeor  upon  whom  that  e.iti-ivaj^nt  In  Uantv  or  Patnrcb.  Brief  hi  the  inU< 
rtriDK"  <u>Ke  desired  hia  ountle  to  tail,  though  r«CDg-  mscy  1ml  been,  it  ravolntionized  Comte'a  whole  oa- 
pulng  Camte's  fatal  want  of  reli{[lou>  >uBi«ptlbillty.  ^  tare  end  tlie  entire  spirit  of  his  apecalationa. 
This  conaection  waa  always  ackntiwle  lifted  liy  Coinle,  :  Thia  lErange  traoeniuU^Dn  of  doctrine  exhiUted  It- 
tbouijh  mentioned  In  later  years  wilh  increusinK  Lii-  self  in  Ibe  Di-iaiurtr  r«  rit  genrral  Character  of  Potitio. 
lemrss  end  dixgust.  He  disclaimed  all  obliKations  to  '  un,  wliii;>i  L^clnD|{ed  to  the  luidsummer  of  IMH,  and 
St.Smnin,  and  fumed  end  fretted  whenever  the  traces  [  waa  employed  as  an  inlrodnrtjon  to  the  i9yii-m  of  Pot. 
of  .St.  Simonlsm  were  recognised  in  his  own  pliJIus-  iliK  Politia.  The  rigidity  and  sterility-  uf  the  cold 
ophy.  In  April,  182C,  he  opened  a  course  of  gratu-  '  and  heartless  ratioualiBni  of  the  Poativt  /jWojo/iAy  "'^ 
iliius  prelections  on  the  new  scheme,  whicli  had  been  evidently  unsuited  Ui  act  upon  society  and  to  regcn. 
nducHl  to  a  aomewhat  determinate  foriu  ly  neveral  '  cr-ta  iti  und  Ibe  application  of  the  Positive  doc- 
eusys  previously  pablished.  The  course  was  inter-  triuo  to  practical  end*  almost  necessiletcd  the  ad- 
nptpd  liy  brain  (eTSr,  terminating  in  insanity.  In  mission  of  the  moral  clement,  which  liad  been  previ- 
conseqaence  of  this  attack,  which  he  dwignates  tuie  ously  disregarded.  Hen  ore  not  controlled  Ly  their 
eritt  erribnalt,  he  was  for  some  time  conlinod  in  a  lu-  ,  roaaon ;  they  aro  sdniulated  by  their  imagination,  and 
nalic  dsylum.  impelled  liy  their  affections.     To  disciplina  Iho  hcait. 

In  18211  he  commenced  the  immenFe  strncture  of  his  i  an  authority,  and  not  a-gnmonts,  is  required.  But  no 
Positive  Philowpby.  It  was  camplete<l  in  six  hoary  practical  morals  ore  possible,  as  an  obligatory  rule 
Tolames,  containing  neirty  fiUOU  pagu.  The  lirst  of  action,  which  do  not  result  from  the  decrees  of  a 
Tolume  appeared  in  1830,  its  730  pages  hiving  been  supreme  will.  Thua  the  first  step  towatda  a  syatem- 
eomposod  in  the  spai-e  of  three  mouths.  .M.  Conite  atic  plan  of  pnlitiol  authority,  or  of  sociological  inter- 
rarely  revised,  and  never  recopled  his  manuscript.  '  pretatlon,  must  be  the  recognition  of  a  Divins  Legia- 
As  it  came  from  bis  brain  it  passed  to  the  press,  and  lat4>r  and  the  acceptation  of  an  incontestable  creed. 
from  the  press  to  the  public.  The  Kevolution  ol  July  ,  M.  Cuiute  waa  thus  driven,  by  the  eitension  of  bu 
delayed  the  prosecution  of  his  labors  for  live  years,  theories  to  their  practical  applications,  to  Introduce 
hut  with  the  return  of  more  trdnquil  times  he  resumed  ethics  Into  the  circle  of  the  sciences,  to  institute  a  di- 
thsm,  ind  achieved  the  sixth  and  but  volume  In  I&JS.  vinity,  to  recognise  or  to  invent  a  religion.  His  pei^ 
This  is  the  work  on  which  M.  Conite 'a  reputitlon  coption  of  the  need  was  quickened,  if  his  susccptibill- 
as  a  philoMpher  almost  exclusively  T..'sts.  It  is  the  ties  were  not  awakeneil,  by  the  resuscitation  of  his 
only  one  of  his  works  accepted  by  the  majority  of  natural  ofiections,  and  the  glow  of  sentiment  was  kln- 
hii  disciples,  or  regarded  l>y  those  who  tbUoH'  hia  died  by  his  preposterous  passion.  The  long  inter- 
guidance  without  attaching  themselves  to  his  banner.  \  vol  which  sepaialed  the  completion  of  the  Fhilatoplttt 
It  contains  the  Iwdy  and  substance  of  Positivism,  and  FoBtae  from  the  commencement  of  (he  PoliUjm  Pan. 
was  justly  reheptiied  Sfilinie  dt  Pkiiotaphit  PotUivt.  lirt  may  have  been,  in  reality,  due  lesa  to  the  personal 
In  his  later  philosophical  development  L'omts  endeav.  ;  persecution  of  which  he  complains,  and  to  the  revolu- 
oredto  infuse  the  vita!  breath  of  a  moral  and  roliginns  tioniry  anarchy  of  1848,  than  to  the  time  and  thouglit 
spirit  into  the  cadavijrrms  Pyrrhonism  of  his  earlier  requisite  t.i  systematiie  his  new  views,  and  to  produce 
views.  But  this  attempt,  which  waa  digranlly  un-  some  appearance  of  harmony  between  the  philosophic 
SBccessful,  offended  alike  his  sect  and  his  distant  ad- '  doctrine  and  its  efflorescence  in  a  theocratic  dream, 
niter*,  who  hailed  knd  honored  hia  labors  rathsr  for  The  whohj  plan  was,  however,  arranged  in  his  own 
their  systematic  Infidelity  than  for  their  recognised  mind  when  he  entered  upon  the  composition  of  his  so- 
truth.  j  clolo^c  '1  treatise.     Nothing  is  more  admirable  than 

On  the  cnmpletiou  of  his  scheme  of  philosophy  the  rapidity  and  completeness,  the  methodical  regular- 
Comte  proceeded  to  apply  ila  principles  to  the  rcctifi-  i^,  and  the  preordained  precision  with  which  each 
callon  of  society.  It  waa  nine  years,  however,  befura  auccessive  year  iirought  forward  at  tbr  a|ifK>inted  time 
the  llrst  volume  of  his  Syilema  it  PolMqut  /'onfirs  a  new  volume  of  the  PoHlique  PotUnn,  till  the  whole 
appenieil.  They  were  years  of  annoyance,  anguish,  '  was  accomplished.  Each  volume  appeared  in  its  sea- 
mislbrtunc,  and  strange  adventure.  He  had  support-  son,  like  the  blossoms  of  the  returning  summer.  The 
ed  himself  and  hia  family  by  the  scanty  fruits  of  his  '  flrst  waa  published  in  July,  18B1 ;  the  second  In  May, 
vocatiOD  as  a  public  and  a  private  teacher  of  mathc-  '  186^;  the  third  in  August,  1868;  and  the  fourth  in 
maiic-s.  To  this  vocation  we  are  Indolited  for  his  Aagust,  1864.  The  second  volume  of  the  PnaHn 
TrtatUe  nf  Anal^tietil  Oeomelrg,  puliliahod  In  1843.  PoHtiet  was  pnfcwied  in  the  same  month  by  the  pcb- 
Hi  relieved  the  dull  routine  of  duty  Ijy  lectures  to  the  iicBlion  of  the  Calrndtr  nf  PiiUmfa  —  thtt  singulur 
Parisian  community  on  topics  connected  with  sclonce,  and  elalorate  reliaptiam  of  the  months  of  the  I'eur 
or  with  the  promulgation  of  hia  philosophy.  Ono  of  and  the  dava  of  the  week  which  sulfstitutea  the  no- 
these  coarses  is  perpetuated  in  his  I^ihiiiijAKKd  Trm-  taliilities  <^  human  progress  for  the  Sundays  and 
tw  «  Poimlar  Aitrvnomg  (IB46).  His  heretical  opin-  aainU'  days  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  montha 
lDns,and,Btill  mors,  bis  arrogant  and  irritalilodispo'l-' of  imperial  Rome.  In  the  October  of  the  same 
tion,  provoked  opposition,  and  excited  ill-will  among  year  was  published  the  Calechiim  of  P{iiilit:um,  de- 
bii  ai1lea:iies.  His  position  in  the  I'olytcchnic  School  ^gned  to  dUTiise  a  knowledge  of  the  new  pbilosopfay 
was  rendered  precarious,  and  he  was  finally  deprived  .  and  the  new  creed  among  the  masses  of  the  people. 
of  it.  At  a  later  period  his  public  lectum*  were  for  a  At  the  close  of  the  P.iUliqu'  Potilivt  M.Comte  marks 
short  time  closed  by  the  interference  uf  the  j^vern-  out  the  ulterior  projects  which  he  designed  to  achieve 
went,  llib  is  the  long  personal  persecution  of  which  before  advancing  years  should  demand  repose.  Seven 
be  complains  with  habitual  acrimony  in  his  later  yean  were  to  be  devoted  to  the  enlargement  and  reo 
worlu.  He  was  married,  but  had  been  separated  from  tiHcation  of  his  theory;  and  dien,  on  the  attainment 
his  wife.  While  his  heart  was  wrung  and  parched  l>y  of  his  grand  climacteric,  he  wonld  sing  his  DimilUu. 
many  serrows,  a  new  fascination  consoled  him.  and,  A  Sj/ltm '>f  Poiithe  J.ogk,  or  the  PUimtpis  of  MaOa- 
epeni^  unsuspected  fbnntains  in  a  dry  and  thirsty  soil.  I  motici.  was  promised  for  1850 ;  A  SgMtm  af  Poti/ia 
In  1815  Comte  became  vlolentl\'  attiicbed  to  an  accom-  iforab,  or  Trtatttr  on  Umrrtal  Edaealioti,  for  1859 ; 
plished  lady,  Uadame  aotilde  de  Vaux,  who  waa  sop-  j  and  A  Sj»«(™i  tf  Pouttee  fmiliutrf,  or  Trtatit  <nt  On 
arated  from  her  husband,  aa  ha  was  fWmi  his  wife.  |  Ariioit  of  Hnmaitils  on  itt  terratriol  Abo<lt,iot  I8£l. 
Thtir  ataottation  was  purely  Platonic,  and  terminaUd  i  The  first  volume  of  the  drat  of  these  works  was  pub- 
tn  a  year  by  the  death  of  the  siren  on  April  n.  IS4R.  lished,  according  to  announcement,  in  1856,  but  before 
TIb  Ptntiat  Politia  is  animated  throughout  by  her  in-  the  aecond  was  ready  Conite  died,  in  1817.  Tarioua 
II.— 16 


^  COMTE  45 

pamphlets  had  b«en  iuued  \<y  M.  ComM  M  different ' 
period!  or  his  career,  in  order  M  t[ive  iiiimedLiU  con-  I 
tjtuacy  to  bu  views  on  speciai  pointa,  or  lo  popuUriES 
Ilia  doctrine.  Tbew  it  i>  ngsdloM  to  f  pvcit')'.  More  | 
{nterestini;  in  tlieniEelvei,  u  more  imporunt  fur  an 
appreclatian  of  the  man,  are  the  innual  circulan  ia- 
■ued  to  those  vrbo  participated  in  the  luliecriplion  for  i 
liis  support.  I 

The  .-^gaten  of  pMitimia,  in  accDrdance  with  -sb-it  [ 
bji  already  l>een  olxened,  reiiairea  to  tie  considered  i 
iiDdcr  tH'o  diatiDCt,  thoagti  connected  aipscts — the  acl- 
entilic  theory  ds  originally  expounded  in  U.  Comte'e  , 
•arlier  work,  end  the  practical  application  of  that  tlie- 
orv  aB  presenteii  in  his  latest  complete  troatiio.  | 

(1.)  The  Pondm  Phihiaphg.—Tbui  is  the  develop.  | 
ment  and  co-ordination  of  all  tbo  materialistic  lendan- 
ciea  of  science  in  the  age  of  tbe  Encycli>piedia  and  the 
RoToIution.  It  is  not  itself  materialiatic,  because  it 
proceeds  beyond  materialism  in  tlio  same  direction,  and 
Is  attenuated  into  a  pure  sensuons  phenomenalism.  It 
contemplaUs  merely  "  the  shovs  of  things,"  and  it  co- 
orfinMes  them  according  to  their  concomitances  and 
sequences,  recoi{nisin;{  no  nctnal  bond  of  connection 
between  them,  nor  any  power  on  which  tbey  depend. 
The  function  of  philoso[Jiy  is  simply  lo  introdua*  or- 
der and  coberenee  into  observed  phenomena.  Posi- 
tivism is,  accordingly,  a  habit  or  latellectual  lemper- 
atoent  rather  than  a  philosophy,  a  method  mthcr  Uian 
■  doctrine.  Henco  the  most  characteriaiic  pecuii-, 
arity  of  this  work,  as  of  the  whole  iiiteliectual  evoln- ; 
Uon  of  its  author,  is  bis  *rran(;einent  of  the  sciences, 
with  ttie  principles  on  which  that  arrani^emont  pro- 
ceeds. The  treatise  becomes,  in  consequence,  an  oi^ 
derly  exposition  of  the  sciences  and  of  their  reciprocal 
dependencies,  emliracing  the  statement  of  the  results 
and  |)roce«»ea  of  science,  with  an  indicalion  of  deti- 
eiencies,  ezcrcscences.  and  aberrations  in  their  [resent 
constitution.  It  is  more  profbuod  in  its  execution  than 
in  its  eoDceptinn — in  its  details  than  in  its  general  epir- 
it.    The  solitary  principle  on  wbleb  the  whole  elalwra- 

Stales.  Tothis  may  be  referred  Comtc's  classiliatian 
of  the  sciences — his  rule  fbr  their  evolution,  composi- 
tion, and  rank — his  exposition  of  their  significance  and 
disdpllnajy  valiie — his  bistoiy  of  society,  and  his  the- 
ory of  humanity.  Tliis  cardlna]  position  Is.  that  the 
whole  human  family,  as  well  aa  each  individual  mind, 
passea  through  three  successive  and  incompatilile  con- 
ditions: 1.  The  Theological  State,  which  ascribes  all 
phenomena  to  divine  agency;  3.  I'bo  Metaphysical 
State,  which  qnestlonB  the  divine  action,  and  attriiiutea 
all  changes  to  influences,  entities,  occult  canses,  taws 
of  natun,  etc. ;  and,  6.  The  Positive  State,  wblch  ac- 
cepts tlio  phenomena  without  reference  to  their  orig- 
ination, and  arranges  tbem  under  general  laws,  which 
merely  (tata  "the  invariable  relations  of  succassion 
and  reMmbUnce."  This  principle  of  the  Tbree  States 
baa  been  aasailed  by  botb  admirers  and  opponents; 
Imt  tt  is  rather  Impertbct  and  misapplied  than  false. 
The  eaecession  of  then  states  Is  explained  by  the 
confusion  and  maltiplicity  of  apparently  disconnect- 
ed bets,  which  perples  the  untutored  mind,  and  sug- 
gest the  arbitrary  will  of  superior  existences.  As  or- 
der reveaia  itself  in  the  midst  of  dlMrder,  an  arbitrary 
government  of  the  universe  is  repudiated,  and  law 
maintained  by  the  operation  of  natarai  forces  Is  more 
or  less  extensively  accepted  as  the  solution  of  the  enig- 
mas of  creation.  Thus  metapfayrica  is  Uie  crucible 
in  which  theology  and  Utb  are  gradually  evaponu 
ted.  As  the  regularity  of  phenomena  Is  more  gen- 
erally apprehended,  the  jurisdiction  of  metaphyatcs 
is  by  degrees  restricted,  and  is  finally  denied.  Ko 
knowledge  is  admitted  which  does  not  promise  to 
Income  science,  no  science  which  is  not  phenomenal 
only,  no  phenomena  which  BUegest  any  other  princi- 
pie  than  uniform  harmony  and  consecution  rf  facts. 
In  the    proceaa   of  speculative   disentanglement  by 


0  COMTE 

which  the  Positive  habit  is  atuined,  tboM  saVjecU  mi« 
naturally  the  first  to  assume  a  scientific  form  which 
are  characterised  by  the  greatest  rimplicitj  in  then>> 
selves,  and  are,  according  to  the  Baconian  expresoian, 

"  least  iaiinersed  in  nutter."  Hence  tbo  relatione  of 
number  and  ppgce  are  the  earliest  (o  exhibit  an  orderly 
coherence;  and  mathematics  is  not  merely  the  dirct- 
pllnary  intruduction  to  the  sciences,  bat  the  eldest  by 
birth.      InorBssing  complexity  snd  specialty  cbarac- 


A  tbev 


Ltlied  knowl- 
edge. The  prineipla  oti  which  the  ciaMllication  of  tha 
sciences  proceeds  is  thus  from  greater  to  leas  simplic- 
ity, from  the  more  general  lo  the  more  special,  from 
the  more  abstnu:t  to  the  more  concrete.  By  the  appli- 
cation of  tfala  rule  H.  Comie  organiiea  the  whole  hie- 
rarchy of  the  sciences.  Six  only  are  rerogruHd  in 
the  Pdilique  Potifrt;  I.  Uatbtrniitics ;  11.  AeItocmi- 
myi  ill.  Natural  Philosophy,  or  PhyNcs;  IV.  Chnn- 
iatry  ;  V.  Biology ;  VI.  Sociology ;  to  which  w»s  ttUt- 
wsrdB  added, VII.  Unnls.  Hsvlngthus  arranged  the 
revenl  sciences,  U.  Comto  proceeds  lo  tix  exhibition 
of  their  fonctions,  their  constituiion,  their  conquests, 
snd  their  condition.  He  thus  ftimishcs  an  abstract 
of  all  scientific  knowledge.  This  immense  elabora- 
tion culminates  in  his  Croatian  of  the  new  sdenec  of 
sociology.  That  sdenca  is  roughly  sketched  rather 
than  definllely  constituted  In  the  FkUotOfUe  Potitirt, 
,  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Statics  and  Dynamics. 
I  Social  Statics  treats  of  the  fivnial  conditions  ot  the  ei- 
istenco  of  Eocieties ;  social  Dj-namlcs  of  society  in  its 
vital  state  of  incessant  tran^rmation.  Having  aa- 
certalncd  all  that  had  been  accomplished,  and  all  that 
Ic^timately  sought  accomplishment,  Comte  coutidefed 
that  a  solid  foundstion  had  been  laid  for  a  scientific 
theory  of  political  action  adequate  to  the  icgeneratieo 
of  society. 

(2.)  Pontm  Pelilici It  has  been  shown  bow  H. 

ComIe  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  discovering  or 
imagining  a  (jod,  and  of  reconstructing  a  lheo]<^^,  a 
ceremonial,  and  a  religious  organiialion.  The  new  di- 
vinity— k  Aduwoji  £trt  Svprimt^a  humanity.  Tbo 
units  of  tlie  livinjr  race  ire  tepsrateiy  united  by  death 
to  this  great  tpirit,  and  become  atomic  constitnmts  of 
the  immortal  essence.  It  is  a  complete  deification  of 
man,  a  complete  rerolntion  of  divinity  into  hnmanily. 
It  ia  a  strange  counterpart  to  Pantheism  which  is  pro- 
duced In  Ibis  scheme  of  tborongb-going  Panbuman- 
Ism.  The  new  divinity  was  lo  be  adored,  to  be  ap- 
proached with  prayer,  to  be  honored  wilh  an  approfti. 
ate  ceremonial,  worshipped  with  due  rite»,  and  served 
by  a  numerons  army  of  priests.  Of  tide  prieatbood 
M,  Comte  was  to  lie  the  living  head.  Science  and  re- 
ligion were  at  length  reconciled  by  their  anion  ard 
identification;  the  priert  was  the  scientific  instnielor; 
the  priesthood  consisted  of  the  contecnted  devotees  of 
science ;  the  hij;b-priest  was  the  supreme  director  of 
the  intellectual,  moral,  iDduilrisI,  and  social  develop- 
ment of  society.  In  the  midst  of  these  wild  inugipa- 
tions,it  is  startling  to  find  a  sedate  and  sober  estiDi^ 
tion  ef  the  whole  order  of  sodety  and  of  each  of  iti 
separate  parts.  The  sanctity  of  the  family,  the  con- 
secration of  marriage  and  its  indissotubility,  the  do- 
mestic culture  of  inAtncy,  the  relation  and  snhoidi- 
nation  of  the  sexes,  the  general  inviolability  of  prop- 
erty, the  duties  of  capital  and  industry,  the  disuiba- 
tion  and  retribution  of  service — are  all  maintained  la  a 
manner  utterly  antagonistic  to  the  current  doctrines 
of  commnnism  and  agrarianism.  The  most  oiiginil 
and  iDstructire  port  of  this  treatise  is  to  be  fonod  in 
the  consideration  otthe  reciprocal  in fiueucea  of  exter- 
nal natun  upon  man,  and  of  man  upon  external  natan. 
By  this  inquiry,  brief  as  it  is,  the  first  permanent  foun- 
dation is  laid  for  a  odentific  exposition  of  the  trina- 
formation  of  sodetiea. 

From  tbe  rajndily  with  which  Comte's  worki  were 
composed,  ft«m  tbe  Biwence  of  all  revidoii,  ttam  gen- 


CONANIAH 


ami  inattention  to  the  art*  of  cDRiposition  ind  dlrpoii- 
tion,  bb  traatiio  hi:  twelleil  >u>l  ilefunnad  by  eonlin- 
lul  repetitions  md  b;  ivaiic  uf  penpicuoai  arrant^- 

STsti^autic  exputiiions  of  philiwoplilc  doctrine.  Tho 
UemiiliM  which  be  waa  curelera  of  avoiding  have 
DDw  ceucd  to  ba  important.  The  impulae  ajmnmni- 
catad  \jj  Conite  reinaina,  but  few  will  evar  attain 
dream  of  reading  the  ten  thick  volumea  in  which  hit 
whole  nil  project  wai  orlKlnBllf  act  fortli.  The  di- 
rect efTrcl  of  hia  career  baa  been  very  iHubt,  iti  indi- 
rect efftct  very  gre^t.  Ho  ha*  linked  hia  name  with 
no  enlargement  of  scienca  or  phlloaophy  except  in 
aociology— wilh  no  practical  reform  in  eocieli'.  Hia 
prtDciptes  have  foand  of  late  numerous  followcra  in 
England,  and  a  uniall  number  of  them  adopt  "the  re- 
ligion of  humanity"  aa  welt  aa  the  Positive  phlloso- 
plij.  One  of  lbs  chief  of  tfaeso  Is  Mr.  Thoniaa  Con- 
greve.wba  has  tnken  itep  (18G7)  to  found  a  church, 
with  ■  building  and  rfguljr  services.  Mr.  Congrevo 
has  anoounced  that  a  church  will  shortly  be  bailt,  and 
r^ular  services  instituted,  lor  promoting  the  new 
creed  which  Is  (o  regenerate  humanity. 

LileralnTj.—Aa  Conite's  important  works  Itava  been 
ennroeralfil  in  this  notice.  For  his  biography  refer- 
ence may  be  mide  lo  (he  antobiogrupbical  Btalements 
scattered  throuifh  his  prefaces,  circnlara,  etc.  j  to  Ko- 
binet,  Xolirt  mrfflSurre  ft  tur  la  Vie  d'Auguile  Uomie 
(Paris.  18G0).  and  to  Littrj.  Avgmlt  Cum/e  et  la  Fhi- 
tmpUe  PotUive  (Puri^  18U3).  For  a  fuller  accoaut  of 
his  philoMphy  than  has  been  pven  here,  rcconrae  nuy 
be  had  to  the  laat-named  work;  to  Littr^  Comaxa- 
tim,  ltiealu:ioa,  tt  Poiilimime  (Paris,  1863)  i  Lewea, 
Cmte't  PMlatopliy  "ftke  Scimcrt  (Lond.  1853);  Har- 
riet Hattineiu,  Tit  FmUm  PhUMOjAy  of  Augiuif 
Comtt  ([^ud.  IB53,  i  vuls.  Svo);  Lewes,  Uuto-y  of 
PkUotopltn  (3d  ed.  1867,  Und.  3  vols.  Svo)j  C^lextin 
de  BliKnicre».Ki7io»i*(»oii.4ti*s«  J;  Ux  PliilmapUie  H  dt 
la  Rriiyum  Pfnilivti  (l>ari^  1857) ;  Herbert  Spencer. 
Tit  Ct-iuificalum  o/lkt  S>itnnt,  tir.  (New York,  1864) ; 
J.  S.  Mill,  Cowte'a  Pkiloiopkg  (Load.  1H6G)  i  aL<o  lo  Sir 
David  Itrentter't  notice  of  the  firat  two  volumea  of 
the  PopitivoPhilosophjin  the  fifMur^AAcview,  July, 
1836,  and  to  the  Eesay*  on  Comto  and  hi*  Philoaophy 
in  the  .V-Cimlul  Quarierlf  Rtnex,  New  York,  Jnouarv, 
Ibbi;  April,  1852;  July,  18S:j;  October,  1853;  and 
July,  \!^iti;  and  in  the  Siirtk  BritiA  Rtviae,  May 
1K>I.     See  also  Positivism. 

Conaol'ali  (Heb,  in  the  text  Kwrncmifa'tai, 
Vrpj^S.  i.  e.  Kommya'hti,  an^lllS,  but  as  read  in 
the  Masoretic  margin,  Kananga'ha,  Vr^m ;  artlletl 
by  Jrkomh;  Sept  Xwvivia^  v.  r.  Xwxiviau  Vulg. 
Chontmai),  the  name  of  two  chief  Levitcs. 

1.  A  person  appointed  (Kitli  bis  brother  Shime!)  as 
"  ruler"  (I'll)  l>y  Heiekiah,  to  saperintcnd  Ihe  dis- 
poaal  of  the  sacred  ulensila  of  the  Temple  (!  Chron. 
xxsi,  13.  13.  where  the  Auth.  Vers.  Angliciiaa  the 
name  "  Cononiah->      B.C.  786. 

3.  A  person  who,  with  aereral  of  his  kindred,  made 
large  oDeringa  for  the  Paschal  sacrilicea  as  renewed 
by  Joaiab  (/  Chron.  iiiv,  u).     B.C.  6^8. 

Conceptioi]  or  Chribt.  (1.)  ThlEi  was  super- 
natural, by  the  agency  of  tho  Holy  Spirit  (Luke  i,  85 ; 
Uatt.  1,  211).  (i.)  It  was  without  the  communlcatinn 
of  original  depravity  (Heb,  vii.  26  i  iv,  16,  etc.).  For 
aome  of  the  lilerature  of  the  eubject,  see  Volbeding, 
/•del  Diutrl.  p.  9 ;  Meyer,  A'oiBoiBKar,  i,  M  aq.  See 
Christ,  PuMoii  op.  ] 

Conception  or  the  Viboim  Mart.  1,  The  Im- 
manJalt  COtKrptiim  o/lAt  Vir^n  Mary,  a  doctrine  of  , 
Ihe  Church  of  Rome.  See  Immacdlate  Concep. 
TtoN.  2.  .VofMUfie  Inttituliotu  of  Iht  CmcrpUm  nf  ' 
Marg.  a.)  Onfcr  «f  KnigUt  ofOte  Iwuaamlaie  Con-  ' 
c^DH  nftht  Blused  IVrjia.  In  1617  three  Italian  , 
ftoblemeu  of  the  family  De  Petrignan  announced  their  . 


1  CONCLAVE 

Intention  to  establish  a  military  order  under  the  altove 
name,  whose  object  waa  (e  be  to  Aght  against  nil  Infi- 
dels and  heretics.  The  plan  was  not  executed,  but  in 
IGIS  an  order  under  the  same  name  wua  established  in 
Vii'una.  According  tu  aome  writera  the  first  impulse 
came  from  one  of  the  brothers  De  Petrlirn..a ;  but  the 
bull  by  which  pope  Urban  VIII,  in  l(i23,  connrnied 
the  order,  mentions  only  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Klantua, 
Cbartea,  duke  of  Kavcra,  and  Adolphua,  count  of  Alh- 
Ian,  as  founders.  The  order  did  not  exist  long. — lid- 
yol,  Dkt.  da  Ordra  tteUg  i,  1077  »q.  (2.)  jVmM  o/ 
.  lit  ImmactUaU  Comrplim  of  Mary,  also  called  Con- 
[  ceptioniste.  An  onler  under  this  name  was  in  1184 
founded  by  Beatrix  de  Sylva  at  Toledo,  in  Spain.  It 
was  sanctioned  tn  148Sby  pope  Innocent  VIII.  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  united  this  order  with  tliat  of  the  Cla- 
riseca,  the  rule  of  which  they  adopted  with  pome  m<>d- 
iltcationa.  Pope  Julius  II,  in  151],  gave  to  the  Con- 
ceptionitta  a  special  rule,  but  they  continued  to  be  a 
part  of  the  order  uf  the  Clarisscs.  (S.)  Caay/iv^on 
nftit  ImmanlaU  Oamxfti'm  oftht  Bhufd  Virgia  waa 
the  name  of  congrfgutiona  of  lay-wrmcn  which  were 
established  In  connection  with  the  convents  of  tho 
cnngregatioo  of  Notre  Dame,  founded  by  Peter  Fou- 
rier(q.v.). 

Concha  (Gr.  tiyxn.  ■  «l<1)<  the  plain  round  or 

polygonal  semi-dome  that  covers  the  apda  (q.  v.)  of  a 

church.     See  Church  EniricEa. 

Concilia.    See  Councils. 

ConclHabnle,  a  tn-m  applied  by  Soman  writers 

to  eynoda  and  councils  held  by  "heretics  and  schis- 

Concision  (corarD/iq,  a  culling  d-itat,  i.  e.  entire 
ntutilatlon  of  the  pertn),  a  contcniptuous  term  used  bv 
Puul  In  Phil.  Ill,  2.  lo  denote  tlic  lealots  (br  circum'- 
cislon.  In  classical  writers  the  Greek  word  denotes  a 
groove  or  channel,  etc.  (fix  Llddcll  and  Scott,  a.  v.), 
but  the  apostle  parodies  the  term  [ireviounly  employed, 
for  the  purpose  of  indlcetln:.:  more  pointedly  the  real 
character  of  (he  sectaries  in  question  ;  instead  of  say* 
ing  "  lieivare  of  the  c'rnimciiion"  (iripiTOfiiji'),  name- 
ly, the  party  who  pressed  the  nccc-sily  of  Ftlll  oliscri-- 
ini;  that  ordinance,  be  saya  "beware  of  tho  conrunm" 
(itrtraro/ii(i');  aa  much  aa  tn  s«y  Ihe.v  no  longer  de- 
serve the  old  and  venerable  n;rm":  what  lAey  ttickla 
I  for  is  a  mere  concirion,  a  flcsb-cutliog.  He  then  goea 
I  on  to  stile  the  reaFim,  "fbrire  are  the  circumiirion"-- 
'  the  reality  haa  now  [lassed  over  into  us,  who  licllcve 
in  Christ  and  are  renewed  In  (he  spirit  of  our  minds. 
(Sec  Somme],(>6M./'AiM.  onthis  passage.  Loud.  1708.) 
Sirailariy  in  GjI.  v,  1!,  he  sayn  even  more  pointedly. 
"I  would  they  Ctho  same  chias  of  JudaizingtearhiT!'] 
were  even  fiil  og''  {Aitoic.'4t>VTa,.  vmldfor  Ihemalrti 
eal  nff"  wholly  the  organ  circumcised,  and  not  be  con- 
tent wllb  a  mere  acarilication  of  II),  1.  e.  make  them* 
selves  outright  eunucbs  (comp.  the  allusions  to  their 
impurity,  ver,  13, 19. 2J).  So  Chri-sostom  and  Jerome 
explain  {jTipitorrinSiiMHv,  <ii4cindaiilw^.     See  Cia- 


Conolav*  (I Jt  cm,  HtCii,  ar>d  clmu,  R  try,  because 
fhim  their  strict  aecloHion  Its  inmates  as  it  wcri'  nr'Hia 
habrnl  elarem  romnlivm)  is  applied  (I.)  to  the  apart- 
ments in  which  the  cardinals  of  Uie  Roman  Catholic 
Church  merl  to  elect  a  new  pope ;  and  (2.)  to  the  as- 
sembly itself  convened  forthia  oiiject.  The  place  oF 
assembling  waa  frequently  changied  until  14^,  from 
which  date  to  1»^3  the  conclave  waa  held  in  the 
Vatican  palace:  «nee  1833  the  Quirinal  palace  haa 
been  used  for  this  purpose.  Wlien  neceaeary.  how- 
ever, another  place,  even  if  without  the  city  of  Rome, 
may  l<e  designated.  Little  chambers,  technically  call- 
ed cells,  are  prepared  for  the  separate  accommodation 
of  each  cardinal  and  his  attendants,  which  are  assigned 
by  lot,  and  those  falling  to  the  occupancy  of  cnrdinals 
created  by  the  lale  pope  are  draped  with  some  purple 
material  as  a  badge  of  mourning,  while  green  is  used 


CONCLAVE  452  CONCOMITANT 

tbr  tbe  othen.  The  coat  oT  arini  of  «ach  cardinal  i»  \  however  recentiv  mads  *ach,  pravided  b«  hu  Ukea 
affiseil  til  his  cell.  Whra  a  popB  dies,  ten  days  nro  j  deacon's  orders,  may  participiila  tii  a  condaTe,  Ibeni^ 
allowed  Tor  tlic  ulisequies,  Tor  tbo  arrival  of  nbaent  under  pi|ia1  ceiuure,  suspenaioD,  interdict,  or  ucfltn- 
eirdinals,  and  fur  the  preparalioDa  above  meiitiuneil '  manlcatiun. 

for  tlie  conclave,  together  withtbe  selection  of  |>erEona  I  Aceordirii;  to  the  bulls  of  Gregory  XT  (j£rmu  Pa. 
»I,\  led  conclavists,  who  aro  to  enler  the  eoncluve  as  '  fru  t'iliu*  and  IMctl  Rumimum  Paslijitrm'),  confirmed 
aerv.ints  uf  the  eurdinals  (two  to  each,  or,  iftbe  ear- '  bythat  ofL'rtun  VIII  (ad  Itamimi  Pomllfiat  pfwUnt- 
dinal  lie  very  aid,  xirkly,  or  of  priacely  liirth,  three),  liam),  ibe  choice  must  lie  made  in  one  of  thrw  ways, 
musters  of  ceremonieB,  confessors,  clerks.  pliyBicians,  I  vix.,  by  mspiration,  compromisv,  or  ballot.     IJcclion 

pre MTihed  time  havint;  elapaetl,  the  cardinalo  and  con-  (jier  gmui  itupiraiinfiu),  without  anj  prcvion?  con- 
clavists sttond  the  maas  oftbo  llolv  Ghost,  furmerly  |  cert,  pruelaim  the  ramo  person  for  the  office.  Exim. 
in  St.  Peter's,  lately  in  St.  Sylvester's  cburcb.  Tbe  pies  of  such  elections  ate  given  hy  early  ecclesiastical 
pjpal  ordinances  governing  Ihe  conclavea  are  read,  to  j  writers,  as  that  of  Fabianus  (Euteb.  Hiil.  I'ci  ia.  \i, 
the  strict  ohservuncoof  wbicli  uU  ubo  are  to  enter  the  •i»\  i>ut  in  modem  times  none  snch  has  orcurrrd. 
conclave  an  sworn.  Then  the  cardinala,  with  their  '  Election  by  compromise  is  when,  in  default  of  Sb-ice- 
conclavists,  proceed  solemnly  to  tbe  apaTtmenls  pre* '  ment  tbeniiclres,  the  cardinals  drlegate  to  a  Mint 
pareil,  ami  repair  severally  to  Ibeir  cells,  where  they  '  number  of  their  body,  with  or  without  ^undition^  so. 

number.  At  the  third  signal  from  tbe  bell,  abont '  tion  of  Ctcment  V.  The  ordinary  way,  however. ill  r 
three  hours  after  sunset,  all  not  belonging  to  the  con-  |  ballot.  In  this  metlioil,  afler  the  n»ul  m'lming  mau, 
clnve  ar«  excluded,  and  all  the  entrances  except  one  |  each  cardinal  (when  (be  conclave  is  assrmbled  in  lie 
are  walled  up,  the  windona  oImi,  except  ao  much  as  ballntlnti-room  or  chapel).  Invoking  Christ  as  witntu 
may  be  necessary  fur  air  and  light.  The  excepted  en-  [  to  Ihe  purity  of  his  intentions  in  the  vote,  de pc(il>  in 
trjuce  is  cloACil  by  Uoulile  locks  and  strictly  guarded,  j  the  ebatice  on  tbe  altar  a  H|UBra  paper,  folded  at  cgipo- 
admission  beinx  allowed  to  none  except  tbonbeent  cai^  site  corners  so  as  to  conceal  the  voter's  name  and  ■iiM> 
dinals.  No  euress  is  allowed  except  by  permission  of  to  (which,  once  selected,  must  beadhenid  to),  while  Iba 
the  conclave  itself  in  case  of  grave  illness.  The  the-  1  name  of  the  person  voted  for  is  written  on  the  optn 
or>'  ia  that  all  communication  between  those  within  centrul  tpacc.  These  Itsllols  are  then  cxaminrd  b 
and  persons  without  in  regard  to  Ibe  pending  election  '  turn  by  three  cardinals,  appointed  •cnrfohirH,  au<l  the 
must  be  prevented ;  but  these  precautions  have  not  al-  |  numlwra  t«ken,  which  must  ai^ree  with  that  uf  tbg 
ways  seeurcii  their  end.  In  spite  of  the  law,  there  is  |  cardinals  prcaent,  all  being  required  to  vote,  and  an 
IVnjuent  correspondence  Iietween  the  cardinals  with-  I  filed  to  await  tite  result.  If  any  one  has  received  ja>t 
in  and  their  political  friends  without.  1'he  decree  of  two  thirds,  the  folded  ends  are  opened  to  see  tbi>l  ha 
Gregory  X  pre.icrihed  that,  ifa  choice  waa  not  made  has  not  lolcd  fur  bimivlf,  vhich  is  not  allowable.  If 
by  Ihe  cardinals  within  three  days,  tor  the  next  live  no  one  has  attained  tlie  required  majority,  the  «m< 
days  only  one  dish  at  noon  and  evening  sbonld  be  cIbtc  proceeds  In  the  aftfrnoon  session,  afler  tbp  hymn 
altowdl  to  each,  and  after  that  time  only  bread,  Veni  Creator  Spiritus,  to  try  tbe  process  called  w  cnt 
wine,  and  water;  liut  this  ri^id  reirfmen  was  modi-  fa^  (oPfWaiis),  in  which  each  cardinal  may  give  a 
fieil  somewhat  by  Clement  VI  (13&1).  The  execa-  supplcmentarv- vote,  in  the  words  onnla  rfoaiword^ 
tion  of  there  regulations  is  intrusted  cxteroally  to  huK.  to  any  one  who  retYivcd  votes  in  the  first  premi 
the  civil  uulhorities  of  the  plare  where  the  conclave  firm  others  than  the  accedent ;  thusc  dcclinin)-  la 
is  held,  and  iatenmlly  to  the  officers  appointed  by  the  change  the  morning's  choice  write  Hrnini.  If  tlie 
eonclave.  '  snpplraiciituTy  \ote9  for  any,  tddcd  to  Ihe  mominjr's 

I'rior  to  tbe  latter  half  of  tbe  Iltb  century,  tbe  votes  for  the  sunie,  do  not  make  np  the  two  ihirdt 
ch.iice  of  tho  bishop  of  Rome  was  the  joint  jirerogativo  j  majority,  tlie  papers  are  burned,  and  the  same  pmciH 
of  the  clrr.T)'  and  people,  exen;i>«d,  we  may  suppose,  {  uf  haMotin)'  is  repeated  tbe  next  duy.  AVhen  (he 
at  first  directly,  tlwugb  subsequently  tlii'  popular  pan  requisite  majority  is  given,  tbe  pi.pirs  are  eianiinrd 
ticipaiion  in  the  election  Hp|jvars  t*'  h.ivo  been  through  to  see  that  no  carilinnl  lias  voted  twice  for  the  i..ine 
some  repre-entative  bodyj  while  the  supreme  secular  perM^,  and  that  the  mi^toes  of  the  evcaioiiand  meni- 
fowcr  asserted  Its  authority  by  requiring  ihut  tbe  ing  vote  tally  i  tlien  tbe  reciplint  of  the  higherl  tils 
election  rh.iuld  recoire  its  sanction,  tbe  origin,  doubt-  '  equalling  it  exceeding!  two  thirds  is  decUred  duty 
less,  of  the  right  exercised  by  certain  Catholic  gov-  elected.  On  his  acceptance  the  work  of  Ihe  conrUve 
emnients  (France,  S|iain,  and  Aitstrli).  and  claimed  strictly  ends,  fur  the  nenly  elected  is  deemed  to  ba 
by  I  laly  (Naples)  and  Portugal,  of  each  excluding  from  ^  legally  pope,  with  all  his  [>rcro|{Btivcs  and  [csert; 
the  papal  throne  sonie  purlicular  cardinitl,  o  ri^ht,  be  is  invested  with  Ihe  piFntilicul  toIfcs,  reccivn  tlie 
however,  to  l-e  exercised  before  an  oleetion,  and  limit-  |  bomogo  of  the  eurdinals,  adopts  bis  official  name,  end 
ed  to  one  veto  nteach  conclai'e.  By  a  decree  of  Pope  '  is  proclaimed  from  a  reopened  balcony  window  to  lbs 
Nicholas  II  (/b  nonii'tw  Dowttii),  ]a'i9,the  election  of  j  |>eo|de  liy  Ihe  ciirdiiiul  dean,  in  the  words  Ananba 
puntilT  was  ftiven  to  the  curdin.<l  bi>h»p<,  ihe  other  i  vMi  gavdiym    mngmim.      I^am   katr*iia  f  nwii- 

canlinals.  bimI  the  tiergy,  the  people  merely  approv-  ■  liamtaa  ae  Sfrrrrndiaimim  ,  jvi  tilt  wpmii 

ing  It.     Ity  a  further  dcrree  of  .\lcxandrr  III  (lli^"),    ■vn™ ,  and  the  shouts  of  the  people  are  nnided 

the  choice  was  vetted  exclusively  in  the  college  of  car.  [  as  their  assent,  still,  in  theory,  necessary  to  an  eleC' 
diiuil'',  with  the  proviso  that  the  concurrence  of  two  '  tion.  The  other  ceremonies  belongintt  to  the  iwDKO- 
third.--  of  tho  canlinals  presenl  should  c<-n<'titute  a  1»-  ration  follow  In  due  order.— Ferraris.  BibSodi'raCii- 
gal  election,  the  aswnt  of  clergy  and  imiplc  being  no  noni'm,  etc.,  art.  Papa ;  Herang,  fltaI-t:a.fllopiiiir.  sit 
lonjter  re-piired.  The  Cnunell  of  I.vuns  (]i7<).  under  Papetwahl ;  lianhe,  J/ipory  ofiKr  Faparj  (see  lnde<); 
llie  auspices  of  Gret(oryX,proninl£»ted  a  constitution  I  AorlA  Brilith  Rmra,  Der.  1880,  art.  Conclaves:  Pf- 
mlniiti'ly  prescrilang  the  forms  t<i  lie  oliserved  in  re-  truccello  della  Gallina,  HiiMrt  Diplonalifur  do  Cm- 
gnnl  to  »urh  elections,  which  were  to  be  made  in  cm.  ctim  (Paris,  ISia,  !  vols.  Svo);  Cartwricht.  P.ijJ 
e^fnc'"Hn>,snaa  to  shut  out  FccuhiT  influence.  Theae  Ca«ctiiv  (Lond.  1NC7).  See  Carmnalb:  PoFt. 
three  Instniinenls  flimlsh  tho  oignnlc  laws  and  regu  '  Concomitant.  (I.)  A  term  nsedhy  Roman ll>«>- 
latbiiis.l'olli  of  franchiiie  and  ccreuiuniu Is,  which,  with-  logiana  to  denote  tba  grace  of  God  oeannj^tiif's  *" 
out  fundamental  change,  are  still  in  force  in  papa]  action,  as  distinguished  IVom  pitvfnirtil  gnce,  whirh 
elections.  (against  the  I'elagiuni)  is  necessary  tn  excite  to  (.'ood 

It  is  laid  down  as  a  settled  prineiple  that  no  pope  d^^.i^e^  and  actions  (Berpier).  (2.)  Coitrowtitanr.  ui 
can  appoint  his  successor,  and  that  every  cardinal,  ,  the  lloinaa  doctrine  irfthe  Lord's  Supper  (i].  v  ),mtBiJ 


CONCORD,  FORMULA  OF        453        CONCORD,  FORMULA  OF 

tbe  "  accompanying  of  the  body  of  Chrbt  by  the  The  Lord'a  Supper  (the  body  and  blood  ot  Chriit  ii 
blood,  and  of  the  Uood  by  the  Uidy,"  In  tba  Euclia-  realty  and  inbMaatiiilly  [ytre  tl  mltUaiiliaiiler]  pres- 
riit.  Aquinaa  introduced  tbe  term  (amcomilantii). '  eut :  there  ii  a  sacramsnbil  union  between  bnad  and 
The  withbolding  of  the  cup  from  the  laity  i^  Juatilied  |  wins  and  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  conae- 
by  this  Kontaniet  doctrine  of  concomitance  on  tlie  i  qnently  an  oral  [prt]  reception  uf  the  body  and  blood 
groDDd  that  >9  Christ  is  present  entirely  in  each  of  the  of  Christ,  in  a  aupranaturul  and  heavenly  manner,  so 
clementa,  be  ia  received  folly  in  either  by  the  coinmu- '  that  also  the  unworthy  and  the  unbelievera  receive  the 
nicant.  Of  coun:  thii  theory  Koes  along  Mith  tran-  real  body  and  blood  uf  Christ,  though  to  their  cnndem- 
robalaotiation.  —  Burnet,  On  lie  Artkia,  art.  xixij  'nution);  S.  The  Petaon  of  Chriit;  0.  The  Ueecent  of 
Smith's  Hagenbach,Hi»(o/so/flDrtrise»,§  195,  See  '  Christ  into  Hell;  10.  The  Customa  of  the  Church;  11 
Lord's  Suppek.  i  Predeatinstion  and  Election  (the  (breknowlediie  of  liod 

Concord,ForaitlIa  of  (FoniiiJi.A  CoKCORDUi),  [pnricinutu]  relates  to  all  men,  the  prDHlettiaation 
the  aeventb  and  last  symbolical  book  of  the  Luther- '  only  to  the  good).  To  these  is  joined  an  appendix 
an  Church,  first  publicly  adopted  in  1580.  It  waa  |  couceininK  heresies  and  atctariea  (Lc.  ull  who  had  not 
trained  in  conaequenee  of  the  long  dinputea  between  accepted  the  Augaburg  Confbsalon).  The  appended 
the  atrictcr  Lutherana  and  tbe  milder  Philipplsis  and  testimony  of  the  wilnessea  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
the  Crypto-CalTinisla  in  Germany.  The  principal  the- ',  of  the  pure  doctrines  of  the  original  Cbureh,  on  the  per- 
ologiaos  and  evangelisla  considered  it  their  duty  to  \  aon  and  work  of  Christ  (Commaaitxitio  idiomaivm),  by 
nnits  the  Church  as  much  as  poaaiblo  hy  clearly  dcfin-  Andrea  and  Chemnitz,  in  eight  articles,  ia  not  eonsid' 
inx  it*  fundamental  doctrines  in  accordance  with  the  j  eisd  an  part  of  the  creed. 

priDciplca  of  the  An^burg  Confession  of  1530.  In  i  As  to  Anthropology,  the  Formula  Concordias  earriea 
1574,  duke  Julias  of  Brunswick  andtho  elector  Angus-  out  the  doctrinca  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  with  re- 
toa  of  Saxony  commissioned  profesaor  Jacob  Audrel  i  gard  to  ori|;inal  sin  to  their  logical  results,  and  after 
(q.  v.),  of  Tubingen,  to  frame  a  suitable  formula.  Hia  distinctly  rejecting  the  view  of  Flocius,  which  made 
work  underwent  ilivcrs  altetatioas  in  the  bands  of  I  original  sin  t/i  bo  the  substance  of  the  human  soul's 
Chemnitz  and  Chytrxua,  and  was  finally  receired  as  agency,  and  not  the  soul's  easence,  the  Formula  Con- 
the  coDfeasion  of  Swabia  and  Saxony.  Subsequently,  cordis  affirms  that  "Clirialians  ought  not  only  to  ac- 
hy the  inflnenco  of  prince  Georue  Emeat  of  Hcnne-  knowledge  and  define  actual  faults 
berg,  a  second  formula  of  concord  was  framed  by  Osi- 
anderand  Bidenlmch,  theologians  of  WOrtemberg,  and 
rev'tsed  and  completed  by  a  body  uf  theologians  in 
the  convent  of  Haulbronn  hi  January,  1576  (known  as 
the  fonuula  of  Manlbronn).  Andrei  considered  thia 
latter  as  too  abort,  the  former  aa  liw  dilTuse, 


cially  dreadful  sin,  and,  indeed,  as  the  first  principle 
and  source  of  all  other  sina,  from  which  all  other  trana- 
ipring  as  from  their  toot."     The  firsb  y 


took  to  baao  a  tli'ird  on  these  two.  For  this  purpose  tion  in  the  atdtenwnt  of  the  doctrine  of  original  sin, 
tbe  elector,  in  May.  liTG,  called  a  meeting  of  theologi- '  according  to  tbe  Kormula  Concordiec,  la  that  "  thia  be- 
ans at  ToTgau.  Among  tbe  eighteen  who  answered  reditar}-  evil  is  guilt  (cu/pa)  or  crime  (rtatvt) ;  whence 
to  the  coll  vera  Andrea,  Chemnitz,  Chytraus,  Sel- '  it  results  thot  all  men,  on  account  of  the  disobedience 
necccr,  Comcrus,  Husculus,  Crcll,  and  Murlin.  Be- '  of  Adam  and  Eve,  are  odious  in  the  aigbt  of  Goil,  and 
tweaii  them,  and  based  on  tbe  two  preceding  formu-  are  by  nature  the  children  of  wrath,  as  the  apnstlo  tcs- 
las  and  the  Augsburg  Confession,  they  framed  the  tifiee"  (ilaae,  itiri  SyahoBci.  p.  68D,  040;  Sbedd,  ii. 
Boot  of  Torgm  (published  by  Seraler,  Hallo,  ITW),    lo.^), 

which  waa  aubmitted  to  Ibe  elector  and  hia  council  on  I  The  Formula  "  is  the  only  Lutheran  aytnbol  in  which 
the  Tth  of  June,  and  by  him  sent  to  the  other  evangel-  the  distinrtiun  between  the  activo  and  passive  righl- 
ical  princes  and  states,  to  be  approved  ot  altered  ac- 1  eonsness  of  Christ  appears."  Its  alotement  is  as  fol- 
conling  to  their  sug^^ettlons.  After  many  additions  '  Iowa ;  "  That  righle«usnei<s  which  is  imputed  to  failh, 
had  been  niide  to  it,  the  elector  required  ChomniU,  or  to  the  believer,  of  mere  grace,  is  the  cb/diaicr,  siif- 
Andrei,  and  Selncccer  to  remodel  it.  This  waa  done  ]  fbring,  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  by  which  he  salifficd 
in  March,  1577,  in  the  convent  of  Bergen,  near  Mag-  '  the  law  for  ua  and  CKpiated  our  ain>.  Fur  since  (.'hriel 
deburg.  In  order  to  embodj'  the  dllTerent  additions  waa  notonly  man,  but  truly  God  and  man  in  oiio  undi- 
mode  to  the  primitive  prodoction  (Saiida  dtclaralio),  vided  person,  he  was  no  more  subject  to  tlio  lav  than 
they  made  a  small  supplement  (fi/atomf).  At  a  aec-  i  be  was  to  euffciingand  death  p.  e.  if  his  Person  mere. 
and  aefaion  in  April  they  adopted  a  new  redaction  ;  j  ly  be  taken  into  account,  without  any  referonee  to  liia 
and  in  a  third.  In  May,  where  they  were  assisted  by  |  vicarious  relations],  liecause  he  was  tho  divine  und 
Uuaculus,  Cumems,  and  Chytnnus,  they  perfected  tho  i  eternal  Lord  of  the  law.  Hence  not  only  that  ol.e- 
Hoal  vernion,  which  wee  then  handed  to  tbe  elector. '  diencc  to  God  his  Father  which  bo  exhibited  In  his 
The  latter  named  it  Formula  ComMrdiir,  and  with  tbe  passion  and  death,  but  also  ihal  ebrilieuo!  icMrh  be  fx- 
elector  of  Brandenburg  called  on  the  theologians  of  hibiird  t»  votrndarilg  lubjtctag  Mmitl/to  Ike  tiv,  and 
their  Btatca  to  ugo  it.  It  was  then  Joined  with  the  oth-  \  /uljimny  it  for  our  aolu,  is  imputed  to  us  for  ri^jht- 
er  received  symbols  in  a  furpui  liortiiRcF,  and  tbia  Book'  eouaness,  so  llint  God,  on  account  of  the  total  oliediencs 
n/Cimconl  waa  offic'uilly  recognised  nt  Dresden,  Juno  '  which  Christ  accomplished  (pnatitil')  for  our  auko  bo- 
!3th,1580,  astho  fandaoicntal  symbol  of  the  Lutheran,  fore  his  heavenly  Father,  boUi  in  acting  and  in  sulTer- 
Church.  j  ing,  in  life  and  in  death,  may  remit  our  sina  to  us,  re- 

It  is  divided  into  two  parts  :  1.  Tl!e  Epitomt,  or  gard  vi  ai  holy  and  righlfutt  andgire  hi  ilertmlfilkU 
aummar;',  consisting  of  eleven  articles,  each  beaded  i  Ig"  (Hase,  l.ibri  Sipatifl'd,  p.  08;  Sbedil,//uf.  of  IkK- 
by  tbe  enunciation  uf  some  controverted  point  of  due- 1  'rvtri,  Ii,  342).  As  to  tho  work  of  regeneration,  it 
trine  (sfd'iu  confronrnd),  which  b  then  followed  hy '  teaches  that  "  before  man  is  illuminated,  conreried, 
the  ortbodui  doctrine  (pan  affmaiiea),  and  finally  regenerated,  and  drawn  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  can  no 
by  the  condemnation  of  the  o|i|iOBite  view  (/viri  tttga.  moro  opeinte,  cooperate,  or  even  make  a  beginuiug 
b'm).  1.  The  Soiida  dtrUiralUi,  or  fundamental  expo-  towards  bis  conversion  or  regeneration,  with  his  own 
eittnn,  which  treats  of  tho  same  articles  in  connocllon  natural  powers,  tlian  can  a  stone,  a  tree,  or  a  piece  of 
with  each  ether.  The  eleven  articles,  taken  in  the  cby '  (Ilaae,  Ubri  Eymbotici,  p.  62-2;  Shedd,  ii,  "(»). 
order  of  the  Angebnrg  Confession,  are  on,  1.  Original ;  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  Chriatology  of  the  Fonnu- 
Sin  (human  nature  by  original  sin  has  become  ulierly  \  In.  ace  Dnmer,  Hitlory  nj'Uie  Doctrine  i/fht  Ferum  of 
deprarrd  [in  miivrsHin  comipla]) ;   2.  Free-will ;  3.    Ckriil,  div.  ii,  vol.  Ii,  2Kl  rq. 

Jn'tification  by  Faith ;  4.  Good  Works ;  G.  The  Law  |  Tho  Foniada  was  ori^'inally  Ihimed  in  German  ;  the 
and  tha  Goepel ;  6.  The  third  Use  ot  tho  Law ;  T.  I  Latin  traneiatioii  by  Usunder  was  adopted  b^  &!l- 


CONCORDANCE       454       CONCORDANCE 

Mccer  in  hia  first  Lstin  edition  of  the  Book  of  Con- 1  S,  Thus  errors  were  for  the  most  psrt  corrected  and 
coni :  but  the  tatter  ufCerwRnlt  made  mother  trunKla-  i  other  dtficiemfies  BU[iplie(l  hy  Hiriu  di  Ciluia  (q.  v.), 
tloD  of  it,  which,  after  bein^;  reviaed  In  the  conrent  of  i  Franclwui  friar,  who  published  GMrontimda  Sacr. 
Quedliuburg  in  1583,  vraa  inserted  in  the  now  edition  Bibl.  Btbr.  tl  l^Hn.  (Roma,  1621,  i  lols.  fol.),  repnb- 
of  the  Book  of  Concord  in  1684.  The  aigDaturea  of  the  I  llibed  in  London  under  the  direction  of  W.  Ilomaine 
princes  who  endorsed  It  were  placed  uflcr  the  prefuoe,  (1747-9,  1  vols,  fol.),  under  the  patronufe  of  all  the 
which  WM  prepared  at  Joterliock  in  15T9 ;  those  of  monorcha  in  Europe,  not  exceptinj^  the  pope  hiniaelf. 
(^000  miniatpn  (put  in  A.D.  1662)  follow  immediately  I  3.  CimeorAmtim  Bibl.  Ehraicer,  tuna  tt  artijuioia 
after  the  text.  Tbe  Formula  was  tor  a  long  time  re.  |  ntlAedo  diipeaila  (Basil.  163S.  fol.),  bj:  John  BuKtorf. 
jecled  by  Denmark  and  Sweden;  In  the  former  coun-  the  father,  but  pabliahed  by  hia  bod.  It  lake*  for  it) 
tryit9pDllicaticnnat,nntill&80,forbidden  underpin-  bssia  tbe  work  of  Rabbi  Nathan,  thoDgh  it  ia  niirh 
ally  of  death.  It  was  received  in  I{ungary(l&03-15Q6),  letter  nmnged,  more  correctly  printed,  the  mcts  more 
Holstein  (16l7),I'unierania  (10*6),  and  LIvonin.  It  was  j  distinctly  ascertained,  and  the  meanings  more  acco- 
rejecUd  in  Hease,  Anfault,  a  purt  of  Mecklenburi;,  and  rately  given  j  but  ua  the  referencca  are  made  by  He- 
tbe  free  citiea  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  Spirea,  Worms,  brew  lettere,  and  relate  to  the  rsbbinical  dtvisiona  of 
Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Magdeburg.  Bremen,  Dantiic,  |  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  of  little  rerrice,  unleii  Iha 
etc. ;  the  electors  of  the  Palatinate  (in  1583),  and  '  student  ia  familiar  with  tbe  Masoretio  ayatem.  TbI* 
Brandenburg  (16H),  and  the  Dnkc  Julius  of  Bmns- 1  work  was  abridged  under  the  title  of /■'ma  i>om'*,  *te. 
wick,  who  had  previously  accepted  it,  retracted  after-  (Bcrolini,1677,8vo).  A  new  edition  of  BaxtorTs  Reb. 
wards.  Thus,  of  the  three  Prolcttant  electors  of  tbo  .  Concordance,  l>y  B&r,  haa  lately  been  published  (Strt. 
German  empire,  Palatinate,  Brandenburg,  and  San-  |  tini,  1861  sq.,  4to). 

ony,  only  one  (Saxony)  remained  a  ebampion  of  the  4.  Before  the  republication  of  Cilasio  there  appear- 
Farmula  of  Concord,  and  be  anlisei|ueDtl  v  joined  (he  ed  Chr.  Noldc's  (q.  v.)  Cituor.  paiHculanan  Ktrao- 
Chureb  of  Rome.  Tho  Formula  of  Concord,  united  aoUmcormB  (Hafn.  1679,  tto:  an  edition  scema  to 
with  the  AugsburK  Confession  of  IfiSO,  the  Apology,  ^  have  been  began  in  IfiiG,  fol.,  but  this  never  saw  the 
the  Articles  of  Sma.lcald,  and  the  two  calechif  ms  of  l.u-  i  light).  This  concordsnce  contains  tbe  particles,  or  in- 
tber,  forms  the  "  Concordienbuch,"  or  the  Book  of  declinable  words,  emitted  in  former  (as  well  a>  later) 
Concord,  of  which  there  are  many  editions  in  German  concordances.  The  best  edition  of  Kolde  is  that  by 
and  Ijtiin.  "  But  tbe  Lutheran  Chnrvh  is  still  divided  i  Ti-mpe  (Jena,  17B4,  4t6).  It  contains,  as  an  appen- 
upon  tills  symbol.  The  so-called  Hi|:b  Latherans  In-  iis,  a  Lexicon  of  the  Hebrew  Particles,  by  John  Hcs- 
sist  that  the  Formula  Concordin  is  the  scientific  com- !  ry  illchadis  and  Christ.  Kcerber. 
pletion  of  the  preceding  Lutheran  symbolism,  while  I  G.  Bnt  tbe  licst,  or  at  least  to  the  English  reader  moat 
the  moderate  party  are  content  to  stand  by  tbe  Anga-  ,  important  work  up  to  the  present  centuiy  on  Ihia  snb. 
burg  Confession,  the  Apology,  and  the  Smalcald  Arti-  :  Ject  is  The  Hehmo  ConeordiitKt.  advptid  lo  lit  EngSdi 
clea"(Sbedd,  Ais(.o/0«:(n'ws,il,458).  SeeCnnrES-  Bibit,  diapOKd  aflrr  ikt  manatr  ff  Bailor/.  Iv  itOin 
aioxs  or  Faith;  SikbouCai.  Books;  Lctheii- j  Taylor,  D.D.  (London,  17M,  2  vols.  fol.).  It  was  the 
Axs.  t>uit  of  many  years'  lal.or,  and  still  has  its  Taloe. 

SeeHospintBn,?aiHnnKaiiiaosrt(Zutlch,160T;  Gen.  6.  An  edition  of  Buxtorf'a  Nebreu  ConcerJaut, 
1678) ;  J.eonhaTd  Ilutter,  Omtordia  concors  (WIttenb.  which  has  received  so  much  care  and  attention  on  tba 
IGl-l,  16^1;  Lpx.  1690);  J.  Uusaus,  /'iv/refir.tin  in  '  part  ot  the  editor  aa  nearly  lo  deserve  the  name  of  a 
I piloBKn  Formula  amc.  (Jen^l7ll!);  Biillbusar,  ff'sf.  new  work— ZMruacie  bkI  CAoUuiacie  Cimeerdaavt 
d.  Torjptchm  Bueha  (Grelfaw.  1741-6S.  8  vols.);  J.  dtn  hiMtm  Schr/ttn  da  allm  Talanmu,bj  Dr.Ju- 
N.  Anton,  Gach.  d./orm.  Conc.  (Lpi.  1~9,  S  vola.);  tiua  FOrst  (Loipiig,  IWO,  fol.).  offers  one  of  the  mod 
Francke,  Lit.  StpaM.  pt.  ill;  Mosbeim,  CA.  Hill,  1&3-  osetnl  aids  to  tbe  study  of  the  Bible  that  has  ever  ap- 
1G5 ;  Ilerzog.  SeaUEncyhti^adie,  iii,  S7  n\. ;  Franck,  peered.  In  addition  to  those  of  a  more  mechanical 
Tirolcyie  der  Qmenrdien/ormil  (ErUog.  18GC>,  4  vols.),  kind,  such  as  a  grod  tvpe  and  clear  arrangement,  there 
*  Coucordanoe  (Ijit.  ™»™ni«<»),  a  book  conUin-  ""•};  \  ""^Jf  ■?  ,'*';'■  f"':"''^  "V  *'■''"■'' 'T^- 
ing  the  wordi  in  thi  Holy  Scrlptnres,  in  alphabetical  ^'.'  h  T?*  «?>:'""'"1  "ie"'fic-tKmsi  a  Exijana- 
order,with  their  eonwxt  more  or  loss  fully  given,  anda  '™'  J,"  ^*'"'.'  K'^-B  ""'  "ymology  of  the  Rabbm- 
.lesigmition  bv  chapter  and  verse  of  the  places  in  which  1 '»'  =  I  '"t"""""  from  the  bree  Greek  verHcns,  the 
thevBrotob^foundT  (See  Gbiuchiu,,  Oe  luu  C^k-ot-  '^"^"'^  ^'"'.S'T'"-..  c  ^^  '  ^^  ■'"  ^Tt 
d^aiarum  BMrarim,  Lips.  166S.)  While  the  Scrip-  """>»  employed  by  the  Seventy  aa  renderings  of  tba 
tures  remained  in  manuscript,  or  were  not  divided  into  '  "•''"■' !  together  with  pbilologu-al  and  Brch«ological 
sections  and  paragraphs,  indexe,  of  their  words  and  ^^]"^>  "  "  "^  """  ""^  Concordance  contain  a  brief 
phrases  could  neither  Iw  formed  nor  used.     As  won  as    "  _  ""f  '*?!"^;         ,     „  ,  ,  „    , .      „ 

any  reiiular  divisions  beirantobe  made  thoimDortancc  I  ■  ^  tnpllihman'i  Htlnte  tad  ChaUtt  Cmwnt 
of  "con™r<lances,  or  alphabetical  indoIe^  was  felt,  ami :  "^  '^'"^  '"?  G- V.  Wigram  (Lend.  1843, 2  vols,  gv.), 
learned  men  devoted  Ihelr  labors  to  form  them.  Tbo  ' ''  ""  •y^S^'-^  and  encoedingly  useful  work,  and  t*. 
first  concordances  were  prepared  for  the  Latin  Vul-  mnrkably  accurate.  II  gives  tbe  Hebrew  words  m 
gate.  (See  below.)  See  Ormo's /;iW«Wifca  £tWif<i,  '■'"'"'""• ''"''l""''**"'',!*'''*'' '■'"'"'''"'«7  "^ 
p.  11-2 ;  Watta>  BlbUotbrca  BritiBHacai  Winer's  ffanrf- 1  '='"  ™i"  "">  enfmon  Engliah  Bible.  Il  cooUini  tba  ■ 
buch;  Waleh.  BiUiolh.  Thiol,  iv.  307 ;  Buhra  Kritltche  ""'  complete  liat  of  the  Hcb.  proper  names  ever  made. 
IWd;ger.Biblia,Afk,iMl  -.  Mtth.  Quar.  Baicu,  1847,  p.  "  deserves  to^  more  extensively  known  and  nstd. 
451 ;  PriBOton  Htvietr,  lHi8,  p.  471.  The  following  are  '"  *''b''  pf""  "  "  'ef*^*  •'^'^"'^  *"  '•»  cm^uUtien. 
tho  most  Important  works  of  this  description.  ,/' ,'^""''   ^"^  ""  .*    ..  f  "*»*■»    CoMtrdaoa 

I.  //f6r«f.-l.  Tho  first  Hebrew  coneordance  was  (I^"<'- 1845, 8vo),  a  work  of  l.ttle  account  to  scbolart 
by  labbi  Isaac  (or  Mordecai)  Nathan  (q.  v.),  in  1445. 1  .  ^-  T'  ^^""""i  ^'^  ?*''  .'^'f'  l**!™  '^"'' 
It  cost  seven  years'  hard  lal«*  by  himself  and  some  (^"d-  '860,  4to),  equally  lirief  and  inEo«ctent. 
assistants.  It  was  first  printed  at  Venice  in  l&24,foL,  Other  and  earlier  Heh.  Concordancee  are:  Rabla 
b}-  Dan.  Bomberg,  then  by  Franiont  (ib.  1664,  fob).  Anschel,  n^dtsil  PIS'IS  (a  vocabulary,  with  nl^- 
again  by  Fesaro  (Basic,  lufl,  fol.),  and  afterwards  at  ences  to  passages,  Cracow,  1534,  4lo,  and  later);  Cri- 
Rome  in  1G23.  It  is  entirely  Hebrew,  and  entitled  nesius,  Cbniyrdontur  Ebraira  (Tilerob.  1627.  4to);  Lay- 
Sftir  A'aMii  (3''ria  ^'X^),  "Tbe  Ligbt  of  the  IVay."  man,  Conoorrfaufia  ttrao-taenr,  etc.  (1681,  fol.) ;  Tree- 
It  was  translated  Into  Latin  by  A.  neucblin  (Basil,  tins,  CMicorAna.rF  CioUnro  (Vitemb.  1617, 4to). 
loGi;.  fol.,  15611,  4to>,  but  both  the  Hebrew  and  the  II.  dtrk  Concordai>efi.—(n')  J\>  lie  i'<7>>Mijiat— t. 
Latin  editions  ore  fiiU of  errora.  Conrad  Klrcfacr, ConeDrdimNii  VtOru  TatamatiCrm- 


CONCORDANCE 


455 


CONCORDANCE 


•■  ElrtrU  tocihu  Japondenta  (Fnncof.  I60T,  S  vols.  | 
IBd).  Ihu  work  fullowt  tha  order  or  ttie  Hebrew 
words,  pUdng  tbe  corretpoadiDg  Greek  wonl  after  It ; 
in  R>ii*equeDco  of  wtilch,  it  ii  more  aHful  in  coniull- 
iag  the  Hebrew  than  (ha  Greek  ScripdiTei. 

i,  TIm  beat  Greek  Conearduce  ta  the  Septiugint  ii 
that  which  \xtn  the  title  A.  Trommll  Oxtcordamia 
Grmea  Ven.  imlgo  iHc.  LXX  JnUrprt.  (Amit.  et  Tnj. 
■d  Bb.  nW,  i  vol*,  fol.).  See  Tkoiiiie.  It  followi 
the  order  of  the  Greek  words,  of  whicli  it  first  givea  a 
L^tio  triDiUtion,  sod  then  the  Hebrew  word  or  words 
loT  whicb  the  Greek  term  is  ased  in  the  Seventy. 
Then  the  different  places  in  wUch  [he  words  occur 
folluiT  in  the  order  of  the  several  books  and  cbaplers. 
When  the  ward  ocean  In  anj  of  theGreek  trantlston, 
AquilK,  Synmschos,  or  Theodotion,  the  places  where 
it  is  found  are  refemd  to  at  the  end  of  the  qaotaliona 
from  the  SepL  The  words  of  the  Apocrjiiha  are 
plac«d  at  tha  end  of  each  enumeration.  There  are  two 
JDdices  et  tbe  end  of  tile  work :  one  Hebrew  and  Chal- 


g  which 


11  Bsedin 


Septnaifint  for  sny  Hebrew  or  Cbaldee  word  ii 
once,  with  tlte  Latin  version  and  tbo  place  where  It  ii 
SMUid  in  the  concordance,  so  that  TrDDime  servn  in  * 
■pessnre  tut  a  Hebrew  concordance ;  the  other  index 
ooDtAiiu  a  lexicon  to  the  Hexaplaof  Origen,  and  com- 
pcehenda  the  Greek  words  in  the  fragments  of  tbe  old 
Gie»k  tnn^iatoTs  published  by  Montfaucon. 

(6)  To  lit  ,Vcv  rtMamfnl.—l.  The  flrat  Greek  c<m- 
ODTdaoce  to  the  New  Testament,  now  exceedingly 
rare,  is  entitled  Xysti  Betutell  CoaearAmHa  Gram 
JVon  TeHamotU  {B^sii.  lhi.6,  ful.).  The  aothor'a  real 
name  waa  Uirck. 

3.  A  concordance  to  tbe  Greek  New  Testament,  pro- 
Jeetad  and  partly  execatod  by  Robeit  Stephens,  and 
completed  and  pnhlisbed  by_  his  son  Henry  (Genev. 
IKM,  and  with  a  enpplement,  1600;  fol.).  !■  tan  ioac- 
cnrate  to  merit  more  than  a  paasing  notice. 

8.  Of  much  value  Is  Eraami  Scbmldil  Noti  Tttta- 
mnti  J.  C.  Graci;  ine  at,  arfjjinalu  lingua  rn/iitiof 
(Vitemb.  lB3f ,  fol. ;  revised  ed.  Gotha,  1717,  fcl. ;  also 
Glasg.  1HI9,  2  vols.  SvD ;  recently  by  tbe  Uestra.  Baa- 
iter  of  London,  in  a  thin,  flat  pocket  volnme.  and  in 
another  form,  B2ma,  being  one  of  their  "  Polymicrian 
series"). 

4.  J.WiUiams,  Cimcordimn  la  tie  Grtdt  Talamau 
(Loud.  1767, 4lo),  a  work  especially  uasfal  lo  the  mere 
English  ivader. 

5.  A  new  and  very  iBperlor  edition  of  Schmid'i 
m^iKiov  has  been  put  (brth  by  C.  H.  Bruder,  Comcor- 
daiUia  (Lelpl.  IMi,  Its).  AnHnc  tbe  advantages  of 
tbia  edition,  let  it  snfflce  lo  spFCify.  1.  Falnesa.  accu- 
racy, and  coTTeipondence  with  Gritsbach's  edition ; 
1.  Regard  hss  been  paid  to  the  editions  of  Lachmann 
and  Scholi;  ail  tha  resdinga  of  the  Eluvim,  Mill, 
Benml.  Knupp.  Tittmenn.  Seboli,  snd  also  of  Eras- 
mos,  Kobeit  Hlephena's  third  edition,  and  of  Schmid 
himself,  are  either  given  or  pointed  nut.  Tbe  student 
Is  preaeoted  alio  with  a  selection  of  nadings  from  tbe 
most  ancient  USS.,fram  the  interpreters  of  Siriptuni 
who  lived  in  tbe  tarlirr  agea  of  tbe  Church,  and  tbe 
worka  of  the  eocleiiasticalfathers:  no  various  reading 
possessing  critical  value  is  omitted. 

8.  One  of  the  most  valaabio  aids  for  (be  general 
itady  of  tbe  New  Tenement  which  modem  limes 
have  produced  is  Tie  KtigliAmini'i  Grttt  Coneor^ance 
o/lhi  A'rtr  TatamfnI.btlna:  an  attempt  at  a  Verbal 
Connectioa  between  the  Groeic  and  the  English  Texts 
{Lend.  1839,  Bvo).  Tha  work,  which  Is  carefully  com- 
pOed,  take*  Schmid  as  ita  basis.  Tbe  plan  is  the  same 
a«  that  of  the  "  Englishman' a  Hebrew  Concordance" 
sbovY,  and  it  la  by  the  same  editor.  It  haa  been  re- 
published in  this  country  (N.  T.  iM»,  Sto). 

III.  Laiim  CmKOrdotuxi. — 1.  Antonvof  l'sdna(bom 
A.D.  1196,  died  1131)  is  uid  to  have  ivoduced  tbe  Arst 
work  of  the  kind,  entitled  CotKoriantin  Uoraki,  which 
Ms  Ibraied  bom  the  Vulgate  tranalaUon. 


3.  Ha^  de  Saato  Caro,  better  known  as  Cardinal 
uu^o,  a  Dominican  monk,  who  died  abont  1'2U2,  fol- 
lowed Antony  in  1214,  by  compiling  for  tbe  Vulgate  a 
concordance  of  tbe  Scriptures.  Having  given  him- 
self aaduiousiy  to  tbe  Bludy  of  Holy  Writ,  with  a  view 
of  writing  a  commentarj'  tbereon,  he  was,  in  order  to 
Ctcilltato  hla  labor,  led  to  project  and  nndertake  to 
form  a  concordance,  calling  to  bia  aid  bis  brother 
monks  to  the  number  of  no  fewer  than  five  hundred. 
Ihelr  labors  have  been  a  rich  atorebouse  for  subse- 
quent comidlera.  The  concordance  (hns  made  was 
improved  liy  Conrad  of  Halberatadt,  who  flourlslied 
about  1290,  and  by  John  of  Segovia  Id  the  ensuing 
century. 

3.  H. Stephens, CoiKorcIaiitiafiUiDnffliutriufHre** 
(aiMe<s«i(I6d»,lbl.). 

4.  After  the  ravl^n  of  tbe  Vulgate  by  Sixlns  V,  a 
concordance  to  it  appeared,  entitled  CoaconfantKE  Saer. 
Bibl.  VtJgat.  edit.  F.  LucB  Brngensla  (Antw.  lG17i 
Paris,  16HS).  Host  of  tha  Latin  concordancee  are  re< 
prints  of  this,  e.  g.  by  Luca  and  Pbaleati  (Vieu,  1836, 


fol.). 

b.  A  new  I.atlu  Concordance  to  the  Vulgate,  edited 
by  Ducrisaon,  appeared  In  Parla  Id  1888  (4to). 

IV.  Gtrmait  CniKordcMcef.— Tbe  first  Germsa  eou- 
coidanca  waa  that  of  Conrad  Agrieola  (Numb.  1609, 
fol.),  repeatedly  reprinted  and  revised. 

2.  The  most  useful  Is  that  of  F.  Lankiscb,  Onror- 
damt.  BiU.  Germameo-UAnaco-Graea  (Mpa.  1677,  fol., 
often  reprinted ;  best  edition  that  of  Reinecciaa,  Upa. 
1718).  There  are  aeveral  modem  German  ooncord- 
ances,the  moat  noteworthy  of  which  is 

B.  J.  G.  Ilanff,  BMixht  Btalnd  Ferio^CMOnluM 
(8  vols.  In  4  pta.  8vo,  Stuttg.  18S8-34), 

4.  We  may  also  mention  a  valuable  concordance  Ibr 
the  German  Bible— fi^tJitetr  Bmd-CiKeordant/ir  St- 
Irgion^krtr  tmd  oBt  Fnandt  dtr  BtSigai  Stkrlfi  (pub. 
by  H.  Schott,  Ulpiig,  1827, 8vo).  Tbe  work  is  more 
cnmprehensive  than  similar  writings  in  the  English 
lingusge.  It  Is  divided  into  three  parts ;  (1.)  A  fbll 
snd  complete  retfisterof  all  the  words  found  In  the  Bl- 
lile  ;  (2.)  An  index  of  the  most  important  things,  sub- 
ject»,  and  Ideas  found  in  the  Bible,  with  references  to 
tbe  places  where  they  tie  in  the  sacred  voiame ;  as,  for 
instance,  under  tbe  head  *'  Lord's  Supper,  a  meal  com- 
memorative of  the  death  of  Jesus,  it  brings  us  Into  in- 
tinute  fellowship  witli  Christ;  the  worthy  [wtticipa- 
tloD  of  the  eame ;  spiritual  enjoyment  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  Christ,"  etc.  (8.)  The  leading  doctrines  of 
ChrieCianity  systematically  arranged,  dnwn  up  ac- 
cording (o  Liither's  CaleeUim,  and  accompanied  by 
scriptural  proofii. 

Other  concordances  in  Gennan  are  those  of  G.  BOcb. 
Der  (Jeoa,  1T60, 1767, 1776  ;  Halle,  18RT :  Lpi.  ISOQ, 
Wlcbmann  (I.pz.  1782),  F.  J.  Bemhard  (I.pz.  1860-2), 
J.  M.  Otto  (SuUb.  IKIS),  K.  A.  ToUer  (.Stuttg.  1838), 
S.  Lueg  (Pa>sau,  1841). 

IV.  Tbo  first  complete /'rmet  eoneoidance  was  that 
of  Hark  WlikSjCoiKoriJiinM  da  S(biUh  Ecrifurti  (Par- 
ij,1840,8v«). 

V.  En^Uk  Cimcardimeet.—l.  Tbe  flrat  concordance 
to  tbe  English  vetiion  of  the  New  Testament  was  pnb- 
lisbed  without  date,  but  certainly  before  1510,  by  "  Mr. 
Thomas  GylMon,"  being  chiefly,  as  appeati  probable 
from  the  prefatory  epistle  lo  the  reader,  tbe  work  of 
the  famous  printer  John  Day.  It  Is  entitled  Thr  Caii- 
fOri/nnfe  n/Ar  fi'rv  Tttttmml.  nurl  necMaory  la  be  had 
in  <ke  AoikIi  n/'oJ/  incAe  at  drjirt  tke  aanmatkalitm  rf 
ant/  piart  fomttMifd  n  fi'  Nev  Tatamnl. 

2.  Tbe  first  English  concordance  to  the  ea/ire  Bible 
waa  that  of  John  Uarlieck— ,4  Omrordima.  ikat  it  lo 
toie,  <i  Worte  whrrrin  Ay  lie  order  o/lie  lellm  o/lAe 
A .  ft,  C,  ye  maie  rrdefyfind  amj  tronfc  tomeiffned  m  lie 
vkole  BiUe,  to  oflrn  nt  il  u  Mere  eipratrd  or  uimtiim- 
fd,  Lnnd.  1560,  fol.  Till  the  year  166G,  when  Robert 
Stephens  published  bis  concordance,  it  was  not  cu»- 
tofoaty  to  mark  tbe  veratl  In  book*  of  this  sort.    Al 


CONCOKUAT  il 

Snt  It  vu  tliouiiibt  inffideot  to  ipeeity  tbe  cbsptcr 
with  the  tetters  a,b,e,d,aa  msriu  tu  pmnt  out  the  Le- 
gillllUL)^,  middle,  And  end  of  each  cbuptcr.  Bat  in 
1U5  Robert  Stephens  divided  the  Bible  into  vena, 
tbiu  preparing  the  vay  for  a  more  exact  reference  in 
codcardiDcea,  etc.;  but  Mftrlnck  doei  not  appear  to 
bafe  made  nn  of  thii  improvemenl,  ai  his  work  rabn 


S.  The  following  work,  which  appeared  in  the  aame 
year  aa  the  last,  ia  ■  tranBladan  from  tbe  German — A 
Brif/t  and  a  Campaidioiii  Table,  in  mamr  of  a  Cimcori 
aaa,  ttptaytig  the  vayt  to  iJu  priaetpoli  I/itloria  of  the 
whole  liiile.  and  Iht  molt  comon  arlicUt  groumled  and 
eompnheniUd  in  the  Keice  TtUamaa  and  Oldr,  in  marur 
at  nuipfy  as  doelh  the  gnat  Conmrdance  of  the  Bible. 
Gathered  and  let  forth  by  Henry  Batiinger,  Leo  Jade, 
Coarade  P/liicane,  and  by  the  other  mktUlert  nf  the 
Church  of  Ligurit.  Traiulaledfromihe  Hygh  Almayna 
into  Eai^yih  Ey  Waller  Lffime.  To  lehirh  u  added,  a 
Travlalion  nf  tie  Third  Bake  of  Machabtet  { 8vo, 
1650).  Lynne,  tbe  translator,  waa  an  English  print- 
er,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  o(  the  16th  c«i- 
iDiv,  a  scholar,  author,  and  translator  of  several 
books.  See  Bulunobb.  An  improred  edition  of 
the  tabular  Coiteardance,  adapted  lo  the  tnnilation 
nf  1611,  was  pnblislied  by  John  Oowname  (London, 
161G,  6io>. 

4.  All  earlier  English  eoncordaneei  were  snpeneded 
hj  tha  moi«  correct  and  nluable  work  of  Alexander 
Crudcn  (q.  v.},  entitled  A  Compete  Concordamix  to  lie 
nolg  Seriplurri  of  the  Old  and  AW  Tritammt.  rlc. ,  lu 
tchich  ii  added  a  Concordance  to  the  baokM  called  Apocry- 
pha <17S7, 4to).  Three  editions  were  pnUlij^bed  liy  tt 
antbor  during  bli  life,  and  many  bave  ippesred  eini 
bis  death.  The  London  edition  of  1611)  ia  tbe  bei 
atandard  edition.  Several  lueful  editions  of  Cmden 
have  been  put  forth  by  tho  Mesfra.  Bagster,  wbo  bavi 
also  issued  An  Alphabrlieai  index  of  the  Jioiy  Scrip 
htrtt,  con^riiiKg  the  Xaiaei,  ITharacters,  and  Sidjedi 
bath  of  the  Old  and  Aeie  Tettamtnt,  In  two  sizes,  which 
the  Biblical  student  will  find  very  serviceable. 

Cruden's  Concordance  has  been  for  a  centur?  the 
basis  of  everr  other  work  of  the  kind,snchns  " 
Butterworth's,  Coles'c,  Eadie'e.  etc.  With  a 
cellences,  however,  it  has  more  eerloa*  defects  than 
ia  generally  nppribendcd.  The  Rev.  Ihomas  Scott 
was  so  well  anore  of  this  that  be  conteniplated  a  rr- 
visHin  of  tbe  work.  Its  cbicf  fault  is  its  great  want 
of  completeness,  bota  moiety  of  the  words  being  Tpally 
given  at  all,  and  only  a  part  of  the  occuirences  of 
these,  tbe  proper  names  being  especially  defective. 
These  and  other  defects  are  in  a  ({ood  measure  reme- 
died in  the  edition  iatned  by  tbe  "  Sociely  for  Promo- 
ting Christian  Knowledge"  (Lond.  186S.  Svo),  but  this 
■tili  is  far  from  perfect.  A  reaUy  complete  and 
rate  English  concordsnee  la  vet  a  desideratum, 
want  is  now  met  by  Slrons's  Erhaualive  Concordance 
la  the  AMh.  EngL  Vernon  of  the  Hoty  Scrijilurei  (N.  V., 
1S49,  4to). 

CoDCOTdmt.  1.  A  treaty,  but  usnally  restricted  to 
a  convention  between  the  pope  of  Rome  and  any  tec- 
ubr  Koman  Catholic  gavemrnpnt  for  the  scUling  of 
ecciesiastitel  relations.  Treaties  which  the  pope,  as 
a  secular  sovereign,  concludes  with  other  princes,  are 
not  called  concordats.  Conventions  between  the  pope 
and  a  l^roMslunt  government  for  tbe  settlement  of  tbe 
ecclesiastical  rebtions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  subjects 
oftholatterB^cprop('rlyo^lyralled(^(m^^Ui'l«l,  though 
it  b  common  to  apply  the  term  concordat  lo  any  coo- 
Tention.  The  name  concordat  was  for  the  first  lime 
applied  to  the  convention  made  in  1119  between  Pope 
Martin  V  and  tbe  rcprssentatives  of  the  German  na- 
tion, which  was  cslled  Xonradla  capitula  eoneordata  et 
db  airajue parte  tutcepla.     The  name  is  DOW,  however, 

tho  moit  important  of  the  earlier  concordats  is  that  of 
Wome,  called  also  the  CalUtine  Concordat,  made  in 


CONCORDAT 

119!  betwean  Callzlus  IT  and  Henry  V,  in  order  tt 
tsnendto  the  long  coDt>»t  on  tbe  subject  of  in  vc»- 
iirc,  and  which  has  eince  been  considered  n  fuoda. 
intol  ordinance  in  Germany,    hlost  of  the  concordats 
ve  been  extorted  from  the  popes  Ly  the  different 
'il  powers.     Tbis  was  done  as  early  as  the  fidrrntli 
itury;  for  when  the  Council  of  Constance  Dr/ed  a 
Teformation  of  tbe  pspjl  court,  Martin  V  saw  binieelf 
obliged,  in  HIH.  to  conclude  the  concordata  of  Com- 
'   the  German,  tho  French,  and  the  Engliah 
nations.     Chap.  1  restricts  tbe  number  of  cardinals, 
lakes  provisions  aa  to  their  character  and  mode 
tointment.     Chap.  S  restricts  tbe  papal  reserva- 
tions.   Chap.  3  treats  nf  papal  annates  and  taxes,  whicli 
'  t  France  were  reduced  for  the  space  of  live  yean  lo 
le  half  of  their  liR-mersmonnt;  while  in  tbeEn^isli 
incoidat  these  were  abolished  altogether.     Chap.  4 
deHne*  what  trials  are  to  be  li-dxed  at  Komr.     Chap.  6 
reduces  tbe  number  of  commendama.    Chip.  6  enjoint 
■  strict  proceeding  against  simony  beror*  the,^>rn* 
OKtciemia.     Chap.  7  provides  that  excommuniattd 
persons  need  not  be  shunned  before  the  publication  of 
the  ban.     Chap.  S  reduces  the  number  of  pspal  di*- 
pensations.     Chap.  9  treats  of  tbe  revenue  of  the  p»- 
pal  curia.     Chap.  10  reduces  for  Germany  the  papal 
indulgences,  and  repeals  those  that  hud  been  iFsiwd 
sincethe death  ofCrpgorj' XI:  in  tlie Fnnch concordat 
nothing  ia  said  about  this  point.     Chap.  31  provide* 

only  for  live  years,  and  that  with  ret;ard  tn  Itie  French 
the  royal  sanction  is  reserved.  The  English  concor- 
dat Is  definite.  Ibe  German  and  English  concordau 
obtained  st  once  legal  authority' ;  tho  French  in  1424. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  German  electors  at  fVankfort, 
inOcloiier,  144(1,  the  refonnatory  demands  of  the  Gei^ 
man  nations,  which  fur  several  years  had  been  the  svb- 
joct  of  negoUstinns,  wero  finally  agtred  upon.  Tbey 
chiefly  cnnccmrd  Ibe  recognition  of  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  freneml  council^',  tbe  cnnvocation  of  a  new 
general  council,  and  tbe  redress  of  the  grievances  of 
the  German  nation.  Pope  Eugene  IV,  through  his 
ambassadors,  declared  bis  readiness  to  concede  tbcee 
demands,  and  on  his  dralb4>cd,  Feb.,  1447,  signed  fiv* 
hulls  by  which  they  were  severally  granted.  The 
Frankfi'rt  demands,  and  tbe  bulls  of  Eugene  IT.  by 
which  they  are  ratified,  are  togelbcr  called  tbe  FraJi- 
fort  Concordat;  or  the  Concordat  of  Primcte.  The 
chief  basis  of  these  concordat*  was  the  series  of  re- 
foTmalnrv  decrees  which  bad  been  adopted  by  tbe 
Council  of  Baale.  Nicholas  V,  on  March  S8, 1447,  nt- 
illed  the  concessions  made  by  bis  predecessor  to  tbe 
German  nation. 

On  Feb.  17, 1448,  the  Emperor  Frederick  \\\  cva- 
eluded  (without  tbe  co-operation  of  the  electors)  with 
tbe  cardinal  legate  Carvajal  a  concvrdat  at  Vienna, 
which  made  to  the  fope  far-reaching  conceiwiona ;  hi 
particuUr,  tho  right  of  ratifying  the  election  of  all  tb* 
bishops  (which  right,  bj'  the  Concoidat  of  Princes,  hod 
been  restricted  lo  the  biahoprics  immediately  sabjNt 
lo  the  pope),  of  cancelling  nncanonical  elections,  aod 
of  appointing  bishops  for  the  diocesei  thus  become  va- 
cant. This  conrentbn  waa  formeriy  called  the  At- 
rhaj/inbtirg  Concordol  or  Arrest,  but  the  more  correct 
name  is  the  I'inan  Concordat.  Tbe  Fnnkfort  Con- 
cordats and  Ibe  Vienna  Concordat  together  are  called 
the  Coneordnli  of  the  German  Nation.  Tbey  formed  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  German  Empire,  and  |art  of 
them  continued,  even  alter  Ibe  destruction  of  the  Ger^ 
man  Kmpire,  to  Imi  a  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  law  d 
tbe  eeveral  German  countries. 

In  />oBe«,  the  reformatory  decrees  ofthe  Coondl 
]4S«.  adopted  as  a  law  of  ibe 


kingdon 


e  Diet  ofltnur 


PragwuU'c  Snnrtiim  of  EoHrget—wti  never  recognised 
by  anyofihe  popes  ofthe  ISIh  century;  and  in  151 C, 
Pope  i.eo  X  prevailed  upon  king  Francis  I  to  conrlnde 
a  new  concordat,  which  the  Lateraa  Council,  then  in 


CONCORDAT  4! 

Miton,  BpproTcd  uiil  embodiad  vhh  Ita  dscree,  whlla 
the  king  madalta  law  of  tba  camDtry,  notirlthttanding 
tba  protHt  of  tha  PsriiatnanC  and  tha  UoiTenity  of 
Paris.  It  aauMisbed  tba  annatea,  rsferred  the  roan 
mqf(trfM  for  adjodicatJoD  to  Boma,  and  givea  to  the  king 
the  riittit  of  nomiaatinij  tbe  biehopa. 

In  1451  a  concordat  hu  concluded  with  the  duke 
of  Anwy,  by  which  the  latter  recelvad  the  right  of 
ncmliiating  R>r  the  moat  important  baoeflcea.  In  1486 
king  John  II  oi Porbu/at  concluded  a  concordat  hIUi 
PopelDnocentVIII,  by  which  he  abandoned  the /Voccf 
itey»'ini»,  wbicb  tba  kings  bad  axerclied  eince  iha  be- 
gioning  of  tbe  century,  ibough,  alnce  1437.  the  popea 
had  protested  agajnat  it.  The  ctmcordat  waa  diaap- 
praved  bj  the  Cortea.  In  16!3  Pope  Adrian  II  ^ve 
to  the  kiaga  of  Spam  the  aame  right  ae  regards  the 
nominating  for  eccleaiaallcal  b«nefic«a  which  had  bean 
conceded  to  France.  No  concordat  waa  concluded 
during  the  IGth  cencary  after  the  year  15S3,  and  none 
at  «lt  during  the  ITtb  century. 

II.  The  CiM>irdaU  af  the  Ev^OeatA  Centniy.—Tbe 
MncardateDr(hbpeTiDd(1TI7~1774)werBaccaBioDedby 
the  revival  of  the  anti-papal  tandenciea  of  the  Church 
•f  Rome,  which  had  prevailed  in  tba  16th  century,  and 
■till  nMre  by  tba  deTelopment  of  the  theory  of  the  ab- 
nlnte  atato.    They  all  baloog  to  tba  Latin  nations  of 

1.  Sarvj. — The  arrangement  of  14G1  had  been  tbe 
nt>}ect  of  long  controversiM,  which  were  partly  set- 
tled by  an  agreamaat  in  1727,  and  fully  by  n  concordat 
on  Jan.  6, 1741,  which  made  pnivialonB  on  the  admis- 
iiaa  and  aatbority  of  papal  bulla  \b  the  country,  on  tho 
limlta  of  eccleabatical  Jurisdiction,  on  the  exemption 
of  church  property,  on  the  right  of  aaylum,  etc. 

S.  For  MUtat,  which,  since  1706,  belonged  to  Aus- 
tria, a  concordat  wu  concluded  Dec.  10. 1TS7,  concern- 
ing e^clu  a  irely  the  exemption  of  chunrh  property. 

S.  In  Napin  the  ao-called  Wmiaivia  Sk<tia,  or  the 
dght  claimed  liy  kings  to  act  as  papal  Irgalea,  had  long 
bean  a  hereditary  subject  of  cuntroTcmy  between  the 
sacalw  govemmenta  and  tba  popes.  It  was  Anally 
ragnlated,  together  with  other  dlRereucea,  by  a  treaty 
ooacloded  June  2,  1741,  which  recognlaad,  though  in 
acnnewhat  modified  foroi,  the  exemption  of  church 
property  and  of  the  clergy  from  taxation,  the  right  of 
aaylum,  ecdaaiaatieal  Juriadlction  in  marriage  aHTaira, 
and  thj  right  of  the  Church  to  supcTintand  the  Impor- 
tstian  of  rorai){n  books. 

A.  Spnim. — The  con  Hicta  between  Spain  and  the  pope 
eonceming  the  extant  of  tha  royal  right  of  collation 
ware  settled  by  a  preliminary  airreemetit  In  ITST,  and 
by  a  enntordat  concluded  Jan.  11,  17B8.  An  appen- 
dix to  the  concordat  concerning  the  rights  of  tbe  pspd 
Bncio  in  Madrid  was  agreed  apon. 

Gl  Partagal.—la  1740  Benedict  SIV  granted  to 
kinjja  of  Portugal,  by  a  concordat,  the  right  of  nc 
Dating  for  the  episcopal  sees  and  all  baneHeas. 

III.  Tht  Omcardalt  o/Ae  NintitaM  Omluty^—Tba 
pveaent  century  has  witneaaed  the  concluaion  of  a  very 
large  number  of  concordats.  Host  of  tbam  were  calttd 
ftlth  by  a  desire  of  the  aecular  government  to  rear- 
range eccleaiasdcal  aflWira,  which  had  been  thrown 
Into  utter  disorder  by  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
territoiisl  changes  In  Europe  following  IL 

1.  /VioK«.— Bonaparte,  when  Arrt  conaul,  concluded 
a  coooordat  with  Pius  VII,  July  15, 1801,  whlcb  went 
Into  operation  In  April,  1802.  It  ra-ostabliahed  tha 
Baman  CathDltc  Church,  which  la  declared  to  be  the 
religion  of  the  majority  of  Frenchman,  and  bas  b«- 
eome  tbe  baiia  of  the  present  ecclaiastical  coBstitu- 
lion  of  that  country.  It  guaranteed  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  freedom  and  publicly  of  wonhlp. 
which  was,  however,  placed  under  the  general  Iowa  of 
pollee;  prumiaed  anew  circumscription  otdiocesoa.  and 
provided  fbr  tho  raaignatbn  of  all  the  hiahopa  at  that 
tnne  in  office :  It  gave  to  tha  firit  conanl  the  ri^ht  of 
nominating  tha  hiahops,  and  prescribed  the  oath  Of  Adal- 
ll.—lft- 


r  CONCORDAT 

ty  toward  the  secular  government  which  the  bishops 
ind  other  priests  have  to  take.  The  bishops  received 
tba  right  to  appoint  the  pariah  priests,  but  the  latter 
mutt  be  agreeable  to  the  secular  government.  Of  tbe 
chuichea  not  yet  sold,  ■■  many  as  were  necessary  f<» 
diviaa  wonhip  wore  tu  be  raatored  to  the  bishops.  The 
Chnrch  renounced  all  clalme  to  tbe  property  that  bad 
been  aold  during  the  Revolution,  and  the  state  prom. 
iaad  to  pay  the  bishops  and  priests  a  sufficient  salary. 
The  former  righta  and  prarogadvea  of  Ibo  French 
crown  were  rocogniaed  as  having  been  transferred  to 
lbs  first  consul,  but  in  case  a  person  not  a  member  of 
tha  Church  of  Rome  ahould  be  invested  with  tbe  latter 
office,  new  proviaiooa  were  reaerred.  The  concordat 
was  poblisbed  as  a  law  of  France  in  1802,  togetber 
with  Boma  Introdnctory  "organic  articles."  Against 
the  latter,  however,  the  popes  always  protested.  Tbe 
concordat  and  the  new  circumscription  of  diooeaea 
were  also  valid  for  Bet^um,  and  those  parte  of  Gei>- 
many  (the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine),  Switiertand,  and 
Savoy  which,  by  the  treaties  of  peace  at  Lunevilleand 
Amiens,  had  been  unltod  with  France. 

In  1803  a  apaciul  concordat  was  concluded  between 
Pius  VII  and  Napoleon  for  tha  Italian  republic.  It 
aubatantlally  agreea  with  the  French  concordat,  tbongb 
proTlsionB  are  mora  favorable  to  tha  pope.  This 
irdat  remained  valid  for  tbe  kingdom  of  Italv, 
which  was  eaUblished  in  1806. 

In  1813  Napoleon  negotiated  with  the  pope  a  aecond 
concordat  (the  Concordat  of  Fontainebleaa),  which  was 
pnblished  against  the  consent  of  the  pope,  who  had  re- 
garded It  imly  as  a  prellRilnaty  agreement,  and  at  onco 
took  back  bia  content.  Aa  the  reign  of  Napoleon 
caaaed  aoon  slter,  the  concordat  never  became  eflisc- 
live. 

Loula  XVIII  oenclnded  at  Boma  with  Ftna  TTI 
(July  lt,1817)  a  new  concordat,  by  which  that  oflSlfl, 
ao  Injurioua  to  the  llbertlei  of  the  Galilean  Chunrh, 
wu  agnin  revived ;  the  concordat  of  IBOl  and  tba  or- 
tidtt  orgnniiiuet  of  1802  were  abollabed;  the  nation 

endowments  far  forty-two  new  metropolitan  and  epla- 
copal  sees,  with  their  chapters  and  eeminaries;  and 
free  rcnpe  waa  aflbnled  lo  the  intolerance  of  the  Ro- 
man cburt  liy  the  indetinite  language  of  art.  10,  which 
Bpesks  of  measures  against  the  pravaillntr  obstacles  to 
religion  and  the  laws  of  the  Chun^h.     This  revival  of 


old  at 


■,thia 


iviaion  1 


clerical  dlgnltarlaa  at  the  expense  of  the  nation,  could 
pleaae  only  the  nltra-royalial  nobility,  who  saw  In  It 
the  meana  of  providing  their  eons'  with  benefices. 
The  nation  received  the  concordat  with  almost  uni- 
versal disapprobation  ;  voices  of  tbs  greatest  weight 
wen  raised  agalni^t  it;  the  Chambers  rejected  it,  and 
It  waa  never  carried  through.  After  the  Revolution 
of  1830  tlie  government  fell  I  ack  on  tbe  concordat  of 
1601,  and  the  organic  articles  became  a  new  aubjecl 
of  controversy  between  Church  and  State. 

2.  Cn-inaiiji./Viiana,(md/)iu[r,<i. — The  relations  of 
tha  Gannsn  Roman  Cathollos  to  the  pope  were  great- 
ly disturbed  by  the  dlseoluUun  of  the  German  emjdre. 
For  soma  time  everything  waa  In  confusion;  at  tbe 
time  ofthe  Congress  ofVienno  only  (Ivo  German  Ldak- 
ops  were  atUI  alive.  When  the  political  rcorginlxa- 
tion  waa  liegun,  the  pope  at  lirst  demanded  the  res- 
toration of  the  entire  former  atare  of  thing's.  Hut 
when  it  was  found  out  that  this  demand  would  never 
be  granted,  negotlatiooa  with  particular  etatea  con- 
cerning the  conclu^on  of  concordats  began.  (1.) 
Bavaria  waa  the  first  state  which  aucceeded  (July  G, 
1817)  In  arriving  at  an  agreement.  By  the  Bavarian 
concordat  two  archbishoprics  were  establiahed  j  aemi- 
narles  wan  Instituted  and  provided  with  land;  tha 
nominations  were  left  with  ^e  king,  whh  the  rewri-a- 
ti[>n  of  tha  papal  right  of  conflrmallon ;  the  limita  of 
tba  civil  and  ecclealaallcal  Jurisdiction  were  precisely 
settled,  and  the  erectian  of  new  monaaterlaa  was  prom- 


CONCORDAT  4( 

iMd.  Thb  ceDcoidit  mi  pDllUbed  in  Way,  IMS,  to- 
getber  witb  tha  new  pDlilial  csnititalion,  by  wbkcb 
■11  ipprebeiiaioas  Tor  tlw  ProlwMnt  Chuicb  in  B*t>- 

rik  were  ■llayed. 

(S.)  Ths  KDverniaent  of  iVvHi?,  in  1821,  iKraed  *ith 
the  pap«  upon  a  bull  of  circumscription  (Oe  Sabitt 
Aaimartm),  obich  iru  publUbed  bjtbe  Pniuiui  gOT- 
•mment  u  a  lair  of  the  ilAte.  It  dividoi  the  ilala 
into  two  arcbbiihoprici  ud  ili  UBhoprica,  and  con- 
tains prnviiions  u  to  the  rt-ettAbliehment  ofchaptan, 
the  election  of  biibopa  by  chaptan,  (he  dotation  of 
biabopa  and  chaplera,  ami  the  taxea  Va  be  paid  by  the 
•piacopal  chancelloriea  to  Romo. 

8.  71^  iLec'ttiaitical  /VomWe  ^Ut  Upper  SUnf.— 
In  ISIS  the  lUle  (covernTneata  of  fVvriBmbtry,  Badtm, 
■nd  a  number  of  other  minor  German  aUIoa  aent  dele- 
gate* to  a  confcrenM  at  Frankfort  to  conduct  joint  ne- 
gotia^na  with  (be  pope  couceming  the  reconetniction 
of  rpidcopal  Fcea.  In  1821,  a  bull  of  clrcumicription, 
beginning  Piwida  telitn^,  and  providing  for  tfaa 
catabliobrnent  of  an  archbisbopric  in  Baden,  and  liiab- 
Dprics  in  Heue-Dinnatadt,  Heaae-Caaacl,  Naaaao,  and 
'WOrtembeig,  and  for  the  dotation  oT  tbe  biabopa,  naa 
iaaued  and  ratified  by  tbe  (rovernmenta  in  1822.  Somo- 
furtbcr  pointa  were  agreed  upon  between  thew  gor- 
gmments  and  the  pope  in  181;,  and  othera  conlinned 
to  be  the  aubject  of  animated  controveray,  and  were  in 
moat  statea  not  yet  settled  in  IHC7. 

A  concordat  vitb  the  king  of  Wortemberg.  eonrirt- 
Ing  of  thirteen  articlea,  waa  concluded  in  I8S7.  Tbe 
government  promiaee  in  it  to  exee>ii«  tbe  dotation  of 
the  bigbnpric  aa  aoon  aa  circumatancea  will  permit. 
Tbe  biabiip  received  tbe  right  to  confer  all  beneficea 
whicb  have  no  pjtron,  of  appointing  hit  ricar  genar- 
al,  tlie  extraordinarj'  memlicia  of  the  chapter,  and  the 
mral  deana,  yet  be  mntt  appoint  peranna  to  whom  the 
BOTemnient  baa  no  olijectiona.  To  the  blehops  lie- 
long  ali  the  regalationa  concemin):  divine  aervice,  tho 
holding  of  aynoda,  and  Che  introdnction  of  monaatic  or- 
deiT,  liie  latter,  however,  only  in  concert  with  the  gov- 
ernment. The  epiacDpal  court  haa  jotiadiction  over 
all  ecdeaiaitical  aAira,  in  particular  alao  over  all 
marriage  affaire.  Tbe  bishop  baa  tbe  right  of  inSict- 
fng  eccieaiaatical  eenaurea  on  clergymen  and  laymen- 
If  clentymen  tranagreia  civil  lawa,  tbe  aecalar  conrt 
will  act  in  concert  with  the  biibop.  Tbe  IntercoDrao 
of  (he  biahop,  the  clergy,  and  tbe  people  with  the  pa- 

tbo  pinYl  rrgium.  The  religioua  ioitructioa  of  tho 
yonth,  both  in  public  and  private  inatitntiona,  is  under 
the  control  of  tbe  biahop.  He  aelecta  the  catechiim. 
He  haa  the  tight  of  eatablisbing  acmlnariea  and  of  an- 
perinlending  them.  Prorlslonnlly,  apecial  mgulationa 
are  made  fur  the  continiunce  of  tbe  three  acminarlaa 
at  Ehingen,  Rottweil,  and  TCtbingen.  The  theological 
ficulty  of  the  univeralty  ofTubingen  is  also  under  tho 
control  of  (he  bbhop,  who  autboricaa  tbe  profeaaon  to 
lecture,  and  may  refuie  thia  anChoriiation  \  who  tokea 
their  confeasiun  of  hlth,and  azamlnea  the  manuacript 
of  their  lecturea.  The  property  of  tbe  Church  ia  in- 
riolDte,hut  anbjectto  pnblic  taxee.  Itia  adminiatered 
by  tbe  Church.  Tbe  vacant  beneficee  and  the  Inter- 
calar  fund  are  administered  by  a  joint  committee  of 
Chnnh  and  State.  Tbe  concordat  waa  published  by 
tbe  government  in  its  official  paper  in  18&8,  bntdid  not 
receive  the  conaent  of  the  I.ogiaIatnre,  withoat  which 
many  ofita  proviaiooa  cannot  become  valid. 

4.  In  ISSl  Sononr  obtained  a  bull  of  eircnmacrip- 
tion  similar  to  the  one  issued  for  Pmaaia,by  which 
two  bishoprics  were  eatabliabed.  For  tbe  kingdom 
of  Saxony  two  biabopa  in  parli'biu  were  appointed  as 
vicars  apostolic.  Tha  other  minor  Bta(Ba  had  their 
Roman  Catholic  subjects  placed  under  the  anbjection 
of  Prnseian  or  Hanoverbin  biabopa,  or  of  those  of  the 
province  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  thereby  ratified  tbe 
agreements  concluded  between  Ibote  atalea  and  Roma. 

B.  Aiutria — Tha  goTsnunent  of  Anatiia  began  to 


CONCORDAT 


negotiate  with  tbe  pope  abcmt  a  » 
after  tbe  beginning  of  tha  revolnlionarv  n 
in  184S.  Tbe  concordat  waa  concluded' in  18£5,  and 
was  most  favorabia  to  the  claims  of  the  papacy.  Iba 
following  are  the  most  Important  points  of  Vbe  Ana- 
trinn  concordaL  llie  Koman  Catholic  Charch  ta 
all  parts  of  the  em[dre  eq)oya  the  protection  of  tba 
government.  The  Plaetl  Ktjpuai  \t  aboUtbed,  »id 
the  intercourse  of  tbe  blafaopa  with  tbe  pope  ta  fre*. 
Tho  inatruction  of  the  Roman  Catholic  youth  mnat  ba 
in  accordance  widi  the  Koman  Catholic  religion.  The 
biabopa  have  tbe  power  to  detam  tbe  faithful  trvn 
reading  pemicloaa  bcoka.  Casea  of  the  canon  law, 
especlnlly  marriage  affatn,  belong  to  the  eccleaia*- 
tical  coDTta,  while  the  civil  rclationa  of  marrtage  iv- 
mainundcrthe  joriadlction  of  the  aecular  judge.  IIm 
liishopa  have  the  right  of  exerdsing  the  discipline  of 
the  Church,  and  of  proceeding  agalnat  memhc^rs  of  tbe 
Church  with  eceleaiastlcsl  pnnishmrnts.  1b<  power 
of  the  Btato  is  pri^mited  to  the  muiatcnanco  of  (ba 
immunity  of  the  Cbnrch.  The  cpiccopal  Hminariea 
are  nnder  the  jnrisdicllon  of  the  bisbopa.  1  be  rmpa- 
ror  has  tbe  ri^ht  of  nominating  the  lifbops,  after  tak- 
ing counsel  with  the  other  bishops  of  the  rcrleiiaiitical 
province.  The  flrrt  diKnity  at  every  metiopolitan  and 
anHY^an  church  b  conferred  by  the  pope.  Tbe  mo- 
naatic  orders  are  nnder  the  jurisdiction  of  their  anpe- 
riora.  Tbe  bisbopa  have  the  right  of  Introdocing  new 
<»der*,  alter  coming  previously  to  an  nndnxtaodfaig 
with  the  goveramenl,  Cbarcb  property  may  be  ac- 
quired in  the  legal  way,  and  is  accnred  to  the  Cbnrch. 
In  Feb.  1866,  tirnlg  " Srparat-Ariiit'  (separate  arti- 
cles) to  tbe  concordat  were  published.  They  provide 
that  the  biahop*  may  found  one  nnivercity  independ- 
ent of  the  state ;  that  only  Roman  Catholic  prBfisaera 
ahall  bo  appointed  at  the  University  of  Peatb;  that 
Church  and  SUta  will  workK^etber  for  tbe  snppna- 
■lon  of  booka  against  religion  and  morals;  Ihst  tha 
state  shall  lay  no  obstacle  in  Ibe  way  of  erecting  inch 
confratemitiea  and  associations  as  the  Church  baa  ap- 
proved; and  that  the  bishops  shall  not  be  hindered 
from  regulating  In  rellgioaa  lastjtntioni  everything 
Ihat  concems  reliition  and  tbe  purity  of  the  ChrirtBn 
life.  Tbe  immense  majority  of  the  Austrian  people 
were  Indignant  at  this  concordat,  and  in  Jnly,  leC7, 
the  Austrian  Parliament,  by  an  almoat  onanimoBi 
vote,  called  on  tbe  govcrtimrnt  to  abolish  it. 

e.  Tkt  NrtirrloKli  owf  J7r/^'nL— Between  the  gov. 
emmeat  of  the  Ketherlanda  nod  tbe  pope  a  concoidat 
was  concluded  in  18S7,  which  exlaoded  to  the  noitbtn 
provinces  the  provisions  of  ttie  Fivnch  concordat  of 
180],  witb  tbe  exception  that  the  bishops  were  not  te 
be  nominated  by  tbe  Protestant  kln«,  but  to  ba  cbsscn 
by  tbe  chapter  from  a  list  of  candidates  fhnn  whicb  (he 
government  bad  tbe  right  to  strike  ont  any  name*  net 
agreeable  to  it.  The  concordat  was  officially  poblisb- 
cd  by  the  government,  tot  the  bull  of  drcnmscriptisD 
by  which  the  provinces  were  divided  into  tmhoprka 
waa  not  recognised,  and  tbe  concordat  waa  nevrr  ar- 
rled  oat.  Later  tbe  papal  garerntnent  itself  diire- 
ganled  the  concordat,  and  made  a  new  dlvition  of  dk- 
tcsea  wiUioot  concert  with  the  goTcmmeut. 

In  Belgium,  which  at  tbe  dme  of  the  pnblicatioii  of 
the  French  concordat  of  1801  was  a  part  of  Ftance, 
that  concordat  continned  in  force,  while  (he  connirt 
w»  annexed  to  Holland  (1816-I8G0).  In  the  >•■ 
Belgian  kingdom  the  Church  was  aeparaled  from  iki 
Btala,  and  tbna  tbe  concordat  naluilly  lost  Ita  antha- 

7.  SKitierlatnL—Tbt  idea  of  eatabllsbfaig  one  DS- 
tional  buhopric  could  not  be  carried  out,  as  aoma  of 
the  cantons  weio  nnable  to  agree  with  the  papal  an. 
Gradualiy,  by  agreemsot  with  aom*  of  the  rantoaal 
eovemmenla,  the  ecclcaiastical  relations  of  (he  Romas 
Catbolica  ware  regalalad,  and  six  biihc^xica  eatab- 


8.  Aa^.— For  Sardimia  ■  n 


r  boll  of  dfCBBaoIr 


CONCORDAT  458  CONCUBINE 

dm  -vu  lalafld  Jnl/  IT,  1817.  Kapla  concluded  sj  P«BrB,bat  onljbja  majority  of  Sft«n(66TOt«iagiiiul 
oonTeDtjon  with  tbe  pops  July  IB,  1H16,  wblch  in  the  51)  in  the  Chambrr  of  Depatin.  Tbu  coamrdat  cod. 
■una  jt»i  wu  promulgated  u  a  lav  af  the  conn-  '  cerns  only  the  prewnt  and  former  Portu^rucBe  poswa> 
try.  The  contention  conaista  of  thirty-live  articles,  '  elona  in  India.  It  piacen  a^in  nearly  the  vbole  of 
■nd  yields  sU  the  chief  demuida  of  the  Roman  court. '  British  India  under  the  Jarisdicliun  of  Liabops  sppoint- 
The  Human  Catholic  Cbnrcbii  dedared  to  be  the  en-  ed  by  the  Portugue»e  Bovcmment.— Pierer.t/iitMrini. 
EtoaiTe  religioiiDftbe  stale;  Uw  right  of  numinUing' i>Mtoa.  a,  v.;  litnog,  Beal-EtKgii.  iii,  GO-87;  Wet- 
tfae  bisbopa  is  given  to  the  king ;  the  riglit  to  nomi- ,  ler  n.  Welte,  Kirrh-Lex.  U,  741-7GO ;  the  Manuals  of 
nate  the  members  oftbe  chapters  iidividedumongtbe  Chnnb  Uw  (Kinltar«U)  br  Ricbter  and  Walter; 
pope  and  the  bishopa  of  the  dioceie.  Tbe  Church  ree-  Mtinch,  VoUttoRdigt  Samniang  aller  Sllem  u,  ntuern 
ognUe)  the  ule  ofChnrcb  property  which  lud  taken  '  Conrordale  (Leipi.  1630,  S  vols.);  Aents  dtt  dtux 
place  daring  the  French  rule,  and  the  property  not   Monda,  U*y  1, 1866;  Sept.  IG,  ISttS. 


M  the  right  I 


Conoubliuige,  the  seziu] 


..r  1 1  k  ..  '      .>.. I    .k    '.n.....    r  •.    m.  „.  """"i  ^"»nt  mibb  wlio  »re  not  umled  by  the  bond 

of  lJ,b.j.  u  .nUrj^i  tb,  <nlnob<.  ot  th.  Ch.reh  „,^„„.„,.   £,„,,„,,„   „„,u.g.  ,„J  oownUni,. 

or  fiiolnn  afccclni.tteal  bcaefima  trilboat  tie  cen»nt  ^;  ,k-  *     i_j  i   .  ..  .    .  .u 

s.i'^h'K.s.S'rh.i'r'"  "• """  •''^!=.esrj:s."i;X';v.'';y~ifht 
"rre'ltsr^th'tl, .,  j.n.  „,  >^,, ,».  r* .» "■•  '•»;;  ■'"-*  t'S  "°'T ,',;  Trt 

-1.      f^f.  _.  1  ..  .J      .I...,.         1    ■         mamage  the  wife  obtained  the  runk  of  the  huahand 

tical  SDthoiitieMn  the  exercise  of  the  r  oOieee,  ehall  i  ;"?.    ,   /!.    ...         ,.         ..*        "  i,   .    l 

«»d  the  imteetU  fthe  «.».  Th.  Int.™.™  ot  1"  the  p.,.,  ot  th.  Iklb.,.  ion.  otl»e„  „..lt,  »k 
•i.      ■  1  1.  i.t  ^i  ■    ..■  1  .L        _  I  place  in  case  of  concabinaiw.     The  Church  diatin- 

sr'.i,t-,Ke."''?hi?'i,rz"b;:;'r  j^eh™ ,  s"',- ""rrcs-i^-sr-iX-'ttr,; 

■UK  the  futhful  from  rejilins  perniciona  boDKe.     If  i ,   .     , ,  n   .nn>  i.    -.    i-  .-  _         .    . 

~   .      _    .        •    ,    •  -11      Ti       i.  I.  .  '  ledo  (A.D.  400),  by  its  Canon  17,  eicommunicatea  a 

prieeta  oflfend  ag;iinBt  civil  lows  they  aba  I  l)o  anena-  ■  „  ^V,  „  „  u'l,.         „      i  ■      i   .  ™  __-. 
fa    ..      *.      ■  ■■        _.,..>.  1^        .    1.  ,1         1       married  man  ceeninE  a  concubine,  but  permits  unmar'- 

bl.>  to  the  civil  courts,  but  the  ponlsbment  shall  not  lie   j  j         ,   j       '    *,   „         -.J     '  »^' ""'"  •"""■■ 
I    a-_.  J      ■.!.     ..I  .    .  .1.    t- ..  ......  riedmentodo  so;  and  allows  eitnera  Wife  or  a  concu. 

Idflirt^  without  the  consent  rf  the  bL-hop. ;  and  if  it    j^,^^     ,^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^.^^^j^^  j^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^j,  ^    ^ 

tH  the  penalty  of  deatk  or  any  pennlty  Invo  vmg  ra- ,  ^^  ^,  ^rent,  which  made  the  v.liriitv  of  a  marriage 
?r'''"',!r'^T  'rf'^'^^'T-VJ"'^-  ^"F^xdent  upon  a  dccl.mtion  .f  convnt  l*fore  the 
The  pmp^j  rflhe  Church  .hs^l  be  Klmmirter^  by  ^^,^  prict  and  two  witneaseP,  that  life-long  concn- 
the  iH-hop.  and  the  p.™h  prie.U,  and  in  wae  of  «-  ;^|„  ''^„  declared  to  be  criminal,  and  anl.Jec.ed 
cancie,.  by  a  Joint  com mttec  of  pr«stt  and  Uymen.  ^  «J,,i,ment.  The  punishment  for^n>[nl.terial  «*■ 
By  lh»  concordat  tba  eccl«,.,tleal  legialation  of  Lao-  ■  ^,^.  ^^  ^■,a,}x,lLg  of  income,  .u.penaion,  ira- 

rollowed  l)v  lome  onnnic  intcrprelatkmp,  liy  which  Ibe  "    „  „    ii.^i.i       i.t  .mi         a         ■ 

.  .        -.i.L  .    A.  .  J  1  nage. — Hertag,  RAi{-l,iacvUDp.  iii,  lOS:  Lea,  Snefrao- 

SK';rv-""Vhe'';zsi.Tirr..T:t",  «^««».*p-^  ^t„i..j^ 

Toscany  in  1853  declared  this  concoidst  atwliabed.  ConCubiDe  (CS^'B,  pSt'gah,  dcriv.  uncertain, 
By  the  slieorption  of  Naples  and  Tuacany  into  the  !  but  apparently  connected  with  the  Gr,  iriXXat  [fnlly 
kingdom  of  Itily  their  special  concordats  ceased.  („  the  plnr.  D^Oai'B  Vm,  2  Sam.  iv,  16 ;  ii,  3] ; 

0.  Raaim  Cimcordat.  —  'Eot  the   Roman  Catholic    „.    ,.    _,_i.    ,',"    ',,    r.  »   «  «%   .a       .      i 

Ghorch  of  Kua^b  a  concordat  waa  concluded  .,v  the  ""la.  Tt^nh,  U.km.k  ,  D«..  v,  8  S,  23).  denotea  in 
cmp-ror  Nicholas  Aug.  16, 1^7.  It  guarantees  t.i  tbe  "^  ?""*  "■*  a  panimour  ((Jr.  irnX^nmi),  but  only  a 
Koman  Catholics  of  Ku»ia  the  free  oxerci«  of  th.-ir  '«'"•'«  mhJi'B*"?  nnit^  to  a  man  in  a  relation  infe. 
nli^on,  and  pemiiW  the  cstalilbihment  of  a  new  lilah-  rrar  to  that  of  the  ret-ubir  wife  (nv^^li).  See  Wipe. 
opric  at  Clieraon  for  Busurabia,  Tauris,  and  the  Cau-  The  positions  of  theiw  two  among  the  early  Jewa  can. 
casus.  The  government  char,^  itself  with  meintjin-  not  1>e  referred  to  the  standard  of  our  own  >r"  and 
in-;  the  bishop,  hta  chapter,  and  seminary.  It  also  coontry;  that  of  concubine  being  letis  deEraded.  as 
contained  provisions  on  tbe  elections  of  bishops  not  that  of  wife  was,  especially  owing  to  tbe  aanction  of 
Jet  officialh'  published.  ^  polygamy,  less  honorable  tban  among  ourselves.    The 

Id.  A  concordat  with  Spain,  const>ting  of  forty-flve  natunl  desire  of  nflspring  was,  tn  Ihu  .lew,  consecrated 
article^  was  concluded  Miirch  IC,  IfSl.  According  to  into  a  religious  hope,  which  tended  to  redeem  concu- 
H.  tbe  Roman  Catholic  religion  is,  to  the  exclusion  of  '  l>iniige  from  the  delafemont  Into  which  the  grosser 
every  other  religious  worship,  the  only  nligion  of  the  I  motive*  for  its  adoption  might  have  bmugbt  it.  The 
Spani'h  p.-ople.  Public  instruction  in  all  institutions  |  whole  question  must  be  viewed  fnren  the  point  which 
Is  to  lie  imp.irt«d  in  accordance  with  the  Roman  Cath-  '  Couches  the  Inlerrat  of  propagation,  in  virtue  of  which 
ollc  doctrine,  and  placed  in  this  leapect  under  the  con-  !  even  a  slave  concubine  who  had  many  children  would 
trol  of  the  tdshopi.  The  government  is  bound  to  as-  become  a  moetimportoat  pemmin  a  fkmil}',  especiuPy 
rist  the  bitbops  in  maint.iining  the  pnrltr  of  doctrine  '  where  a  wife  was  barren.  Soch  was  the  true  source 
and  of  morals,  and  ia  snppreasinic  |ipmidous  Inioks. ',  of  tbe  concubinage  of  Nshor,  Abraham,  and  Jacob, 
The  femaleordera  which  occupy  themselves  with  edu- '  which  indeed,  in  the  two  latter  cnses,  lost  the  nature 
cation,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  are  to  In  msintiin-  I  which  it  has  in  our  eyes,  through  the  pmcess,  unulo- 
ed.  The  conflpcated  Church  property  which  was  not  goua  to  adoption,  by  which  tbe  offspring  was  regarded 
yet  sold  St  the  time  ofthe  conclusion  of  the  concordat!  as  that  of  the  wife  herself.  From  all  this  it  follows 
was  to  be  restored  to  the  Church,  and  to  be  adminis-  that,  save  in  an  far  as  the  latter  was  generally  a  slave, 
tared  by  the  clei^y.  The  pope,  on  the  nlhcr  hand,  the  difference  between  wife  and  concubine  was  leH 
promised  to  leave  the  former  buyen  of  Chnrch  prop  '  msriied,  owing  to  the  abeence  of  moral  stigma,  than 
«rty  hi  the  tmdbiturlied  possession  thereof  A  new  '  among  us.  We  must  tbeiefnie  liewaie  of  regardini; 
CAncordat,  slightly  modifiing  the  preceding,  was  con-  i  as  essential  to  the  relation  of  concubinsge  what  rvallr 
dsded  Nov.  !6, 1869.  pertained  to  that  of  bondage. 

II.  Portugal. — A  concordat  w!th  Portngal  waa  con-  Tbe  concuUne's  condition  wis  a  detlolte  one.  and 
elnd*^  la  1867,  and  ratifled  liy  the  Portuguese  LegisIS'  qaite  independent  of  the  fact  of  there  bping  another 
tare  tn  111611— almoM  nnaniDNUly  by  the  Chamber  ot  \  woman  hiTing  the  rtghti  of  wife  townrde  tbe  sam*- 


OOJiOUBINE 


460 


CONCUBINE 


mm.  Th«  ttatx  of  conniUnage  ii  ununsd  lod  pro- 1 
vided  for  by  the  Uv  of  Moma.  A  coocubinv  itonld 
generally  be  eicber  (I)  ■  Hebrew  gitl  bongbt  of  ber 
father,  J.  b.  a  lUva,  which  *1otis  the  rabbini  ngird 
■■  a  lawful  connectioD  (JUaimmidea,  Jfalach-MelatiK, 
iv),  at  le*st  for  a  private  penon ;  (2),  ■  gentile  cap- 
tive taken  in  war ;  (3),  ■  foreign  alave  bongbl,  or  (4), 
a  Canaanltiib  woman,  bond  or  (ne.  Tb«  righti  of  (1) 
and  (-2)  were  protected  by  law  (Exod.  ixi,  7;  Deul. 
xxi,  10),  bnt  (S)  wBi  uniemgaiwd,  and  (4)  probibited. 
Free  Hebrew  women  also  might  become  concahinei. 
So  Gideon's  concubine  seems  to  trnve  been  of  a  family 
of  ranlt  and  inSuence  in  Shechem,  and  such  was  prub- 
ably  tbe  state  of  the  Levite's  concubine  (Judg.  ix). 
The  ravagea  of  war  among  the  male  sea,  or  the  Impor- 
eriehment  of  fimiliea,  might  often  induce  tbis  condi- 
tion. Tbe  case  (1)  wu  not  ■  hard  lot.  The  p«u<gB 
in  Exod.  xii  is  somewhat  obscure,  snd  seems  to  mean, 
in  brief,  as  foltowa  :  A  man  who  Iwaght  a  Hebrew  girl 
ncnbine  ft>r  himselfmight  DC 


Heh 


T,i),  but  might,  ifsbedifpleasedhim,  diemiesher 
to  iiET  father  on  fedemptJon,  i.  e.  repayment  probably 
of  a  part  of  what  be  paid  Ibi  ber.  If  be  had  taken  her  ' 
for  a  coDcabine  for  his  son,  and  tbo  eon  then  married  . 
mother  womaJi,  the  concablae'a  position  and  rifihts 
were  Mcnred,  or,  if  she  were  refnaed  these,  she  became 
free  without  redemption.  Further,  from  the  provision 
in  the  case  of  anch.  a  concubine  given  by  a  man  to  hia 
son,  that  she  should  b«  dealt  with  "after  the  manner 
of  daughlera,"  wo  set  that  the  servile  merged  in  the 
conuubial  nletioD,  md  that  iier  children  must  have 
been  free.  Yot  some  degree  of  conUmpt  attacbed  to 
the  "baudniaid'a  sen"  (ri'CM*^^),  used  reproachfully 
to  the  son  of  a  concubine  meiely  In  Judg.  ix,  ]B ;  aes 
■1(0  Psa.  cxvi,  IG.  The  provisions  relating  to  (S)  arc 
merciful  end  considerate  to  a  rare  d^ree,  but  overlaid 
by  tlie  rabbis  with  distorting  commenta. 

Concubinage  therefore,  in  a  scrlptnrai  senae,  meana 
the  state  of  cohabiting  lawfully  with  a  wife  of  secoikd 
rank,  who  enjoyed  no  other  conjugal  right  l:nt  that  of 
cohabitation  (q.  v.),  and  whom  the  husband  could  re- 
pudiats,  and  send  away  with  a  small  present  (Gen. 
xxi,  14).  In  like  manner,  be  could,  117  means  of  pres- 
ents, exclude  hia  children  by  ber  from  the  heritage 
(Gen.  xzr,  6).  Such  concubines  had  Nahor  (Gen. 
.1x11,  !4),  Abnbim  (xxv,  6),  Jacob  (xxxv,  22).  EU- 
phaz  (xxxvt.  12),  Gideon  (Judg.  viii,  H),  Saul  (,i  Sam. 
iii,T),  David  (1  Sam.  V,  IS;  iv.lG;  xvi,  11),  Solomon 
(1  Kings  xi,  3),  Caleb  (1  Cbron.  II,  40),  Manasseb  (ib. 
Til,  14),  Rehoboam  (2  Cbron.  xi,  11),  Ab^uh  (2  Cbron. 
xiii,  31),  and  Beishacxar  (Dan.  v,  2).  Tbeir  Issue  wis 
repnted  Intimate  (though  tbe  children  of  the  Arat 
wfre  were  preferred  in  the  distribution  of  the  inherit- 
ance),  but  in  all  other  respects  those  concubines  were 
inferior  to  the  primary  wife,  for  they  had  no  authority 
in  the  family,  nor  any  share  in  household  govern- 
ment. If  they  hadlieen  ser\-ants  in  tlw  family  before 
tbey  canu  to  be  concnbines  they  continued  to  be  so 
afterwards,  and  in  the  same  subjection  to  the  mistreas 
aa  before.  It  a  woman  were  made  captire  In  wu  she 
was  allowed  a  month  in  which  she  waa  at  liberty  to 
monm  the  loss  of  her  parents  and  friends;  and  nei- 
ther father  nor  son  was  permitted  to  take  her  as  a  con- 
cubine until  theeipiratioDofthattime(Dent.  XX,  10, 
14).  To  judge  bum  the  conjugal  histories  of  Ahra- 
bun  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xvi  and  xxO,  the  immediate 
cause  of  concubinage  in  patriarchal  times  was  the  bar- 
rennpM  of  the  lawful  wife,  who  in  that  case  iotroduced 
ber  maid-servant  of  her  own  accord  t«  her  buaband  for 
the  sake  of  having  children.  Accordingly,  we  do  not 
read  that  Isaac,  son  of  Abraham,  had  any  concubine, 
Rel>ecca,  his  wife,  not  being  barren.  In  process  of 
time,  however,  concubinage  appears  to  have  degener- 
Bted  into  a  regular  custom  amnng  the  Jews,  and  the 
iastUntiona  of  Hoaea  wen  directed  to  prevent  excess  , 


and  abnse  in  that  respect  by  wholeaome  laws  ud  r^- 
■  ■>ns(Exod.xxi,7-9;  Dent,  xxi,  10-14).  The  un- 
faithfulness of  a  concubine  was  regarded  aa  criminal 
(Jndg.  xix,  2;  2  Sam.  iil,  7,  8),  but  it  waa  not  pun- 
ished aa  was  that  of  a  wife  (Lev.  xix,  20).  SeeADDL- 
TEKI.  Such  a  cose,  however,  aa  that  mentioned 
(Judg.xlx),wbele  not  only  ia  the  posaeuoroftbc  con. 
Gubine  called  her  "  husband"  (ver.  8),  but  ber  father 
is  called  hia  father-in-law  and  ha  bii  son-in-law  (4,  fi), 
aboHS  how  nearly  tbe  concubine  approached  to  the 
wife.  Hired  women,  such  as  "uxorea  mercenaria 
coniiucta  ad  tenipus  ex  pacto,"  whom  Aromiknus 
Marcellinns  attribotea  to  tlM  Saracen*  (xiv,  4),  were 
unknown  among  the  Hebrews.  To  guard  adult  male 
offspring  from  debauchery  before  marriage,  their  par- 
ents, it  appears,  used  to  give  them  one  ot  their  f^ 
male  slaves  as  a  concnbine.  She  wa*  then  niniid- 
ered  aa  one  of  the  children  of  the  house,  and  tbe  re- 
tained her  rights  as  a  concabina  even  after  the  mar- 
riage of  the  son  (Exod.  xxi.  9,  IS).  When  a  too  had 
intercourse  with  the  concubine  of  his  father,  a  tort 
of  Ikmily  punishment,  we  are  Inflamed,  waa  inflict- 
ed on  him  (Gen.  xxxv,  22;  1  Cbron.  v,  1).  'Where 
polygamy  was  tolerated  —  as  It  was  among  tbe  He- 
hrewr— the  permission  of  concubinsge  would  not  seen 
so  much  at  war  with  tbe  intercsta  and  preservatkm  of 
society  as  we  know  It  to  be.  Christianity  restores  the 
sacred  Institution  of  marriage  to  its  original  chare ctcr, 
and  concubinage  b  ranked  with  fomicitjon  and  adul- 
tery (Matt,  xli,  6 ;  1  Cor.  vii,  !).     See  PoLtoAJir. 

In  the  Talmud  (tit.  <ktii),ah\  the  Rabbins  differ  a* 
to  what  constitutes  coDculdnage,  some  regarding  as 
its  distinguishing  feature  the  abi'ence  of  tbe  belmthing 
ceremonies  {tpunmiid}  and  of  the  dowry  {UMIu  riofts), 
or  portion  of  property  alh  Ited  to  a  womau  by  special 
engagement,  and  to  whii'h  she  was  entitled  on  the 
marriage  day,  after  (he  decease  of  tbe  husband,  or  in 
case  of  repudiation ;  otliers,  again,  the  absence  ^f  the 
latter  alone.  In  the  liooke  of  Samuel  and  King*  the 
concubines  mentioned  belong  to  the  king,  and  their 
condition  and  number  cease  to  be  a  guide  to  the  gen* 
enl  practice.     A  new  king  stepped  inio  the  rights  of 

had  approximated  to  that  of  a  Persian  batem  (2  Sam. 
xU,  8;  xvi,  21;  1  Kings  Ii,  21).  To  seiie  on  rejral 
concnbinea  Cm  hia  use  wls  thus  a  usurper's  firpt  act. 
Such  was  prolialilv  the  intent  of  Aburr'a  art  (2  &m. 
iii,  ;),  and  similatiy  the  request  on  behalf  of  Adonijab 
was  construed  (t  King*  ii,  21-34).  For  fuller  infor- 
mation, Selden's  treatises  De  Umrc  Htbnrd  and  Dt 
Jure  Aitfar.  el  Grnl.  v,  7,  8,  and  especially  that  Dt 
SucctuionitMM,  cap.  ill,  may,  with  (omo  caution  (eiiK« 
he  leans  somewhat  easily  to  rabbinical  tradition),  la 
consulted ;  also  the  treotites  Selak,  Kidiukim,  and  C*e- 
fijiolh  in  the  Gemara  Hlerosol.,  and  that  entitled  Sa*- 
hedrin  in  the  Gemara  Babyl.  The  essential  poitioBa 
(if  all  these  are  collected  in  Ugolini,  vol.  ixx,  JJe  Ur. 
lire  Jl^raa.  See  slso  Otho,  Lix.  Rabim.  p.  191 ;  SeU 
den,  Dc  Suecfmionibia,  iii;  Uichaelis,  lows  o/'ifotet, 
i,  465-406. 

The  Roman  law  calls  concubinage  an  allowed  cua- 
tom  (fcriftj  (DWtirhirfo).  When  thla  expraorion  occurs 
in  the  constitutions  of  the  Cbristiin  emperor*,  it  dg- 
nUtm  what  we  now  sometimes  call  a  wurriegr  q/'cow- 
(Ctntce.  The  concuUnnge  tolerated  among  the  Ro- 
mans, in  the  lime  of  tbe  Republic  and  of  the  heathen 
empenira,  was  that  between  persons  not  capaLle  of 
contracting  legal  marriage.  Inheritance*  might  de- 
sceiHl  to  children  that  apmng  from  such  a  tolerated 
cohabluncr.  Ccmcubinege  l-etween  such  persoiu  they 
looked  on  oa  a  kind  of  marriage,  and  even  allowed  it 
several  privileges ;  but  then  it  was  confined  to  a  sin- 
gle peison,  and  was  of  perpetual  obligation,  a*  much 
as  marriage  Itwlf  (Gail,  htlihil.  Uh.  i,  £  lUn  sq. ;  Jos- 
tin.  /lurtHf.  lib.  i.  til.  x).  Holtomm  observes  that 
tbe  Romans  bad  allowed  eoncublnsge  long  before  .n- 
lias  Cauar  enacted  the  law  by  which  every  one  wa*  at 


CONCUPISCENCE  4 

llbcrt]'  to  Dutrry  u  nun;  wlvea  ■>  he  pleaud.  The 
emperor  ValeDtiaian,  SocniteB  talis  nr,  ■llowed  every 
nuia  two.  Concubinage  a  alw  used  to  tignity  «.  jb3t~ 
riage  with  w.  woman  or  Inferior  condition,  to  whom  the 
hiubud  don  sot  convey  hia  nak.  Dajos  (Pantillii) 
observes  that  the  aocient  laws  allowed  a  man  to  et- 
poa»,  under  the  title  of  concnblne,  certain  penons 
who  were  eileemed  aneqaal  (o  him  on  account  of  the 
want  of  »me  qnalitiea  reqoUite  to  •uetain  the  full 
faonoi  of  miTilatje;  and  he  addathat,  though  such  COD- 
cBbinage  wu  beneath  marriage  both  aa  to  digni^  and 
civil  rights,  yet  waa  concubine  a  reputable  title,  and 
vei7  different  fmoi  that  of  "mietrena"  among  up. 
Tba  connection  waa  considered  ao  lawfal  that  the  con- 
caUiM  might  be  aecuaed  of  ednlterj'  in  the  same  nun- 
ner  u  a  wift  (ae«  Smith's  Diet,  of  Clan.  Aniiq.  a.  v. 
CODcnblni). 

Thb  kind  of  concubinage  ia  atill  in  uae  In  aome  coun- 
tries, particnlarly  in  Germany,  under  the  title  alhalb-tke 
(half-marriage),  left-band  or  morganatic  marriage,  in 
■lliuion  to  the  manner  of  iCa  being  contmctod,  nnnptv, 
by  the  man  giving  the  woman  his  left  hand  instead  of 
the  right.  Tbia  ia  a  real  marriage,  though  without 
the  nanal  aolemnitr,  and  the  partiea  are  both  honnd 
to  each  other  forever,  IhoDgh  the  female  cannot  bear 
the  huabanJ'i  name  and  titk.     See  MABniAaR)  CON- 


Conmplaoence  (Lat.  cencapitcenlia),  evil  desire 
(•irieti^iia.  Rom.  vii,  8|  JnChipii  cmr;.  Col.  iii,  6); 
generally  used  in  the  aenae  of  indwelling  sin.  The 
term  is  especially  uaed  in  Roman  Catholic  theology. 
For  ita  import  there,  and  the  controversy  concerning 

Conder,  Johas,  bom  in  London  17th  September, 
3TB9,  was  the  aon  of  a  bookseller,  and  very  early  dis- 
played ■  taata  for  lileratare.  In  1814,  being  at  the 
limq  a  bookuller,  be  pnrahaaed  the  EcUctie  Revittu,  of 
which  he  continued  to  be  editor  until  IB87.  Under 
his  management  the  EtltctU  Reriem  received  the  aa- 
■istiBca  air  many  eminent  men  among  the  Noncon- 
fonoiata,  such  aa  Robert  Hall,  John. Foster,  Dr.  Chal- 
meii,  Dr.Vaaghan.  and  othen.  In  1818  be  publinhed 
a  treatise  Oa  Prattttrmt  /((max^ormiti/  (Lond.  S  vols. 
«To);  in  IBM  Tke  Slar  m  Oa  EaU,  a  poem;  and  in 
in  1S»1  a  new  translation  of  the  l^k  to  IIk  Iftbrem, 
•cU  ffma.  In  1836  lia  edited  Tlu  C-igrrgitima! 
/Ifmu^book,  leaned  under  the  aanction  of  the  Cnngre- 
Kitionol  Union.  B«id«  these,  ha  iuned  An  jlnuilyt. 
iad  Vm  of  aU  Religiont  (1838,  Bro);  fzpon'tiw  of 
lie  ApoetUgpte  (8vo) ;  Liltrarj  Hittory  off/.  T.  (184a, 
8vo).  Hla  worka  aro  chiefly  compilatione,  bat  are 
earehlly  execnled,  and  well  adapted  to  popular  nae. 
He  died  Dec.  !7,  IBS}. 

Condescension,  a  term  both  earlier  and  more 
ODuect  for  the  modern  theory  of  the  Accohuoua- 
Tio:<  (q.  V.)  of  Scripture ;  we  have  therefore  reserved 
for  this  place  aome  temirka  supplementary  to  the  arti- 
cle under  that  head.  The  Reneral  idea  expressed  by 
tlw  t«rm  AccommodatioD  is  that  some  object  is  present- 
ed, not  in  its  absolute  reality  as  it  is  in  lIscKibut  under 
aome  nuidlScation,  or  under  some  relative  aapect,  ao  as 
the  better  to  secure  aome  end  at  which  the  writer  or 
speaker  alma.  Of  tbia  leading  conception  there  arc 
aaTcral  fcama  knoirn  among  tliblieal  acholara  under 
the  title*  of/unaiitand  mnleriid  accommodation.  Tbo 
following  la  ■  somewhat  fuller  analysis. 

].  Btal, — This  l4kos  place  when  a  person  Is  set  forth 
sa  being  or  as  acting  under  aome  modified  character, 
accommodated  to  the  capacity  fgr  concelring  bim,  or 
the  Inclinatiaa  to  receive  him.  of  those  to  whom  the 
representation  is  addresaedj  Thug  God  Is  frequently 
In  Scripture  described  anthropomorpbically  or  antbro- 
popathlcally,  I.  c.  not  as  ha  la  in  himaelf,  but  relative- 
ly to  hnman  inodes  of  thought  and  apprehenaion.  See 
roxonpltiau.  So  alra  the  apostle  describes 
a  becoming  all  things  to  all  men,  that  by  all 


CONDESCENSION 


and  even  prejudicej,  ii 
their  opposition,  and  at 
the  goapel  of  salvi "' 


uauallj  hare  in  v 


he  might  aave  aomei  1.  e 

isagee,  and  modes  of  thought, 
order  thai  he  might  disarm 
ire  a  favorable  reception  for 
hich  he  preached.  This  epe- 
1  what  the  Christian  btben 
nnder  the  terms  m-ftarafiaaii, 
rcovo/iio,  or  diipeiuala.  They 
apply  these  terms  also  to  the  incamalkin  and  state  of 
humiliation  of  Chriat.  which  they  regarded  aa  an  ac- 
commodation to  the  necessities  of  man's  case  ft>r  hi» 
redemption.  (See  Suicer,  Thetmnvt  EccL  a.  v.  vuy- 
saTo^aiC  and  oi'coivpii;  Cliapman'a  AfUcdUmeoiu 
TracU  iriutui?  la  Anliqailg,  London,  174!,)  To  tbia 
bend  may  bo  referred  many  of  the  Bymbollc»l  actiona 
of  the  prophets. 

S.  VVriaJ, — This  takes  place  when  a  paaaage  or  ex- 
pression used  by  one  writer  is  cited  by  anotber,  and 
applied  with  aome  modiflcation  ofthe  meaning  to  aom»- 
thlni;  different  from  that  to  which  it  waa  orloinally 
applied.  Such  accommodations  are  common  in  all 
languages.  Writers  and  speakers  lay  hold  ofthe  ut- 
terancea  of  othen  for  the  sake  of  giving  to  their  own 
ideas  a  mnre  giacefiil  and  a  more  fonlble  clothing 
than  they  feel  themselves  able  to  give  them,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  for  them  acceptance,  l^  uttering 
thorn  In  words  which  some  great  writer  has  already 
made  familiar  and  pieciona  to  the  general  mind. 
Sometimes  this  is  done  almoet  unconscloaaly.  "Wher- 
ever,"  aays  MicbaeUs,  "a  book  Is  the  object  of  our 
diily  reading  and  study,  It  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
that  poBsagea  of  It  should  frequently  flow  into  our  pen 
in  writing  1  eomeUmes  accompanied  with  a  conscious 
recollection  ofthe  place  where  we  bava  read  tbcni,  at 
other  timea  without  our  possesslsg  any  auch  conacious* 
nesa.  Thus  the  lawyer  speaks  with  the  corjmt  Jarit 
and  the  lawa,  the  acholar  with  the  Ijitin  authors,  and 
the  preacher  with  the  Bible"  (_Eiiihil.  1,  S!8).  Our 
own  literature  la  full  of  exemplificatfonB  of  thta,  as  la 
too  well  known  to  need  illustratiTe  proof.  In  the 
wrings  of  Paul  we  find  him  making  use  in  this  way 
of  pa><8ages  from  the  chusica  (Acta  xvii,  IP;  1  Cor. 
XV,  94 ;  Tit.  i,  12),  all  of  which  ere  of  course  applied 
by  him  to  Christian  aulijects  only  by  acconnnodatlan. 
We  need  not  he  surprised,  then,  to  And  the  later  Bib- 
lical writers  quoting  in  thb  way  from  the  earlier,  ea- 
pociolly  the  N.-T.  writera,  IVom  the  great  classic  of 
their  nation,  the  iipd  ypripuora  of  the  former  dispen. 
aation.  Aa  Instances  may  be  addi^ced,  Rom.  x,  18 
IVom  Psa.  ill,  4,  and  Rom.  ili,  !0  from  Prov.  xxv,  31, 
■n.  See  also  Matt.  U,  IB,  18,  with  Calvin's  notes 
thereon.  "They  have  done  this,"  saya  HIchaelis, 
"in  many  places  where  It  is  not  perceived  by  the  gen- 
erality of  readers  of  the  K.  T.,  because  such  are  too 
little  acquainted  with  the  Septuagint." 

8.  J!A((oriciit— This  tskea  place  when  tmth  Is  prc- 


it  and  II 


n,  but  tl 


the  medium  of  symbol,  figure,  or  apologue.  Thus,  in 
the  propheticol  writings  of  Scripture,  we  have  lan- 
guage used  which  cannot  be  interpreted  literally,  but 
which,  taken  symbolicaily,  conveys  a  Just  statement 
of  Important  truth,  c,  g.  Isa.  iv,  b;  xxvii,  1  \  xzxir, 
4;  Joel  ii,  S8-81;  Zcch.  iv,  S,  10,  etc.  Many  in- 
stances occur  in  Scripture  where  truth  is  presented 
in  the  form  of  pareble,  and  where  the  truth  taught  Is 
to  be  obuined  only  by  extracting  from  the  story  the 
spiritual,  or  moral,  or  practical  lesaon  it  ia  designed  to 
'irce.  In  all  the  sacred  liooka  there  are  instances 
itantly  occurring  of  words  and  statements  which 
designed  to  convey,  under  the  vehicle  of  flgnre.  a 
truth  analogous  to,  hut  not  really  what  they  literally 
expreaa.  (See  Knobel,  PropU/ftmai  Jer  Brbratr,  §  SO 
-83l  Smith,  Summars  Vitw  imd  Kiplanatiom  of  Ht 
Writiiigi  "ftltt  PropirU,  Prel.  Ohss.  p.  l-SS;  Glaasiu*, 
PMI.  Sae.  1.  V,  p.  609  aqT,  ed.  1711 ;  Lowth,  Dr  StK. 
Poai  Bfb.,  pi.  loc  \  Davidaon,  Saofd  Bermaitulie*, 
eh.lx.) 


CONDESCENSION  i 

-  i.  Le^coL — In  mrKoing  with  an  opponent  It  i«  aame- 
times  sdviinta^^eous  tu  tnks  him  on  liis  own  i;niuDd, 
or  to  Krgna  from  principlea  mhlcb  ha  admita,  for  the 


cannot  nfoae,  if  he   * 


dpi™ 


lich  he 
Duld  TeUin  tlie  prcmiKa.  It 
It  loiiow  irom  tnis  that  hii  ({louiid  is  admitted 
w  right  one,  or  that  aaiient  ia  given  to  lili  prin- 
the  argiunent  ia  eimply  one  ml  hommem,  and 
may  not  lie  alM  ad  ttritalen.  When  it  ia  not, 
that  i»,  wliMi  ilB  purpoM  ia  merely  to  shut  the  mouth 
of  an  opponent  I17  u  logic*!  inrerence  ftvm  his  own 
principlea,  there  la  a  case  o(  lo^cil  aecommodution. 

b.  Ihc^™al.—Tba  ttka  place  when  opiniona  are 
advanced  or  atateuienta  made  merely  to  gratify  the 
prejudices  or  gain  the  bvor  ofthoae  to  whom  they  are 
add  rawed,  without  regard  to  Ihelr  hiherent  Boundneaa 
or  trntbfalnwB.  If,  for  Inatance,  the  N.-T.  vritere 
were  found  introducing  aome  pasaa^o  of  the  O.  T.  as  a 
prediction  irhicb  had  found  it*  nilfllnirnt  in  some  fact 
in  the  history  of  JeSDa  Cfatiit  or  hia  Church,  merely 
Ibr  the  purpoae  of  overcoming  Jeiriah  prejudieea,  and 
kading  those  who  venerated  the  O.  T.  to  receive  more 
readily  the  meaaage  of  Cfariatianity ;  or  If  they  were 
found  not  only  clothing  their  Ideas  in  language  Ixir- 
lowed  from  the  Hoswc  ceremonial,  Ijut  asserthig  a 
correspondence  of  meaning  hetween  that  ceremonial 
and  the  fact  or  doctrines  tbey  announced  nben  no 
sach  really  existed,  (hereby  warping  truth  for  the 
sake  of  subduing  prejudice,  they  would  fiimiah  apeci- 
mens  of  this  species  of  accomTnodation. 

In  both  respect*,  a  charge  to  this  effect  has  been 
brought  Bgainat  thrm.  It  has  been  ollegcd  that  when 
they  say  of  any  event  tbey  record  that  in  it  was  fnl- 
fllled  such  and  snch  a  statement  of  the  O.  T.,  or  that 
Ibo  event  occurred  that  each  and  aach  a  statement 
might  be  fufiUed,  they  did  so  merely  in  accommoda- 
tion to  Jewieb  feeling  and  prejudices.  A  fitter  place 
wilt  be  fonnd  clKwhero  for  conaiileriug  the  import  of 
the  formula!  Vvh  irAuptut'j,  rdrt  l-K>tiipi!£Tj.  and  the 
like.  See  Qcotation.  At  present  it  will  safflce  to 
observe  that  it  may  be  admitted  that  these  formula 

intention  on  the  part  of  the  writer  to  Intimate  (hat  in 
the  event  to  which  they  relate  there  was  the  fulflU 
DKnt  of  a  prediction;  aa,  for  instance,  where  some 
gnome  or  moral  majilm  contained  in  the  O.  T.  Is  said 
to  be  fulBlleal  by  somotbing  recorded  in  the  N.  T.,  or 
some  general  stutement  is  jualiAed  by  a  particular  in- 
stance (comp.  Hatl.  sii,  S6 ;  John  xv,  3b ;  Kcm.  i,  17 ; 
Jam.  ii,  33;  !  I'et.  ii,  2i,  etc.).  It  may  be  admitted, 
alK>,  that  there  are  caaoa  irhcn  a  paarage  iu  the  O.  T. 
Is  said  to  be  fiillilled  in  aome  event  recorded  in  Iho  N., 
when  all  that  h  intended  Is  that  a  liMilarilg  ot  parat- 
!tliim  exista  betHoen  (he  too,  as  is  the  case,  according 
to  (ho  opinion  of  moat,  at  least,  in  Matt,  ii,  17,  IB.  Bat, 
whilst  these  admissions  throw  the  onus  proiondi  on 
those  wbo,  in  any  special  instance,  maintain  that  there 
la  in  It  an  actual  fnllilment  of  an  ancient  prediction,  it 
wontd  Iw  prepoaleroas  tram  them  to  foreclose  the  ques- 
tion, and  maintain  that  in  no  care  is  the  N.-T.  paaaaee 
to  ho  undeiBtood  as  amrming  (he  fulHlment  in  feet  of 
an  ancient  prediction  recorded  in  the  Old,  Dccaose 
aouis  accommodations  of  Che  kind  specified  are  admit- 
ted, it  wonld  be  folly  to  conclode  that  nothing  Imt  ac- 
eommodatlon  characterizes  such  quotations.  If  this 
position  were  laid  down,  ft  would  not  bo  ca^'  to  de- 
fend the  N.-T.  writers,  nay,  our  tx>rd  himself,  from  the 
charjce  of  incincrrltr  and  duplicity. 

Still  more  emphatically  does  this  last  oliperration 
apply  wHb  respect  to  tbe  notion  that  nur  Lord  and  hla 
apoetles  accomiKodated  their  teachine  t«  the  current 
notions  and  prejudices  of  tbe  Jewa  of  their  own  times. 
It  might  aeem  nimoet  incredible  that  ony  one  abonid 
venture  to  impute  to  them  to  unworthy  and  so  Im- 
proliable  a  course,  were  it  nut  that  we  And  the  impn- 
tation  broadly  made,  and  tbe  making  of  it  defended  liy 
•omo  very  eminent  men  of  the  anti-sapematuralist 


J2  CONDICT 

school,  especially  in  Germany.     By  them  ft  baa  been 

asserted  that  onr  Lord  and  his  dlaclples  publicly  tac(;lit 
many  things  which  privately  tbey  repudiated,  and  an 
attempt  haa  been  made  to  save  them  from  the  ehargn 
of  downright  dishonesty  wliich  this  would  involve  by 
an  appeal  to  the  nsage  uf  many  ancieat  teacben  who 
had  an  exoteric  doctrine  for  the  multilnde,  and  an  ero- 
teric  for  their  disciples.  (Semler,  Pri.ffnmm.  Aead. 
Sil,  Hal.  1779 ;  Corrodi,  Btytrdye  zvr  bt/Otdertitg  Jts 
TtmOnJ^igrti  Dmitni  ia  d.  HtHguM,  Ifith  part,  p.  1-45; 
F.Van  Hemert,  CAtr  Aceim.  in  A'.  T.  Ltlpi.  1797, 
etc.).  The  prompt  and  thorough  repudiation  of  foch 
viewB  even  Ly  such  men  as  Wegscbeidor  (_Inttl.  He. 
Blagiar,  p.  tOo,  6tb  ed.)  and  Bretschneider  (tfoiif).  i/er 
Dogmat.  i,  !G0,  265,  !d  ed.)  renders  It  unneccsfar;  to 
enlarge  on  the  formal  refutation  of  them.  These  writ- 
ers, however,  conttmd  that,  though  onr  Lord  and  hii 
apostles  did  not  make  use  odpotilivt  acrsmmodaticai 
of  tbeir  doctrine  to  the  prejudices  or  ignorance  of  lb* 
Jews,  they  did  not  refrain  frcm  a  atgeltTt  accommoda- 
rion,  by  which  they  Intend  the  use  of  rrtent  in  the 
communication  of  troth  or  rerutation  of  error,  and  tha 
allowing  of  men  to  retain  opinions  not  autboriied  bj 
truth  without  express  or  formal  correctiou  of  tbem. 
Tbey  adduce  OS  iD5tances,Jobnxti,  IS;  Ti,IG;  Lnko 
xxlv,  ai;  Acts  1,6;  1  Cor.  iii,l,  S;  vfii,  9,  etc.  By 
these  pasaagea,  however,  nothing  more  is  proved  tbati 
that  in  teaching  men  truth  our  Lord  and  bii  apoitle* 
did  not  (ell  (hem  trrryHimg  at  oars,  but  led  them  on 
from  truth  to  truth  aa  they  were  able  to  receive  It  or 
bear  it.  In  tbia  Ibere  is  no  scccDimodatlon  of  tbe  ma- 
feriiil  of  doctrine ;  It  is  simply  an  accon^modation  of 
mrlkod  to  tbe  capaci^  of  the  learner.  In  the  (am* 
way  rani's  assertion,  wblch  they  hare  also  cited,  that 
he  became  all  things  to  all  men,  that  he  might  by  all 
nieans  save  some  (1  Cor.  ix,  2!),  is  to  be  regarded  aa 
relating  merely  to  tbo  mode  and  order  of  his  present- 
ing Christian  truth  to  man,  not  to  his  modlfjintc  In 
any  respect  the  aubatonce  of  what  be  taugbL  When 
be  spoke  to  Jews,  be  opened  and  alleged  (Ut  of  Ibsr 
own  Scriptures  that  Jeeus  was  the  Christ  (Acta  ivii, 
3.  8).  When  he  epoke  to  the  Alheniana  on  Uara' 
Hill,  he  started  from  the  ground  of  natural  religion, 
and  addresaed  tbe  reason  and  common  reuse  of  hi*  au- 
dience ;  but  in  either  case  il  waa  the  same  Jesus  that 
he  preached,  and  tbe  acme  Gotpel  that  be  publlabed. 
Had  he  dono  otherwise,  ho  would  have  bcui  fonnd  • 
fiilse  witness  for  God. 

This  accommodatian  theory  Is  oRen  rpckes  of  >• 
identical  with  the  bistCTici.1  principle  of  interpretiDg 
Scripture.  It  la  so,  however,  only  aa  the  biitoriral 
principle  of  interpretation  means  the  treating  of  tbe 
statements  01  our  Lord  and  his  spcstles  as  merely  ex- 
pressing the  private  ojilnlcns  of  tbe  Individual,  or  as 
bistoricallv  traceable  to  the  prevailing  opinions  of 
their  day.  This  Is  not  to  be  oanfounded  with 
Chat  true  and  sound  principle  of  historical  interpre- 
tation which  allows  due  weight  to  bistorical  evi- 
dence in  delermining  (be  meaning  of  words^  aiul  to 
the  circumstances  in  which  statements  were  made 
as  determining  Inelr  primary  application  and  aigniS- 
cancy,  (Siorr,  Optuc.  A  cad.  rol.  i  1  A  bkandlaig  u.  d. 
Zatek  da  Toda  Jtiu,  $  10;  Lfirb.  d.  Ckr,  DtymaliJt, 
§  18  [Eng.  ir.  by  Schmucker,  p.  G7,  Lond.  1836}; 
Planck,  Jalrml,  to  Sac.  MrrprHalioa,  Ir.  niib  note* 
by  Turner  [N.  T.  1834],  p.  138,  !76;  linsctl,  Dt  w 
eommodaiiaiif  orlkodozn  [lipa.  I'06J;  Smith,  fitl 
Linn  0/  Chritliaa  ThnAirg,  p.  51H;  AlexaiiUcr,  Coa. 
nertiim  attd  llnrmoug  nflht  Old  tnd  AVie  Tittirmmt, 
p.  4S-48;    148-157,  116,  2d   cdi[.>     See  HkrXoeu- 

Condlct.  Ira,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  tbe  Befornxd 
Dutch  Chunh  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  from  VVS  Id 
IBIl.  and  vice-president  of  Queen's  (now  Rntgrrr) 
College,  and  professor  of  moral  ^ilosophy.  Be  ws* 
an  eminent,  useful,  and  hi>nnre<l  mluliter  and  c-'llrtn- 
ate  ulUcer.     He  died  suddenly  in  1811.    Soe  Spragui^ 


CONDIGNITY 

Awab  efHt  / 
t/iU  fUf.  CI. 

Condlgnltr  and  Congniltir  (nunlwH  <&  tat- 
AjM  »iid  *  coHgma),  "ttnaa  uitd  ly  the  ■choalmaD 
ts  rspreu  their  peculiar  opinioiu  relative  to  hnman 
merit  ■nd  deserving.  11i«  ScotiaU  miiiDlaln  that  it  ia 
poMible  tot  nun  in  hia  natural  atala  m>  to  live  u  to 
durrvr  tbe  gnte  of  God,  by  which  he  may  U«  enahled 
to  abtun  ulvition ;  tb'u  a»tan\Jiliiai  (eimgrailai)  tat 
(Tjca  Iwing  anch  u  to  obll^  tlio  Deity  lo  grant  it. 
Such  ii  the  mrril  o/coitgnntif,  Tlie  1  homiat*,  on  tha 
«tber  hand,  cnntcud  that  man,  by  the  divine  aatiM- 
MkM,  i>  cipablf  of  so  Ilvin?  aa  to  ma-U  elarnBl  life,  to 
b(  rorliff  (roiidijiHu)  of  it  in  the  aij^ht  of  God.  In  thii 
tfpothesij.thgiuHtionof  previouB  proparatlon  for  the 
pace  which  en  iUIps  him  to  be  mrtijr  Is  not  introdnced. 
Thia  is  (he  mm!  of  amdi^ia's"  The  IBih  article 
et  the  Cliurch  of  EnKtaiid  is  directed  at'ainst  iheae 
opinion*,  an<l  DiainiBiiiB  that  the  K"™  *'''  Cliriet 
snd  the  inoptratioii  of  hia  ^irit  c*u  alone  produce 
the  fltncn  requind  in  Cbriatiinsi  ami  that  M  fat 
are  any  worka  not  tprineing  of  I 
beii^  pleasiDS  to  Qud,  thai  they 

Conditional.  Strict  Catvinlsts  maintain  that  the 
decrees  of  God  with  regard  to  the  salvation  or  d  :nina- 
tian  of  indivlilual  men  are  abialalet  Amiiniana,  that 
Onj  are  cmdltimtd.  The  Pelagian  doctrine  i»  that 
God'i  will  to  K^ant  grace  to  men  is  alwuys  cundilioneil 
SB  their  so  usinu  their  luitnra!  pnncr  aa  lo  merit  that 
gmce.  To  aay  that  God  docrces  lo  save  all  men  if 
lh(7  will,  i.  e.  if  thsy,  witliout  grace,  are  willing  to 
obe;^  God.  ia  P«Ugiuiii  to  say  that  God  wHIa  to  wve 
all  Dien  if  they  will  use  the  prevcnicnt  i^aca  given  to 
tiom,  whirl!  thev  ore  left  at  lilicrty  to  resist,  is  Ar- 
aiaiin.     See  AumixiaMIIM;  Gbace. 

CondiUac,  Etiehiie  Bo:(s<>t  dk  Mablt,  ona  of 
the  chief  French  philosophers  of  the  18th  century, 
fanther  of  the  abbe  Mably,  was  Imm  at  Grenoble  in 
ITIi.  At  the  tge  of  thirty  be  published  bis  lint  im- 
fotlant  work,  £$iai  ikr  I'origime  da  coima  'i 
KBim  (Amsterdam,  1746,  2  vols. ;  Eng.  trai 
Kagtnt,  17oG),  by  which  be  largely  contributed  to  tbo 
spreidinu  uf  the  views  of  Locke  In  France, 
bither  development.  This  book  is  a  n.itur.il  history 
of  hnmin  cognition,  the  foundutiun  of  which  is  found 
by  Cndillac  ia  tbo  aenauous  imprenlons  ami 
tnaaformilioni.  To  refkite  the  .netaphyaicJl  sj 
vhich  do  nnt  proceed  from  experience,  he  wrc 
Ti-jiti  da  SyMmti  (AmsterJam,  ■.7^n,  2  vola.)- 
•Itws  on  the  ori;jiii  of  buman  cognitiim  were 
fally  developed  in  his  Traili  dn  Snuatiom  (A 
dim,  1734,  *  vols.).  As  he  waa  chjrtted  with  1 
^agiarii?il  fmia  lilderot  and  RuS<n.  bo  »roto  for  bis 
^fEoie  Traiti  ilri  Antm'iux  (Amalenlam,  ] 
all  these  writings  Condillac  liecamc  ono  of  tbo  cbW 
npresent  itivrs  of  Sensualism,  althoUKb  bo  steered 
diar  of  the  Materialism  of  his  age.  Hia  knowledge 
kid  prornrcil  for  bim  at  an  early  age  the  poaitioti  of 
lUar  of  the  Infanta  of  Parma,  n  nephew  of  Louis  XV. 
He  wrote  for  bim  ■  Cturt  frtuile  (Parmo,  17T3,  Ifl 
vol-.),  which  contains  a  gmmmar,  an  Arl  dicriri,  an 
Attdt  riuDWHT,  an  Art  dt pmrr.  waA  BDnivenal  llls- 
tery.  In  lIGfl  be  was  made  a  nx 
Acj>]?mv.  During  the  latter  part  of  bis  life  be  lived 
very  ntircd,  and  died  August  B,  1780.  Bis  coraple 
*e^  hire  appeared  In  several  editions  {f^uvrr*  Cbi 
pC<H.  Paris,  i;9H,  33  vol*.;  1803,  33  vol*.;  1824,  IC 
.  veil.).— (Bmckhaua)  Comota.  La,  s.  v. ;  Welter  u 
Well',  Kircim-La.  ii,  764. 

Condolt  (n^^ri,  ualaJt'  [tnm  nV;.  aUA,  to  oi 
imd,  Gneaiu*,  fk't.  Btb.  p.  1022],  a  cktamrl, '  •  watei 
iMina,"  Job  xaxvUI.  2&,  stream.  Eiek.  \xxi.  4,  c 
"ttcach,"  1  Khig<  xvlii,  S2-3t<)-  apikcn  of  Ibo  iifvi 
imt  made  by  lleieklab  tor  conveying  tho  watata  from 


CONDUIT 

the  upper  pool  to  the  valley  of  Glbon  into  the  western 
partof  Jeruaalem(2KingBxviii,17;  JUt.M;  Isa.  vil, 
a;  xxx\[,  3)  1  app;irently  the  same  with  Ihat  which 
now  aupptlea  the  miiMjue  enclosure  with  water  ftom 
the  pools  at  Bethlehem.  It  seems  at  first  to  have  been 
an  open  trench,  but  waa  closed  by  Hezekiah  with  ma- 
lonry  on  the  approach  of  the  Assyrians  (Slracb  xlviii, 
t).     See  Jekubalkh. 

1.  Although  no  notice  is  given  either  by  Scripture 
>r  by  Josephus  of  any  connection  between  the  pools 
)f  Solomon  beyond  Bethlehem  and  a  supply  of  water 
br  Jemsalem,  it  aecms  unlikely  that  ao  largo  a  work 
IS  the  pooh  should  be  constructed  merely  for  irrignting 
lit  gardens  (EccL  ii,  6) ;  and  traditira,  both  oral  and 
as  represented  by  Talmudical  writers,  ascribes  to  Sol- 
omon  the  Ibrmution  of  the  ori|;iasl  aqueduct  by  which 
water  was  lirought  to  Jerusalem  (Maundrell,  Earig 
7Vae.p.458;  Flasaclquist,  rnra.UG;  Ligbtfont, l>e»f r. 
T<mp'.  c.  .txiii,  vol.  i,  CI2;  Bobinson,  i,  3D0).  Pon- 
tius Pilate  applied  the  suered  treasure  of  the  Corban 
to  the  work  of  bringing  water  by  an  aqueduct  fmm  a 
isUnce,  Josephus  s*vs  of  800  or  400  stadia  (H'or.il, 
0, 4),  but  else'vbere  ivO  [.bidia,  a  distance  which  would 
fairly  eorrevpond  with  the  length  uf  the  cxiftin;;  aque- 
doct  wltb  all  iU  turns  and  windings  (Jn(.  xviu,  8,  i; 
Williams  tfo'y  CUf.  ii,  601).  Hi"  application  of  tbo 
money  in  this  manner  gave  rise  to  a  serious  disturb- 
ance. Wbetbor  hie  work  was  a  now  one,  or  a  roparo. 
tion  of  Solomon's  original  aqueduct  cannot  be  deter- 
mined, but  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  the  an- 
cient work  would  have  been  destroyed  in  some  of  the 
various  slogcs  since  Solomon's  time.  The  aqueduct, 
though  niaeh  injured,  and  not  serviceable  for  water 
id  Bethlehem,  still  e  jisla  j  the  water  ia  conveyed 
the  fountains  which  supply  the  pools  about  tvro 
S.  of  Bethlehem.  The  watercourse  then  passes 
from  the  pools  ir  a  N.E,  direction,  and,  winding  round 
the  hill  of  Bethlehem  on  the  f.  aide,  is  carried  somfv 
»  a>iave  and  sometimes  below  the  surface  of  tbo 
ind,  partly  in  earthen  pipes  and  partly  in  a  chan- 
about  one  foot  square  of  rough  atones  luid  in  ee- 
it,  till  it  appruachcs  Jerusalem.  Thero  it  crosses 
tlie  valley  of  llinnom  at  the  S.W.  side  of  tho  city  on 
a  liridgoofninearcliesat  a  piriiit  above  tile  pool  called 
JHrtet  a-Sult^,  then  returns  S.E.  and  E.  along  the 
tide  of  tbo  valley  and  under  the  wall,  and,  continuing 
its  course  along  the  east  side,  is  finally  conducted  lo 
the  Haram.  It  wub  repaired  liy  Sultan  Molismmcd 
Ibn-Kalaijn  of  Eiti'ptaljOUtA.D.lS00  (Williams, /foiy 
C.'9,  ii,  498 1  Kau'mcr,  Pal.  p.  380  j  Hobinaon,  1,  U4; 
ii,  IGCj  new  ed.  iii,  317).     See  I'oni. 

3.  Among  the  works  of  Heiekiah  he  Is  said  to  have 

it  down  Btraijfht  to  tho  W.  aido  of  tlie  city  of  David 
(2  Chron.  xxxli,  80).  The  direction  of  tills  water- 
course of  courM  depends  on  Ihe  site  of  Gibon.  Dr. 
BoliinMU  identiliea  this  with  the  largo  pool  called 
filVXsf  ri-Mamilla  *l  the  bead  of  Ibe  vallej-  of  Hinnom, 
on  the  S.W,  side  of  Jorusalam,  end  considers  tbo  Ulc- 
ly-discovercd  aubumnean  coiiduit  within  tbe  city  to 
Iki  a  bri>ncli  from  Heiekiab's  watercourse  (RfHWcha, 
newcd.iu,34B-4;  i,337;  Gescnius,  Thf.lltb.  p.  SZG, 
18D5).  Mr.  Wil!iam^  on  Oio  other  hand,  placee  Gibon 
on  the  N.  side,  not  far  ftom  the  tomb*  of  tlio  kings, 
and  suppnees  the  waturcourae  to  have  l,niUKht  wolct 
In  n  S.  direction  to  tho  temple,  whence  it  flowed  ulti- 
inatolj  Into  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  or  Lower  Pool.  Ono 
ar^iment  which  recommenda  tbls  view  ia  found  in  Ibe 
account  of  tho  Interview  between  the  emissaries  of 
Sennacherib  and  the  officers  of  lleieklah,  which  took 
placD  "  by  tho  conduit  of  Ihe  upper  pool,  in  tho  high- 
way of  tbo  fbllet's  Odd  "  (2  Kings  xvlii,  17),  whoso 
alto  seems  to  bo  indicated  Ijtho"  fuller's  monnment" 
mentioned  by  Josephua  as  at  tho  N.E.  side  of  tbe  city, 
and  by  tho  once  well-known  alto  called  tho  Camp  of 
tho  Assyrians  (J.,aephus,  War,  v,  4,  2;  7,  3;  VI,  2). 
(Sea  Uauudrell,  p.  IfiG  sq.,  Bohn's  ed.)  Bichardeon. 


CONFERENCE,  PASTORAL       466         CONFESSION  OF  FAITH 


ftRne«,  wbofo  dttlngB  precvda  the  Engliih  Coofennn 
bf  >  few  weeks,  tegularl}'  attCDd."  See  Jacluon.  Cm- 
Imary  of  Wtileyaa  Methoditm,  1889;  Steveiia,  Hutory 
o/Mttiodiim. 

'  CONFERENCE,  PASTORAL,  •  meeting  of  mlnls- 
lers  for  tlie  diaciusion  of  qusUioni  reUtitiK  to  tlieir 
pislonl  dutic*.  Many  meetings  of  Ihti  nuiiie  iro 
reguljrly  btU  in  ■njnj'  cOnntrie»,  both  within  the 
rtotestant  and  tlie  lioman  Catholic  cburcbes.  AmoaK 
the  be»t  known  of  the  cImh  in  Earope  helon;;  the 
•nnual  meetings  of  tbe  ministers  of  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Fnnce  at  Paris.     See  Fbanck. 

CONFERENCE,  ROHAN  CATHOLIC,  a  meeting 
of  prieau  for  tbe  discussion  of  religious  and  eccleelu- 
ticel  Io|)ic8.  Xbey  ura  cither  convoked  by  the  hishop 
of  the  diocese,  or  are  held  by  prieats  of  (heir  own  ac- 
cord. Conrerences  srs  not  mentioned  Iwfore  the  llth 
cenluiy.  They  seem  to  have  had  their  origin  in  the 
large  extent  of  the  diucesea,  which  mtde  the  regular 
meetings  of  all  the  clergy  of  it  diocese  difflcolt.  They 
consequently  met  in  deaaeriea  and  archipresbyteriea, 
umder  the  presidpnce  of  tbe  dean  and  arctipriest. 
They  were  called  C.ilemdm  l>ecsuie  they  were  held  on 
tbe  first  day  of  the  month,  or  Chapten,  Coniiitories, 
8ynod«,  Seuions.  They  were  common  uutil  the  mid- 
dle of  the  13th  century,  when  tbey  fell  into  dituse. 
In  the  I6th  century  csidinat  Charles  Borromeo  gave 
apecial  regulations  on  these  conferences,  and  oidered 
tbeoi  to  he  held  regularly.  Tbe  same  order  was  given 
by  a  number  of  French  provincial  synods.  In  1720 
tbey  were  declared  by  the  congregation  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  to  lio  a  proper  auhstituta  f»r  diocesan  a}'nada. 

Wetier  u.  Welte,  K.Vcira-ter.  ii,  766. 

CONFERENCE,  SAVOY,  a  series  of  meetings  beld 
by  royal  commuision  at  the  residence  of  the  liishop  of 
London,  in  the  Savoy,  in  the  year  IGGI,  between  the 
Idshops  and  the  Nonconformist  minliteta.  in  order  so 
to  review,  alter,  and  reform  the  Liturgy  as  to  meet 
tbe  feelings  of  those  who  bed  serious  scrnples  igsinst 
its  Dse,  and  thereby  promote  the  peace  of  the  Church. 
The  individuals  chosen  comprehended  the  acchbisbop 
of  York,  with  twelve  bisliaps,  on  the  one  side,  and 
eleven  NonconfonnlBt  minirtera  on  tbe  other.  Had 
the  epippopal  ministers  entered  into  a  £ilr  and  open 
dl>cae»ion  on  tbe  pmnts  at  [ssno,  recondlbtion,  to  o 
certain  e:ttent,  might  have  taken  place ;  but  as  tbey 
were  from  the  beginning  averse  from  conceding  s 
•Ingle  iota  to  the  DinMnters,  the  negotiation  turned  out 
a  complete  failure.  At  a  convocation  of  the  liiehops, 
beld  almost  immediately  after,  instead  of  removing 
anything  that  wia  at  all  likely  to  stumble  tender  con. 
•ciencep,  they  rendered  the  Liturgy  still  more  ol<]ec- 
tionable  by  adding  the  atory  of  Bel  and  tbe  Dragon  to 
the  lestont  taken  from  tbe  Apociypha.  Sec  Pmcter, 
"     "  "        r,  ch.  Vj  Neai,  llulory  nj'lhe  Puri- 


to  the  priests  (wi 

feuhia  i  but  tbe  demand  ftor  the  abolitian  of  this  cna- 
is  to  urgent  that  after  tbe  16th  centnry  the  pay- 
>f  tbe  tax  was  genenilly  optional,  and  in  thl* 

form  itsUll  exitta  In  tome  Roman  Catholic  countrias. 

Offerings  of  this  kind  remained  alio  in  ate  in  manj 

Lutheran  churchee  until  the  present  eentniy,  whija 

the  ReOirmed  churches  entirely  abolished  them. 
The  prie«t  to  whom  a  confeMion  is  made  has  tha 

duty  of  olnerv ing  with  regard  to  it  an  abtolulc  silence. 

"    exception  »laf«eer  Is  allowed  to  this  rule.     It 


person  mskea  o 


ai«1«l 


.,  pU  i. 


L  G. 


ConfcBBio  AnEnatana.     See  AnaBnuno,  Cos- 

ConleBslo  BelglcR.     See  Beuiic  Cokfewiok. 

ConfeaaiOQ.  In  tbe  Church  of  Roma  and  in  the 
Eastern  cburehei  the  confession  of  sins  is  considered 
to  lie  one  of  the  seven  sacraments.  See  Aduicci-ar 
CosFraxiriN.  Tha  Idw  prt>F<cribing  bow  often  tbe 
memlier  of  the  Church  should  go  to  confession  was 
not  uniform  in  all  parts  of  the  Chnrch,  some  synods 
•njoininE  one.  others  two,  otheni  three  conftwione  a 
year.  Since  the  Council  ofTnnt,  the  Church  inflicts 
•cclesiasticol  censures  only  upon  those  who  omit  go- 
ing to  confession  onoe  a  your.  For  nuns  the  Cnnncil 
of  Trent  prescribes  a  confession  once  a  month.  Priests 
ore  exhorted  to  go  often  to  confession;  some  synods, 
like  that  of  Ghent,  enjdned  upon  them  a  weeltly  con- 


In  the  Middle  Agea  it  w 


ick  is  still  to  ba  committed,  the  | 
change  tbe  mind  of  snch  a  person,  and  Induce  him  la 
do  all  that  is  possible  to  prevent  its  lieing  coumiticd 
by  others,  but  he  is  not  allowed  to  notify  the  secular 
government  of  It.  In  sevrral  coontries  (aa  Prussb) 
it  law  demanded  In  the  latter  case  a  notillc*- 
tion,  tmt  the  Chnrch  of  Rome  ha*  aiwaya  refused  com- 
pliance with  snchalaw.  Luther,  and  the  Church  reg. 
nUtions  in  tbe  Lutheran  countries,  also  enjoined  tbe 
strictest  oijaervance  of  tbe  secret  of  confession. 

CoufMBlon,  Adbicclab.     See  Adbiculab. 

CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a  collection  of  the  aiw 
tides  ofbelief  of  any  Cburcb.     See  Cbeed. 

I.  Tliar  Um  m  lAt  Obwc*.— (1.)  The  Proteatant 
Confessiona  were  the  resalt  of  rflurti,  at  the  dawn  of 
reviving  tolerutlon,  to  separate  the  Christian  doctrine* 
fmn  the  mass  of  cormption  which  Ignorance,  negli- 
gence, or  artifice  had  conduced  to  accumulate  annnd 
them,  under  an  Implicit  obedience  to  the  authority  an4 
domination  of  Che  Church  of  Iti  me. 

(9.)  Hsny  pottons  altogether  oJject  to  Creeds  and 
Confessions  of  Faith  on  the  ground  that  they  infringe 
Christian  liberty,  supersede  the  Scriptnrcs,  rzclnde 
topics  which  ought  not  to  be  excluded,  and  admit 
such  as  ongbt  not  to  be  admitted ;  are  often  tvo  par- 
ticular and  long;  are  llalile  to  he  abused;  tempt  men 
to  hypocrtsy ;  preclude  improvement ;  and  have  been 
cmplnycd  OB  mrana  of  porsecntion.  It  is  said  farther 
"tlial  ccnfessional  formularies.  If  tbey  do  not  rupeiv 
Fcde  the  Word  of  God.  are  pUced  on  a  parity  with  it, 
and,  to  a  wide  extent,  are  of  greater  practical  author- 
ity. Two  consequences  follow  :  tbe  (irrt  is,  that  spii^ 
ituai  life  is  eltiier  altogether  extinguished,  or,  where 
it  exists,  is  CO  dwarfed  and  imprisoned  that  it  baa 
neither  scope  nor  power  of  manifestation ;  and  Uw 
second,  that  fellow-Christians  who  occupy  a  domain 
on  the  ontf  ide  of  the  confessional  pale  are  condemned 
BS  schieBiatlci,  and  at  tbe  same  time  feared  as  if  tbey 

(8.)  On  Ibo  other  hand,  tbe  arguments  in  TaTor  of 
them  are  such  aa  the  following.  All  arts  and  Fcieuce* 
have  been  reduced  to  pyi-tem,  and  why  should  not  the 
truths  of  religion,  which  are  of  greater  importance? 
A  compendious  view  of  the  principal  poinia  of  tba 
Christum  religion  muft  lie  useful  to  inform  the  mind, 
as  well  as  to  bold  forth  tu  the  world  which  are  the 
sentiments  of  particnlsr  churches.  Tbev  f'Ud  to  dii* 
cover  the  common  friends  of  the  same  faith  to  acb 
utber,  and  to  unite  them  together.  The  Scriptorea 
countcnonce  them.  We  hi.ve  tie  moral  law,  tba 
Ij)rd's  praver,  "  tlie  form  of  doctrine,"  mentioned  by 
.SL  Paul  (Rum.  vi,  17).  and  "the  form  of  sound  vioTds" 
(2  Tim.  i,  IS).  Their  lieceming  the  occasion  uf  hy- 
pocrisy is  not  the  fault  of  tlie  Conleii^ions,  but  of 
those  who  subecribe  them.  If  oil  Creeds  and  C<ti- 
fesiiions  were  expressed  in  the  words  of  Srriplutc, 
this  wonld  set  aside  all  exposition  and  interpretation, 
and  would  destroy  all  means  of  di^linguithinit  tha 

s.  v.).  And  to  say  that  eacli  individual  is  to  intei|ret 
the  Creeds  hy  the  Bible,  and  to  hold  and  piil.li>li  hit 
nun  interpretation,  nithout  rtrfercnce  to  that  of  the 
Chunh  to  which  he  may  liclnng,  >'ts  not  to  exalt  the 
Scriptures,  but  onl;  to  confound  the  uaea  of  tbe  Vimt 


CONFESSION  OF  FAITH        467         CONFESSION  OF  FAITH 


rfGod  iDd  tha  word  oT  tba  Cbnnb.  Tha  ona  ii  at 
all  timea  the  ulUnute  appeal  of  every  beliaver'a  ron- 
iclen«i  the  Dtbar  iatbe  inUrpreUtion  of  that  appeal 
ij  tha  collective  bod?  of  tha  Church.  The  Church 
doe*  not  lint  uiake  a  minuter,  and  tlieD  tia  hiin  down 
to  her  articlai ;  but  the  mlniater,  profeailnK  to  have 
been  movad  by  the  Holy  Gboat,  and  denumdlng  to 
■xeRlaa  bii  offloa  and  to  ba  intniMad  with  tha  core 
ef  Huls  in  tha  community  to  vhich  ha  applies,  Is  aak- 
ad  bj  tha  Church  whether  hii  iDdiridaal  inlerpreta- 
lua  of  the  Scripture  accords  with  that  of  the  collec- 

afflnnative,  it  is  arideDt  that  ha  isost  exercba  his 
nuniotry  eliewhere.  A  particnUr  Church  inaj  be  ia 
the  wronj{,  and  an  individual  may  ba  In  the  riifht; 
in  which  caaa  tbara  will  arise  coDtrorany,  and  tha 
Church,  by  the  saceaslon  and  oppodtion  dF  individuals, 
may  be  led  to  modify  and  Improve  Ita  theolagy.  But 
Uns  most  be  dona  by  a  collective  act,  and  not  by  tba 
innbordinaUon  of  private  dargyroen  tilUntc  tba  Church 
with  various  docliines,  and  giving  to  its  proclamatioD 
of  the  Gospel  an  uncertain  sound.  For,  if  it  were  0th- 
anrisa.  what  baresy  could  be  excluded  P" 

(4.)  In  the  interpretation  of  Confessinna  there  are 
nma  distinctions  perpetually  overlooked,  some  moat 
ioipoitant  principles  of  lotcrpretatiou  but  little  altend- 

o(  tba  fritniara  of  fcTmalaries  confessedly  go  beyond 
tbera;  now  tbaaa  privau  opininnt  are  sometimes  ap- 
pealed to  as  a  proof  that  the  fiffmulorles  ought  to  be 
■ndentood  in  that  extended  sense,  whereas  they  prove 
the  direct  etHitnay,  (See  Arcblii>bop  Whately's  Kitig- 
ibm  of  CJrid,  sec.  a.)  If,  indeed,  the  writings  of 
these  fhuners  contain  indications  of  the  dolffn  with 
which  they  were  framed,  this  ought  to  be  considered. 
Pur  instance,  articles,  etc.,  framed  manifestly  on  pur- 
pose to  exclude  certain  RonUsb  dnctrlnei,  as  bainx  >a 
Btteily  unacriptural  as  to  juati^  and  enforce  that  tep- 
antkm  from  Rome  which  the  RefDrmeis  deliberately 
taiolved  on,  ought  not  to  ba  intarprotsd  so  as  to  £e 
consistent  with  these  doctrines;  not,  however, because 
thil  would  have  been  at  variance  with  tha  primfr 
epaiomt  of  e:icb  Refonner  saiiarately,  bnt  hocsum  it 
would  be  at  variance  with  their  delibenit?  paOii:  doc- 
lantlon  aa  a  bedf.  Again,  there  is  a  distinction  to 
be  observed  Ifetwaen  tha  Interpretation  (1)  of  anything 
pot  fbrtb  by  an  BuJindbuif  tor  the  paqnaa  of  instruct- 
ing other*  or  explaining  hia  own  TJawa,  and  (II)  of 
aaythlng  emanatiog  bom  an  <ui«mNy,  the  members 
«f  which  coald  not  ba  azpected  exactly  to  agree,  not 
•nly  in  every  ahade  of  opinion,  and  the  relaUva  Im- 
portance alao  of  every  point,  but  also  in  the  degree  of 
cancaaslon  to  ba  made  to  tfaoae  before  wham  their  dec- 
lantlons  were  to  be  pnt;  a.  g.  an  indivldail  (unlsas  a 
Uimdarar)  will  never  malie  one  port  of  Ris  ststament 
•0  tu  naatrallie  the  other,  that  the  whole  eRiKts  no 
•Ijaet  whlcb  might  not  have  been  equally  well  ob- 
tained by  otnitting  the  whole,  yot  soma  pabllc  dec- 
hiations  drawn  up  by  aasemblies  of  sensible  men  msy 
ba  Bxpectad  to  U  such;  tha  XVIIIh  'Article' of  tha 
Church  of  England,  fbr  instance.  Is  by  many  contidar- 
•d  to  contain  nothing  which  might  not  have  been  at- 
tained by  omitting  it.  In  any  such  caae,  it  may  have 
been  thsl  a  strong  majority  think  It  will  lie  reqnislta 
to  say  somathing  on  the  point ;  many  may  think  that 
as  and  tn  ought  to  be  aaid ;  and  msny  othen  may  ob- 
ject to  this,  unlcaa  soma  qaalldcation  be  added,  such 
as  naarly  to  naatrallie  It.  These  principles  of  inter- 
pretation an  incalculably  Important,  and  should  ba 
constsnlly  remembowi"  (Eden,  s.  v.).  See  Crrkthi. 
II.  Cmfatiimt  of^firmt  CAsrdteM.—l.  That  of  the 
Ortfk  CianA,  entitled  "The  ContiMsiDns  of  the  Tme 
and  Geauine  Koith,"  which  was  praaanlwl  to  Moham- 
mad II  In  1433,  but  which  gave  plaoe  to  the  "  Ortho- 
dn  Cenhselon  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Greek 
Cfanreh,"  comrnaed  by  Mogila,  metropolitan  of  Kiev, 
I*  Baada,  and  appnvad  In  164B  by  the  patriarchs  of 


Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jcmsalam. 
It  contains  the  standard  of  tba  principiea  of  the  Itu*- 
sian-Greek  Church,  For  the  originals,  see  Libri  Sym- 
bclici  ecdaia  OriaiiaSi,  ed.  E.  J.  Kimmel  (Jena,  IMS, 
8vo);  NaoJe,  Hi^.  of  the  Eatlem  Ckurci  (Lend,  ISM, 
i  vols.).     See  Gkeek  Church. 

S.  The  CAwcA  ofBomt,  tboogh  aba  bos  olwaya  ro- 
calved  tba  Apostles',  Nicena,  and  Atbanaaian  creeds, 
bad  no  Axed,  public,  and  antboriutive  symbol  till  tha 
CuuDcil  of  Trent.  A  snmmaiy  of  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  canons  of  that  council  is  given  in  the 
oeod  published  by  Pius  IV  (1664)  in  the  fonn  of  a 
bulL     It  is  Introduced  by  tlie  Nicane  Creed,  to  which 


tides,  » 


nprising  tl 


which  the  Church  of  Rome  finally  adopted  after  her 
controversies  vith  the  Keftirmers,  See  Cbeed  or 
FiDB  IV.  lleaides  this  creed,  and  the  "Canons  and 
Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  the  Cburcb  of  Koma 
acknowledges  no  symbolical  books  aa  authorllatlve. 
See  TbRNI,  Couhcii.  or.  The  best  editions  are  CV 
wm.  tl  Dtcrel.  CcmciL  Trid.  (Ups.  1863,  8vo) ;  Duc^ 
lay,  Cimmt  and  Decrrti  <•/  TraU  (Lend.  1661.  ISmo)t 
Donovan,  CaltMtm  of  lit  CouM  of  Trtnl  (Bsltevo)^ 
See  also  Smitwolf,  Lib.  Sfmh.  Eed.  CaA.  (liCtt.  iei*\ 
and  the  article  Tbkkt. 

8.  Tha  ZWjleran  books  of  faltb  and  discipline  aro 
called  Libri  ^laMiei  f:ixhBa  Ewaigtlita.  They  con- 
tain the  three  creeds — Apostles',  Nicsna,  and  Athana- 
sisn  [see  Ckekdb],  tha  Anjisbnrg  Confession  [sea 
AooBBOBo],  the  '"Apology"  for  that  Confasaion  by 
Helauctbon.  the  Articles  of  Smalcald  (q.  v.)  drawn  up 
by  Lutbar,  the  Cat«hums  of  Luther,  and  In  many 
cbunbes  tha  Form  of  Concord,  or  Book  of  Berg.  Sea 
CoMCoRD.  The  Saxon,  Wartemburg,  Suabian,  Pom- 
eranian, Uansfeldlian,  and  Copenhagen  Confeoilon* 
agree  in  general  with  the  symbolical  Iwoka  of  the  Lu- 
therans, but  are  aathurltative  only  in  the  conntrlea 
after  which  they  are  rerpcctively  called.  There  are 
miny  editions  of  tba  L^ri  Symbolid!  the  best  and 
most  convenient  an  thoae  of  Hase  (Sd  edit.  Leip.  1S46, 
limo)  and  of  Francka  («£(.  tUrtal.  Lelps.  1640,  I2mo). 
See  LcTHERA!!  Ckobch. 

4.  Of  the  CalnaMe  Conl^B^onB  the  following  an 
the  principal:  (1.)  The  four  Helvetic  Conreasions— 
that  of  Basle,  1630 ;  the  Summary  and  Confession  of 
the  Helvetic  chorcbes,  1636 1  tba  Eipaitio  Simpkx, 
etc.,  1666,  ascrilied  to  BalUnger;  and  the  Formula 
CcXMflim*  Htlvttiei,  1676.  See  Helvetic,  (i.)  The 
Tetnpolitan  Confession,  1631,  which  darivea  its  name 
from  foDF  cities,  Stnsbnrg,  Constance,  HsmmingeD, 
and  Lindau,  by  tho  deputies  of  which  it  was  aiinied  :  It 
is  attributed  to  Bocer.  (S.)  Tha  PalaLne  or  Heidel. 
berg  Catechism,  fVamed  bv  Uninas  and  Olevisnua, 
fiiat  pabllsbed  in  1668.  Sea  lUiDEiDina.  (4.)  The 
Confession  of  the  Gallic  churcbes,  accepted  at  the  first 
synod  of  tha  Reformed,  behl  at  Paris,  1559.  See  Gai« 
LTCAK  CoNrrjsioH.  (S,)  The  Confession  of  the  Re- 
formed churches  in  Belgium,  drawn  up  in  1669,  and 
approved  in  1661.  See  Beloic.  («.)  The  Confesnon 
of  Faith  of  Scotland,  allowed  by  the  EsUtes  in  1660, 
and  aubicribed  by  king  James  in  1661.  (7.)  The  West- 
minster Confession.  See  Webtkikbteb.  (8.)  Tha 
Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  See  Di^rt.  See  Cor~ 
fUi  Ulrenm  ajmMieomm,  ed.  J.  C.  G.  Angusti  (El- 
barfeld,  1827,  8vd);  CoOtetio  Cmfeuiaiim  aa  teoUt. 
rrfvmalii,  edit.  H.  A.  Niemeyer  (Upsl>,  1840,  8to, 
the  most  complete  and  convenianl  manual);  IlAck- 
el.  Die  Betaimtiiimeirffleii  der  eroHgeiiteh-rrfiirmiiitii 
Kircie  (Leip*.1M7).  The  last-named  work  contain*, 
beaide*  all  the  Ren>nned  Confessions  of  Faith  (of  Gar- 
many,  Swltierland,  France,  Great  Britain,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  Poland,  and  the  Netherlands),  brief  intro- 
dnctions  and  notes  to  each  of  them. 

5.  Tba  Ai^licait  Coufesaion,  or  "Tbitty-nine  Aiti- 
cleaofthe  Church  of  England,"  agreed  on  in  tha  Con- 
voeatinn  held  In  London,  16S!.     Thry  were  drawn  up 

.  In  Latin,  but  In  1671  thoy  ware  rcvisail,  and  aabacribad 


CONFESSIONAL  4 

lNit]i  in  Latin  aiid  Engitab.  Sm  Abtici^,  XXXIX ; 
Emolamii,  Chubch  or.  They  were  adopted  by  the 
Prateatant  Episcopal  Church  In  1801,  with  rome  altec- 
ationi,  and  the  rejection  of  the  Athanulan  Creed.  A 
•election  from  tbeae  fomu  the  ' '  ArticlcB  of  tbe  Hath- 
odlst   Ei^scopat    Chaicb."      See   Abticles,  XXV  ; 

MrTHODtaT  EflBCCIP*!.. 

Tbeaubjectof  "ConfeuIonaorFalth"  ii  treated  In 
Sj-alematic  Theology  under  the  head  of  Symiolum,  or 
Sgnibidia,  Tbe  beat  apeclal  collectloui  and  text- 
books, besidea  tboae  already  named,  are :  Marhelneke, 
JnMiluliona  a/nbatica  doct.  Calh..  Prot.,  Soen.,  ectUria 
Grtrca,  Minorum^ut  Societ.  Ch<-itiim.  (Berlin,  1830,  8d 
•d.  8vo);  Guericke,  AUgtmoKe  p*r.  Sfmboiik  (Loipa, 
1846,  Bvo) ;  Winer,  ComparatiM  Dantrlliag  dri  Lrtr. 
ht^iffk  der  teradiUdmen  fAriit^chem  KirchenpattAfien 
(Upa.  1887,  4to);  Hohler,  I.  A.  (Etomsniet),  Ssmbolim, 
or  ErpruiliiM  of  lie  Docfrinal  D'jf.rttictt  bttic.  Calh. 
md  Plot.  (New  York,  1844,  8vd)  ;  Corpui  tt  Sgitagaia 
ConftKifmum  fida  (Genav.  1634,  4to) ;  Hall,  tformony 
of  Pnbwlani  ConfoKOiu  (hoBiQn,lM*,Svo);  SgOugt 
Caofeaioiatm,  edit.  and.  (Oion.  1827, 8vo).  Very  con- 
Tenlent  nunoali  are  Habn,  Dot  BthomtMU  der  ntm- 
gdiiciai  Kircie,  in  iniKm  t'erhdltnitt  in  d.  rAnttolfli 
u.  srieckUchfa  (Lip«.  18^3, 1!ina)j  Hofmann,  SgmboSk 
(1866,  Svo);  Hanrtley,  Hanvxua  HgnJmlica  (Oiford, 
1858,  8vo).-Winer,  Th-al.  Lit.  xi  [  Hend.  Buck,  a.  v. ; 
Pt\t,Thtol.KnC3cbipadit,iB7i  Haganliacli,  7%aW,  En- 
tyelop.  §  76 ;  Hill,  Dttinily,  Am.  ed.,  p.  T&l. 

The  general  hammg  of  Ute  ProteataDt  Confeadoni 
has  been  sbown  in  varioua.  poblicatkina.  Boaanet'a 
Biloirt  del  Variatiimi  dei  tgliirt  PiottlaiiU*  (1688) 
W(e  written  to  abow  that  the  Protettant  cbnrchea  were 
wide  aatinder  in  poluta  of  faith ;  and  Barnage'a  Hit. 
tain  de  la  Btligion  da  Kglivi  Hiforaitt  (RuCt.  tiZ&,  2 
Tola.  4ta)  affords  a  thuTOUgb  refutation  of  Busanet. 
Tbe  Aaaemhly  of  Frankfort,  1677,  entertained  the 
question  of  n  now  Confeaslrm,  nhich  should  be  adopted 
by  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  Prolcatant  liodie*.  A  num- 
ber of  diTinea  (among  whom  Beia,  Salvnrt,  and  Ds- 
Irau  are  named;  accordingly  drew  up  a  Uanaomx  Cm- 
/rHinnum  Fidfi  Oi  thodotanm  it  Rrfimmlanm  Eait- 
•ianifn,  etc.  (Geneva,  1581,  4to).  It  embodies,  under 
heads  of  doctrine,  tbe  following  eleven  Confusbni: 
Augsburg,  tbe  Tetrapolitaaa,  Basle,  HelTelian,  Saxo- 
ny, WQrtemberg.  France,  Enghind,  Helvetica  poste- 
rior, Belgium,  and  Bohemia  (see  Niempyer,  Prrrf.  ad 
Cof.  Cim/ru.  v-lx).  An  English  tnnalallon  wia  im- 
medialcly  made,  and  published  under  the  title,  -4n 
Jfarmong  of  the  CoKfitiont  rf  Fwlk  of  Ckriitiiai  and 
Sr/arnitd  Churthei,  etc.  (Canili,  1686, 12inai  London, 
1648,  4Io).  A  new  edition  oftbia  very  valuable  work 
wu  publlabed  in  1843  by  the  Rev.  P.  Hall,  witb  Im- 
portant prolegomena  and  addilkma  (Land.  1813;  again 
1844,  6ro).  This  edition  gives  also  In  an  appendix, 
in  Engllab,  tbs  XXXIX  Artlclea;  the  Westtnlnster 
CDnfession  of  1647;  [latwr's  Articles  adopted  liy  tho 
Convocation  of  tho  Epljcopal  Church  in  Ireland,  1616 
and  the  Articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dart. 

Among  minor  works  of  this  clwa  we  name  8tnart, 
r**  Scriptural  IMlf  of  ProtrHMit  Chnrehei,  ejUbittd 
m  (Mr  puUlihed  Omfiuimt  (Dublin,  18S6,'  ISmo}; 
eonUina  the  XXXIX  Articlaa,  the  Irish  Article*,  the 
Confesaion  of  tbe  Church  of  Scotland,  and  ■  Declan- 
Uon  of  Faith  of  the  CongregatJonal  diuenters.  Also 
Gumming,  Cnily  of  PnOtttanlitm,  being  Artteia  n/ 
Xtligiim  from  tU  Crtedi  of  (*«  Sefinned  ChunAet 
(Lond.  I8;t7,  Svo),  which  cont^ns  eitraeta  fhim  nine 
Conreesiona,  arranced  under  heada.  See  Hall,  Ilnr- 
fflonji  o/Protetlnitt  Con/ruioiu  (Lond.  1842.  Bvo).  For 
the  thrcr  cecnmenical  Confesaions,  see  CnsKn,  Apos- 
tles';  Creed,  Athakasiah;  Crreh.  Nicbice. 

ConfeHloiial.  the  cell  in  which  the  Romish  con- 

tbe  church,  with  ■  boarded  luck  aeninat  the  well,  or 
aminat  a  pillar  or  pier,  and  la  divided  into  three  niches. 
The  centre,  which  ii  Intended  Ibr  tbe  priest,  ia  dosed 


18  CONFIRMATION 

half-way  np  by  a  dwarf  door,  and  baa  a  aeat  within  It 
There  la  a  anisll  grated  aperture  hi  each  of  the  parti* 
tiona  between  the  prleet  and  llie  aide-oells,  which  or* 


The 


which  give  a  preacription  concerning  the  place  when 
confesalon  (q.  v.)  is  to  be  made,  provide  that  ancb  place* 
aball  be  open  w  that  they  may  be  wen  by  all.  Nana, 
according  to  a  decree  of  the  Synod  of  Paria  of  eJ9, 
muBt  confeas  before  tbe  altar  in  the  presence  of  vlt- 
nessee  not  sUnding  off  vary  far.  The  flrrt  tmcra  of 
confessionals  as  they  are  now  In- use  in  the  Choirh  rf 
Rome  an  found  in  the  second  half  of  the  16ch  century, 
when  aevoral  synods  (Cosenio,  1673 ;  MalB,  ISfll)  en. 
Joined  that  every  church  ahonid  have  as  many  confe*- 
slonala  and  confessors  (priests  hearing  confeasioos)  aa 
were  neceeaary,  which,  however,  should  be  soconapicn. 
ons  that  both  the  priest  and  the  coofeaslDg  person  could 
be  seen  without  diOeolty  by  every  one  in  the  Church. 
— Heraog,  RtaU&Kgld.  il,  786.  See  SBBiTiKO-rsw. 
Coofeasor.  (I.)IneaTlye<xIc^atIcBlbietoTytha 
word  ia  frequently  uaed  for  mar^r  (q^  v.),  but  ita 
proper  application  woa  to  Ihoee  who,  after  having  beei) 
lormented,  were  permitted  to  live  and  die  in  peace. 
At  length  It  Indicated  thoae  who,  oAer  having  lived 
a  good  life,  died  under  tbe  reputation  of  sanctity.  Ac- 
cording to  Cyprian,  he  wbo  preaented  binuelf  to  (ir. 
tare,  or  even  to  martyrdom,  without  being  coiled  to  it, 
waa  nol  designated  a  confeuor,  but  a  profruor ;  and 
if  any  through  want  of  courage  aliandoned  bis  country, 
and  became  a  voluntary- exile  for  tbe  sake  of  the  faith, 
he  waa  called  ex  territ.  Later  tbe  title  Confeseor  wai 
applied  to  persona  of  eminently  gdoua  life  as  "  witnesa- 
ing  a  good  conresaion."  Edward  of  Kngland  waa  mad* 
"  Confeasur"  by  a  bull  of  Alexander  III.  (S.)  In  the 
Romish  Church,  a  conCbssDr  is  an  ordained  pricat  wh* 
has  power  to  hear  ainnen  in  the  so-called  Facrament 
of  penance,  and  to  give  them  "  abiolution."  He  ia 
generally  designated  con/rMoriGf,  to  diatinguieh  him 
from  eoi'/tuor.  The  confeatora  of  the  kinge  of  Fiance, 
from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  were  consUntty  JeaDita; 
bernre  Ibeni,  tho  Dominicans  and  Cordclten  shared  the 
office  between  them.  The  confesrors  of  the  house  of 
Austria  have  also  ordinarily  lieen  Dominicans  and 
Cnrdelien,  but  tbe  later  emperor*  have  ukvii  Jea- 
uits.--Uoabei[D,  Church   Bittary,  i,  5L     Sea  AUBIO- 

ConfimiBtloii,  a  rite  by  which,  in  eonie  Christian 
churches,  liaptiied  persona  are  fully  admitted  into  tit* 
Church  by  the  Impoamon  of  bande  and  prayer.  The 
Chnrehes  which  practiae  thii  ceremony  profes*  to  d* 
it  in  imitation  of  apoaliirtc  example  recorded  in  tlie 
New  Teibunent.  (1.)  It  appear*  from  tbe  Act*  th*t 
the  apostle*  laid  band*  only  on  baptlted  penons,  as  la 
the  caaa  of  the  converted  Samaritans,  Acts  Till,  13-lT, 
and  the  dieciplee  at  Kpheans,  Acta  i)x,  6,  6.  It  ia, 
however,  evident  that  in  those  passage*  allusion  ia 
'  mode  to  the  minculoua  gifts  imparted  by  the  apostle*. 
It  is  eaid  that  "  when  Simon  saw  that  through  laving 
on  of  the  apoatles*  hands  tlie  Holy  Gboet  wa*  given, 
he  ofl^red  them  m''ney,  saying.  Give  me  b1h>  this 
power,  that  on  whomaoever  I  lay  hands  he  mnv  re- 
ceive the  Holy  Ghost."  Kothinic  ia  said  of  the  b'ying 
on  of  bonds  in  the  baptism  of  the  three  tbourand  oa 
the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acta  11,  88-42).  Knr  do«  ihe 
ceremony  appear  to  have  taken  place  at  tbe  1  ;.|  i  m 
of  Lydia  and  her  honsebold.  Acts  xvi,  16;  orthr  I  hi- 
lippioD  >iler  and  bla  family,  Acta  xvi,  Sl-SS.  In  tieb. 
vi,  3,  mention  ii  made  of  "  the  doctrine  of  tbe  laying 
on  of  bands"  immediately  after  tliat  of  "the  dortrin* 
of  baptisms,"  but  there  Is  no  intimation  that  ihe  t>a 
Iranaactions  were  connected.  The  jonmey  of  St.  Pial 
through  Syria  and  Ciiicia  to  confirm  the  eburchea  doc* 
not  nccesaorily  imply  the  rite  of  conBrmation  as  prac- 
tised by  the  Church  of  England,  lliese  churchn  bad 
been  probalily  planted  by  himself  at  an  earlier  penod, 
and  he  now  pves  them  aueh  legolatloni  a*  an  nana* 


CONFIRMATION 

M17  for  their  wclfkre,  oidBlaing  eldira,  impirtlDg  mi- 
raeoliHit  giltt,  ao  important  to  tha  inacrucllan  oF  ci 
Tirt*,  and  to  tha  fuiniihrng  convincing  aiidencea 
tlM  cmtb  and  power  ot  the  Go<p«l.  Ttie  nnction,  or 
cluiim,  refured  to  In  1  John  il,  27,  knd  2  Cor.  i,  21, 
tw«  iwcn  (upposad  by  fonie  to  refer  to  tbe  ceremony 
of  eodllrmition ;  it  nanisralbor  to  relate  to  &  apiritual 
UHiintiDg,  to  the  royal  and  prlettl;  dignity  of  Clirii- 
tiuu,  or  to  tha  communication  of  extraordlnarj'  and 
miraculaoa  gifts.  (3.)  As  the  practice  cannot  be 
traced  to  Ne»-Te«taniBnt  anthority,  ao  neitbar  do  tbe 
earliest  recorda  of  eccleiiaatical  antiquity  contuin  any 
clear  and  certain  teatimony  concerning  it-  Paaaagea 
aoppoaed  to  refer  to  thia  rita  have  been  pointed  out 
in  llie  writing*  of  Dlonyiioa,  in  Che  Apostolical  Con- 
BtitalioDa,  in  Clemant,  and  in  Euaabins;  but  they 
r  relate  to  the  wcrament  of  baptism.     Cimfir- 


•till  bo 


10  the 


Uma  of  Teitallian,  irho  inform*  us  that  the 
Die*  of  nnction  and  tbe  impoaiUoB  of  liaadB  followed 
immediately  after  baptiim.  Cyprian 
■abject  of  conGimation,  and  appliea 
laertBiitntim ;  but  it  ia  evident,  ftom  tbe  nn  of  tbe 
tana  at  tbe  time  in  wliich  he  wrote,  and  from  tbi 
•oopa  of  the  pasaages  in  which  it  occurs,  that  lamt- 
memtum  was  not  used  in  its  strictly  theological  mean' 
ing)  but  ^mply  in  the  lense  of  ctremomj/^  Numerous 
taferencea  to  later  writen  miglit  be  made  to  show  the 
connection  of  baptiam  and  confirmation.  Tbe  baptism 
«f  adolta  being  regarded  aa  a  aoiemn  compact  or  cove- 
nant, confirmation  followed  as  tbe  seal  by  which  tbe 
contract  was  ntifled ;  and  bancs  confirmation  was  ad. 
ministered,  not  by  the  peraon  officiating,  but  by  the 
Uafac^  At  tbe  stated  bapttanul  seasons,  tbe  bLsliop 
^nt  chiefly  occnpied  wilb  Uie  rite  of  confirmation ;  but 
be  aometimea  commenced  the  whole  solemnity  by  the 
baptiam  of  a  few  Individuals  with  bis  own  bands, 
When  baptism  was  administered  in  tbe  absence  of  the 

lent  season  afterwards,  either  by  tbe  bishop  or  by  hia 
representative.  Hence  it  fallowed  that  confirmation 
wai  olten  deferred  until  sarersl  years  after  baptism, 
(■pedally  in  those  dioceses  which  were  seldom  visited, 
either  on  account  of  their  great  eziteni,  or  tha  negli- 
gence or  ignorance  of  the  bishop.  Even  afler  tbe  jm- 
eral  introduction  of  infant  lupUsm,  conflrmation  im- 
mediately succeeded.  In  tbe  Oriental  churches,  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  admin- 
btered  in  immediate  succession ;  a  probable  avidence 
that  such  was  tbe  ancient  custom.  (3.)  Tha  perma- 
nent separation  of  confirmation  from  baptism  is  gener- 
ally traced  to  the  13th  century.  Tbe  bishop  was,  for 
the  most  part,  the  ordinary  minister.  Several  canons 
deny  to  the  other  orders  of  the  clergy  the  right  of  con- 
flrmiag ;  but  presbyters  appear  to  bare  conferred  im- 
poeition  of  hands,  (a)  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop; 
tr,  (ft)  in  tbe  presence  of  the  bishop,  only  Liy  bis  ex- 
pi»s  orden ;  or,  (e)  on  tba  conver^on  of  a  repated 
hentic,  it  such  a  one,  desirous  of  being  received  into 
tbe  church,  was  at  tbe  point  ofdaath  while  the  bishop 
was  absent.  Deacons  were  on  an  eqnality  with  pres- 
hjten  in  this  respect,  until  they  were  sbsolotely  for- 
bidden to  administer  this  rite  by  the  Coancil  ot  Tole- 
do, A.D.  100. 

In  the  Latin  Chnrcb,  after  the  separation  of  con- 
■rmatioQ  from  baptism,  a  series  of  preliminary  rellg- 
ioos  exercises  was  requifiite  for  this  rite,  similsr  to 
those  which  had  been  previously  reqnired  fur  bapdsm. 
Names  given  in  baptism  were  sometimes  changed  in 
conlirmBtian.  Sponsors  were  also  reqalied;  and  a 
separate  edifice  in  aome  Instance)  provided,  called  en- 
Bgnatariam,  aAnfortim,  and  ciritmariuM.  After  the 
disose  of  baptisteries,  both  baptiam  and  conAnnation 
were  adrainiatiircd  In  the  church  (Famr;  Kngham, 
Oriff.  KcA:  bk.  xil,  ch.  1,  ii ;  NDander,Cji.  Bitt.  1. 816). 

Conftrmatian  b  a  aacrtnsait  in  the  Romish  and 
Qnck  chatcbes.    In  the  Greek  Church  conflmation  is 


19  CONrmMATION 

administered  at  the  same  time  with,  or  as  soon  u  poa- 

ing  considered  perilous  to  die  without  it;  and  in  the 
Latin  Church  also  it  is  often  administered  to  young 
children — tbe  Church  of  Uome  not  considering  a  per- 
son a  "  complete  Christian"  till  bebss  partaken  utthls 
"  sacrament."  To  recoacile  this  ojdnion  atith  the  fb1> 
vation  of  children  who  die  after  baptism  but  before 
confirmation,  or  ''  committing  actnal  sin,"  Che  Church 
ot  Rome  has  decided  that  they  are  confirmed  by  death, 
as  they  cannot  sin  aflerwurds.  In  England,  five  cen- 
turies ago,  children  were  ntonlly  confirmed  at  the  age 
of  five  years.     The  Council  of  Trent  appointed  from 

1 665,  prohibited  conHrmatlon  under  seven  .rears  of  age. 
The  canon  law  flxea  no  time,  but  saya  "of  perfect 
age,"  which  may  be  interpreted  strictly  or  laxly. 
Tbe  earlier  German  Reformers  rejected  it  even  as  a 
ceremony;  but  it  was  restored  throagh  tbe  Influence 
of  Spener  In  the  17th  century,  and  is  now  in  use,  as  a 
renewal  of  tbe  baptismal  covenant,  in  the  Reformod 
and  Lutheran  Churctaes.  In  the  Church  ot  England, 
and  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  it  is  a  formal 
rite,  (dministered  by  the  bishop.  These  chnrcbes  di- 
rect that  the  child  shall  be  confirmed  "90  soon  as  be 
can  say  the  Creed,  tbe  Lord's  Prayer,  and  tbe  Ten 
Commandments  in  tha  vulgar  tongue,  and  is  turiher 
instructed  in  tha  Church  Catechism  set  forth  for  that 
purpose."  Bishop  Gibson,  to  elucidate  tbe  words 
"  j-ean  ot  dlscretlDn,"  in  the  Act  18, 14,  Car.  II,  refers 
to  Lyndwood's  Gloss  upon  ArcbUsbop  Walter's  Con- 
stitutions, which  makes  the  proper  age  to  be  above 
seven  snd  under  fourteen.  The  ritosllsts  andcsnon- 
ista  of  the  English  Chnrch  generally  incline  to  a  ten- 
der age.  Thus,  In  reply  to  Bucer,  who  "  finds  fault 
with  our  Church  for  administering  confirmation  too 
soon,"  and  says  that  none  oaght  to  be  confirmed  "  who 
have  not  had  opportaniCy  of  giving  sufficient  testimo- 
nies of  their  (aitbend  desire  of  living  to  God  by  tbeir 
life  and  convenntion,"  Wheatly  argues  that  confirma- 
tion is  administered  "to  assist  them  in  manifesting 
their  faith  and  practice,  and  is  not  to  be  deferred  till 
these  are  already  manifested."  The  rite,  be  says,  is 
to  guard  them  against  aln,  before  they  are  exposed  to 
impUtlon,  "that  so  the  Holy  Spirit  may  Uke  early 
possesion  ot  their  youthful  hearts,  and  prevent  those 
Bins  to  which,  without  his  aaaisCance,  the  very  tender- 
ness of  their  age  would  be  apt  to  expose  tbem."  All 
that  the  Church  demands,  he  adds,  is  "that  they 
shonld  understand  the  nature  and  advantages  of  the 
rite,  and  the  obligations  it  lays  upon  them."  Tbe 
High  and  Low  Church  differ  as  to  the  essence  ot  con- 
firmation, tbe  latter  regarding  it  as  being  essentially  a 
nal  renewal  of  the  promises  made  in  the  name  of 
tha  subject  by  others  at  baptiBm,whllo  the  Ili);h-Chnrcb- 
en  look  upon  it  as  a  kind  of  sacramenCat  rite  tbr  con- 
iylng  the  atrengthenlng  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Some  IHgh-Cburcbmen  have  therefore  mainUined  that 
the  Roman  doctrine  of  tbe  sacramental  character  of  cnn- 
firmalion  (aa  well  as  of  all  the  other  sacraments  of  the 
Chnrch  of  Rome)  may,  in  some  sense,  bo  sccepted  by 
tbe  Anglican  Chnrcb.  It  Is  connected  with  thla  di^ 
'erence  of  viewa  as  to  tbe  sacmmentsi  character  of 
onfirmation  that  the  H^  -  Churchmen  generally 
irge  an  earlier  (about  five  or  six  years)  and  the  Ijiw- 
Chnrchmen  a  later  age  (tram  tonrteen  to  nlxteen). 
'le  performance  of  the  rile.  Their  difference  of 
m  became  the  subject  of  an  animated  conference 
,  a  few  years  ago.  bishop  Baring,  of  Durham,  re* 
fused  lo  confirm  any  children  less  than  fourteen  years 
pf  age.  See  Coleman,  Awsmt  CArittinttUg,  ch.  xx; 
Bangs.Or^™iI  CivrtM.  p.  319  (H-  ^-  limn) ;  Bamet, 
aiH.o/Engl.H'/ormntym,  i,46B,68S;  Wilson,  Bawyt- 
im  Lecmn,  p.  ^60;  Wtiately,  Infini  Baptitm,  p.  SO; 
Schafl',  Apoilolie  Ckurdt;  Palmer,  On  tht  Charehi 
Procter,  0»  Ctmmim  Prayr;  Elliott,  DtSniaHm  of 
Romamtm.    See  a  list  of  treatises  on  catecbumena  and 


CONFLAGRATION 


Conflagratloa,  Gbsbbal.  The  opIaBin  that  the 
end  of  the  world  ii  to  be  effected  by  the  ■([enc}'  of  fire 
Is  veiy  ancient,  and  wai  cummun  Hmong  heathen  pbi- 
loaophen  (Qvid,  AfOanarpli.  i,  afifi).  Other  tMtimo- 
Dies  are  quoted  bv  Urotiue  (De  V'rritale  OU.  Chr.  lib.  i, 
§  22).  It  is  not  easy  lo  discover  the  ori^tln  of  this 
opinion  ;  it  can  acarcelv  be  traced  to  tisdition  derived 
fhim  revelation,  since  there  li  no  distinct  reference  to 
itlcb  a  catastrophe  in  the  Old  TeiUmenL  It  la,  more- 
over, tenurkalile,  considering  how  onlveiaal  and  def- 
inite ia  the  ordinary  belief  on  the  suliject,  that  there  is 

lil,  T-in.  which  can  be  adduced  as  tpeakinu  dietinctly 
of  this  event  This  pouage  ia,  indeed,  very  explicit, 
but  aome  learned  and  able  expoeitors  have  referrtd  it 
altofnther  to  the  destruction  of  Jeruaalem  and  of  the 
Jewuh  polity.  AmonK  these  are  Dr.  Lightrnot  {Borit 
fl<*r.  in  Joh.  21,  22)  and  Dr.  John  Owen  (HtuAorou- 
(uva,  edit.  Bremen,  16S4,  p.  117,  quoted  by  Dr.  P>-e 
Smith,  Scripture  and  GitHagg,  MCt.  C,  p.  383, 1st  ed.}. 
K  howeTer,  with  the  nmjority  of  interpreter*,  wo  re. 
fer  the  prediction  to  the  end  of  the  world,  to  which  it 
•eenii  most  naturally  to  apply,  we  could  not  have  u 
mare  distinct  stateoient  of  the  fact  ttiM  the  preaent 
order  of  tbinga  is  to  be  terminated  by  the  world, w( 
inhabit  and  all  the  works  of  man  it  contains  being 
"burnt  up."  There'  is  no  reason  for  araumins  Ibal 
the  whole  material  univerae  is  to  be  involved  in  tlib 
catastrophe;  the  mention  of  the  bearena  leads  oui 
thoughts  no  farther  than  the  atmatpliore  and  vapors 
Sarrounding  thia  planet.  Nor  afaould  we  regard  thli 
conflaicration  as  involving  the  absolnte  Satrm&m  oi 
annihilation  of  the  world;  It  ia  more  conslMcnt  witl 
the  nuriBtive  Itself,  as  well  as  with  physical  science. 
to  consider  it  as  Introdnctoiy  to  a  new  and  better  state 
of  things— "new  heavens  and  a  new  eaith  wherein 
dwelleth  righteousneaa''  (ver.  1!).  By  what  HKani 
tbe  confliigrstion  is  to  be  effected  we  arc  not  informed, 
and  all  attemjita  to  explain  liow  this  la  to  be  eccom- 
pliahed  must  lie  mere  speculation.  We  have  only  al 
present  to  remark  that  such  an  event  is  not  inconsist- 
ent with  physical  facte.  We  know  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  tbe  oarth  increases  gnidaally  and  with  consid- 
entilo  regularity  as  we  descend  below  the  aurfsce 
(Phillip^  Gfohgg,  ii,  2S3),  and  wo  Imve  every  i 
to  believe  that  tbe  central  mass  ia  intcnaely  hut. 
know,  moreover,  that  there  are  subtrrrancan  (ii 
groat  extent,  if  not  forming  part  of  this  heated  ci 
mass.  Tbe  means,  therefore,  of  combustion  an 
■t  hand.  But  even  if  there  were  no  such  central  heat, 
chemistry  points  out  very  ««iy  means  by  which  thi 
ConflagTHlion  may  be  effected  through  the  agency  ol 
various  elementary  sobstancea  (Phillipf,  Gtolngg,  ii, 
ill).  We  find  evidence  also  in  tbe  pyrogenoua  rockf 
which  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
tbat  tbe  world  has  already  been  subjected,  if  not  tfl 
confljgmtion,  yet  to  a  more  Intense  and  general  action 
of  heat  than  any  which  ia  now  observed  on  the  surfacf 
of  tlie  earth ;  and  it  is  clearly  not  impossible  that  the 
action  may  be  yet  more  intente  and  more  general. 
The  example  oTthe  conflagration  of  a  star  in  the  eon- 
Stcllatinn  nf  the  Northern  Crown  in  May,  ]8«6,  by  thi 
sudden  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas,  sbowa  one  way  in 
which  such  a  catastrophe  might  be  produced  IBibU- 
olheea  Sacra,  July,  1667,  p.  473).  In  speculatin/  on 
this  subject,  however,  the  caution  of  Calvin  shoold  not 
be  disregarded,  tbat  the  apoatle  is  not  speaking  to  crst- 
ify  the  speculations  of  the  carious,  but  to  add  impres- 
■iveness  to  bis  pious  exhortations  (Coram,  lis  2  Pel.  iii, 
10). 

Conlbnilltf  strictly  means,  (1)  tbe  being  reduced 
to  the  iimethape  with  anything  else;  hence  it  has  ac- 
quired the  figuratire  penae  of  (i)  aifrcement  with  any  I 
ezliting  set  of  principles,  or  any  Institution ;  and  has,  I 


CONFUCIUS 

more  limited  and  technical  senao,  been  used  tar 
■•npliaiif»  Kith  Ae  dit^/Unt  •■/  Ut  Ctuirt*  of  tnf- 
'■  Conformists"  are  therefore  generally  contn.at- 
ed  with  "Nonconlbnnists,"  a  name  which  now  in- 
cudes generally  all  thoae  who,  either  in  doctrine  or 
government,  or  both,  dissent  {Torn  the  Church  of  Eng- 
and.  A  declaration  is  required  of  all  pereons  whs 
Lre  to  l>e  licensed  or  instituted  to  an  eccleaiaMlcal 
charge  in  the  Chnrch  of  England  in  the  rollo«ing 
words:  "I,  A.  B.,  do  declare  that  I  will  conform  to 
the  Liturgy  of  tbe  Church  of  England  ai  it  is  now  by 
law  established."  This  declaration  is  to  be  made  and 
subscribed  before  the  bishop  or  bis  commiBKary,  and 
the  making  and  anb'criptlnn  thereof  is  to  be  tntilird 
under  the  episcopal  seal  of  the  bishop,  and  under  tlie 
hand  of  the  biphnp  or  his  commissarv. — Eden,  Ciartii- 
Duin'i  TIkoI.  Diet. ;  Hook,  ClarA  Did. 

OoofoimistB.    See  Cokformitt. 

Conhicins  (l^tlnicod  by  the  Jesiit  mlssiooartea 
from  Cong-fii4*e  or  Koang-foo4se),  a  Chinese  re- 
former and  momlipt,  was  bom  alwnt  561  B.C.  at  tbe 
village  of  TscD-sc,  in  the  small  kingdom  of  Ln  (now 
a  part  of  tbe  province  of  Shantung),  and  died  B.C. 
479.  Ho  Is  aahl  to  have  been  a  descendant  of  tlie 
emperor  Hoang-ti,  who  reigned  B.C.  2600.  fl  ben  bs 
wus  three  years  old  his  father  died,  lint  bis  mother 
trained  him  with  great  care,  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
rapid  progress  and  filial  tenderness  of  her  son.  At 
seventeen  ho  was  called  to  public  life  as  inspecler  of 
the  grain-markets.  He  was  msrTied  at  nineteen,  but, 
according  to  some  accounts,  subsrqucottv  divorctd  lis 
wife  (after  sbe  had  bdmc  him  a  ron)  in  order       '      ' 


imself  t- 


mgs,  ai 


pare  for  thi'  m^rk  of  restoring  the  usages  and  dortrioea 
of  the  old  sagBF.  He  was  aoon  after  promoted  to  the 
I  nice  of  inspector  general  of  agriculture.  At  twenty- 
fuuT.  having  lost  his  mother,  he  res^gncfl  hh  poblie 
employments  that  he  might  pay  the  mpert  to  bcr 
memory  prescril:ed  by  the  ancient  traditions.  During 
the  throe  years  passed  In  mourning  he  was  a  diligent 
student.  China  ut  that  period  wa.i  divided  into  a  dbd)- 
licr  of  feudal  kingdi  ms  bat  sliglilly  under  the  control 
of  the  centrrl  nuthority,  whose  conitant  quamrlt  filled 
tlie  land  with  disorder,  while  Ibo  sociul  and  n-orul  con- 
dition of  the  people  had  fullen  so  low  that  the  •ncntnJ 
religious  rites  were  no  lunger  ot.scrved.  To  rertore  the 
proper  observance  of  these,  rather  than  to  introdEce 
any  new  religious  systrm,  was  the  task  to  which  Con- 
fnciUB  determined  to  devote  himself.  A  bout  tbe  age  of 
thirty  he  began  his  public  teachings,  making  jounten 
through  the  various  states  of  China,  instructing  all 
ranks  nf  the  people,  and  gaining  fame  and  dlrcipla^ 
thouuh  meeting  often  with  opposition,  and  even  perse- 
cution, in  his  efforts  to  refonn  the  manners  and  better 
tbe  condition  ot  his  coantrymen.  When  fifiy-dre 
years  old  he  re-entered  public  lifb  as  prime  minirter 
of  his  nativD  kingdom,  Lo,  with  opportunity  and  le- 
tbority  to  test  the  efficacy  of  his  proposed  means  ef 
amelioratioD.  In  three  years,  it  ia  aaid,  he  hrodgbt 
shout  a  complete  change  in  its  social  and  morsl  nndi- 
tion.  His  success,  however,  excited  the  jealousy  of 
neighliuring  princes,  and  through  their  intrigun  In 
was  obli.'ed  to  flee  to  the  north  of  China.  After  sev- 
eral unsnccessfbl  efforts  to  obtain  office  and  opporta- 
nities  to  teach  the  people,  he  retired  lo  the  kingdoa 
of  China,  where  he  lived  in  great  poverty.  Hisdw- 
trines,  however,  had  taken  root,  but  his  riuid  piind- 
pies  and  practice  made  him  many  enemies.  mtB 
fitll  of  vesrs,  in  company  with  some  chosen  di^ciplR^ 
he  retired  IVom  the  world,  tbat  be  might  ccmplrti  mi 
nrrange  the  works  which,  nnder  tbe  name  ot  lie  Sag 
(or  Books),  constitute  tbe  facred  books  of  the  Cbian^ 
and,  standinic  at  the  bead  of  their  litaratnre,  hait  fH 
more  than  2000  yean  ieen  the  recognised  authoritv  In 
iial  and  political  conduct  for  nearly  one  third  ef  iIk 
nun  race-    Soon  after  the  compleUon  otlhet  voki 


CONFUCIUS  4 

!>•  died,  leavlDg  a  ^ngle  doctnduit,  hb  gnuid*ao, 
Tse-Tao,  whoK  oSspKiiK,  aumbaiiog  A.D.  Ifi71  about 
11,000  mjites,  niosEjy  of  the  HTanty-fcninli  h'eneratioo, 
ferm  s  dutinct  cuate  in  Cbiiieu  Hiciety,  tha  only  io- 
■tancfl  of  B  hereditary  nobility  among  tliem.  Tba 
Tcneradoa  of  Ilio  Chiae«  tar  Confucius  aniounta  to 
wonhip,  to  which  the  necond  and  third  months  aro  Ae- 
n>l«d.  Id  every  diitrict  and  every  department  there 
ii  ft  temple  erected  in  bis  honor  (Culberteon.  p.  41). 

The  Kev.  Dr.  Wentworth.  Klelhwliil  Epiaccipal  mia- 
eionary  at  Fuh-Chau,  ipvea  an  account  of  the  worship 
u  witacsfwdby  himielf  in  >  temple  in  that  city,  fi-om 
which  we  make  the  fallowing  extract! ;  "The  tum- 
ple  is  one  of  tbe  Gneit  liDildin^p  in  the  city.  It  li 
ona  Moricd,  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square,  with  a 
^jcioue  court  in  the  centre,  apartments  on  each  aide, 
and  the  main  temple  at  the  end.  It  has  a  flnu  por- 
tico, and  tba  mof  within  ii  snstained  by  culumns  of 
solid  j^ranite  of  enormoaa  siie.  There  arc  no  iilols, 
bat  ance«tril  t^bleta  supply  their  placea  In  tlia  gild- 
ed shrinks.  In  th:  centre  Is  that  of  Conrucius,  on 
tba  lidsa  are  those  of  twelve  of  his  must  celo>.raUd  dis- 
ciples, six  on  oicb  side.  The  worship  of  the  pbiloni- 
phcr  is  monnpnliiod  by  the  liloratl ;  and  tbe  manda- 
rina,  wiinare  lit-rjry  graduiitoa  of  the  hUbeJt  distinc- 
tion, are  the  only  ptie«ts  who  olBcisto  upon  the  occa- 
aion.  The  sacrifice  take*  plare  twice  a  year,  in  the 
•ecDod  and  eighth  months.  It  ia  periormed  before 
daylight  in  the  morning,  and  tba  common  people  aro 
rigidly  exclnded.  We  were  an  hour  ton  early,  but 
belter  that  than  Ave  minttlea  too  late.  Tbe  iiianda- 
riDB  had  not  jet  made  their  sppesrJDce.     A  bunt  of 

first  busineas  was  tn  ^t  the  ^  whang- kee-an^,'  ^for- 
•ign  bi'iieji,' out  of  the  Nu.'re'l  precincts,  and  a  minda- 
rin  of  high  rank  came  to  mqaast  us  to  go  outside. 
Wb  asked  him  to  let  us  sUnd  neit  one  of  the  great 
doors  on  the  portico  outiide.  To  this  he  consant«d. 
Tha  platrumi  was  clejrod  and  the  ceremonies  began. 
The  darkness  was  dispelled  liy  rows  of  gaudy  Untems 
and  a  forest  of  blazing  torches.  Tbe  court  was  filled 
with  mandurlns  and  their  servants.  Privileged  spec- 
tators from  the  literary  clasao*,  with  their  attondiints, 
rruwdod  all  the  availjblo  space  below.  In  J¥<int  of 
the  great  central  door  of  the  temple,  on  the  portico. 
was  a  band  aC  musicians,  with  flutes  and  'soft  record- 
ers,' and  another  of  hoys  fantastically  dressed.    With- 

tha  instrnmenta  without,  the  praise*  of  tbe  Mge.  The 
loud  voice  of  a  crier  within  tho  temple,  and  the  Inud 
reapoDse  of  a  herald  below.  Indicated  thai  all  was 
roody.  Clouda  of  incense  tilled  the  temple,  while  two 
or  tbres  mandarins,  in  fall  nfflcLI  dress  and  caps,  pre- 
ceded by  attendants,  ascended  tbe  steps  and  entered 
the  loRy  doors  on  either  side,  prostrating  themaelTes 
with  the  head  tn  tho  parement  before  the  shrines  suc- 
cessively, snd  oflering  tlie  various  articles  placed  in 
their  hands  by  the  attendants  for  that  purpose  to  Con- 
tacius  and  his  &vorile  fnllowers.  Thin  whs  repeated 
three  times  in  anecesaion,  the  officers  retiring  and  re- 
anteiing  with  the  same  stately  ceremony  nn  each  oc- 
casioD.  The  offerings  ware  animal  and  vegetable. 
On  a  broad  table  in  front  of  tha  shrine  and  altar  of 
CoDfucius  lay  abraaded  tho  carcase  of  a  whole  ox,  de- 
nndad  of  his  skin,  and  on  either  side  of  him  a  pis 
and  a  goat.  On  the  altar  were  vases  of  flowers  and 
platea  of  cooked  provisions.  At  one  point  in  the  cer- 
amony  an  offlctol  kneeled  before  the  shrine  of  Con- 
fOdns  at  a  respectful  distance,  and  in  a  Inud  voice . 
chanted  a  prayer  or  •  hymn  nf  praise.  The  ordinary 
dunta  were  very  rimple,  consisting  of  four  notes  per- 
pMnalljr  npeated,  tbns : 


The  laM  oSeriiv  I'M  matarial  for  dothliigt  a  Mtt  of 


1  CONFUUIUS 

coarse  silk,  in  large  patches,  Srst  oftred  bodily  in  tbt 
temple,  and  then  taken  down  into  tbe  court  and  burn- 
ed, tbat  It  might  become  sidrit-silk  in  the  otiior  world. 
The  Buddhists  nsnally  offer  ready-made  clothing, 
stamped  on  paper.  The  uuindariiia  send  Confucios 
the  raw  material.  About  the  flrst  i^jy  streakings  of 
the  dawn  of  a  cloudy  morning  tbe  cer.:monies  ended, 
the  torches  were  suddenlv  cxtingaiihed,  and  tbe  offl- 
cars  and  their  retinues  slowly  retired  '  (CArirtia  AS- 
Toeale  and  Journal,  1H5D), 

"  It  was  tbe  great  object  of  Confucius  to  regulate 
the  mannets  of  the  people.     He  thought  outward  lle- 

therefiire  digested  all  the  various  ceremonies  into  one 
general  code  of  rites,  which  was  called  L«-ke,  or  Ly- 
king,  etc.  In  this  work  every  ritual  in  all  tbe  rela- 
tions of  human  life  is  strictly  regulated,  BO  that  a  true 
Chinese  b  a  perfect  antonuton,  put  in  modon  Liy  the 
regulations  of  tho  Ly-king.  Some  of  the  riles  ore 
must  excellent;  the  duties  towards  parentx,  tba  re- 
spect due  to  superiors,  tbe  decorum  in  the  behavior  of 
common  life,  etc,  Fpeali  highly  in  favor  nf  Ciinfui-iu«; 
but  bi>  substituting  cereniiiuy  for  simplicity  snd  trua 
politeness  is  unpardonable.  The  l.y-kin^  cuulaina. 
many  excellent  maxims  and  inculcates  niurality,  hot 

terpnlationa"  (Uutzlaff,  sielei  o/CUnfie  fJU/ory). 

In  the  writings  of  Confucius  the  duties  of  husbaodi 
lowarde  their  wivss  were  slightly  dwelt  upon;  the 
duties  and  implicit  snbmissian  of  cbililren  to  their  par< 
intH  were  most  rigidly  inculcated.  li|ion  this  wide 
principle  of  liliil  obedience  the  whole  of  hia  system, 
moral  and  political,  is  founded.  A  family  ia  the  |pro- 
lotype  of  tha  nation;  end,  instead  of  the  nations  of  in- 
dependence and  equality  among  m^n,  ha  enfrmses  the 
principles  of  dependence  and  subordination —as  of 
cbildren.to  pjront",  the  jroonger  to  the  elder.  By, 
an  easy  flclion,  the  emperor  stands  as  the  father  of 
hia  snbjecbi,  sad  U  thus  entitled  to  their  passive 

idlence;  and,  as  Dr.  Morrison  eliserves,  it  is  prob- 
ably (ho  might  say  certainly)  this  feature  of  his  doc- 
trines which  has  rtiada  Confucius  such  s  faTOrilo  with 
all  the  governments  of  China,  whether  nf  native  or 
Tartar  origin,  for  so  many  centuries.  At  tho  same 
time,  it  should  be  Obeervcd  that  this  fundamental  doc- 
trine his  rendered  the  Chinese  people  slavish,  deceit- 
ful, nnd  pusillanimous,  and  has  fostered  the  growth  of 
a  national  character  that  cannot  be  redeemed  liy  gen- 
llenesa  of  deportment  and  orderliness  of  conduct. 

Confuclns  was  a  teacher  of  morals,  liut  not  the 
founder  of  a  religion.  His  doctrines  connlitute  rnther 
a  system  of  philosophy  in  tbe  department  of  morale 
and  politics  than  any  particular  religioas  faith  (Da- 
vis). Amauld  and  other  writers  have  broadly  assert- 
ed that  he  did  not  recognise  the  existence  of  a  God 
CBsylo,  Diet,  in  art.  MaUuim').  In  his  physica  Con- 
be  produced  anything!  that  material  bodies  musthavs 
OKisted  from  all  eternity;  tbat  th#  c»aae  or  principle 
nf  thing*  must  have  bad  a  co-exislenca  with  the  tbinga 
themsetvea;  that  tharefora  this  cause  la  also  eternal. 
Infinite,  indestructible." 

The  system  of  Confucius  la  essentially  ethical  and 
political,  and  cannot  bo  called  a  religion  or  a  philoso- 
phy. He  disclaims  originality  in  doctrine.  Wa  ob«. 
jeet  was  to  re-establish  the  ancient  cvteu  of  China, 
and  to  mould  the  manners  nf  her  people  by  mbtuta 
regulations,  embodying  the  nsagee  of  the  past,  and 
digesledlnto  one  general  code  of  rite*  (Zi4>),  in  which 
the  pivper  ritoal  for  all  the  reUllons  of  life  is  pre- 
scrilwd.  To  tha  inflnence  of  this  cod*  may  be  refarrad 
the  automatic  character  of  Chinese  life.  While  many 
of  bis  doctrines  are  daaarring  of  high  praise,  and  may 
Joatlv  claim  to  rank,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  above 
tha  ethics  of  Greece  and  Rome,  they  fall  short  of  tha 
elevation  and  anteliorating  power  of  tha  Mosaic  and 
Cbriatian  codes,  which  the  ancydopmlUt  wrilara  at 


CONFUCIUS  f, 

Iba  elghteentb- century  aunrtod  vera  equalled,  if  not . 
mrptued  by  them.  To  »bair  the  fiblty  nt  such 
itatemsnt,  kb  need  only  eontrut  the  rosulti  achieved 
hy  the  deTelopmeut  of  the  two  ajfttems,  Btartlng  from 
what  hsa  been  cUimed  to  be  cognate  doctrinal  liuei. 
Founding  hb  >v»tem  upon  the  duty  enjidiied  in  the 
fifth  conuundnient  of  the  Decalogue,  Confadoi  incul- 
cate! in  >uch  oiu  dependence  and  nibordinatioD,  fint 
of  ehildren  to  pareaU,  then  of  dtiieni  to  the  emperor, 
the  reprcaentitive  father  of  the  itate,  aa  to  give  to  the 
imperial  power  that  deapolic  cost  which,  while  it  hu 
taJie  him  bo  f^reat  a  favorite  with  all  govemmeata  in 
China,  native  or  Tartar,  has  nevertheleag  undoubtedly 
Unded  to  check  progreu  and  make  the  people  deceit- 
' a,  though  the  long-continued  ez- 


ulily  vi 


by  (jod  of  long  life  to  thoee  who  honor  their  porenta, 
for  tbia  injunction,  It  would  aeem,  the  ChiaeM  al>ey 
beyond  all  nationa  of  the  eaitb.  Ula  celebrated  max- 
im of  negative  reciprocity,  "What  yon  wanldnot  wlib 
done  to  younelf,  that  do  not  to  others"  {Anai,  xv,  S3), 
fitly  contnsti  the  immobile,  aelHah  a^t  of  Confu- 
daninn,  limited  in  lU  ainu  to  China  only,  with  the 
active  reciprocity  of  Cbrlat'a  golden  rale,  whose  pn>- 
greasive  apb-ll  embraces  all  the  wt«ld. 

Wbetber  Confucius  recognised  the  existence  of  a 
personal  God  has  been  questianed,  though  the  religions 
cereriboniea  olwerved  by  him,  and  certain  expreuiona 
of  his  iAnaL  Ui,  IS,  and  xiv,  18)— "He  who  offends 
againit  Heaven  baa  none  to  whom  he  can  pray," 
"  But  there  is  Heaven  tbat  knows  me" — are  nrged  aa 
proofe  that  be  did  (see  preface  to  the  Amer.  ed.  of  Ibe 
recent  translation  by  Dr.Lepge).  He  maintained  that 
<E  miAilo  mUlJit,  and  conseqnently  (hat  matter  Is  eter- 
nal ;  that  tbe  cause  or  principle  of  things  had  a  coex- 
istence with  the  things  themselves,  and  thcreforo  alto 
Is  eternal,  infinite,  indestructible,  omnipotent,  and 
omnipresent,  having  tbe  blue  flnnamont  (Tien)  as  tbe 
central  point;  therefore  ofl^rinm,  polticnlarly  at  the 
eqainoiea,  shoald  be  made  to  Tien.  Neither  Confn- 
dns  nor  bis  true  followers  have  ever  represented  the 
Great  First  Cause  by  any  image.  "The  images  and 
idols  of  China  belong  to  other  faiths."  Tbe  doctrine 
oftbeeoul's  immortality  is  implied  in  the  worship  paid 
to  anceslon,  and  the  absence  of  the  word  death  th>m 
his  philosophy.  When  a  person  diet,  the  Chinese  say 
"  he  has  returned  to  his  family."  The  spirila  of  tbe 
good  were,  according  lo  him,  permitted  to  visit  their 
andcnt  hatritationB  on  earth,  or  sucb  ancestral  Italli  or 
places  OS  were  appointed  by  their  descendant*,  (o  re- 
crive  homage  and  confer  benefactions.  Hence  the 
dnty  of  performing  aacred  riles  in  such  placea,  under 
the  penalty,  in  the  case  of  those  who,  while  living, 
neglect  such  duty,  of  their  ifrfritnal  part  being  de- 
IH^ved  after  death  of  the  supreme  bliss  flowing  from 
the  homage  of  descendants.  Tbe  aim  of  the  living 
ahoald  lie  the  attainment  of  perfect  virtue  l>y  the  ott- 
servance  of  the  five  fundamental  laws  of  the  relatioD 
between  mler  and  subject,  parents  and  children,  bus- 
band  and  wife,  Mends  and  brothers,  and  tbe  practice 
of  tbe  five  cardinal  virtues— human ily,  Justice,  order, 
rectitude,  and  sincerity,  or  good  faith." 

Of  tbe  Ave  canonical  books  composing  the  King, 
three  (l-King,  8hi-Klng,  and  SbnJCIng)  were  com- 
piled, and  one  (Chun-Tsien)  was  composed  by  Confa- 
«ins,  white  one  (Ll-KI)  was  compiled  from  his  teach- 
lags  by  his  disciples,  and  brought  to  Its  present  form 
some  centuries  after  him.  The  flrst  (l-King,  Book  of 
Changes),  owigned  by  tradition  to  the  mythical  em- 
peror Fubi  (B.C. 8800)  as  Its  author,  is  "simply  a  num- 
ber of  figures  made  up  of  straight  lines,  entire  snd 
broken,  variously  put  together  in  parallel  arrange- 
roent,"  and  which  "  are  regarded  as  typifying  tbe  ele- 
ments and  processea  of  nature,  and  the  gnat  truths  of 
the  moral  and  Intellectnal  world,"  and  "expressing 
tbe  earliest  coemicsl  philosophy  of  the  Chinese.  To 
the  brief  early  Interpretation  of  these  emblematic  Gg- 


CONGO 

urea  Confuclua  added  a  thilei  ono  of  his  own."  Tba 
(ShI-King,  Book  of  Songs)  U  a  eeiectlon  of  Sll 
pieces  of  lyric  poetri',  relating  to  moral  sentiments, 
public  and  private  affairs,  as  harvesting,  marriage,  etc., 
with  praise  of  the  good  and  censure  of  the  nicked. 
Tbe  third  and  meet  Important  (gbu. King,  Book  of  An- 
nala)  is  a  hlatorieal  work,  recording  not  only  eventr, 
bnt  tbe  maxims,  converaationa,  decrees,  and  inatitB< 
tioQB  of  the  sovereigns  of  ancient  China,  drawn  con- 
fessedly fhim  authentic  sources,  and  aiming  down  to 
about  200  years  before  Confadus.  The  fuorth  (L'hnn- 
Tslen,  Spring  and  Autumn),  composed  tiy  Cunnicioa 
as  a  supplement  to  the  third,  records  from  memorials 
of  his  native  kingdom  Lif  the  events  fkim  nngwang 
to  B.C.  &00.  This  is  the  only  work  nnuing  directly 
trom  the  band  of  Confucius.  Tbe  fifth  (U-Ki,  Book 
of  Ritee)  is  a  "compilation,  tirought  into  Its  pnseni 
form  Bome  centuriea  after  Confucius,  and  made  up 
ftom  material  of  very  dilTerent  age  and  charafler." 
It  is  a  text.book  especially  of  ceremonial  and  etl< 
quette.  In  which  tbe  personal  teachings  of  Confudua 
occupy  an  important  place.  His  doctrines  are  also  set 
forth  in  the  HUo-Klug  (FilUl  Hety)  by  an  anony. 
moos  writer,  which  contains  apothegms  of  Conf^doa, 
collected  during  bis  conversations  with  hb  disdple 
Tssng-Tsan,  and  In  the  four  Chinese  classics  termed 
Ssi-sbu,  via.  (1)  Tahis  (Great  Luming,  or  doctriDS  tar 
adults),  consisting  otreven  verses  of  text  from  Confo- 
cluB,  with  ten  chapters  of  commentary  by  Taang ;  (S) 
Chung-Yang  (the  Doctrine  of  the  Moan),  by  Tii-tte, 
the  grandson  of  Confncius;  (3)  Lung-yu  (conTens- 
lioni — repliea),  converaationB  of  Confuclua,  written  by 
two  disciples  after  bis  death;  (4)  the  Heng-tae-ebo, 
tbe  work  of  his  great  disciple  Ueng-ts£(Uendaa),  who 
lived  about  B.C.  B70,  and  ranka  among  the  Cblnwa 
next  lo  Confucius  as  moralist  and  philosopher.  Dr. 
Legge  Is  now  pnblisblng  all  the  Chinese  clasaics,  glv. 
ing  origins!  texts,  ver^ons,  and  liteniy  apparatus. 
Four  volumes  have  appeared  (Hong  Kong);  see  bIm 
bla  Li/t  and  Ttadangt  nfCow/ama  (Lond.  18G7,  Philo. 
1867, 12mo) ;  Hue,  TVoB.  in  the  Chatat  Empire  (S.  V„ 
Harpen,  3  vols.  ISmo);  Nne-Em^mdtr,  Feb.  T,  1869,  p. 
llC-121;  £Mii.Xer.April,IS6a.p.a23-5(Amer.ed.); 
QitaH.  Rev.  xi,  SSi ;  Cnlbertson,  CIma,  iu  Sdigioiii  and 
6'apentiVmu  (K.T.  1867, 1  i-ol.  l!mo);  Biil.  Sacra, 
Hay,  1840,  art.  iii ;  Tie  Ckinae  Claaia,  pt.  i,  Om/iici- 
ut,  Worcester,  Mass.  (a  translation  of  the  AnaleeU,  lit 
Creat  £<iiraiy  msJttj  Jfoctrwe  i/rts  J>f eon),  taken  ftom 
Dr.  Legge'a  larger  work ;  Harahman,  IFbris  ^CWb- 
csttj  (Serampore,  1809, 4to) ;  Platb,  Cox/aciw  ■.  anwr 
SdtOler  I.ebm  u.  Liknm  (Munich,  IRS?,  vol.  t);  Mao- 
rice,  Sdigioni  -ftke  Warid  (Lond.  184G):  ChriM.  £i- 
aniarr,  Sept.  18H;  Hardwick,  Ckria  amd  vthtr  tfm- 
ICTX,  bk.  iiC  ch.  1;  Loomia,  Car/mwt  and  lie  Ckmrm 
CliMct,We7;Bnl.<i¥arl.lttv.UaAS«7.  See  Catxs. 
ConTuslonW  ToRanE*.    See  Toxoim  (Conrm 

Congj  d'jUxe,  a  French  term,  signifying  Inovc  1$ 
dtoosr.  It  Is  used  in  England  to  denote  the  king's 
writ  or  license  to  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  diocese 
to  choose  a  biabop  In  the  time  of  vacancy  of  tbe  see. 
frior  to  the  reign  of  Edward  I  the  kings  of  England 
used  to  invest  bishops  with  the  ring  and  staff,  in  vir- 
tue of  their  donative  right.  Henry  I  so  far  ceded  tbia 
right  as  to  givs  a  con^  d'lUte  to  deina  and  chapters 
for  tbe  election  of  bishops.  Henry  VIII  added  "let- 
ters missive,"  nominating  tbe  person  whom  he  required 
them  to  elect,  under  pain  of  prsmunire  ;  and  Edward 
VI  (I  FJw.  VI,  c.  {,  S)  abolished  elections  by  writ  tt 
congi  SfEn,  but  they  were  revived  by  queen  Eliu- 
beth.  The  coitgi  ditire  la  now  a  mere  form,  as  tht 
nominee  of  tbe  crown  Is  invariably  choeea  by  tin  dean 
snd  chapter. 

Congo,  a  country  of  Western  Africa,  extending  ttoa 
lalitode  6°  to  8°  20'  8.  It  was  discovered  In  14^4  b; 
the  Fortugnoee,who  soon  aftwwaids  made  awtlemeBts 


CONGREGATIO 


473 


CONGREGATION 


iiuel.  His  »n,  Alphf 
tifty  y»ra,  wni  imbuudota  Lo  Uoi 
■ere  ordaineil  prieiu.  The  uext  king,  Pe 
tiiiKd  Tiir  Congo  a  speciil  biahop.  The  fallo«[af; 
kiiv*  remaineil,  wilh  ilie  people,  nominal  ajberenu  of 
Ihe  Church  of  Home.  The  effurts  of  Roman  Caiholic 
oiiraiiinariea  la  inlroduce  rcfiirnia  have  been  fniillea*. 
Ill  1K7S  Congo  became  a  dependency  uf  lieljii 
antrwinlj  expamled  into  the  Congo  Free  Sti 
this  was  the  reaulc  of  Mr. 


■ad  emcMd  forti  nlong  Ita  cooat.    A  few  yean  aftor,  I  the  idea  of  the  Ramaii  cicilfu  or  the  Greek  roXiriia, 

Doniinieao  nionka  were  tent  there  aa  miMignatiei,  and  j  Sso  Alies.     Eveiy  circomaaeU  llelirew  {nilX;  ai. 
ia  HMt  the  [jrince  of^ConBu  ™  baptized  nndar  the  1  r^^^.  ,-^jg„.  A.  V.  "horae-bom,"  "l«irnin  the 
lua  I,  who  reipied  l,nd,"  the  term  specially  deacriptive  of  the  Israelite 
!,ofwhom«eTeral   inoppnajtion  totbenon-leraeiiM,  Exod.  xii,  19;  Lew. 
-i, '.;9;  Num.  Ix,  14)  was  a  metnberof  the  coDgre|{>- 
>n,  and  took  piit  in  ita  proceedinijs  proUaLly  from 
0  time  tliJt  he  hiire  anna.     It  is  important,  however, 
obprrve  tbiit  be  acquired  no  political  ri^jhts  in  hia 
•■  I  individual  capacity,  but  only  u  n  member  of  a  boute; 
"i   far  the  basia  of  the  Hebrew  polltj'  was  the  hoiue, 
^  !  nhence  was  fomted  in  an  ascending  scale  Hx  family 
[I*  I  or  collecliiin  of  housni,  the  tribr  or  collection  of  fami- 


i  numinally  at 

iliiicege  of  Angola  (q.  v 

■iter,  (as  P.  Karl   v.  HeiL  Aloy 

r.  Katisboii,  1812)  cUim  for  the  dioceae  of  Congo  !  ""I"' 


collection  of  tribea. 

„  „   ,   ']  GovKESMESt.     Strangers  (D'^J)  aettlod  in  the  land, 

le  Roman  Catho-   .,   .  .    .  -.i.^*-  .-        ,,,   T^ 

JuKrbach  d.        circQinciaea,  were,  with  certain  enceptions  (Dent 

'  tKiii.  I  eq.),  admitted  to  the  privilege  of  citizenabip, 

*     re  spoken  of  as  members  of  the  congref{ation  in 

;gL  ^   11,  H ;  XT,  16)  1  it  appfun  doubtful,  however,  vbotber 

_  .      ,  ">^v  were  repreaentud  in  the  conerecation  in  its  cor< 

ConBTflsatlo  de  auiiUls  diirinae  giatlse  is  1  p^^tit  capacity  as  a  deUherative  l)odv,  aa  thev  were 
formed  by  popeCle-   ^^  atriclly  apoaking,  memhers  of  any  boua«  ;  their 
position  |imbably  resemliled  that  of  the  )rpo£i>w  at 
Atlicns.    The  conf^gation  occupied  an  important  po- 


nrnt  VIII  in  16!I8,  to  examine  Molina's  (q.  v.)  book 
entitled  C-'icnrdia  libtri  arbilrii  cam  gratia.  This 
work  hid  tieen  the  consa  of  great  disputes  between 
the  Jcunits  and  tbe  Domlnicana,  and  it  waa  boped  that 
the  investigations  of  the  cnmrniaaion  would  aeulo  these 


Convc 


lo  TbM 


patriarchal   representation,   e 
"le  being  Rpresented  by  ita  hi 


difficulties.  The  txmgrrg-itio  de 
months,  decided  that  tlie  Je)iu>ts  were  in  the  wrong  ii 
moat  of  tbe  controverted  poinla.  Instead  of  aabmlt 
ting  lo  this  decision,  that  powerful  order  manaj^  to 
inieii>1e  tbe  civil  authoritic>,  and  even  kings  and  em- 
perors,  into  tbe  quarrel.  After  colloqnies  between  the 
most  celebrated  Iheolngi.ins  of  the  two  parties  had  led 
lo  no  result,  in  16^  tbe  pops  ordered  tbo  controversy 
lo  be  diwuwed  in  his  own  presence.  Tbose  transac- 
tions lasted  until  IGOG,  The  Dominicana  still  tried  to 
show  thnt  the  doctrines  of  .Molina  were  Semlpelagian    , 

error!.,  and  the  Jesuits  charged  their  opponents  with  fKnm.  xi,lC).  Occasionally,  indeed,  lhe"wbolo  l«rty 
Calvinlstic  views.  Pope  Clement  VlII,  who  pcrso.i-  of  the  penple  waa  asacmUed,  tbe  mode  of  summoning 
illy  sympathiseil  with  thn  views  of  the  Dominicans,    being  bv  the  sonndofthet  '    ' 


dclegotes  wore  named  n^S^  ""Jpl  (Sept.  )rp(5/J£r(fWii 
Vulg.  anao™,-  A.  V.  "  efdLrs"),  CX-'CJ  (.upxovTif, 
pritKipei;  "princes"),  and  sometimes  D''!t''~p  (<iri- 
«Xijroi ;  qui  tocabaniur,  Num.  xvi,  2 ;  A.  V.  "  renown- 
ed," "famous").  See  Elder.  The  nnmbcr  of  theae 
representatives  being  inconveniently  large  for  ordi- 
nary liusincsa,  a  fartbcr  selection  was  made  by  Moacs 
'  "1,  who  formed  a  ..... 


notved 


iself,  but  befbre  he 


.uld    , 


be  died  (ICnal.      Dnr 
hia  death,  every  canlinnl  h. 

eltcted  pope  he  would  briuK  tue  controversy,  as 
aa  posKible,  to  •  close.  The  now  pope,  PaulV,i 
qoently  dissolved  in  ISOT  the  congregation,  and 
Hicyclica.  addressed  to  the  generals  of  the  Jeanil 
Dominicans,  and  which  the  latter  bad  to  cnmiiiBi 
to  all  Ihir  provincials  uf  tl^c  iwa  orders,  allowed  both    | 

forliade  ihi^m  to  charge  the  other  |iarty  with  herei 
This  decision  wna  conAnned  liv  a  eonstilntian  of  Oct    1 
S-irra.     Soon  after  the  liii-wfution  of  the  congr 
tioa.  Ihe  1,'enerAl  of  Ihe  .lesuita  prescribed  that  in 
schools  of  the  order  a  somewhat  modified  form  of  Mo-    ] 


of  the  tabernacle,  bonce 

usually  called  the  tabemaclo  nftAt  eongrtgaliim  OlXi'S, 

^    lit.  place  nf  mating)  (Kum.  i,  3);  the  occasions  of 

[    (Exad.xii,4T;  Kum.xxT,6;  Joel  ii,  15), or  to  receive 

I    new  commandments  (Exod.  xix,  7,  6  [comp.  Acts  vi), 

I    38];  Ijsv.  viii,  4),     The  elders  were  summoned  by  tha 

^    call  of  one  trumpet  (Num.  x,  1),  at  the  command  of 

I    the  supreme  governor  or  tbe  high-priest;  they  rcpr^ 

sentcd  the  whole  coni^gaUon  on  variona  occasions  of 

public  Interest  (Exod.  ill,  16:  xii.Sl;  xvii,  5;  xxiv, 

I);  they  acted  as  a  court  of  judicaturo  in  capital  of- 

,    fences  (Num.  xv,  Si;  xxxv,  12),  and  were  charged 

with  the  execution  of  the  sentence  (Lev.  xiiv,  \i\ 

...  „„  ^„..„,„  .^  ,„u...L.     i..  T-J...D  ••!  iiic  HUH-  ''  ^)'  '''•y  joined  in  certain  of  the  sacrifices 

•enist  thc<iloei..ns  mainti.ined'lhut  Paul  V  had  really  ^l'"'-  '"•  **■  ^*>'  ""^  ""'■  '""''"l  the  nsual  righU 
awdmncd  the  view,  of  Mnlina  in  a  specUl  conatltn-  "  wveroit'nty,  such  ae  declaring  war,  making  peace, 
lion  whiih  the  Jesuits  had  subsequently  induced  him  ""*  """^'"fl'nit  treaties  (Josh,  ix,  15).  Tbo  people 
Mt  to  publish,  popo  Innocent  X  in  IBM  declared  that  "'"^  "'"'"j'  ^"'•^  'T  ""  "'^  "^  ">*''  "^pnnonta- 
»ach  a  conaUtution  .lid  not  exist.  Kevertheleas,  the  '""^  *""  '"  ":■"*•  ''''*™  ""'J'  "liaapprovcd  of  them 
■ccounia  of  the  Dominic^in  and  Jeauit  writers  of  the  (•'"'''■  i^- 1">-  After  the  occupation  of  tbe  land  of 
hlMorv  of  thn  coiigR'^'iition  have  never  i«en  harmo-  """""i  •*"  con;,'rpt;"tion  was  assemlilcd  only  on  mal- 
.   Oi»d.— Wetier  u.  Weltn,  Kirchm-Lfx.  ii,  78G.  **"  "'  "*"  '■iRhest  importance.     The  dciegatei  were 

fi.„__. ».         ,         ,,     _„_      J  .,  .  BummnneiMii'  messengers  (2  Chrnn.  xix,  6)  to  such 

ConBresftUon  (usually  n^r,  rfaA',  or  perhaps  p|„„  „  ^.j^^^  ^e  splinted,  most  frequewly  to  Mi«. 
™  technically  Sn;?,  kahtt ,  both  often  rendered  peb  (Jud^.  x.  17;  xi.ll;  kx,1;  1  Sam.  vii,6;  x,17i 
'a8»«nilily;"Gr.  ;M*i,-Ti«or<nFvny.iyi,),aterm  that  II  Mace,  iii,  4li);  tliey  came  attended  each  with  his 
de»crit«B  the  Hebrew  iiec.]ile  in  its  collective  capacity  |  Iwnd  of  retainers,  so  that  the  namber  usaamblad  was 
under  in  peculiar  a-^i*.-!  na  a  holy  community,  held  very  considerable  (Judj;.  xx,  2  sq.).  On  one  nccasion 
^"||^  l-y  religinns  rnlher  ttin  political  Wnds.  j  we  haar  of  the  congregation  being  asaembled  for  judi- 
■""'  "  '"  Is  used  in  n  l.road  sense  as  inclusive  of  i  eial  porpoaos  (Judg.  xx);  on  other  occasions  for  re- 
5  (Eto.1.  xii.  19>,  but  more  pmperlv  as  liirfnoa  fostivals  (2  Chron.  xxx,  6;  xxxiv,  3D)  laeo 
"vclj- npproiirialB  t..  the  Hebrew  element  of  the  Co-WOCiTios];  .  '  '  ■  '  " 
',  15):  in  each  case  it  expresaea  |  Saul  (1  Sam.  x,  3 


txcliuivcl^ 
population 


CONGREGATION  47 

(1  Kingt  xil,  20),  Jouh  (3  Kinga  zl,  19),  Jraish  (S 
Kln^ri  xii,  -it'),  Jeboabai  (2  Kiagii  xsiii,  80),  and  Ui- 
■uli  (S  Cbron.  (itL,  1).  In  the  later  penod>  of  Jev- 
lih  hislorv  the  coDgngalioD  wu  represented  hy  the 
Sanhedrim ;  and  the  term  aynagogne  (auvoywyi]), 
which  in  the  Sept.  ii  applied  excliuively  to  the  COD- 
gngation  itself  (fbr  the  place  of  meetiog  IViS  SHit 
la  invariall;  rendered  rj  imivii  n>u  finprupioi',  (oW- 
aaeulum  tttlimoiui,  thevord  IS^a  being  coii«deTed  = 
n41^),  wu  tnuisfeired  (o  the  places  otvonhlp  eitab- 
liahed  by  the  Jewf,  wherever  ■  crrtai*  number  oTfam- 
iliei  were  collected.     See  AsanXBi-r. 

MonST   or  THE  COHOBBOATIOB  O^iQ   *V1,  HUim- 

lain  o/tUe  auattUy.  lea.  xiv,  18  [14] ;  Sept.  upoc  H^ 
Xdc,  Vulg.  moiu  Utiamatii),  usoally  aupposed  to  refer 
to  Mount  Moriah  as  the  idle  of  the  Temple  (camp.  lu. 
xxxiii,  20).  The  tenableneig  of  thii  inlorpretatlon 
va»  dii^ulHl  by  Michaelis  (Bibliolh.  Orienl.  v.  191), 
who  coiileod*  Ibat  the  name  deaignale*  aame  plaix 
of  religioDS  ccreiin.iiy  among  the  Babylonian*,  and  haa 
hence  been  compared  with  the  ucred  bill  of  (he  Kod* 
(q.  d.  mount  of  their  meeUn;;),  auch  a*  tbo  AlborJ 
named  in  tbe  Zcnd-Ave>ta  aa  ettuatcd  in  the  north  of 
the  earth  (comp.  Rhode,  HtU.  Sogr,  p.  230  pq.)-  Wc 
may  al>o  compare  with  thia  tbe  Uonnt  OhftnfUM  of  the 
Greek  mj-thology,  and  the  jVtu  of  the  Indian.  In- 
deed all  pagan  systems  Mem  to  point  to  the  north  of 
tbe  respective  regions  as  the  locality  of  the  highest 
mountaina.  naturally  auumcd  aa  the   abode  of  the 

Caucasian  range  (see  Gesenius,  Jaa.  ii,  310  sq, ;  Ko- 
■enmOller,  AUrrlh.  I,  i,  151  eq. ;  Henderson,  Voxntaa. 
in  loc.).     See  Mouht. 

CONGREGATION,  (1)  >"  assembly,  or  gaOerimg 
f^^efAerof  perBOnB,n]oreparti<^ularty  for  divine  Hrrlce, 
Tlie  word  is  used,  in  Ihe  fiubrica  of  the  Church  of 
England,  in  the  aame  tense  as  "people"  la  naed,  to 
mean  Ihnt  portion  of  the  Church  of  tbo  nation  who  ore 
•aeemUed  in  any  one  aacred  edifice  for  the  purposes 
of  worship  (Eden). 

(2.)  Unaaitk  C'mgTtg(^iotu.~(a)  In  •  wider  sense, 
all  ecclesiaslical  associations  of  laymen  in  the  lioman 
Catholic  Church,  for  contemplative,  asceUc,  it  pncti- 
C«l  porpoces,  are  called  congregatinns.  (K)  In  s  moro 
special  sense,  eccienojiimJ  amgrrgaiioyit  are  associa- 
tions which,  like  monastic  orders,  lead  a  common  life, 
and  are  bound  by  Tova.  Tliey  differ  from  the  mo- 
nastic orders  by  not  demanding  IVom  their  members 
the  TOW  of  poverty,  by  binding  Ihem  to  less  stringent 


CONGIiEGATION 


£ei.ii 


791. 


n  the  » 


nndfiT 


qoently  by  proscribing  only  tbe  timple  tow  of  ciuFtitj' 
(see  Vow).  The  number  of  congregntionsof  Ibis  cU>s 
is  very  large;  among  them  are  the  Omtorinns.  the 
Priesia  of  the  HIsaion,  tbe  Doctrinarians,  the  Piarlsts, 
the  Brothers  of  the  Chriatlan  Schools,  thn  Mechitari»t«, 
Redemptorists,  ail  of  which  ore  treated  of  in  special  nrti- 
cles.  (c)  The  Dime  ia  also  applied  to  several  branches 
of  reformed  Benedictines.  In  these  "congregations" 
each  monastery  he B  its  own  abbot  or  prior,  but  all  wen 
snhordinate  to' tbo  head  oflhe  chief  abbey.  Tbe  most 
noted  of  these  congreeations  were  Ifaose  of  Clugny, 
VallambrOBB,  Camaldoli,  tbe  Cistercians,  Carthusians, 
and  MoDrines  (see  these  articles). 

(3.)  In  tEcameaical  Synodi.^Kt  the  tEcnmcnlcal 
Synod  of  Constance,  it  was  resolved  to  take  Ihe  vote, 
not  by  hcnds,  but  by  nattona,  of  which  there  were  at 
flnt  foor  (German,  French,  Italian,  English),  and  anU 
sequently  five  (PpBnish).  Each  nation  was  to  cast  one 
Tole.  in  order  to  rFtablish  the  vote  of  a  nation,  its 
mem1«ra  held  separate  sessions,  which  were  called 
"congregations."  In  these  connrego lions, every  mem- 
ber, withont  distinction  of  rank,  had  an  eqnal  Tote. 


(4.)  CimgregaHoit  o/Cardiiialt.~A  committae  of  eai^ 
dinala,  prelates,  and  olfaets,  met  for  the  dispatch  of 
some  particular  hnsiness,  sod  deriving  its  name  fron 
the  particular  bnalneaa  it  has  to  dispatch.  Tbe  follow- 
ing account  will  be  found  to  include  the  name*  of  tbe 
chief  of  tlusa  congregstlona,  and  the  partiealaT  bnu- 
naas  of  each ; 

).  Tit  Oximtoriai  Conffrrgaliim,  iosOlDted  in  15SS 
by  SiitDB  V.  1'hey  prepare  the  most  difficult  benelt- 
dary  matters,  afterwards  debated  in  the  Conaiatory  in 
the  prtaence  ofthe  pope.  Such  matters  are  tbe  xffm- 
bation  of  new  religions  orders;  the  erection  of  new 
episcopal  sees;  the  srparation,  nnlon,  <a  ai 
of  beneliceB  ofthe  higher  grade;  the  eiami 
newly-appointed  or  elected  bishops;  tbe  appointment 
of  coadjutors.     The  number  of  cardinals  is  not  fixed. 

2.  The  Co«grtgalion  rfUtt  Ho^  Officr,  or  JmqntiHa*, 
Instituted  In  I&42  by  I'anl  III,  at  the  desire  of  car- 
dinal CatalTa,  who  afterwards  became  Fanl  IV.  Tbe 
privilBgca  were  cnUri:ed  bv  the  addition  of  statotes  liy 
Sixtus  V,  by  which  this  tribunal  became  so  runnidaUa 
that  tbe  Italians  were  accustomed  to  say,  "  Pope  Ss- 
tuB  would  not  pardon  Chriil  himself."  It  tskts  c«g- 
nizance  of  bereates  and  all  novel  opinions,  as  wall  as 
of  apostasy,  magic,  witchcraft,  abuse  of  the  sacik- 
ments,  and  Ihe  circulation  of  pernicious  booka.  Tbe 
pope  himself  is  prefect  of  this  congregation.  It  eoo- 
sists  of  12  cardinals,  a  number  of  theologians  and  can- 
onists aa  "consnltora."  of  several  "qnalificatOTs"  who 
^ve  their  opinion  in  special  cases,  of  a  defender  of  the 
accused,  and  several  other  persons.      See  Ikquibi- 

5.  The  CongrtgaHon  dt  PropagaiM  Fide,  institiiled 
by  Gregory  XV  in  1022,  conalsts  of  34  caidinala,  one 
ofthe  secretariaa  of  state,  an  Rposlolical  prothonotaiy, 
a  referendary,  an  asflstant  or  lateral  Judge,  and  the 
Bccrctory  of  the  Holy  Office.     See  Prdpaouida. 

i,  TheCoHgrcgatioiir/rie  CotmciV,  for  explaining  tbo 
Council  of  Trent.  When  (he  council  doled  Ita  IM- 
aions,  Pina  IV  deputed  certain  cardinals,  who  had  as- 
sisted In  it,  to  put  an  end  to  all  doubts  which  tnlgbl 
arise  concerning  its  decrees.  This  congregatian  meets 
once  a  week.  "  Ita  dcclalone  from  1789  to  IftlS  fill  103 
vols.  4to."    Tbe  prefect  is  chosen  by  the  pope,  and  has 

6.  lit  CongrrgatiQit  rflie  Indri,  instituted  in  157D 
liy  Pius  V.  Tbia  committee  is  deputed  to  examine  sll 
books.  It  is  composed  of  several  cardinsls,  and  has  a 
secratarv  of  the  order  of  Dominie.  Tho  pope  gcnci^ 
ally  prCKidea  himself. 

6.  Tkt  Congrrgaliim  i(f  EetlrnrulKal  lammils.  This 
waa  esUblished  by  Urban  VllI  in  order  to  obviate  tbe 
disputes  which  aroeo  in  tho  Judgment  of  such  suits  as 
were  carried  on  ngainst  cburcbmcD  for  varioui  mat- 
ters, wbelher  criminal  or  civil. 

T.  Tht  Cmgrrgatim  of  Ulii/ju  and  Begmlart.  Six- 
tus V,  in  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate,  united  tn 
coDgreRstiona  under  this  name.  It  haa  power  to  ref- 
ulate  all  disputes  arising  between  bishops  and  r^ulsr 
or  monastic  orders. 

8.  Thr  Cmgregat^m  for  lie  Bte^om,  Ex^nmalum, 
and  Riiidrnet  cf  Eitluf.  This  was  iDctiluted  ky 
Clement  VIII,  to  examine  Into  tbe  qualilicalioiis  of 
all  auch  churchmen  as  are  nominated  lo  bishoprics. 
Tbe  eiaminera  are  chosen  by  the  pope.  It  has  the 
power  of  enjoining  ordispcneing  with  tbe  residence  of 
bishops,  and  obliging  all  abbots  lo  reside  in  tbeit  tsr- 
etal  commnnltieo. 

9.  The  Cmgrtijat^eit  of  Jtdigioia  Diidptaie.  TU> 
has  tho  right  lo  inquire  into  the  ttate  of  Italian  mo- 
aateriea,  ami  tn  suppresa  those  whose  temponlltln  in 

a  far  diminished  thsl  Ihe  remainder  is  not  aufficini 
)r  the  msintennnce  of  six  monks. 

10.  The  Congrrgaliim  of  Apololieal  VInlaUim.     lU 


CONGREGATIONAL  LECTURES    475         CONGREGATIONALISTS 


boiiness  la  to  Tiait,  b  tht  luma  of  tba  pope,  the  uz 
Uafaoprica,  tBffTBgsni  to  tlie  metropolis  of  Uomo. 

U.TitCaigrrgaliano/JadalgtiKaandSaatdBdiet, 
iiutitated  in  I6«9  by  Clement  IX.  Its  builneu  ia  In 
•aperiotend  the  celica  of  ancieot  niMrtyre,  which  are 
(requently  Mid  to  be  found  in  catacombs  and  other 
■Dbteiraneaa  placea  in  Kome,  and  lo  dittlnguiih  tbcir 
boirn,  ahrinea,  and  tomba  from  thoH  of  the  heathen. 
Aftet  the  congregation  haa  pronounced  aentence  on  the 
validity  of  iny  Tellca,they  Bfo  consigned  to  the  cardi- 
tutl-vicar  and  the  pope'a  aacristan,  whodiatribnte  them 
to  kpplicanl*.  Thia  congregition  alao  invcsdgates  the 
CHUBea  and  motivea  of  thoae  wbo  aue  for  Indnl^^ncef . 
The  regiatnr  aenda  the  minutes  and  conclusions  of  pe- 
titiona  to  the  seeretATy  of  hriefa,  who  dispatches  them 
under  the  fliberman'a  aeal. 

12.  Tke  Canffitgalim  of  Sacred  Rita.  Sistni  V 
fbunded  this  congre^aLion  to  raguliLte  all  matCera  re- 
lating to  cereoioniea  and  r[tes  In  vtorabip,  and  espe- 
cially to  tabs  the  cbief  part  In  the  canonization  of 
aiints.  It  hoa  aulhority  to  explain  the  rubrics  of  the 
Hasa-Book  and  tba  Breviary  when  any  difficulties  are 
atartsd  in  relation  thereto. 

]  3.  Tlu  Copgrrgiaion  of  lit  Revertnd  Fabric  ef  81. 
Ftter.  Tbis  waa  founded  to  superintend  the  building 
flf  St.  Peter'a,  and  is  now  employed  in  repairing  and 
bennlifying  it.  Tbia  congregation  bas  the  pecoliur 
privilege  of  altering  the  last  wills  of  thOH  wbo  be- 
qasath  money  to  pious  naes,  and  to  apply  it  to  tbe  aup- 
port  of  the  fabric  of  St.  Peter'a. 

11.  Tk^  C<nigrTgitio»  nftlit  Sacrtd  Contalta.  ThEa 
has  supreme  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  over  the 
■abjecta  of  tbe  papal  etataa.  It  waa  Instituted  by  that 
famous  founder  of  congregations,  Slxuls  V. 

15.  Tlu  Congrtgation  of  Good  GoBernmfiit.  This 
watcher  ovet  the  conduct  of  tho  magistralss  throngh- 
oot  the  ttatea,  and  worka  in  crncerl  with  the  CotauUa. 

16.  Tkt  CongrrgMi/n  o/  Pruom.  This  conaleta  of 
the  goTernor  of  the  city,  and  otber  ecclealaillcs  bear- 
ing civic  and  judiciary  ofBcea.  Tbey  dispose  of  caaaa 
relating  lo  the  nnmerous  occupants  uf  aecret  priaon>, 
galleys,  etc.,  etc.,  having  under  their  jnriadiction  all 
that  ore  in  legal  bonda;  the  euffarars  in  llie  Inquisi- 
tion and  in  tho  moDBSteriea  excepted,  whiim  It  is  not 

within  their  province  to  visit,  pity,  or  releue Fat- 

rar,  Ecct.  Diet.  a.  v.  ;  Henog,  Stal-Eitryilap.  ii,  677 1 
Brougbt^m,  BMiolluaa  Hidorico-Sacra  (London,  ITB7, 
vol.  i) ;  Meier,  Die  Aeutige  rSmixAa  Curit  In  Jacobaon, 
Zeiltdirifi  /.  d.  RrdU,  1U7,  il ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte, 
Kircie»-Ltx.  U,  S44. 

CoMGeBa^TiOH,  Lonti«  or  tbb,  a  Utie  given,  In 
Scottiah  Church  History,  (o  the  chief  noblea  and  gen- 
tlemen who  signed  (he  Covenant  of  December  8, 1^7. 
From  the  frequent  recurrence  of  tlie  word  congrega- 
tion in  the  document,  the  adherenta  were  called  "tba 
Congregation, "  and  the  chief  signers  (euchastha  earls 
of  Argyle,  Glencaim,  and  Morion,  tlie  Lord  of  Lorn, 
Ersklne  o(  Dun,  etc.)  were  styled  "  Lords  of  the  Con- 
gfegition."— Helherington,  Bukay  qflie  Charek  of 
Beotiaud,  chap.  Ii. 

CougreBatioDal  Leotnres,  •  seriea  oflectunn 
delivered  in  London  by  Congra^.vtional  ministers  of 
Gnat  Uritain  from  year  to  year.  The  following  courses 
have  been  published ;  18*4,  Christian  Ethics,  by  Bev. 
Ralph  Wardlaw,  D.D. ;  1834,  The  Causea  of  the  Cor- 
rnptlun  of  Christianity,  by  Rev.  Robert  Vaughan, 
D.D. ;  1833,  The  Cbrirtian  Atonement,  hy  Rev.  Joaepli 
GiDiert!  1S3S,  Divine  Inspiration,  by  Rev.Ebeneier 
Henderson,  D.D.;  1837,  Holy  Scripture  Verified,  by 
Bev.George  Redrord,  D.D.,  LL.D.  j  18S9,  Revelation 
and  Geology.by  Rev.  John  Pye  Smith,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
etc.;  IMO.TheConneclion  and  Doctrinal  Harmonyof 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  by  Kev.  WUItam  Lind- 
aay  Alexander,  D.D. ;  1841,  The  TlieoloRv  of  the  eariy 
Chrirtian  Church,  by  Rev. James  Bennett^  D.D.  j  1843, 
Th*  Eiiatencv  and  Agency  of  Evil  Spkita,  by  Uev. 


I  Waller  Scott;  1S14,  Tho  Sacraments  (Part  1,  Bap. 
tiam),  by  Kev.  Robert  Halley,  D.D. ;  1Mb,  The  Doo 

I  trine  of  Original  Sin,  by  Rev.  George  Payne,  LL.D. ; 
1847,  The  lievealed  Doctrine   of  Rewards  and  Pun- 

!  ishments,  hy  Rev.  Richard  Winter  Hamilton,  D.D., 

I  LL.D. ;  1848,  Tbe  Ecclesiastical  PoUty  of  tho  New 
TeaUment  unfolded, bv  Kev.  Samnel  Davidson,  LL.D. ; 
1849,  Tho  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  Rev.  William 

I  Hendry  Stowell.  D.D. ;  1850,  'i'he  Sacraments  (Part 
11,  the  Lord's  Sapper),  by  Rev.  Robert  Halley,  D.D. ; 
IBM,  Paycbologj-  and  I'faeology,  by  Rev,  Richard  Al- 
liott,  LL.D. ;  18&a,  Ages  of  Christendom  before  the 
Reformation, by  Rev.  John  Stongbton;  1858,  Christian 
Faith,  by  Rev.  John  H.  Godwin  ;  1860,  The  Divine 
Covenanta,  their  Nature  and  Design,  by  Rev.  John 
Kelly.    The  cOona  haa  unce  been  tempoiarily  sua. 

CosereKaUonallBts,  a  denomination  of  Chris- 
tians (generdUy  Calrinlstic  in  theology)  holding  to  a 
syetem  of  chnrch  government  which  embraces  these 
two  fundamental  principles,  vii.,  (1)  that  every  local 
congregation  of  believers,  united  for  worship,  sacra- 
ments, and  discipline,  is  a  complete  church,  and  not 
to  be  subject  in  government  to  anv  ecclesiaitieal  an- 
tbority  out^e  ot  :taeU ;  and  (2)  that  aH  auch  local 
churchcB  are  in  communion  one  with  another,  and 
bound  to  Ailfil  all  tho  duties  involved  In  auch  felhiw- 
shlp.  Tho  system  is  distinguished  from  Preebyteri- 
ani^m  by  the  first,  and  from  Independency  by  the  sec- 
ond. It  involves  the  equal  right  of  ail  brethren  (o 
vole  in  all  ecclesiastical  affairs ;  and  the  parity  of  all 
ministerf,  the  minlstcia  being  set  apart  by  tba  church- 
es, and  not  possessed  of  any  power  of  government  a* 
ministerT,  butonly  of  official  power  in  the  chntchea  by 
which  tliey  may  be  chosen  pastors.  In  England  th^ 
ate  often,  hut  not  quite  accurately,  styled  Indepen- 
dents. Several  dcnominatlnna  in  the  United  States 
are  congregational  in  practice,  but  bear  other  name* 
than  that  of  tbe  denomination  known  distinctly  aa 
"  The  Congregadonal  Churcbea  of  the  United  Slates." 

I.  HiarORv. — Congregationaliits  claim  that  their 
■yatem  ia  only  a  sniiatantial  return  to  the  order  anl 
practice  of  the  apostolic  churches,  which  had  been  cor- 
rupted by  the  tendencies  that  culminated  in  the  papacy; 
and  that  traces  of  diiscnt  from  the  episcopal  power  are 
found  in  every  age  (see  Punchard's  llwliny  pfCaiyrt. 
gatiotaliim).  The  origin  of  modem  Congregational- 
ism is  seen  in  the  early  stages  of  the  reformation  in 
England.  From  the  beginning  of  the  protest  against 
Romanism,  some  of  the  main  distinctive  views  arter> 
wards  developed  into  Congregationalism,  especially 
the  Identity  of"  bishop"  and  "presbyter,"  and  the  in- 
dependent right  of  each  congregation  lo  choofw  its  pat- 
tor  and  exercise  discipline,  found  decided  adherenta. 
While  HenryVIll,  after  throwing  off  the  Romish  su- 
premacy, clang  in  the  main  to  tbe  Koniieh  thcelog}-,  a 


upartU 


IS  Romith 


idpract 


the  orposilc  direrlioi 
the  reforms  carried  on  by  Edward  VI  were  peremptor- 
ily stopped  by  Mary,  dissenting  congregations,  in  aulv 
stance  Congregational,  came  immediately,  though  pri- 
vatelv,  into  existence  In  various  places,  as  in  London 
in  1556.  1'heir  existence  Is  learned  almost  entirely 
ftom  the  persecutions  to  which  their  memben  were 
subjected,  and  bat  few  paRIculars  in  their  hlatoiy  are 
preserveil.  Among  the  Congregational  maTtjTa  were 
Barrowe,  Greenwood,  and  Penry,  executed  in  1688. 
Of  the  Congregational  church  formed  in  London  In 
1603.  of  which  Francis  Johnson  was  pastor,  and  John 
Greenwood  teacher,  fifly-eix  members  were  seized  and 
imprisoned.  Many  of  them  eventually  found  their 
wsy  to  Amsterdam,  where  they  reorganized  under  the 
same  pastor.  Roiicrt  Brown's  publication,  in  1682,  of 
"  A  Book  which  thoveth  the  Life  and  Manners  of  all 
tme  Christians,"  etc..  prcMnla  the  earlleet  full  devel- 
opment of  the  Independent  side  of  Congregationalism. 
While  at  flrat  only  Puritans,  many  became  SepUBtilb% 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


Church  of  EDKland,  Almut  1G02  n.  church  »S8  orKan- 
ized  ut  Gainealioraugb,  in  Uncalnshire,  Rev.  John 
Snivtb  pastor.  In  1G0G  another  wai  formed  at  Scroo- 
by,  NotlinfibBmshiro.  Richard  Clyfloii  pailOT,  which 
met  at  the  hnusc  uf  William  Brewatcr.  Of  that  church 
John  KobinEon  uua  a  member,  and  afteTwanls  iBaoci- 
Bte  pastor.  In  160G  Mr.  Smyth  hd<1  his  friends  lo- 
moved  to  Amsterdam.  lu  1GU7  Mr.  Clj'fton  and  many 
of  hia  clmrcb,  after  |[rpat  persecutiaa.  also  escaped  to 
AmaterdaiD,  and  in  lGt)8  moet  of  the  remaining  mem- 
bers uf  tbe  Scrooliy  cburch  followed.  After  about  a 
Jam  the  church  removed  to  Leydca.  Owing  to  the 
disadvantages  of  residing  in  r  couDtry  of  different  laa- 
g^|{0  and  custonia  from  their  own,  they  resolved  to 
emigratB  to  America,  sod  a  portion  of  Iho  Leyden 
ehurch,  witli  elder  William  Brewster,  after  many  tri- 
als bndcd  at  Plymouth,  Maeiachusetts,  Dec.  !1, 1G20 
(S.  S.),  while  Ilo'binaon,  with  a  part  of  the  church,  re- 
mained at  Leyden.  In  1C16  a  Congregational  church 
was  established  at  Southwark,  London,  under  the  care 
of  Henry  Jacob,  wbo  bad  been  conlinncd  in  Congre- 
gational views  by  cODfetencB  vith  John  Robinson  at 
Leyden.  This  church,  organized  after  Mi.  Jacob  had 
conferred  with  leading  Puritana,  prolialily  gathered  to- 
getliersomo  of  the  scattered  members  of  Mr.  Johnson's 
church.  Though  sometimes  called  "tbe  first  Inde- 
pendent church  in  England,"  there  had  been  the  se- 
cret congregations  in  tbe  reign  of  Mary,  and  the 
cburchos  of  Gaineslwrough  and  Scrooby,  and,  it  is  said, 
one  at  Duckenfield,  Cheshire  Co.  Aboot  IG24  Rev. 
John  Lathrop became  pistorofthc  Southwark  church: 

Its  menibeiB.  In  16M  Mr.  Lathrop,  obtaining  release, 
removed  to  America,  witb  about  thirty  of  bis  flocli, 
and  in  that  year  organized  the  church  In  Scituste. 
Uass.,  where  he  continued  until  ICSD,  when  tl)e  ma- 
jority removed  to  West  Barnstable,  wberc  that  church 
Is  still  eiistiniT. 

1.  Aiairiean  CoBgrtgotionaVaU. — The  Plymouth  set- 
tlement was  distinct  In  origin  and  government  from 
that  of  Blassachusetta  Bay,  the  Pilgrim  scttiera  lieing 
distinctively  known  as  "tbo  Pilgrims."  Tbe  peree- 
eutiona  under  Laud  led  many  Puritans  to  the  resolu- 
tion to  emigrate.  EndicotI  and  his  company  began 
the  coluny  nt  Salem  in  VaS.  and  in  tCSO  John  Win- 
throp,  their  gnvemor,  with  other  emlgrantr,  occupied 

made  at  HaTtford  and  Suyliiook,  in  Connecticut,  in 
1G3J,  and  in  IGSe  Davenport  and  his  associates  found- 
ad  the  New  Haven  colony,  while  in  J633  a  distinct 
comiAny  re-enfoTced  the  colonics  on  the  Piscalaqua 
Blvcr.  The  Plymouth  church  bad  come  out  fully  or- 
ganized; in  the  other  settlements  churrhcs  were  im- 
mediately formed.  None  but  the  Plymouth  people 
had  come  over  as  Separatist*;  the  others  declared  Ihnt 
they  did  not  separate  from  the  Church  of  England,  but 
only  ilcsired  to  remove  its  corruptions.  But,  gathered 
in  a  new  land,  away  from  all  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments, and  searching  the  Scriptures  fur  their  ecclesi- 
astical order,  they  all  fell  into  the  Congregational  or- 
der. Their  ministers  had  almost  all  been  ret-ularly 
Drdaincd  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  were  highly 
educated  men,  as  (e.  g.)  Cotton  and  Wilson,  of  Boston; 
Blather,  of  Durcherter;  Honker  and  Stone,  of  Hart- 
ford ;  Davenport  and  Iloake,  of  Now  Haven. 

Congregationalism  proper  received  substantially  its 
form  in  the  early  liistorj'  of  New  England,  If  trareci 
to  tha  writings  of  anr  one  jierson,  it  would  be  to  thoi>e 
of  John  ii^binson,  of  Leyden ;  those  of  John  Cation 
and  Thomas  Hooker,  in  America,  l>eing  nest  in  im- 
portance. Robert  Brown  waa  never  acknowledged  as 
a  leuder.  ha  being  a  strict  Indepen'Icnt,  and  lim.lly 
returning  to  the  conimuninn  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  but  his  writings  undoubtedly  aroused  many 
minds  1oe:iamine  and  reject  the  claims  of  episcopacy. 
Tbe  system  cannot,  however,  be  traced  to  any  one 


e  CONGREGATIONALISTS 

man,  but  rather  to  the  united  sentiments  oj  the  early 
emigrants,  who  agreed  in  carrj-ing  into  practice  Um 
opinion  that  every  church  is,  according  to  tbe  Scrip- 
tures, confined  to  the  limits  of  a  single  congngation, 
and  must  be  democratic  in  government:  while  all 
churches  are  in  fellowship  with  one  another.  Hrncs 
the  term  "the  Congregational  Church"  is  never  uhiI 
to  denote  the  denomination,  bat  "  the  Congregational 
churches." 

Chtmh  and  Stalt. — From  the  earliest  settlement  of 
New  England  there  was  a  definite  but  peculbir  rela- 
tion between  tbe  churches  and  the  state.  It  was  nei- 
ther that  in  which  the  Slate  rule*  the  Church,  nor 
that  in  which  the  Church  rules  the  State,  but  rather  a 
peculiar  blending  of  the  two.  Townships  were  incor- 
porated with  a  view  to  tbe  ability  to  maintain  a  set- 
tled ministry,  and  to  the  convenience  of  the  people  in 
attending  public  worship,  I'rovision  was  made  by 
law  for  the  support  of  (lastors,  and  for  all  necpssanr 
expenses.  The  choice  of  a  pastor  belonged  to  the 
ehurch.  A  peculiar  featnre  of  tiio  connection  was  es- 
tablished in  ]G3t,  in  UaFsaehusctls  Bay,  and  later  (in 
substance)  In  the  Connecticut  colonies,  and,  by  the 
authority  of  Uassacbnaetts,  in  Maine  and  New  Ilamp- 
shire,  that  "  no  man  shall  be  admitted  to  the  fr»d<,-m 
of  the  body  politic  hut  such  ■■  are  memlxrs  of  Fume 
of  the  churches  within  tbe  limits  of  the  Fame."  Thia 
was  in  no  respect  a  principle  of  Congregotionalitm, 
but  grew  out  of  tbe  objects  of  the  emiunition  from 
England.  As  the  population  Increased  the  role  wis 
modified,  and  by-and-by  al>andoned.  Ministers,  al- 
though (heir  influence  was  great,  had  no  voice  as  min- 
isters in  public  affairs.  Tlie  laws  taxing  all  persons 
for  tbe  support  of  tbe  ministry  were  first  amvliontrd 
by  allowing  pcraons  to  contribntc  to  whatever  church 
they  might  prefer;  and  the  whole  system  of  compul- 
in  Connecticut  in  lolti, 


n  Hassai 


n  1883, 


General  -^yaM/i.— Tbe  hictory  of  the  denomicttien 
is  rather  tl.e  history  of  distinct  churches  than  of  sn 
organized  body.  Yet  the  fellowship  of  the  churchts 
his  always  been  maintained,  and  all  "mattera  of  corn- 
consent  of  the  whole  body,  and  sometimes  embodied 
in  tbe  pronounced  opinions  of  general  bodies  convened 
for  tbe  special  occasion.  Denying  the  authorit}'  of 
any  standing  judicatory,  Congregationaiists  rerognias 
tbe  necessity  and  desirableness  of  occasion  alajnods  for 
delitwratioD  and  advice  on  great  public  inteivsts.  Only 
four  such  general  synods  have  been  held.  The  fint 
met  in  1637,  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  to  delilvruic  on  tha 
doctrinal  speculations  of  John  ^^'heflwrigbt.  Anna 
Hutchinson,  and  others.  It  consisted  of  "all  the 
teaching  elders  through  tbe  conntry"  and  of  "mes- 
sengers from  the  churches ;"  Rev,  Peter  Bulkh^v,  of 
Concord,  Mass.,  and  Rev.  Thomaa  Hooker,  of  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  were  moderatora.  The  second  syood  met 
at  Cambridge  In  1646.  and  dissolved  in  l&IS.  It  de- 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  set  forth  an  elatiorate  slule- 
menl  of  Church  polity,  known  as  the  "Caml'tH^e* 
Platform,"  which  has  always— though  latterly  wiili 
modifications — been  regarded  as  an  important  tiuii- 
ard.  The  third  synod,  or  "  Convention,"  met  ut  Al- 
bany, N.  T.,  in  1852,  composed,  like  the  precedintr.  "' 
pastor  and  delegate  from  each  ehnrcb.  Its  main  hati- 
ness  resulted  in  the  formal  dissolution  of  the  "  Plan  of 
Union  between  Preshytrrlans  and  Congretialionali-'U" 
agreed  upon  bv  the  Prenbvterlsn  Church  and  llie 
General  Association  of  Co'nnectkut  in  IHdl.  Tbe 
fourth  synod,  styled  "  National  Council,'"  met  in  Has- 
ten, Mass.,  in  I81.6,  corapo^cd  of  a  minister  and  dele- 
L'ate  from  every  gmnp  of  ten  churches;  WilliaDiA. 
Bucldnghamj  governor  of  ( "onnecticut,  was  its  moder- 
ator. It  was  c;il1rd  to  de]il>crHte  upon  the  exigencin 
of  religious  duty  growing  out  of  the  circumstaniYi  nf 
the  country  in  its  emerging  from  tin  war  of  1861-J^ 


COXGREGATION  ALISTS 


tjfBoda  i-f  imiiorUiice  hava  been  held— of  MaHacba- 
aetU  in  liSGi,  which  recomm^ndei)  Che  diiutroat,  and 
DOW  long  tince  abandoned  "  Half-waf  Covenant,"  liy 
which  baptized  peraons  mit{ht  "oirn  the  cot^naM" 
of  the  Church,  but  vithant  coming  Into  Tull  commu- 
nion  : — of  MutacboaetU  in  1670-80,  called  the  "  Re- 
formiog  Synod  i"  thai  lynod  readopted.  with  wnie  al- 
teration*, the  CosrcsBioa  agreed  upon  by  the  Congrc- 
gational  Svnod  which  met  at  the  Savoy,  in  London, 
in  165'',  which  waa  itself  tbat  of  the  WeMmlnater  Con- 
feiLsiDn,  with  alight  alteration*,  tbe  variationB  of  the 
three  documents  being  carefully  shown  in  the  Congrr- 
gatiimal  Qaarlerb/,  Boston,  186G;— and  the  Synod  of 
Connecticut,  which  met  at  Saybroob  in  1708,  anil 
fVamed  the  "Saybrook  Plitrorm"  of  Discipline,  wbicii 
«rt«lili»bed  the  " consociaUon"  gjstem  in  tbat  Mate. 
All  of  these  synods  discloinied  authority  over  the 
chotches  to  impose  either  a  platform  of  polity  or  a 
creed ;  they  declared  only  what  were  the  aentiments 
and  DiuiRes  of  tbe  chuiches  in  tbeir  underataading  of 
the  Scriptures. 

OAtr  Or^naationt. — In  each  stale  and  territory 
where  Congregallonallsts  exist  in  autBcient  numbors, 
there  have  been  formed  General  Aeaociations  or  Confer- 
encea,  which  are  without  any  ecclesiastical  authority, 
and  not  allowed  to  hear  cauaes  or  give  advice  In  any 
ecclesiastical  affairs.  All  are  now  composed  of  both 
ministers  and  lay  delegates,  except  the  General  Aaso- 
dationa  of  Uassachusetts  and  Connecticut,  which  are 
purely  liodies  of  minislera:  but  that  of  MLinsuchusetts 
Toted  ananimousiy  In  IBOC  to  unilo  with  Che  Confer- 
ence of  the  same  state,  and  admit  laymen.  Tbe  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  Maine,  where  the  "Conferonco" 
(inclniling  laymen)  system  ori(^nsted,  was  organized 
Inl82C:  New  Hampshire,  1809;  Yermont,  lT96i  Mss- 
aichuselts,  Assoctation  in  1803,  Conference  in  1860; 
Rhode  Island,  1809;  Connecticut,  1709;  New  York, 
IS34;  Ohio,  1852;  Indbna,lR58;  Illinois,  1848;  Mich- 
igan. 1852;  Wisconsin,  1840;  Mlunesota.1855;  Iowa, 
1810;  MiSBOori,  1865;  Nebrai^lia.  1867  ;  Kansas,  lR55i 
Oregon,  1853;  California,  1857;  Canada.  1853;  Novn 
Scotia  nnd  New  Brunswick,  ISil.     " 


7  CONGREGATIONALISTS 

Congregational,  tbe  cburvh  could,  while  retaining  pow- 
er of  internal  government,  hold  a  qualified  relation  to 
Presbyteries.  The  result  was  that  large  nnmlieraof 
Congrcgatlonalists  and  of  Congee ga I ional  churches 
were  finally  absorbed  in  the  I'resbytetidn  Churcli. 
Tbo  Plan  grew  into  disfavor,  and  was  ahrogated  by  the 
Congregational  Convention  of  1H53.  Many  churches 
which  still  hold  tbat  abnormal  letation  are  now  drop 
ped  from  the  Congregational  statistics. 

{7ii)(unaniiTn.— Owing  to  various  causes — partico- 
Urly  the  "lialf-way  Covenant,"  the  connection  of 
Chutch  and  St.ite,  and  opposition  to  the  great  reviirsls 
of  tbe  middle  of  the  18tb  Gentur}-— there  grew  up  in 
some  of  the  churches  a  dislike  to  the  doctrinea  of  the 
denomination,  which  ileveloped  itself  into  Unitarian- 
ism,  Tbe  first  church  to  become  snch,  however,  waa 
the  Episcopal  cburch  of  King's  Chapel,  Boston.    Sharp 


suited  in 


loffelic 


ip  from  tbe 
I  fined  to  Massa- 


held  ac 


eetings 


"Conv 


the  Congregational  ministers  of  Maasachnsetts  has  met 
■nnnally  since  near  the  beginning  of  tbe  I8tb  century, 
of  wbicb  Unitarlansareacomponent  part,  which  holds 
fund",  mainly  contributed  before  Che  division,  for  the 
relief  of  widows  and  orphans  of  ministers  of  either  de- 
nomination. A  "Triennial  Convention  of  the  North- 
west" was  formed  in  1858,  mainly  to  supervise  the 
affjlrs  of  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary.  Local 
Conferrncea  of  churches  covering  groups  of  (usually) 
ftmn  ten  to  thirty  churches  have  been  voluntarily 
fermrtl.  and  embrace  nearly  all  tbe  churches:  they 
generally  meet  semi-annually  for  rtlisious  conference, 
and  are  denied  every  power  of  Jurisdiction.  Kearly 
all  the  ministers  are  grouped  In  local  associations  of 
convenient  siie  for  purposes  of  mutual  improvement, 
hut  with  no  ecclesiastical  authority ;  but  the  churches 
look  to  them  to  examine  and  recommend  candidates 
ministry.      These  associations  began  in  tbe 


'■plan  nf  Umoa"  with  Presbyterians.— Con grei»- 
tinnalis^s  and  Presbytcri.ins,  holding  the  snme  doc- 
trinal views.havealwayshadniore  or  less  Intimate  re- 
lations. When  Western  New  York  and  the  territories 
beyond  were  becoming  rapidly  settled,  a  formal "  Plan 
of  Union"  woa  adapted  by  the  Presbyterlon  General 
Assemlily  and  tbe  General  Aaaociaticm  of  Connecticut 
in  1801.'  To  prevent  division  into  small  and  weak 
churches.  It  was  arranged  th»t  Congregat ional ists  and 
Presbyleriansinany  locality  could  unite  in  one  church, 
Its  character  to  be  settled  by  tbe  majori^ ;  and,  if 


The  change  of  doctrine  was  chit 
chusette,  and,  in  a  great  degree, 
ty.  In  1825  there  were  found  to  be  95  Unitarian 
churches  (a  part  of  which  were  new  cliurches  organ- 
ized as  such),  and  Slfl  Congregational;  while  in  the 
other  states  tiie  defection  was  bardly  known.  Many 
churches  were  deprived  of  their  properly  by  adverse 
mBJoritiei  in  parishes,  and  were  forced  to  begin  anew. 
The  trials  of  the  churches  awakened  a  vigorous  life  in 
the  denomination,  which  added  14G  new  churches  in 
Hassachusetts  in  tbe  fbllowlng  35  years,  and  increased 
the  numl>er  of  communicants  tvom  37,987  in  1N30  to 
64.830  in  1860.  The  terms  "  Unitarian  Congrcgntion- 
ar'and  "Trinitarian  Congregational" have  been  somo- 
times  used  in  Massachusetts;  but  tbe  latter  title  has 
never  been  allowed  by  the  denomination,  while  the 
Unitarian  National  Conference  has  refused  to  insert 
the  term  "  Congregational"  in  its  olBcial  name. 

Benfroltai  owf  Afiti!<marji  Optratiom. — In  the  earlU 
est  history  of  American  Cangregationaiism  cffnTtswere 
dircctiMl  to  the  conversion  of  the  Indians,  of  which  tbe 
work  of  John  Eliot  is  (bo  most  noted.  Later,  when  tbe 
country  became  settled  westward,  miei ionury  societies, 
of  which  those  of  Connecticut  were  perhaps  mostimpor. 
taut,  sent  ministers  to  tbe  new  settlemcntsof  New  York, 
Ohio,  etc.  In  1825  an  American  Home  MlE-sionorj-  So- 
ciety was  sagu'ested  by  Con.regutionalists.  and  wasor- 


ralst 


Presbyteriiins.  In  Home  ! 
denomination  have  been  made  through  this  clisnnel, 
which  has  now  reully  become  CongrcKUt ional  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Presbyterians  since  18(i0.  Foreign 
Miisions  have  been  carried  on  through  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  which 
was  formed  by  the  General  Assoi-lution  of  Mussachn- 
setts  in  1810,  but  through  wiiicb  the  New  School  Pres- 
byterian Church  also  does  Its  mission  work.  An  im- 
petus was  given  to  assisting  Congrogatlniial  chun-hes 
In  building  meeting-hanies  by  the  All>any  Ci^nven- 
tion,  under  whose  recommendation  a  large  iiniount  waa 
immediately  raised.  That  work  is  «ucrrs>fuHy  carried 
on  bv  the  American  Congregational  Union,  which  waa 
organiied  at  New  York  in  1X53.  Tbe  American  Con- 
tregational  Association  has  collected  a  line  and  rapid- 
ly-incronsing  Congregational  I.ihrorj-  in  DiMton.  and  a 
large  fund  to  be  devoted  to  the  erection  nf  a  Congre- 
gational House.  Large  amounts  of  money  hsve  licen 
collected  through  co-operative  societies  fc>r  ministerbl 
education,  Sabliatb-scbools,  tract  and  other  religioua 
publications,  seamen,  temperance,  edncatlon  at  the 
West,  etc.  The  denomination,  from  its  polity,  has  no 
Church  Boards.  Its  benevolent  operations  have  lieen 
carried  on  through  such  channels  as  the  churches  pre- 
ferred. The  National  Council,  bi  1865,  recommenrled 
the  American  Board,  tbe  American  Home  Mlssinnary 
Society,  the  American  HlasioEury  d 


CONGEEGATIONALISTS  45 

Americui  EducilioD  Society,  tba  Socfetj'  tot  promot- 
ing CulU|{Ut«  ind  Th«lo|{kil  Education  at  Ihs  Wert, 
tlie  American  Uible  Society,  the  American  and  lor- 
ei^D  Chrialian  Union,  tlis  Cont^i^atiunal  Boanl  of 
Publication,  ttie  American  Cungreeational  A»ocia- 
tioD,  tba  ALiaaachusettfl  Sabbatb-fcbo<>i  ^ociet}',  and 
the  object*  of  tbe  American  Tract  Societiaa.  While 
co-op«ration  ia  still  sdhersd  to,  tbcrs  la  an  evident ' 
drift  in  the  denomination  towarda  neparata  methods  of  i 
work,  duo  undoubtedly  to  an  increiuinK  conviction  of 
the  scriptural neaa,  importance,  and  efficacy  oTtho  de- 
□ominaUonal  polity. 

Proffrtu. — The deDomioation,  wbilealwayapredam- 
iDaat  ID  Nev  England,  waa  retarded  in  ira  j^twth 
beyond  tbe  Mndaan  Kiver  partly  by  the  "Ptjn  of 
Union,"  and  partly  by  the  advice  of  tboolopcal  in- 
■tructars  to  their  papila  goinK  wcatnard  to  become 
Presbi-terians.  The  resolt  bas  iwcn  that  the  Conifre- 
gatioaal  cburchea  have  given  a  largo  number  of  min- 
btera  to  tho  Preabjlorian  Church,  and  furnished  the 
material  of  many  of  ita  churche*.  Kot  a  few  of  tba 
euij  Kow  York  churchea  Lecame  Preal^terian,  and 
CongregationBl  aasociationa  vcro  disbanded  lest  they 
should  interfere  vith  h^irmony.  But  the  gradual  in- 
cremoof  niinirtersiBho,  removing  lothe  Wes',  refused 
to  give  np  their  ecclesiastical  fellowship,  and  a  grow- 
ing conviction  that  the  Congregational  polity  demand- 
ed its  own  prcacTvatian,  has  cbangeil  the  current.  The 
oldest  church  in  Ohio  waa  founded  in  1796;  in  1866 
the  number  waa  IGG.  Commoncing  in  lltinoia  abont 
1630,  tho  cburcbea  numbered  in  186G,  2-n.  O'lnnien- 
dng  in  Michigan  about  1B2T,  the  number  in  18GG  waa 
ISO.  The  oMest  in  Uinnosota  dates  ftnm  1851;  in 
1866  then  were  (8.  Id  Iowa,  from  the  llrst  in  1830, 
the  number  Increased  to  I6G  in  18GG.  In  Missouri, 
from  2  in  IM&>,  they  incronsed  to  41  in  18GT.  Id  Kan- 
au,  from  1  in  1854,  to  33  In  1866.  In  CJliromia,  from 
JO  in  I8S1I  to  32  in  ISCB.  In  the  Soutliem  States  tho 
denuniinotion  had  no  foothold  prior  to  tho  war  of  1861- 
6j  bat  iM^ginnings  hare  rince  been  made  in  Dclawan, 
Harybmd,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Korth  and  South 
Carolina,  Ljiuisiona,  and  Tcnncasce;  and  Congregs- 
tionalists  hnvo  planted  tbe  Orat  church,  other  than 
Mormon,  In  Utah. 

2.  In  Ihe  firiliih  Tilnadi.—The  removal  of  RoWd- 
aoD  and  others  to  Lcydcn,  and  the  lucgo  emigration 
of  Puritana  to  America,  left  many  others  in  England 
whose  viewB  coincided  with  theira.  The  Soutbwark 
church,  organized  in  ]6in,  continued.  Ia  tho  latter 
part  of  Mr.  L.athrop'a  pstorjtc,  the  Baptiita,  hitherto 
mingled  with  tho  Piedo-llaptitts,  by  the  checrfiil  con- 
sent of  tho^c  remaining,  withdrew  and  organized  the 
flrtt  Uaptist  church  in  England.  BIr.  Jacle  succeed- 
ed Mr.  lathrop,  and,  with  hia  congregation,  salfored 
much  persecution.  Another  church  appears  to  have 
been  or^nized  in  Soutliwirk  in  162),  which  soon  em- 
igrated to  Ireland  to  avoid  tbe  teveritiea  under  which 
the/  sulfenid  ;  but  it  retumed  to  England,  und  chose 
Bev.  John  Canae  ns  pa^itnr,  who,  with  other),  was  soon 
driven  to  Holland.  In  1610,  sixty-six  of  that  con^-re- 
gaticin  were  imprisoned  at  once,  uho,  on  trial,  Imldly 
declared  that  they  could  acknowlcd^  no  other  head 
of  Ihe  Church  than  Jesua  Christ.  From  these  roots 
grow  the  denomination  which  came  to  exercise  potent 
inSueiKo  in  England.  Its  adheienta  increased,  and 
might  anon  have  had  comparative  quiet  but  for  the 
oppositioti  of  the  Presbyterians.  In  the  Westminster 
Assembly  were  n  few  Congremtionalists,  who  steadily 
upheld  their  views,  such  as  Thomas  Cnodwin,  Philip 
Nye,  Jeremiah  Bumtughs,  William  Bridge,  and  Sid- 
rach  Simpson ;  bnt  they  were  overpowered  by  a  vast 
majority  of  Presbytsriana.  The  Ave  named  isaned, 
during  the  session,  "An  Apologetical  Narration."  in 
which  they  asked  for  toleration,  and  set  forth  their  dis- 
tinctive views  of  polity.     "Wo  do  here  publicly  pro- 


8         COSGREGATIONALISTS 

charged  on  ns,  Brotcnum.  and  that  which  ia  the  eon- 

tentiun  of  these  times,  Ihe  aafAoriliOire  PmlH/<rrial 
ffovetiuafiilj  in  all  tlHi  anlrordiuationa  and  proceedings 
of  iL"  During  tbe  Commonwealth  they  atood  on  an 
improved  footing,  Cromwell  l>ejng  an  Indcpcodeiit, 
t  witli  many  of  the  men  who  overthrew  the  tvraony  of 
Charles  I.  Eminent  Congreg.itionaliFt  niinistere  wen 
appointed  chaplains,  or  placed  in  leading  positioat 
in  tbe  univenities,  amoii^  vhum  were  John  (Jwen, 
Thomas  Goodwin,  QJr,  tlowe.  Chamork,  Bridge, 
Nye,  Carj-l,  and  (Jrevnhill.  While  steadily  iocreas- 
ing  in  tbe  aubaequent  reign;,  Congregationalitts  reso- 
lutely opposed  all  union  of  Church  and  Stale.  Tbe 
moat  important  edrly  public  proceeding  was  tbe  nteet- 
ing  of  elders  and  messengers  at  the  Savoy,  in  Lcodon, 
in  I'm.  They  then  issued  "A  DecUration  of  the 
h'jitfa  and  Order  owned  and  practiced  in  tbe  Congie- 
g.itioiul  churches  in  En;:land."  The  declantion  nf 
faith,  known  as  the  ■'  Savoy  ConfessioD,"  was  a  modi- 
tication  uf  tbe  Westminster  Cnnfrssion,  changing  doc- 
trinal atalementa  only  alightly,  bat  excluding  rvm- 
thing  Preshylerian  in  polity,  and  changing  tlie  Weft- 
minster  thcor3'  of  the  reIi<tion  of  the  Church  and  Slits 
so  as  to  deni'  the  authority  of  magistntes  to  interirrt 
with  ecclesiastical  libertj'.  This  Confwsion  is  the  cm 
which,  slightly  amended,  was  adopted  by  the  Amiii. 
cjn  Synod  of  1680,  snd  reaffirmed  ly  the  AmeHcaa 
National  Council  in  1865,  The  "Toieration  Act" of 
ibeltor  to  the  CungTemtJonalisIs.  but  >t 


le  Inlie' 


andc. 


miMle  tcag  betwixt  that  wiiich  is  falsely 


well  ai  the  Baptiati, 
pared  with  tho  Presl.yteriane— the  three  Ic 
nominations  of  Dissenters.  Tho 
had  increased  conaiderably  at  the  date  of  the  ai 
of  Georp*  I,  in  whose  time  that  defection  from  oitho. 
dox  doctrine  i-ppesred  which  so  greatly  involved  lbs 
Prtaliylerians ;  fr>.m  that  the  Independents  were  fie^ 
to  which  tbe  tdbors  of  Wutta  and  Doddridge  wers 
greatly  conducive.  In  1T27,  ou  the  adoption  of  a  rale 
by  the  Congreg-..tional  miniFters  of  tbe  metropelis  (•* 
making  up  their  list,  there  were  found  to  be  fifty  nia- 
islen  in  that  city.  In  1734  a  writeT  says  that  dl  Uw 
Independent  ministers  were  Calrlnists.      tn  1831  «*9 

formed   the   CuNUBEI^ATIDNAL    U^CIOH    OF   EXOLIXP 

ASD  WALKa,  "  on  a  full  recognition  of  their  own  dis- 
tinctive principles,  vis.  the  Scriptural  right  of  every 
SBporata  churdi  to  maintain  perfect  Isdependenet  b 
the  government  and  administration  of  its  own  pirtico- 
lar  affairs."  This  Vnion  mreU  annnolly.  "Proleil- 
ing  against  sniiscription  to  any  human  formularies  ss 
a  term  of  cummunion,"  the  Union  declares  Ihe  "Pri*. 
ciplcs  of  Religion"  as  held  by  their  churches.  Tin 
English  and  Welsh  churches  ate  usociatcd  in  kal 
unions  or  assocLitiona  The  CaugTegationali>ls  lim- 
ing tho  ConottEOATioNai.  t'nioH  or  SooT1.A3i>  tian 
Iheir  immediate  origin  to  tbe  enterprises  of  Robert  sad 
James  Ualdsnc  (q.  v.)  in  I7g.S  and  snbHqurnt  vtiit. 
Originally  having  no  idea  of  formmg  churchea,  wbra 
God  lile>sed  tbelr  laliors  their  cnnverti  instinctivelj 
drew  towards  each  other.  Places  of  worship  wen 
built  in  several  of  the  largest  towns,  in  which  cborc)i- 
es  were  formed.  The  Union  was  ot^niied  in  Wit 
The  oldc«t  Congregational  churchea  in  Ireland  dale 
respectively  hvm  1760,  1787,  1793.  and  1796.  Tit 
churches  are  united  in  a  Union.  In  tbe  Briticb  coto- 
niea  there  are  churches  forming  the  foUowtag  tnioH, 
viz.  ^'iclorii.  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  Sonlt 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Natal,  besides  these  of  Can- 
ada, aikd  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Bmnswick.  which  in 
regularly  reported  with  the  statistics  of  tbe  Uniud 
States  churches. 

3.  Coalititnlai  E<avpt.-~L'UtMm  da  EglUrt  &«>r 
liqarM  de  Franc,  which  was  formed  in  August,  IVi- 
shortly  after  the  seceasion  ftwn  tbe  E^ie  S-f*"' 
o(  tbe  late  Frederick  Mnnod  aixt  tboM  vbo  scttd 
with  him,  though  not  denominated  ConL  regsliaul. 
holds  to  the  essential  principle  of  that  palify  in  tbii 
conatitntional  declaration  ;  "  Each  church  whirli  ■>- 


CONGKEGATIONAUSrS 


tats  tlie  union  p'rcservea  the  llbarty  < 
for  iucif  iu  own  cunalituliun,  uccording  to  its  convic- 
tioa  mad  neceuitieB.  .  .  .  Efcrj-  churcb  muiit  be  can- 
Btiratcd  on  the  princi|ile  of  individual  confeciBion  of 
Wthjwith  a  guunnUa  of  diBcipline  being  eierciaed  by 
the  church  iUclf."  It  is  a  uoiun  of  Eelf-iiut^nin); 
chnrchM,  and  bvnce  i>  amali ;  but  >  ]^ge  numbar  of 
chorches  dapandeht  on  aid  are  in  BympaUiy,  And  are 
Veprcwnted  *t  the  bieoniiil  DieetinK>.  In  fiwiTZEB- 
L&^D  ttas  tne  chuTcbcs  of  Vuud  are  oniCed  on  a  basis 
wtiicb,  though  Presbyterian  in  forrn,  secures  the  inde- 
peadaace  of  each.  There  ore  also  independent  cburch- 
ea  in  Nenfvhatcl  and  Benia.  These  all,  with  the  Free 
Charch  of  Uanoira,  the  independent  churches  of  the 
iMmh  of^France,  compose  the  alliunce  uf  Free  di  Inde- 
pendent EvuiKelical  churches  founded  in  IKfiO,  admit- 
ting all  churches  froe  of  st^itn  control  which  accept 
tbe  simple  Evangelical  Confession  of  Faith  adopted 
by  the  Alliance,  practise  u  scriptural  discipline,  recog- 
nise tbe  ministry  as  adirine  InsUtutiuD,  and  engage 
in  the  propagation  uf  the  Gorpei.  In  Italy  eran- 
galical  commnnitics  are  being  formed,  since  tbe  estab- 
lishment of  the  kingdom,  upon  independent  princlplef, 
«  definite  statonients  can  be  given  at  present  re- 


— Jlifsion 


4.  OiJttT  ParU  of  the  Warid. 
exist  in  all  ports  of  the  nii»ion„rj-  world,  established 
bj  missionaries  of  mainly  the  London  Missionary  So- 
tietj,  tlie  American  Board  of  Commiaaioners  of  Foreign 
Uinions,and  the  American  Missiuniry  Association. 

II.  DocTKiMia,— 1.  In  ^n«'»ea.— The  Congrega- 
tkinal  churches  are  "orlhvdox"  in  the  gencrul  sense 
of  Christendom,  boldinj;  that  the  Scriptures  are  tbe 
only  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  and  that  no  creeds 
may  be  imposed  on  any;  yet  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
chDnhes  to  set  forth  declarjtions  of  the  understand- 
ing of  the  Scriptoms  in  Confessions  of  F»Ith.    Alleged 

the  Confessions  of  Faith,  but  by  the  Scriptures.  They 
are,  in  their  views  of  huumn  'nature,  Angustinion  In 
distinction  from  Pelagian,  and,  as  regards  the  method 
of  the  diviae  goTemniont,  Calvinietic  in  distinction 
from  Arminian.  While  no  power  can  impose  a  creed 
on  ibe  churches,  and  each  Church  adopts  its  own  for- 
mnlaa,  yet  the  principles  of  fellowship,  in  which  a 
ooDQcil  of  churches  is  culled  for  the  recognition  of  a 
new  Church,  secnrea  a  general  agreement  in  ductrine. 
For  a  more  general  standard,  the  Westminster  Con- 
ression  was  adopted  by  the  nynod  uf  IMS ;  that  of  the 
SsToy  (a  slit(ht  mudilicatiua)  by  tho  synod  of  3680. 
Tbe  Oeueral  Association  of  Msisachusetts,  cem prising 
600  ministers,  declares  the  Westminster  Catechism  to 
be  ita  standard  of  doctrine.  Tbe  National  Conncil  of 
]gS5  declared,  km.  omi.,  "our  adherence  to  the  (liith 
and  order  of  the  apostolic  and  primitive  churches  held 
by  our  fitbers,  and  sulistantially  as  embodied  in  the 
confessions  and  platforms  which  our  synods  of  1648 
and  1680  set  forth  or  reaffirmed."  The  study  of  the- 
ology has  been  pursued  with  great  earnestness  by  Cou- 
gregationaUata,  and,  as  a  consequence,  many  shades 
of  opinion  are  held,  while  as  a  body  they  stand  within 
the  lines  indicalwl.  Very  many  theological  writer* 
of  great  power  have  published  systems  or  criticisms 
upon  poiola  in  divinity,  from  which  has  arisen  a  view 
of  Calvinism  often  styled  the  "  Now  England  theol- 
ogy," nbich  bas  many  adherents, and  which  doubt-' 
less  affbcts  the  views  of  those  who  do  not  adopt  it  as  a 
wbole.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  works  of  the  first 
Jonathan  Edwards,  who,  from  his  sympathy  with  the 
"great  revival,"  directed  bis  powerful  energies  to 
anch  explanations  of  truth  as  should  remove  obstacles 
supposed  to  be  found  in  the  then  understanding  of 
Calvinism.  The  views  which  be  promulgated  were 
subjected  to  tho  acnitiny  of  his  son,  Dr.  Jonathan  Ed- 
words  ;  and  those  of  both  were  developed  or  modified 
by  a  school  of  writers,  among  whom  may  be  named 
Hopkins,  West,   Smalley,   Bellamy,   Emmons,   and 


9  CONGREGATIONALISTS 

Dwight,  and,  later,  Taylor,  of  New  Haven,  and  Park, 

of  Andover.  While  not  all  of  these  agree  in  all 
points,  and  wiuie  the  later  views  are  considered  by 
many  ministers  and  churches  to  be  materially  dilTer- 
cnt  Irom  those  of  the  eider  Edward-,  yet  the  Calvin- 
ism thus  expluined  is  wide-spread.  'Ibe  great  prob- 
lem of  this  "New  England  theology"  has  been  to 
barnwniie  tho  sovereignty  of  Uod  and  the  fieiMlom  of 
man,  and  from  that  centru  peculluriticB  in  explaining 
other  doctrines  have  proceeded.  '1  he  result  of  thi.s« 
eft'ortsbas  Lcen  a  view  ofCulviniam  of  which  tbe  fol- 
lowing may  bo  culled  distinctive  features.  The  doc- 
trine ofoiuTinii/itn  is  held  as  Involving  the  beredilary 
corruption  of  men's  nitture,  but  not  as  involving  tlie 
guilt  of  men  before  actual  transgression.  The  doc- 
trine of  drpravily  is  held  as  indicating  a  marot  inabil- 
ity, or  such  an  unwillingness  and  aversion  as  render 
it  certain  th.t  man  will  not  comply  with  God*s  de- 
mands without  the  regenerating  grace  of  God,  but  not 
SB  involving  a  tutaral  Inabilitj'.  Of  the  WUt,  the 
doctrine  is  held  that  it  always  chooses  the  greatest  ap- 
parent good,  but  with  a  power  of  contrary  choice. 
The  doctrine  of  the  regenerating  ^((c<  ofVodit  held 
as  involving  the  certaiufy  of  its  accompUshing  its  ob- 
ject, but  ni>t  as  irreintl&t.  The  doctrine  of  Decria 
and  Prrdrttination  is  held  in  tl 


rah.p 


Of  tl 


mnt,  the  "  governinental"  theory  is  held.  In  regard 
to  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  mode  of  tho  Divino 
exittonc,  etc.,  the  "New  England  theology"  has  nu 
pecuibrities  dilTeriiig  from  the  geikeral  view  of  Iha 
Christian  Church.  This  system  Is  by  no  means  held 
by  all  Congregationalists.  Very  many  pastors  and 
churches  class  tliemseives  among  tlie  older  Catvinistic 
school  and  all  are  held  in  general  conformity  with 
the  early  Confessions.  Tbe  Congregationalists  are 
PKdo-Dapti^(a ;  as  to  mode,  while  ''sprinkling"  or 
"  affusion"  is  tbe  general  custom,  adults  are  lield  en- 
titled to  choose  lbs  mode  they  conseientioualy  prefer. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Lard's  Supper  is  variously  held, 
although  rarely  debated ;  but  only  persons  prufeAsing 
a  change  of  heart  are  admitted  to  tlis  comniuninu,  and 
members  of  all  evangelical  churches  are  freely  wel- 
comed. The  Dtdiration  nfFoM  set  forth  bv  tlic  Na- 
tional Council  in  1866,  adopted  on  Burial  Hill,  at 
riymonlh,  Mafs.,  declares  (I j  the  doctrinal  stand jds 
of  the  denomination,  and  (^)  the  principles  of  its  rec- 
ognition I'f  fellowship  with  all  the  evangelical  bodies, 
it  Is  as  follows : 

"  Standing  liy  the  rock  where  the  Tilgrlms  set  foot 
upon  tbese  shores,  upon  the  spot  where  they  worship- 
ped God,  and  among  the  graves  of  the  early  genera- 
tions, we,  elders  and  messengers  of  the  Contn^sgational 
churches  of  the  United  Slates  in  National  Council  as- 
sembled, like  tbcm  acknowledging  no  rule  of  faith  but 
tho  Word  of  Cod,  do  now  declare  our  adherence  to  the 
faith  and  order  of  the  apostolic  and  primitive  churches 
held  by  our  fathers,  and  substantially  as  embodied  In 
the  confessions  and  platforms  wliii;b  our  synods  of 
1618  and  16P0  set  torWi  or  reaffirmed.  We  declare 
that  tbe  experience  of  the  nearly  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies which  have  elsped  since  the  memorable  day 
when  our  dres  ftonnded  here  a  Christian  common- 
wealth, with  all  the  development  of  new  terms  of  error 
since  their  times,  has  only  doeponed  our  confidence  in 
the  faith  and  polity  of  those  f.tben.  We  bless  God 
fbrtbe  inheritance  of  tbese  doctrines.  We  invoke  the 
help  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  that,  through  the  pres- 
ence of  the  promised  Comforter,  he  will  enable  us  to 
transmit  them  in  purity  to  onr  children. 

"In  the  times  that  are  before  as  aaa  nation,  times  at 
once  of  duty  and  of  dHnger,  we  rest  sliour  hope  In  the 
Gospel  of  the  Son  of  God.  It  was  tbe  grand  peculiar- 
ity of  our  Puritan  fatbera  that  they  held  this  Gospel, 
not  merely  as  the  ground  of  tbeir  personal  salvation, 
but  as  declaring  tbe  worth  of  man  by  tbe  incarnation 
and  sacrifice  of  the  Son  of  God ;  and  therefoM  applied 


CONGEEGATIONALISTS         4s 

It«  principles  to  «lev*ta  Bodetj,  to  regnUta  education,  | 
to  civilize  humuiitv,  to  puriiy  law.  to  reform  llis  i 
Church  and  the  State,  sad  to  srsert  and  defend  libei-  | 
^-]  id  eliort,  to  mould  »nd  redeem,  by  iu  all-trans- 1 
fbrniiDK  energy,  everftbing  that  belougs  to  mao  la  hia  I 
individual  and  sofibI  relation*.  ! 

"  It  wae  the  faith  of  our  tathera  that  gare  ue  this 
free  land  in  wliivh  WB  dwell.  It  is  by  this  ttltb  only 
that  we  can  transmit  to  our  children  a  free  and  happy, 

"  We  hold  it  to  be  a  distinctiTC  excellence  of  our 
Congregational  aystem  tlial  it  exalU  that  which  in 
mure  above  that  which  Js  lesa  important,  and  by  the 
simplicity  of  iti  organization  laoilitatea,  in  cummnnl- 
tles  where  the  papulation  is  limited,  the  union  of  all 
true  believers  in  one  Christian  Church;  and  that  the 
division  of  such  communities  into  several  veak  and 
Jealous  soch^ties,  holding  the  same  common  faith,  is  a 
ain  against  the  unity  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  at 
once  the  shame  and  scandal  of  Christendom. 

"We  rejoice  that,  through  the  inOuence  of  our  tne 
system  of  apostolic  order,  we  can  bold  fellowship  with 
all  who  ecknonleclge  Christ,  and  act  efficiently  in  the 
work  of  restoring  unity  tn  the  divided  Church,  and  of 
bringing  bark  harmony  and  peace  among  all  'who 
love  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  sincerity.' 

"Thus  recojmislng  the  unity  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  in  all  the  world,  ami  knowing  that  we  are  but 
one  branch  of  Christ's  people,  while  adhering  to  our 
peculiar  faith  and  order,  we  extend  to  all  believvrs 
the  hand  ufChriflian  fellowship  upon  thebapis  of  those 
great  fundamental  truths  in  which  all  Christians 
should  agree.  With  tbem  vs  confess  our  faith  In 
Gfid,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  tho  Holv  Ghost,  the 
only  living  and  true  God  ;  in  Jesus  Chri'st,  the  incar- 
nate Word,  who  Is  exalted  to  lie  out  Redeemer  and 
king;  and  in  the  Holy  Comforter,  who  is  present  in 
the  Church  to  regenerate  and  sanctify  the  soul. 

"With  the  whole  Church,  we  confess  tho  common 
sinfulness  and  ruin  of  our  race,  and  acknowlcdu'c  that 
it  Is  only  through  the  work  accomplished  by  the  life 
and  expiatory  death  of  Christ  that  believers  in  liim 
aro  justiHed  before  God,  receive  the  remission  of  sins, 
and  throuf^  the  presence  and  grace  of  Ihe  Holy  Com- 
forter are  delivered  from  the  power  of  sin,  and  per- 
fected in  holiness. 

"  Wo  believe  also  in  the  organized  and  visible 
Church,  in  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  in  the  sacra- 
monta  of  Baptism  snd  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  the  resur- 
rectioa  of  tlie  body,  and  in  Iho  final  judgment,  the 
issues  of  which  are  eternal  life  and  everlasting  punish- 

"  We  receive  these  truths  on  the  testimony  of  God, 
given  through  prophets  ond  opostlcs,  and  in  tie  life, 
the  miracles,  the  death,  the  resurrection  of  his  Son, 
our  Divine  Redeemer — a  testimony  preserved  for  tho 
Church  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  the  Now  Tes- 
taments, which  were  composed  by  holy  men  as  they 
were  moved  l)y  the  Holy  Ghost. 

"Affirming  now  our  belief  that  those  who  thus  bold 
'one  faith,  one  Lord,  one  baptism,'  together  constitute 
the  one  catholic  Church,  the  Bc\-erul  households  of 
which,  though  called  by  diObrent  namea,  are  the  one 
body  of  Chrbt,  and  that  these  members  of  hia  body 
are  sacredly  bound  to  keep  'the  unity  of  the  spirit  in 
the  lionds  of  peace,'  we  declare  that  we  will  co-operate 
with  aU  who  hold  these  truths.  With  tbem  we  will 
carry  the  Gospel  into  every  part  of  this  land,  and  with 
them  wo  will  go  into  all  the  world,  and  'preach  the 
Gospel  to  every  creature.'  May  he  to  whom  'all 
power  is  given  in  heaven  and  earth'  fullil  the  promise 
which  in  all  our  hope;  'I.0,  I  am  with  yon  slway, 
even  to  the  end  of  tho  world.'    Amen." 

S.  /n  /.'jiropf.— The  doctrines  of  the  English  Con- 
gregation alisls  were  set  forth  in  IBoO  in  the  Savoy 
ConfesFion.  As  now  stated,  they  are  presented  in  tho 
dsclanition  of  the  Congregational  Union,  in  articles  of 


10         CONGREGATIONAUSTS 

a  Catvinistic  type,  but  not  presenting  "a  tchnlaatlc  at 
critical  confesiion  of  faith."     While  a)>te  writers  havo 

geticol  churches,   speculations  upon  doctrine   do  not 

American  churches,  and  the  peculiarities  of  tba  "  Sew 
England  theology"  have  not  >>een  prominently  di*- 

III.  GovERSBBKT,— 1.  /b  Jfflmcn.— The  whole 
administration  of  Congregaliunalitm  grows  out  tif 
the  two  cardinal  principles  of  (1)  the  compleUDm 
of  the  local  church  for  its  own  Koverement,  and  (i) 
the  necessary  fellowship  of  the  churches.  In  all  nut- 
ters concerning  the  indiviilaal  church  alone,  no  ether 
body  is  Dtcersary-to  complete  or  sanction  ita  action, 
and  none  baa  powor  tn  revise  or  overrule  it.  Bnt  in 
all  matters  concerning  the  rhurcha  in /iHinttiji  ae  a 
whole,  those  churches  property  convened  GXprest<  tbeir 
opinions  and  determine  their  couree;  and  although 
their  decision  Is  of  fbrcc  only  in  such  chorches  us 
adopt  it,  yet  the  moral  weight  of  such  decisions  gener- 
ally secure  acquiescence.  Tho  two  principles  men- 
tioned limit  each  other. 

(1.)  (l/lie  loral  durci.—The  cbntch  is  compoted 
only  of  persons  supposed  lo  bo  regeneratrd.  united  bv 
a  covenant  which  recognises  duty  to  God  and  to  each 
other,  meeting  for  worship,  SEcrammts,  and  diM'ipHne. 
The  goi-emment  is  strictlj'  democratic,  to  far  as  i^^iog 
the  right  of  voting  to  all  adult  males,  and  with  no 
power  of  veto  in  the  pastor.  By  vole  of  the  iirotber- 
hood  members  ore  admitted  or  dismissed,  alleged  of- 
fenders tried,  and  censnres  passed,  and  all  officers  elect- 
ed. Tho  permonent  officers  arc  jiaslor  (or  bishop)  and 
ileacons,  with  clerk  and  such  committers  astheChutrb 
finds  desirable.  The  pastor  is  necessarily  an  ordained 
minister  or  elder,  and,  from  hie  poation,  '-lishop." 
He  is  chosen  liy  tho  Church,  and  msv  be  dismissed  by 
tho  Church ;  but  tho  nsual  alliance  of  the  Church  with 
an  incorporalo'l  civil  society  gives  tho  pastor  a  legal 
relation  to  that  societv  (by  which  he  has  olio  Ivcn 
chosen  Id  concarrcoce'  with  the  Cfaorch}  whicli  the 

ech  arches  do 

not  practlco ;  but  Inasmuch  aa  luembcrs  of  the  Cliurch 
usually  compose  the  far  larger  part  of  tho  civil  corpo- 
ration, harm  seldom  entnes. 

(2.)  0//fc /■«/&>»■»*>  r/M«C*i>rcAe»,— All  churohes 
stand  in  a  sisterly  relation  to  each  other,  and  ore  Lonnd 
lo  fullil  ila  duties.  This  communion  is  msnifcatcd  in 
mutujl  recognition  1  in  admitting  members  of  one 
church  10  the  communion  of  another ;  in  tcroporsty 
interchange  of  ministers ;  in  Ibo  dismissal  and  recep- 
tion of  members;  in  giving  and  receiving  advice;  in 
giving  and  receiving  help;  in  consultation  and  co.op- 
cration  In  the  ediflcation  of  s  particular  church,  or 
matters  of  general  welfare  ;  and  in  ginng  and  receiv- 
ing admonition.  Tbe.10  principles  limit  the  independ- 
ence of  tho  local  churoh,  and  are  embodied  In  the  de- 
cisions of  councils,  which  are  the  churches  of  a  greater 
or  IspB  locality,  represented  each  by  pastor  and  dele- 
gate,  and  convened  for  special  occssiore.  The  limit- 
ing eflwt  may  bo  seen  thns :  lielieVGrs  in  a  given  lo- 
cality may  organize  a  Church,  bnt  it  is  not  recrjmitd 
as  In  fellowship  until  a  council  of  chnrcbes  has  eiin- 
ined  the  need  of  it,  lla  material,  and  its  doctrine,  lul 
approved  of  its  recognition.  A  Choreh  may  settle  a 
pastor,  but  he  is  not  in  fellowship  with  other  churcbH 
until  those  churches  in  council  have  cansidcrrd  and 
approved  his  doctrinal  and  rellgioDS  fltnesa.  A  Chgrch 
may  excommunicato  a  member,  and  no  power  outiide 
can  replace  him  in  that  Churoh ;  but  inasmuch  at  the 
effect  of  that  exoommDnication  is  to  cat  bim  off  fnm 
the  communion  of  all  cburcbea,  the  other  chnnJM* 
have  a  ri^t  (and  nnder  certain  circumstances  it  is 
their  duty)  lo  examine  the  case,  and  if  the  Church  ip 
peais  In  hove  erred,  recommend  hii  restoration  ;  in  de- 
fault of  which  they  determinB  that  his  fellowship  with 


C0NGRE6ATI0NALISTS         481  CONGREGATIONALISTS 


Ottm  ought  to  nntinse,  axA  Ihaj  (dviM  my  Chnrcli  to 
which  ha  may  ippl;  to  receive  him.  A  Chnrdi  may 
become  «rTOTxe<Mu  [n  doctrine,  or  Hcandalom  by  ita  con- 
duel,  uitl  QO  power  cui  reTsne  ita  actlom ;  lot  InM- 
mach  u  tbe  icaDiisloiia  conduct  injares  rtll  tbe  church- 
ea,  tiury  hkva  ■  right  to  remonitnte  and  ■dmonlah, 
uid,  if  thAt  ttiit,  witbdreir  feUanhlp  from  the  offend- 
ing Church.  Tha  genenl  priDclple,  therafore,  ia,  that 
while  no  external  powar  can  iatarfen  with  any  act  of 
»  Church  vhoaa  raantt  la  cooflned  to  itaelr.yet  iftbat 
act,  ia  ito  effect  and  inflaance,  goea  beyond  and  affecla 
tha  body  of  cfaoTchea,  those  cbnrchea  have  full  right 
td  coiuider  inch  external  eSbct  and  luflneDce.  Tbe 
practiesl  rsault  of  tbe  vorkinK  «f  tbne  principle*  bas 
been  to  Mcoie  both  the  rights  of  local  cbnrchea,  and 
the  harmony,  atablUty  in  doctrina,  and  united  action 
at  the  denomination. 

(a.)  O/lht  Jtnitlry.^"  The  mlntatiy,"  aarg  the  Ka- 
UinudCoBnciloriSBi,  "inclodea  all  man  called  to  that 
work,  and  orderly  eet  ^lart  by  ordination.  When  or- 
dination of  a  pastor  Is  to  be  performed,  the  church  in 
which  be  is  to  bear  office  invite  a  council  to  examine 
•a  to  faith,  grace,  and  aUlity,  that,  if  be  be  approved, 
thaj  may  estead  the  hand  of  fellowship.  If  tlie  or- 
dination be  in  view  of  any  atber  epbera  of  labor,  tbe 
nqD«t  for  a  council  ou^t  to  come  from  tbe  church 
of  which  he  la  a  member.  A  pastor  dirmissed  doea 
not  cease  to  be  a  minister,  but  he  cannot  exercise  any 
official  act  over  a  church  until  orderly  replaced  In  of- 
fice, except  when  particularly  Invited  by  a  cbarcb." 
Congregatlonallsts  acknowledge  bat  one  grade  of  min- 
titeia;  regarding  the  apostolic  office  as  extraordinary, 
and  to  have  ended  with  the  death  of  thoee  mentioned 
tn  the  Scripture*.  In  the  early  blitory  of  American 
Coagragationaltsm  no  ministry  wa*  recognised  except 
that  of  a  putorate.  But  when  It  became  necsiiary  to 
preach  the  Gospel  where  there  wore  no  chnrchea,  a*  ' 
misihinary  work,  "  evangel  lots"  were  ordained,  b 
with  no  distiactioa  In  permanent  character  or  authoi 
ty  ftum  other  ministers.  A  further  nodlHcationof  tbe 
original  view  has  Uken  place.  Until  "now,  all  th« 
Congregational  cburche*,"  says  Dr.  Leonard  Bacon, 
"acknowledge  the diSereuce  between  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel  and  a  pastor  of  a  church.  The  (onner  baa  no 
official  power  In  any  church  or  over  any  CbriMian. 
Be  is  only  a  nun  set  spart  to  preach  the  Goapel  where 
God  io  hii  provldeDca  may  all  him."  In  the  otdina- 
tlon  of  a  putor  a  distinction  ia  now  generally  recog- 
nised between  (1)  the  act  of  setting  him  apart  as  a 
minister  of  tha  G«pel,  and  (!)  the  act  of  hli  Inatalla- 
tion  as  pastor  of  the  pattiCnlor  cbnrch.  Ordinations 
withont  pastoral  charge  are  now  frequent,  but  never 
except  in  view  of  some  paiticolar  tphere  of  labor. 

Siptodt  and  Cbiian'fi.— There  are  no  stsndlug  bodies 
to  hear  appeala,  give  evidence,  or  declare  tbe  c^nlons 
ef  the  dsnominotliHi.  But  bodies  to  bear,  determine, 
and  advise  are  held  to  be  Involved  in  the  fellowship 
of  the  cburchea,  and  are  always  called  when  the 
^D  ii  seen  to  demand  them.  They  are  mora  oi 
extensive,  according  to  tbe  nnmber  of  churches  affect- 
ed by  any  matter  to  be  considered.  In  all  cases 
■re  meetings  of  the  churches,  represented,  bow 
by  pastor  and  delegate.  Only  four  gaerai  synods,  as 
•tated  above,  have  been  held  In  the  United  SUtas. 
Hatters  aSiKting  only  a  limited  territory  cause  the 
convening  of  a  limited  conndl,  a*  in  Connecticut  tn 
1709;  while  matters  of  merely  local  Interest  an  the 
occasion  of  local  councils,  or  those  nude  np  of  a  fbw 
eootlgoous  chnrche*,  such  a*  fOr  the  ordlnatioa  of  a 
pastor  or  the  hearing  of  a  case  of  alleged  grievance. 
All  are  convened  on  die  nurtion  of  a  Cbarcb  or  church- 
•a,  but  no  Cbnrch  b  obliged  to  participate.  The  pro- 
posal of  tbe  Katlooal  Council  of  186S  was  firA  made 
in  a  local  aasqclatioD;  was  recommended  by  the 
"Convention  of  the  North-west;"  was  anbmitted  to 
an  the  state  bodies,  and  approved  by  all  save  one, 
which  atlarwards,  however,  uras  represented ;  and  was 
II.-16 


colled.  In  behalf  of  tbe  vsrioos  chnrche*  rapresentad 
in  the  state  bodies,  by  a  Joint  committee  composed  from 
each  body  aseenting.  Local  councils  are  frequent, 
being  called  to  advise  upon  the  recognition  of  new 
churches,  tha  ordlnatlm  or  dismissal  of  pastors,  the 
complaint  of  alleged  grisvance,  and  for  advice  to  any 
Church  desiring  it.  In  calling  a  coui-cil,  a  Church 
must  always  be  a  party  ;  the  only  apparent  exception 
being  that  wherein,  on  complaint  of  injuiy  to  a  mem- 
ber, the  Church  imglit  (o  be  a  party  by  aasenting  tc 
his  request  tot  a  council,  bnt  mreaiDaaAI)!  rafusea.  In 
the  laUer  ca*e  the  member  may  call  one  bimseir,  with 
a  statement  of  the  grounds  and  of  the  unreasonable 
refusal  of  tbe  Cbnrch,  In  which  case  the  council  is 
known  as  tx  partt,  bnt  is  entitled  to  all  tbe  respect  of 
a  mutual  one.  If  the  Church  and  member  (or,  in  rim- 
ilar  circumstances,  tbe  Church  and  pastor,  if  there  be 
dllTerences  between  them)  unite  in  the  call,  it  Is  a  laa- 
tuat  coBucll.  A  council  is  composed  of  those  church* 
es  Invited,  a  list  of  wbicb  ia  given  to  every  Cbnrch 
called,  and  cannot  add  to  or  dlniiniah  Dm  number. 
It  con  act  only  on  the  matters  presented  in  tite  docu- 
ment calling  it,  which  ii  known  as  tha  "letten-mis. 
sive."  When  It  has  exantned  the  case.  It  puts  ita 
opinion  in  a  "result,"  which  is  communicated  to  all 
parties,  and  tben  dissolves.  Refusal  to  adopt  the  re- 
sult does  not  prejudice  the  standing  of  a  Church ;  if 
tbe  refusal  Is  a  gT.ire  otlence,  and  such  as  should  af> 
feet  fellowship  with  that  Church,  as  in  caaea  of  doc- 
trinal error,  tben  new  proceeding*  would  be  necessary 
for  admonishing  the  oflending  Cburch.  But  tbe  adop- 
tion of  tha  reeults  of  council  by  one  psity  in  differenoe 
Is  lield  to  justify  that  party,  and  In  legal  matters,  such 
as  relate  to  the  contract  of  a  pastor  and  psriih,  will  be 
sustained  by  conrta.  The  legal  decielona  on  ecclesi- 
estical  maUen  have  been  numeroua  in  Massschusetta. 
But  the  courts  merely  decloie  what  the  naat^s  of  Con- 
gregatlonaiism  are  in  reference  to  any  contract  in  dis- 
pute, and  they  refuse  to  go  behind  the  declatatiOQ  of 
facU  made  by  a  council  properly  convened  and  prop- 
erly conducted.  Tbe  system  ofoccaiuonal  councils  Is 
varied  from  only  in  Con  nee  Ucot,  where  most  of  the 
churches  are  united  in  local  consoclatloDS,  in  which 
system  all  mattara  which  could  elaawbere  be  referred 
to  a  special  council,  Miglnated  for  tbe  purpose,  are 
referred  to  a  fixed  and  recorded  list  of  churches  united 
In  tbe  consociation,  which  have  bound  tbemseivea  to 
consUtnle  a  mutuU  council  whenever  needed.  Any 
Church  may  withdraw  fiom  a  consociation  without 
affecting  its  atandinic. 

OaloiM  and  Utaga. — Perrons  deelring  approbation 
to  presch  apply,  for  convenience  and  fltneas,  to  local 
asaociatlons  of  ministers,  who  receive  bis  credentials 
of  Church  memberahip  and  of  theologicul  study,  ex- 
amine him  as  to  bis  religkina  experience,  his  doc- 
trina] views,  hia  knowledge  of  scriptural  teaming,  and 
bis  general  fitness.  Their  approval,  given  in  a  cor- 
tltlcate,  merely  commends  him  to  the  churches  as  a 
candidate  for  tbe  ministry.  In  ordinations  or  instal- 
Istlona  of  pastors,  a  council  of  chnrehes  makes  aiml- 
lar  examinatlona.  Ordinationa  are  accompanied  by  a 
sermon,  an  ordaining  pnyer  (in  connection  with  the 
"laying  on  of  hands"  by  ordained  miniatera),  charge 
to  the  paator,  the  hand  of  fellowship,  and  an  address 
to  the  Church.  In  tbe  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per there  is  no  prescribed  litnrgy.  Persons  applying 
for  membership  in  the  Church  on  prof^lon  of  faith 
sre  examined  by  the  Church  or  a  committee,  publicly 
propounded  for  a  reasonable  time  prior  to  the  vote  on 
reception,  are  voted  for  or  againat  by  the  whole  broth- 
erhood, and  an  received  in  |uiblic  on  adoption  of  tbe 
Church  covenant,  and  (generaily)  assent  to  the  doc- 
trinal confession  of  tbe  Cbnrch.  Persons  are  dismiss- 
ed from  one  Church  to  another,  on  their  application, 
by  vote  of  the  Chureh  dismissing,  which  tskee  efTect 
on  the  reception  of  the  psnon  by  tbe  Chnrch  to  which 
he  Is  dismissed,  which  also  rotes  on  ' ' 


CONGREGATIONALISTS         4! 

Pnblic  vonhip  Ii  coDdnctMl  io  the  fbnn  uiy  Charch 
fTtten,  alchough  then  ii  a  very  gcDsrul  Mmllarity; 
but  a  few  churches  nie  ■  mora  or  1<h  extended  litarK^, 
which  is  entirely  within  ths  cimtrol  of  cTsry  Church. 
In  cues  of  ths  dlicijdine  of  lUo^  ofleaden,  Iho 
rule*  glren  in  the  ISih  chapter  of  Halthaw  mre  re- 
qnired  to  be  followed.  If  the  flnt  and  aecond  steps 
have  been  properly  tuken,  the  alleged  oSander  b  sam- 
rooned  by  (he  Cbnrcb  U>  appear  at  ■  time  TeiMOalily 
distant,  and  is  entitled  to  a  copy  of  all  charges,  and  an 
unprejudiced  and  Ciir  hearinjj:  all  tbe  brotherhood  i 
vote  upon  the  case.  Church  censures  are  of  two  kinds,  | 
admonition  (which  Is  often  accompanied  Ly  suspen- 
sion from  Church  privileKes)  and  cicomuinnleatinn. 
If  a  member  claima  to  have  been  un]ii>tly  aurpended 
orezcomniunicated,  bis  remedy  is  In  arkinK  the  Church 
G>r  a  mutoal  council  to  conaider  nod  advise  in  the  mut- 
ter, and,  in  case  of  unreasonable  rotimal.lo  coll  a  coun- 
cil himself  with  the  effect  already  described   under 

2.  /■  Crtal  Sriiam. — The  general  prineiples  of  Con- 
gregationalism are  held  In  En|;lsnd  precliwly  aa  in  the 
United  Staus.  In  the  doctrine  of  tbe  mlnislrj-,  Church 
completeness,  fellowship,  and  discipline,  there  is  no 
particular  variation :  but  in  administration  the  Congre- 
gationalisls  of  tbe  British  Islands  make  f.tr  less  nseof 
synods  snd  councils.  The  above  explanaUoDS,  there- 
re  in  great  degree  inapplicable  to  tbat  eounCty,  so  j 


2  CONGREGATIONALISTS  I 

OAer  Parti  of  the  World.— The  number  of  Congn 
gatloual  chuTches  established  by  mlssioDaries  ia  very 
considerabie,  bnt  has  never  been  reported.  The  uud- 
berof  mlnlslais  is  Included  in  tbe  English  and  Amcri- 

^■innarjf. — Including  the  chnrchea  on  the  Euro- 
pean Continent,  and  also  the  miseionary  eliurchea,  and 
likewise  the  requisite  number  for  Canada.  Nora  Seoiia, 
and  New  Brunswick,  which  are  included  in  botb  the 
Ennliib  and  American  reports,  there  are  found  i: 


Total  d 

imiting  I  be  wbglc 
I  charcbs  in  the 


iiiisters,  6141 ;  oommimicanu  (« 
from  the  proportion  of  members 
United  Sutes),  about  1,000,000; 

IllBTITUTIO:(S    OP     LKABNtNO. —  Ultittd    SttOft. — A 

large  number  of  academies  are  controlled  by  Caagn- 
gslionaliste,  but  no  record  lias  ever  been  made.  Of 
colleges,  though  none  are  condncled  on  any  exclusln 
principle,  or  require  any  denominational  test,  tbe  Coo- 
gregationalistg  control  Bowdoin,  DsitmoDtb.  Termont 
University,  HlddlebDr7,Williainj>,Amhent,  Tale,  and 
partially  a  Dumber  in  the  Western  States,  which  thry 
have  helped  liberally  to  endow.  Theolopcsl  sebDoii 
in  18S7,  with  the  number  of  profcason,  lectnms.  ere, 
and  sUidents,  were  as  followi  (one  in  San  Frandscu. 
Califiimla,  was  also  ebartand  is  IMS,  and  has  3  pny 
andUatudents}: 


ir  as  they  relate  to  such  bodies.  Atthistime(1867) 
subject  is  attracting  attention  and  causing  discnssion. 
There  are,  however,  sssociations  or  unions  of  churchas 
similar  (o  those  In  the  United  States,  as  well  as  ssso- 
dations  of  ministers.  The  Englisb  Con;p«gationallsts 
have  also  organised  benevolent  nlltdons  societies, 
either  alone  or  with  others,  on  the  Tolunury  princi- 
ple, for  missions,  nligious  publications,  church  build- 
ing, education,  etc.  Among  the  ConKregationsl  so- 
cieties are  the  Home  Missionary  Society,  Iho  Colonial 
Hisslonsry  Society,  the  Irish  Evangelical  Society,  the 
Congregational  Board  of  Education,  etc.  Foreign  mis- 
sions are  cairied  on  by  means  of  tbe  London  Mission- 
ary Society,  establisbed  in  1795,  wblch  is  nndenomina- 
tional.  The  British  and  Forei|ri  Bible  Society,  the 
Religious  Tract  Society,  and  others,  receive  the  co- 
operation  of  tbe  Congregstlonalists. 

IT.  STATtsnca.— The  statistics  of  the  American 
churches  are  given  annually  in  the  Coiwptgatkmoi 
Year-boot  (Boalon,  Bfsso.'),  ai  well  as  those  of  the 
British  Islands  and  Colonies.  As  published  in  1830 
(collated  in  1889),  they  are  as  fullows,  lo  which,  for  the 
American  churches,  tho  (inures  collected  iii  1857  (the 
Hist  completely  to  be  relied  upon)  are  predzeil  fur  cum- 


imb«>lu8*hballi4cliaali.    1IS.TT9 


Of  the  above,  the  churches  in  the  United  Slsiea,  in 
1S89,  were  4569;  members,  47&,608:  numbers  in  Sab- 
bath-«!hoolB,  580,072;  m!nialer^  S300.  Thfse  figure- 
do  not  include  over  200  churches,  independent,  or  still 
connected  with  presbyteries  on  the  "Plan  of  Union." 
ChariUble  conlribulions  in  1888-9,  excluding  all  cost 
of  churches  or  repairs,  or  support  of  the  raiiiialry,  or 
of  endowment  ur*Khiiol?,  colleges,  or  theological  semi- 
naries, amounting  lo  t2,206,bGS. 


Yale,UonB. 9  B  M 

Hanrsrd,  t»iun B  B  <    43 

Oberiln,  OMi. B  DM 

ClilcigD,  lU S  •  113 

tlolUgf  In  On  BritUh  /stnuls  end  OHoulf. 

BritlihliUnds lEIVIetocIa 1 

BrtUsbNorthUmsricK.     1  |  Sydney t 

ThfAejtaaX  CdUya  in  On  BriHik  /ttowti  «d  COtmlm. 

EnaUnd 11  U» 

W.l« «  81 


Private  Bamlnariss  is  Enelaad..-         4  (n 

PanlODlCALa. — Umlai  Blattt. — No  periodical  can 
properly  be  called  an  orymi  of  the  denomination,  inas- 
Inuch  OB  none  are  controlled  by  either  tbe  chorcht*  or 
iny  body  representing  (he  churches.  Bui  the  fulinw- 
ng  are  published  in  their  Interests:  Quarterlies— AA- 
luHjHca  Saaa.  Oberlin,  O.-,  Nem- £<tgb,adrr.  New 
Haven,  Conn. ;  CongrrgatUmal  Quart.,  Boston.  Mass. ; 
Congrrgatuinal  Smev,  Boston,  Mass.  Relifilous  (week- 
ly) newspapers :  Crmgrtgotumaiiit  and  Bet/on  Knord- 
er,  Boston,  Mass. ;  C/irutiait  Mirror,  Portland,  Maine ; 
Vermmt  Ciromcif,  Windeor,  Yt. ;  SrHgiomi  UtraU, 
Hartford,  Conn. ;  Aikauff.  Chicago,  111. ;  Poeific,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  The  Welsh  Congregational  chDrtbrs 
In  the  United  States  have  their  own  publicatknw. 
Many  other  periodicala  —  missionsry,  tract.  Sabbath- 
school,  etc. — are  mainly  or  wholly  condncted  by  Coa- 
giegatlonalists,  bnt  without  dlstinctlv 
a  I  character. 

Aajfemrf.— reor-iooi,  etc.  (annual). 
Journal  "/Sacrrd  Lileraliini ;  firituut  QKnileTjy  flnwir. 
Eighteen  monthlies.  Newspaper*  —  Nmeonfirmiit. 
£miliik  Indrpaidtiil,  CkritHan  IVorU,  and  Tkt  ladrpm- 
daU. 

Scnilatid. — OMgTrg<aiatal  Stogatiate  (oionthly). 

Ireland Cimipriialiomal  Maganme  (monthly)^ 

W<^.—Diddiadar  At»abfiarifr(anmul);  Banioi 
(quarterly),  and  live  other  periodicals. 

Canada. —  IndrptHdtnl,  Toiooto  (monthly);  Jfw 
(reoJH'tOKW  (weekly). 

V.  LirEHATCRB.— Tho  American  CongregUiianl 
churches  have  reiinlred  from  tbe  beeinning  ministtn 
of  liberal  education  and  eiteniiv«  Jeaming.  Proa 
this  culture  hwge  contributions  have  nanlt^  t*  gen- 
eral as  well  as  denomtnatloaal  and  nligions  IHsrslsre. 
Of  the  very  many  antbon  in  each  department  of  Ike 


CONGBEQATIOIIALISTS         4! 

Iitt*r,  ths  foUowlog  mmj  bo  niaiitbniod  ai  tbe  roott 
prominent; 

Id  CJiMrek  Fulitg,  in  the  ITth  century,  John  Cotton, 
John  NoTton.  Tbonuu  Hooker,  Ricbaixl  Mather,  John 
Dkvenpot,  iBcnaie  Hathei  (Ptei.  Uarvurd  College). 
In  the  IBth  century,  Cotton  Hathrr,  Samuel  Uather, 
John  Wise,  Em  Stile*  (Prea.  Yslo  Colleije).  Id  the 
prcMot  century,  John  Mitchell,  Tbomu  C.  Uphua, 
Nathanul  Emmouf,  Leonud  Bacon,  Pregton  Cum- 
mingi,  George  Punchard,  Henry  M.  Dexter.  The  work 
on  "  Coagregstionaiism"  by  the  LiBt  numed,  which  is 
the  latest  American  work,  is  also  the  fullest  and  moet 
•xhaustive,  and  li  generally  ncaived  hy  the  chnrchei 
u  a  safe  and  comprehensive  guide. 

In  DauHainalioaal  Hulory,  in  the  ITth  csntury,  Got. 
John  Winthrop,  Nathaniel  Morton,  William  Unbbard. 
la  the  18th  century,  Cotton  Mather,  Thomu  Prince, 
Jeremy  Belknap.  In  the  present  century,  Leonard 
Bacon,  Belt  B.  Edwirda,  George  Punchjird.  The  IIU- 
tortf  of  Comgngatmiabm  by  tho  latter,  though  not  yet 
completed,  ia  a  work  of  thorough  teaeirch  and  peculiar 

In  71ea&gy,in  the  ITth  centnry.  Cotton,  Norton,  the 
HBthen.ThDmaaSbepard.  In  the  ISlh  century,  Sun- 
mI  Wfllaid  (fied^  of  DiviaHs),  Jonathan  Edtyarda, 
Jonathan  Edwards  tbe  younger,  Joseph  Bellamy,  Sum- 
net  Uopkini,  Stephen  Weat.  In  the  present  century, 
John  Sinalley,  Nathaniel  Emmoaa,  Asa  Burton,  Jesae 
Appleton  (Pres.  Bowdoln  College),  Leonard  Woods, 
Enoch  Pond,  Timotbv  Dwlght  (Pres.  Yale  College), 
Edward  D.  Griffin  (P^.  Williams  College).  Nathaniel 
W.  Taylor,  Bennett  Tyler,  Lyman  Beecher,  Edward 
BHcher,  Charles  G.  Finney  (Pros.  Oberlin  College), 
Asa  Hahan  (Pres.  Otierlin  CoUege),  Hark  Hopkins 
(Pre*.  WUIlanis  College),  Edwards  A.  Park,  Horaea 
Buahnetl,  George  P.  Fisher. 

In  Biilieal  Literatim,  Uose*  Stuart  The  miasioD- 
■riea  of  the  Amerlesn  Board  have  made  very  extensive 
ooQtilbutioni  in  the  Ungnages  of  the  world,  as  well  as 
to  general  science ;  among  these,  Mj'ron  Winslow  Is 
specially  pnnninent. 

In  varioui  Tilntiee  Sbtdia  and  in  BtSgimu  ICorif, 
Edw.  Hitchcock  (Pres.  Amherst  College),  Jas.  Manh, 
JoMph  P.  Thompson,  Bichard  S.  Starrs,  Jr.,  Austin 
Phelpa,  Henry  Ward  Boecher,  Augustus  C.TIiompson, 
Nathan  W.  Fiike,  Nehemiah  Adams,  Ray  Palmar 
(bymni  and  other  religions  poems),  Lowell  &fason  (in 
sacred  mnslc),  Hubbard  Winslow,  Joseph  Haven,  Ra- 
fuB  Anderson  (tac.  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.),  Noah  Porter,  Jr., 
JiAn  Lord,  Samuel  C.  Bartlett,  Leonard  Bacon,  Thomas 
C.  Upham,  Leonard  Woals,  Jr.,  James  B.  Walker. 

In  England,  after  John  Robinson,  whose  writings 
in  Leyden  began  strictly  Congregational  literature, 
an  (biind  the  names  of  Miltoo,  Goodwin,  Nye,  John 
Owen,  Chamock,  Watta,  Doddridge,  and.  later,  Ward- 
law,  Davidson,  Newman  Hall,  Robert  Vaughan,  John 
Angell  Jame*.  Haabury's  Mtmoriali  Is  a  work  of 
grest  historical  value. 

TI.  AuTHnRiTiES.— AaCongregationatlstsadniitno 
aNi7ilfor3FStandardsofhnman  devising,  there  are  prop- 
erly DO  aaliorilia  hi  goTernment  or  doctrine;  bnt 
their  principle*  are  stated  In  Declarations,  in  which 
they  are  agreed,  a^d  wblch  carry  great  moral  force. 
The  principal  on  doctrine  are  the  Weatmlneter  Con- 
feaaiuD,  as  revised  by  tbc  Savoy  Synod  in  1659,  and 
■gain  by  the  Boston  Synod  of  1680;  the  "Principles 
of  Religion"  of  the  Conj^egatlonal  Union  of  England 
and  Wale* ;  and  the  "  Declaration  of  Faith"  set  forth 
by  the  American  National  Council  hi  1866.  Ofe. 
slaatical  polity,  the  principal  are  the  Saroy  "  Order  oi 
the  Charches"  In  leSOi  the  "Cambridge  Platform" 
hi  16*8;  the  "Saybrook  Platform"  in  1708;  the 
"  Principles  of  Charcb  Order  and  Ditclplbw"  of  the 
"Congregational  Union  of  England:"  and  the  "Plnl- 
brm  of  Chnrch  Polity"  of  the  Kational  Council  in 
Un.  The  work*  of  many  writers  are  also  conaidarcd 
af  great  vain*,  a*  shawing  what  CongregaUraal  piin* 


3  CONONITES 

dpies  and  usages  are.  The  volnmea  of  the  ComgrtjfH 
tional  Quarltrif  (Boston)  also  contain  careful  disvut- 
aiona  on  the  several  points  of  polity  as  well  as  history, 
and  fumisb  full  statistics.  The  English  7ur-6oot  fur- 
roiahe*  inch  statistice  as  are  oollected  in  Great  Britain. 

CongreBatJonlsta.  or  Apostolloal  CongrO' 
gatloil,  a  designation  of  the  Ultramontane  party  In 
France,  which,  under  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I,  re- 
iomed  the  direction  of  primary  instruction,  and  estab- 
lished religions  assoclstioni.  After  the  reitoratioD  of 
the  Bourbons,  the  power  of  tike  Congregationists  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  they  made  extraurdiaary  eflbrts 
to  bring  back  the  Church  of  France  under  the  domin- 
ion of  Rome.  They  usurped  the  control  of  public  in- 
struction, astablitheil  colleges  and  seminaries,  con- 
nected themselves  with  the  Jeauita,  and  even  gained 
the  control  of  the  police  of  Paria.  Their  leaders  held 
the  highest  stations  at  court.  The  material  means  of 
the  Congregation  were  to  a  large  extent  furnished  by 
the  laboring  classes  (in  182(i  tbera  were  600.000  persons 
contributing  each  one  cent  a  week).  The  celebrated 
Lamennais  belonged  to  this  party.  At  last  their  usur- 
pation of  power  gave  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  counter- 
party, which  gradually  gained  strength  and  inSuenec. 
In  1826  count  Uontloaier  proved  the  existence  of  lbs 
Congregation  lobe  illegal.  A  large  niunber  of  bishops 
appealed  to  the  king  against  the  abuse  of  the  GalUcan 
liberties.  The  Congregation  endeavored  to  excite  the 
fiinaticiim  of  the  people  by  sermons  and  tracts,  but  in 
1827  the  Higher  Chamber  resolved  to  interfere  active. 
ly  In  potting  down  aB  Jesuitic  associations,  and  in 
isiS  the  control  of  the  primary  schools  was  given  to 
the  minister  of  Public  Instruction.  It  was  then  de- 
cided that  every  teacher  should  declare  in  writing  that 
be  was  not  a  member  of  any  forbidden  religions  asso- 
ciation, or  be  suspended.  A  large  number  of  Congre- 
gatloniste  left  f^ce  in  consequence,  but  their  influ- 
ence, which  made  ilaelf  felt  even  after  their  departure, 
was  not  entirely  lost  until  tb^  lievolntlon  of  1680. — 
Pierer,  Unmnal-Lsaton,  iv,  S68. 

Congmlty.     Se*  Cosdionitt. 

Coai'all  (Heb.  in  the  prolonged  fbrm  Koi^'ha, 
^n^ir,  a  contractod  form  otJteoniaki  Sept. 'Itjfoviac), 
another  mode  of  writing  (Jer.xxli,  34, 28;  xxxvii,!) 
the  name  of  king  jBBOIAQUni  (q.  v.). 

Coniatn.     See  Cohohitb*. 

Conjnratton,  the  fonn  of  words  or  ceremony  by 
which  dxmons  are  supposed  to  be  expelled  in  the 
Church  of  Rome.     See  Ekorcism. 

ComieIl,ZKCiiA&iAn,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  In  Connctlsville,  Fayette  County,  Pa., 
September  11, 1791.  In  1801  his  bther  removed  to 
the  West,  and  eettied  in  Adams  County,  Ohio.  Hi) 
early  education  was  such  as  could  be  (Stained  In  the 
West  at  that  day,  which  he  diligently  improved.  ^He 
was  a  fitithful  student  and  became  a  wise  man.  He 
entered  the  itinerant  minlstr}-  in  1818,  and  filled  vari- 
ous stations,  as  minister  and  presiding  elder,  with  uni- 
form fidelity  and  success,  up  to  the  year  of  hi*  death. 
Methodism  in  Ohio  is  largely  indobted  to  him,  not 
only  far  its  extent,  but  for  its  character.  By  bis  leol 
.  as  a  preacher,  and  his  skill  as  an  adminislmtor,  he 
gained  and  kept  the  confidence  of  the  Church  durmg 
I  ill*  long  career  of  sen-ice.  He  was  five  times  elected 
I  to  the  Genesal  Conference.  He  died  December  13, 
1 1863— Afiwcfc.  <ifConfirtnca,  1861,  p.  113. 
I  Conon,  bishop  of  Rome.  He  was  anativoofTem- 
e*var.  In  My^  (now  IlDngaij-),  educated  in  Sicily, 
and  was  elected  bishop  of  Rome,  Oct.  21,  C8G.  He 
sent  the  Irish  miuionsry  Kilian  to  Germany  to  preach 
to  the  pagan  Thiiringisns.     He  died  Sept  SI,  6ST. 

CODonl'ah  (3  ChroD.  xxxi,  12,  IB}.     See  Co!(a- 


CONRAD  OF  MARBURG 


tbe  dlualntian  at  tha  bodj  aflar  duth  aflbcted  onl; 
the  form,  not  tha  matter  of  tha  body,  and  that  *t  tba 
twBiractlan  tba  aani  nas  reanited  with  the  lame, 
though  tnnafbniMd  body.— Wetiar  u.  Walta,  JCircAot- 
Lex.  ii,  798.    Sa«  JoBAMitBs  Pmu>rotnn ;  Tbitbb- 

Contad  of  MHrbarg.    Sm  Kosbad  ton  Hab- 

ConradiWiLLuic,  a  blghl;  lueftil  mlnlatar  In  tbe 
Gctthui  Relbmied  Church,  born  Ann.  11,  IBOS.  Ha 
pursued  hu  claa^cal  aod  preparatory  itadiea  in  tba  Re- 
formed Academy  and  Theological  Setnlaiiry,  (bea  loo- 
ted at  York,  P«.  He  wa«  licenud  to  preM:h  by  the 
WeitmoreUnd  Clauia,  Pa.,  in  Mny,  1885,  and  laborad 
the  whole  of  bis  sabaequent  life  as  a  {Honeer  in  West 
PenTuyWaDio.  His  death  occurred  Feb.  16, 1865.  He 
was  an  earnest  MDdent.  As  a  writer  he  often  appear- 
ed Id  the  Church  papers.  He  Is  also  tbe  author  of  a 
rolume  on  Baptism,  published  IS4T,  and  of  several  nn- 
publiihed  works  on  different  sabjecta — one  on  the  Hd- 
delberg  Catechism.  For  thirty  years  be  gathered  ge- 
ological specimens,  tbe  entire  collection  of  wbleb  be 
presented  to  WastmoreUnd  College,  one  of  whoae 
(banders  and  best  tHends  he  was. 

CoQiliiB  (CMrmgiia),  HEBKjunt,  one  of  the  moat 
learoad  man  of  his  time,  was  bore  at  Korden.  in  East 
PrieslaTid,  Not.  9th,  1606 :  became  profesaor  of  Philoa- 
ophy,  Medicine,  and  Jurisprudence  at  HelmstadC,  and 
in  1660  priry  connsellor  of  tbe  duke  of  Bnuuwick. 
He  died  Dec.  12, 16S1.  Public  law  Is  greatly  indebted 
to  him,  and  he  nkay  be  said  to  have  fint  brongbt  it  to 
a  tcieatilic  form.  He  was  also  among  the  first  lo 
adopt  Harvey's  theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
His  complete  works,  embracing  a  number  of  treatises 
on  ecclesiastical  subjects,  particularly  on  the  rights  of 
Proteatantisni  as  ofqwsad  t«  the  Bomish  Church,  ware 
published  by  Gflbel  (Brunsw.  1780,  7  toU.  fol.).— 
Plerer,  Univtnal-Laiion,  s.  v. 

Conaalvi,  Eboolk,  Mar^itu  of,  an  Italian  cardi 


nas  TI  appcdnted  him  In  IT93  to  tbe  office  of 
Uditore  dtUa  taera  moCa,  and  afterwards  minister  of 
war.  In  this  capacity  he  showad  himself  a  steady  en- 
emy of  tba  n«ncb  Revolution.  When  the  French 
troops  took  Rome  In  1798  be  was  made  prisoner,  bnt 
soon  after  releaoed.  After  tha  death  of  Hus  TI  be 
was  secretary  of  the  conclave  which  elected  cardinal 
Chlramonle  (Hua  Til)  as  pope,  and  soon  after  (ISW) 
he  was  made  by  tha  new  pope  secretarj'  of  atata 
and  cardinal.  In  1801  be  went  to  Paris,  where  be 
signedthe  concordatwlthNapoleon,  July  16i  bnt  hav- 
ing afterwards  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  empe- 
ron,  Consalvi  resigned  (1806)  bis  olflce.  He  refused 
his  assent  to  the  divorce  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine, 
in  tbe  coundj  held  on  the  subject,  and  was  exiled  in 
1809.  Tba  pope  having  retomed  to  Rome  in  IB14, 
Coosalvi  waa  restored  M  bli  position  as  prime  minis- 
ter, and  soon  sent  to  the  conference!  held  by  the  (treat 
powers  at  London  as  repretentatlre  of  the  papal  in- 
teiests.  He  was  also  papal  plenipotentiary  at  the 
Congress  of  Tienna,  when  he  secured  the  restitution 
of  all  the  papal  territories  with  tbe  exception  of  Avig- 
non and  Venaissin.  Against  the  incorporation  o' 
these  places  with  France  be  protested,  as  also  againi 
the  occnpaUon  of  Ferrara  and  Himtnl  by  Austrian 
troops,  and  against  tbe  seculariiaUon  of  tbe  ecclesias- 
tical stales  of  Germany.  This  protest,  however,  was 
of  no  avail,  and  he  was  also  unsuccessful  In  bis  en- 
deavor Id  rearrange  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Ger- 
many by  one  general  concordat.  He  waa  more  ' 
lunate  in  hi*  negotiation*  with  particular  states, 
•uecessfnlly  concluded  concordats  (q.  v.)  with  France, 
itua^  Poland,  Fmmia,  AnMrio,  Bavaria,  WOrtam- 


4      .  CONSECRATION 

berg;,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Genera,  and  evan  wttli  St.  D»- 
lingo  and  Chili.  At  the  death  of  Pins  Vlt  (ISiS)  ha 
ratired  to  Porto  d'Anio,  but  was  called  sgalo  to  Roma 
by  Lso  XII,  who  placed  him  at  the  head  of  tbe  Propa- 
ganda, which  office  he  bad  hardly  accepted  when  bs 
died,  Jan.  »,  1824.  —  Jf^wirot  At  CanSmal  Comtabi 
(with  intiadaction  and  notes  by  Credoeau-Jolj,  Paris, 
I864,STals.)j  Wetaern.Welte,  XsrdlM-Za.  il,  8U: 
Bartholdy,  ZSgt  mu  dim  Ltbm  da  Ciud.  Comttdri 
(StDttgart.  1814);  Amm  OrMsavse,  S  Feb.  IBSS. 
Consanguinity,  alUanea  by  blood,  u  o^bo^ 
|.  T.)  is  alliance  by  marriage.  Certain  degree*  of 
insangninity  are  among  the  impediment*  to  mar- 
riage, both  by  the  law  of  nature  and  by  the  revealed 
word  of  God.  These  degrees,  as  defined  by  the  Churcb 
of  England,  are  expressed  In  a  table  drawn  up  by 
archbishop  Parker  In  1568,  and  aet  fbrtb  by  antbati^. 
Tbis  table  is  as  fallows : 

i  TahU  at  EiKdni  mA  AtMn;  > 
Ia(«f  areMMOdm  !■  Scriptwt 


11  Soa-s  SoD-i  Wife. 

n  DaniliWi'*  BiiD-s  WUi,  »  Daughlet-s  Dai^Uer'i  Has- 

S3  yirSt  S«i-i  DaugHier.  b>Dd, 

U  Wlle'i  Daugfaler'j  Daugh-  S3  Ruibud-i  Son'!  So, 

tar.  14  llasliud'>Duitils''i  Boo. 

BI  Brnthei*!  Dangliter,  16  BnMhcr'i  Son, 

t1  BrMba^  Bon's  Wlft.  11  Bnaher-s  Daagluci't  Hat- 

band. 
iS Slsurt BosTa WIfc,  Muster's    Doagfalo's    Uot- 

»  Wife's  Brothn'i  Dufrfitsr,  N  HulMDd't  BraUwr->  Edd, 


CONSCIENCE,  Cases  or.     Saa  CAanarmT. 

Conacientlaill  (conadeaca  people],  tbe  aanc  d 
a  aact  of  ath^tlc  (taethinkela  in  Uu  ITth  ccntary. 
Tbe  founder  of  the  sect  was  a  student  of  theology  it 
the  University  of  Jena,  Mattbiai  von  Knutain  (*l«i 
called  Knuian  or  Kuntien),  bom  at  Oldensworth,  io 
Schleswig,  who,  while  studying  at  Jena  On  1674),  cir- 
cnlalad  among  tba  students  two  writings,  in  wbiii  ha 
denied  tbe  existence  of  God,  tbe  authority  of  tbe  BiUs, 
and  tbe  difference  between  maiTiagc  and  fbrnicitica, 
recognising  only  the  individual  reaaon  and  omkmm 
(hence  tbe  name)  a*  rules  of  religions  belief.  KsolHa 
claimed  to  have  unmerous  adherents  at  all  the  BBiver- 
tities  and  capitals  of  Europe,  at  Jena  no  leas  tbsn  TOO, 
and  thus  bninght  tbe  university  into  bad  repnla.  Tlw 
profeasors  of  Jena  indignantly  denied  hli  aaatnios- 
The  excitement  produced  Ly  llie  discovery  of  the  s^- 


L  of  Rnu 


ndiedoi 


longer  heard  of.    See  WeUer  u.Welte,  frcL- 
La.  11,  815 )  ArTiold,  Sirrk  u.  K^MtrUiL  vol.  a 
ConaoonUon  (propsly  some  fbtm  of  tba  rah 


CONSECRATION  < 

ty^,  taioA',  to  U  ioif,  ettau  tendartd  "MnctUyi' 
(jont^H,  to  dntiaiti;  riAii'mii,  to  Bompkii),  tha  le 
«(  damtlDg  or  Kttiiig  Bpart  uiftbing  lo  the  wonhlp 
cv  •enrlM  of  God.  Sos  Dedicatiox.  Tbe  Houic 
U«  ordained  tbat  411  tlic  Hnt-born,  both  of  mm  aai) 
boat,  ihoald  be  unctiBed  or  a)Di«nted  to  God.  3« 
FiBBT-BUKX.  The  whole  rsce  of  Abribam  w  in  k 
pacoliu  maancr  conKcrated  to  bii  vonbip,  and  the 
tribe  of  Levi  and  fumil;  of  Auon  were  more  immcdl- 
ilelv  cotuMnted  to  the  KTvice  of  God  (Eiod.  ilil,  i ; 
kB,']5;  Nnni.lil,13:  1  Pet.  U,  9).  Sea  Sacebdotai. 
Obdeb.  De^des  then  CDniecratlaiu  ordained  by 
God,  than  were  otbcre  wblrh  depended  on  the  will  of 
men,  and  wero  either  to  continne  fbrerer  or  for  a  time 
only.  See  Vow.  Hannah,  the  mother  of  Simoel, 
offend  her  eon  to  the  Lord  lo  eerve  all  hi>  lifetime  in 
the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  I.  II ;  (»m^  Luke  i,  lb).  D>- 
Tid  and  Solomon  devoled  tbe  Kethinim  to  the  aervice 
<if  the  Temple  foferer  (Eira  illi,  SO).  The  Hebrews 
woMlIme*  devoted  thetr  fietde  and  cattle  to  the  Lord, 
*nd  •ometlmee  the  ipoili  taken  In  war  (LeviL  xxvll, 
n,  39).  In  like  manner,  veuel*  (Joeh.  tI,  IS),  proRti 
{•tie.  Ir.IS),  individuals  (Nam.  vl,  9-13;  1  Sam.  i,  11 ; 
Lake  i,  IG),  and  nationa  (Exod.  lix,  6),  were  often  ded- 
iated.     See  Amathkiia. 

The  New  Teetamept  alio  fnnilehei  us  with  exim- 
plei  of  coDseentton.  Chriitlani  in  general  are  ct- 
tmned  ai  coniecnted  to  the  Loid,  and  are  a  holv 
rac^  a  ehoeen  people  (1  Pet.  ii,  9).  Hlnietera  are  In 
a  peculiar  maaaer  eonaeerated  or  set  apart,  and  ao  ire 
placa  of  wOTifalp,  the  forma  of  dadicaUon  varj-ing  ac- 
ending  te  tbe  vlewa  of  different  bodiea  of  Cbrlatiant. 
See  Okdikatiob.  It  doea  not  appear  that  we  have 
an<r  pailienlar  acconnta  of  the  formal  conaecntion  of 
charcbea  earlier  than  tbe  fourth  centnrj,  ■  fact  nhlch 
■la*  be  eaaHj  aceouDted  for  bf  eonaldarlDg  the  cir- 
enButanm  of  the  timea  before  ConstantiiH.  See  the 
■ttictei  Ibliowiag;  alao  Bells. 

ConaecKATios-orrERiNa.  At  the  inangnratli 
of  the  Israelltlah  priealhood.  In  connection  with  the 
oUatloa,  certain  parti  of  the  victim  (a  ram),  bealdea 
bread  asd  cakea,  were  laid  In  the  hand  of  the  peraon  to 
be  coDHctated,  iMfon  he  came  to  the  altar  (Exod. 
xi^,  ti  aq, ;  Lev.  vUl,  26  eq.),  a*  a  manipulation  ex- 
imalTa  of  tbe  repreaentative  power  thoa  conferred 
(BUr,  ^nw&oJL  ii,  ISS).  Thia  depoaiting  In  the  band 
b  nUed  by  the  tocbniod  term  JUbig  llo'r  hand  (A. 
T.  "oooeecrate."  Exod.  xxviii,  41;  ixix,  9;  Lev. 
1x1,10;  Num.  ui,3;  eomp.  Exod.  xuii,  29 ;  1  Cbron. 
xxix,  A),  and  thui  the  aaeerdotal  eoaarcraiiDD-olTar- 
iB(  itaelf  waa  Kylwl  a  jU/uy  (0-<l(^13.  te.  of  Ihe  hand, 
Stpt.  nXiiwtnt.  Lev.  vii,  B7 ;  iivlii,  SI),  and  Ih< 
aacriileed  ram  waa  deaignatcd  by  the  oorreaponding 
Una  (a^O  h-<^  Exod,  xziz,  !«).    Sea  OFrxs- 


COITSECRATIOK,  In  tbe  Chriatian  Church,  a  cer- 
moo]' of  dedicating  peraon*  ortblnicatothe  aerrice  of 
0*4.  It  ia  aapedally  applied  to  the  aeltlng  apart  of 
Mupa  far  their  otBce,  and  to  the  dedication  of  Church 
•diflcM  to  the  wonhlp  of  God. 

I.  Oamitcratiom  of  Bitiopt.— The  tana  for  the  eoD- 
■tntion  of  biabopa  Id  the  Greek,  Roman,  Anglican, 
and  Hethodiit  E^daoopal  chnrebea  are  given  under 
BiiEior(i,  SO,  SKI).  In  tbe  prebce  lo  the  form  naed 
latbaCharchof  En|^d,itlaatatadthataoone  ihall 
bi  aecoanted  or  taken  to  be  a  Uabop,  or  auAred  to 
necota  tba  aame  ttanetioD,  nnleaa  lie  ije  called,  tried, 
aad  admitted  thereunto  acoording  to  that  form,  or 
hitkformalf  iadrpitBopalcaiiKTatum.  The  eondud. 
!«■  pndoB  of  this  aentenoa  reeogniaaa  the  validity  of 
MiaeontioBa  glren  in  tOrelgu  cburchei  by  any  other 
f«m  edeiited  by  thaae  charehea.  Thna  a  Greek  or 
Isnan  Mabop,  confonniPi;  to  the  rulea  nf  the  Church 
4  England,  reqoiraa  no  tnth  oonaecratloD,  but  la  at 
Ubarty  to  cOctete  la  tbat  Chnreh  (Uook,  *.  v.).     The 


CONSECRATION 


ontrary,  do  not 


Greek  and  Boman  cholcbei,  on 

recogniae  Ihe  validity  of  Anglicai 

According  to  a  canon  of  the  firat  Nlcene  Council, 
there  muat  be  tbur,  or  at  least  three  hiahope  preaeni  at 
the  oonaacration  of  a  Uahop.     See  Colleoe,  2. 

II.  Commcralioii  of  ChmAa—l.  AneitiU  Churcli. 
—The  practice  of  aolemnly  dedicathig  to  God  thoae 
edilices  which  had  been  built  for  bi«  wonhlp  ia  very 
ancient.  The  precise  manner  In  which  it  woa  done 
for  the  Unt  three  agea  of  Chrlatianity  la  unknown ; 
but  Euaebliu  gives  an  account  of  the  ceremony  by 
which  tbe  church  of  Jemaalem,  built  by  Constanttne, 
waa  conaecratad,  A.D.  336.  On  anch  occaaioDa  it  waa 
osual  for  a  whole  aynod  of  tba  a^hboring  or  provin- 
cial biabopa  to  aaaemble.  "The  solemnity  ordinarily 
began  with  a  panegyrical  oradon  or  aennon  in  coni. 
memoraUon  of  the  foonder,  which  waa  followed  by 
piayera,  among  which  there  leems  to  have  been  one  in 
particular  for  the  church  which  was  then  to  be  dedi- 
cated. The  act  of  conaacnting  chnrebea  waa  so  pecu- 
liarly reserved  to  the  office  of  tdahopa  that  presbyters 
were  not  allowed  to  perform  it-  Anciently  fchurchea 
were  alwaya  dedicated  to  God,  and  not  lo  aaints, 
thoogh  th^  were  aometimM  diatlngniahed  by  their 
names  ai  a  memorial  of  tham.  Conaecration  was  per- 
f(nmed,  indlfferenUy.  on  any  day ;  but,  whatever  tbe 
day  waa,  it  waa  usually  kept  and  obaerved  among  their 
annual  festivals.  To  this  pope  Gregory,  aumamed 
the  Gr«Bt,  added  a  new  custom  in  England,  nhlch  waa, 

and  particularly  of  those  which  bad  lieen  heathen  tem- 
ples, the  people  might  build  thenuelves  booths  round 
the  church,  and  there  feaat  themaalves,  in  lieu  of  their 
ancient  aacriflcea  white  they  were  heathena.  Tbe 
leaiei,  which  are  still  observed  In  aome  EngUah  coun- 
ties, are  tbe  remains  of  these  feasts  of  dedication." 

S.  Ciarri  of  Rune, — "The  consecration  of  a  church 
ia  performed  with  much  ceremony  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  by  whose  members  this  rite  Is  usually  termed 
■  dedication.  As  a  preliminary  step,  tbe  relics  which 
are  to  be  depoaited  In  tbe  altar  of  the  new  church  are 
put  into  a  clean  vessel,  together  with  three  groins  of 
incense,  to  which  a  piece  of  parchment  Is  added,  con- 
taining the  day  of  the  mouth  and  year,  and  the  name 
of  the  ofltclstlng  bishop.  Three  crosses  ans  painted 
OD  each  of  tbe  church  walla,  and  over  each  cross  a 
candle  la  placed.  On  the  morning  appcuntsd  for  tbo 
ceremony,  the  biahop,  arrayed  in  bb  pontiflcol  vest- 
ments, and  attended  by  tbe  clergy,  goes  to  the  door 
of  the  church,  where  they  recito  tho  seven  penitential 
psalma;  after  which  be  makes  a  tour  of  the  church 
walla,  sprinkling  them  In  the  name  of  tho  Holy  Trin- 
ity. This  rite  being  performed,  be  knocks  at  tbe 
church  door  with  hb  paatoral  ataff,  repeating  from 
Psalm  Tiili  [xxlv],  "AOoBiU  porlat,  tt  introiiiit  Rex 
Gloria."  A  deacon,  abut  up  In  tbe  church,  demandu, 
"  Qait  tit  isle  Sa  Clonat"  To  which  Ihe  blabop  an- 
awera,  "  Donituu  Jbrlii  tt  potttu!  Hontimit  pelefu  in 
praliof"  At  tbo  anme  time  tba  bitbop  croaaea  Xba 
door,  repeating  tbe  following  vene: 

'Em  CrueliilplBni,(licluil|>tiaDtas(Ditaconcta:* 
On  tho  admiaiion  of  the  bbbop  and  clergy  Into  the 
church,  the  Vmi  Cnalor  is  anng.  Then  ono  oftho  tab- 
deacons  takes  athe^  and  sprinkles  them  on  the  pave- 
ment In  tho  form  of  n  eroaa ;  next  follow  tho  litaniea 
and  other  parts  of  divine  service.  After  which  tbe 
bishop,  with  bii  pastoral  atalT,  describes,  as  with  a  pen, 
two  alphabets  in  the  sabss  sprinkled  by  the  deacon, 
and  proceeds  to  eonaecTale  the  altar  by  sprinkling  it 
with  a  mixture  of  water,  vriue,  salt,  and  aabes,  in  the 
name  of  Jean*  Christ.  The  cDnsacratlon  of  tbe  alUr 
la  followed  hy  a  aolemn  proeeaalon  of  the  nlica,  which 
are  deposited  under  it  with  great  ceremony.  During 
the  whole  of  tbb  Impodng  aolemnlty  the  chnreh  b 
finely  adorned,  and  tapen  are  lighted  upon  tba  altar. 
Maaa  la  afterward*  performed  t^  the  bidiop,  or  by 


CONSTANTDJE  41 

tin  Chriatteni  of  tb«  Eut  reckoaed  him  ■mong  the 
MlnU:  bu  reatlval  U  etiU  celebrated  hy  [he  Greek, 
Coptic,  and  RuhIbd  cburchea  on  the  !t«t  of  Ma}-. 

"Whatever  naj  have  been  the  true,  character  of 
ConatAiitino'a  converaioa  to  the  Christian  faith,  ita  con. 
sequeaoea  irere  of  vut  importance  both  to  the  empire 
and  to  tbe  Church  of  Christ.  It  opened  the  wsy  fur 
Ihs  unobatnctol  propagation  of  the  Gorpel  to  a  wider 
extent  than  M  any  former  period  ofita  hialaT7.  All 
impedimenta  to  an  open  prDfession  of  ChriaUanity  were 
remored,  and  it  became  the  eitsbliahed  religion  of  the 
em[Jro.  Numerana,  however,  in  vurioua  points  of 
view,  OS  wore  the  odvantagea  accruing  to  it  from  this 
cbange,  it  soon  began  to  sutieT  trom  being  brought 
into  close  contact  with  the  filtering  influence  of  secu- 
lar power.  Tlie  simplicity  of  Ibe  Goepcl  wa»  cormpt- 
edi  pompona  rites  and  ceremonlee  were  introduced; 
worldly  honori  and  omoluinenta  were  confeired  on  the 
teachers  of  Christianity,  and  the  kiDgdom  of  Cbrist 
In  a  great  measure  converted  into  a  kingdom  of  this 
world.  Tbo  character  of  Conatantlne  haa  been  tlie 
object  of  rarioue  and  contradictOTyJudgmenta,  accord- 
ing to  the  religious  and  politjcal  spirit  of  the  rarioua 
writers.  Eusebiua,  Niuriua,  and  other  Chrisdan  con- 
temporsriea,  grateful  for  the  protection  alTorded  by  the 
emperor  to  the  Chriatian  religion,  may  be  conaidered 
hia  panegyriata,  while  Zoiiinua  and  other  heathen 
wrltera,  animated  by  an  oppoaito  feeling,  were  hia  en  - 
•mles.  The  brief  aammin^-up  of  Eutropina  ia  perhaps 
Dearest  the  truth:  'In  the  first  part  of  his  reign  he 
was  equal  to  the  best  princes,  in  the  Utter  to  middling 
ones.  He  had  many  great  qualities ;  he  was  fond  of 
military  glory,  and  waa  anccesaful.  He  was  also  (a- 
Torabla  to  civil  arts  and  liberal  stndies;  fond  of  being 
loved  and  praised,  and  liberal  to  moat  of  his  friends. 
He  made  many  lawa ;  some  good  and  equitable,  oth- 
ers superfluoQB,  and  aome  harah  and  severe' "  (_lffnd. 
Buety  SeeGibbon,aicJi'HaiKl/'aii;i,4Uaq.t  Han- 
to,  Lfbtn  X'oiisdflitn's  (Breslau,  ISIT);  Kelm,  Cfbrr. 
Intt  KonttaKlvu  am  CkridtmUmm  (Zurich,  1862) ; 
Burckhardt,  Die  Zai  Ksttantiii  ia  Grcmm;  SchalT, 
Ca,  Hut.  1.  c.  I  Neandor,  Ck.  Hitl.  (Torfey's  ed.),  li,  ill ; 
Stanley,  Baliem  Church,  Lect.  vl.     See  DohatiOM. 

CoDltaittins,  Pope  (708-716),  a  native  of  Syria, 
■occeeded  Sisinnioa  in  706.  He  visited  Constantino' 
pie  and  Nicomedia,  wbuv  be  was  received  witb  great 
bODor  by  the  emperor  Justinian  the  younger.  After 
Ua  return  to  Rome  he  defended  the  warship  of  im- 
ages aghast  John,  patriarch  of  Constantjuople,  and 
against  I'liillppicus,  who  hsd  usurped  the  empire. 
Felix,  arcliliiabop  of  Ravenna,  who  had  at  flrst  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  ConsUntine,  and  had  been  ex- 
iled in  consequence,  made  hia  anbmlaakin  to  bim,  and 
woa  reinstated  in  hia  see.  Conatantino  died  April  S, 
TI6,  and  was  auoceeded  by  Gregory  II. — Wetier  und 
Welte,  Kirck-Lcx.  ii,  833. 

ConBtanttnople,  —  Therv  are  few  oitlea  which 
unite  more  points  of  interest  than  Constantinople.  It 
Ib  nnsorpaased  in  many  elements  of  beanty,  and  for 
twenty-five  centnrica  has  been  a  place  of  great  politi- 
cal and  commercial  importance.  During  several  hun- 
dred years  it  waa  the  chief  centre  of  learning,  refine- 
ment, and  military  power.  As  the  seat  of  the  Greek 
Church,  In  it  were  held  a  large  number  of  councils. 
The  iadlcatiana  are  tbat  Its  fntore  will  be  aa  important 
as  ita  past  history.  Tat  no  city  has  snllbred  more 
ttom  the  desolatloaa  of  earthquakes,  peets,  bmlne, 
Are,  and  aword. 

I.  Hilton) There  are  three  defined  epochs :  I,  fknm 

the  foundation  of  the  dtv  (RC.  «tT)  till  It  became  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  empire  (A.D.  S03):  !,  ttoia  this 
time  till  ita  conquest  by  the  Turks  (A.  D.  I45S)  ;  and, 
8,  under  the  Turkish  dominion  till  the  present  time. 

I.  AytnnA'um.— The  ancient  Greeks  attributed  the 
feundation  of  Bytantium  to  a  colony  of  Megarians, 
who,  directed  by  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  built  a  city  (B. 


18  CONSTANTINOPLK 

C.  667)  on  the  U^  land  fimwHy  occupied  hj  tba 
old  seraglio.  Thia  d^  aoon  became  the  entrepot  tor 
the  grain  trade  from  the  Black  Sea  to  Greece.  'With, 
out  any  great  rnllilaty  power  or  ambition  of  ita  own. 
tiyiantium  foil  Into  tin  bands  of  the  dlffennt  cities 
that  aucceaaively  became  dominant  in  Greece.  It 
yielded  withont  resistance  to  Dstius  (B.C.  SI!).  The 
Mn  thonsand  rested  here  in  their  retrest  (B.C.  400). 
During  a  aiege  by  Philip  of  Maeedon  (B.C.  840),  ■ 
light  auddenly  aiq>eared  one  night,  enabling  the  Athe- 
nian garrlsoD  to  see  and  thwart  an  intended  assanlt  by 
the  besiegers.  In  commemoration  of  Ibis  ereat,  a 
crescent  appears  on  some  Byuntine  coina,  and  to  tliis 
Is  UBualty  attributed  the  origin  of  the  crescent  the  «a- 
blem  of  the  Turklah  empire,  adapted  immediately  af- 
ter Ibe  conquest  of  Conatantinople.  With  Green  this 
city  fell  nnder  the  dominion  of  Rome  (B.C.  146).  An 
ancient  legend  relates  that  the  apostle  St.  Andrew,  on 
bia  arrival  at  GaUU,  a  anbarb  of  Constantinople, 
pressed  the  form  of  a  cross  into  tha  reck  with  bia  hand. 
After  preaching  here  two  years,  be  waa  driven  away 
by  the  tyrant  Zenxlppus,  and  he  eontinncd  his  lahoi* 
en  the  opposite  Asiatic  shore.  Dyuntinm  had,  in  or- 
der to  reeirt  the  t^qurnt  sieges  of  the  Karthem  I  ar- 
liarlans,  been  made  the  alrongvat  fortified  city  in  the 
Roman  emplrv.  For  harboring  PIscinus  ita  walla  vere 
raied  by  Septlmius  Sevems  (A.D.  1C»).  These  were 
soon  rebuilt,  but  the  city  was  completely  destroyed  by 
Constantine  (A.D.  8!4)  for  bavin).'  rebelled  apsin. 

?.  Under  Ihe  Eiattnt  Empirr.—Ulij  reasons  ccm- 
blned  to  Induce  Constantine  to  remove  the  capital  «f 
the  Roman  emjdre  bom  Rome  to  Byiantiom,  especial- 
ly hia  desira  to  free  himself  l^om  the  reninsnta  of  tha 
power  of  the  Boman  senate ;  his  desira  to  follow  Uw 
Oriental  custom  of  a  ^reat  emperor  and  conqueror 
funnding  his  own  capital ;  the  central  commercial  posi- 
tion of  Byiantlum  in  the  then  known  world,  and  ita 
favorable  position  f<  r  controlling  the  tToaLtraome  parta 
of  the  empire  nn  the  Danube  and  the  Euphrates.  On 
Hav  11,880,  the  new  capital  waa  inanguratrd  by  fea- 
tivsls  and  ceremonies,  half  Christian  and  half  pagan, 
and  laatlng  forty  days.  Among  the  many  embellish, 
ments  which  Constantine  added  to  the  city  were  the 
hippodrome,  sorToDndrd  hy  palaces,  porticoes,  and  ftat- 
ues  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  Roman  emjrfre ;  the 
cistern  of  a  thousand  columns,  the  church  of  St.  Eo- 
jihla,  and  many  other  churches  ami  public  bnitdingt. 
Theodoaiua  also  greatly  embellished  and  enlarged  the 
ca|Htal.  In  SD6  Conttantinople  became  the  capital  <rf' 
the  Eastern  or  Greek  divirion  of  the  Roman  empire. 
The  glory  of  the  city  increased  until  the  time  o( 
Heracliua  (A.D.  C41),  although  snlijected  to  many 
scourges.  Justinian  (fi2T-(>95)  may  be  regarded  as  It* 
second  founder.  After  a  civil  commotion  in  A.D. 
ess,  in  which  80,000  men  were  sUin,  and  whicb  re- 
duced the  city  to  a!h<^  Justinian  rebuilt  St.  Sophia 
with  unparalleled  maiiniticence.  His  gorgeooa  pal- 
ace,  the  twenty.fivo  other  churches  and  many  pub- 
lic ediAcea  that  ho  built,  have  all  since  perished.  The 
site  of  the  city  may  l>e  estimstcd  from  the  Ikct  tbat 
800,000  persons  died  fiam  the  pest  in  one  year.  Ia 
676  the  Arabs  tost  80,000  men  before  the  walla,  and  in 
716  1161  ships  of  war.  The  greatest  destrnction  of 
works  of  art  in  all  history  occurred  in  the  ravaging  of 
ConaUntinople  by  the  Cruradera  (1S04),  who  ipent 
eight  days  after  they  took  the  dty  In  burning  and 
plundering  all  public  and  private  property.  The  res- 
toration of  the  Bvsantine  empire  (1(61)  had  little  ef- 
fect In  rratoring  the  glory  of  the  capital.  TheGeno- 
ese  snd  Venetians,  who  had  esUbliabed  tbemselves  in 
the  suburbs  of  Galata  and  Pen,  had  many  contests 
near  the  city  for  comnereial  sopremacy.  In  1891  th* 
Turks,  who  had  already  conquered  moat  of  Snnfian 
Turkey,  forced  the  Byaantlne  emperor  to  permit  a 
moaqne  to  be  erected  In  Conatantiiiople,  to  permit  tha 
appointment  of  a  kadi  to  look  after  the  intereit*  of  tlM 
resident  Mohammedan  taetthanta,  and  to  pay  the  mA- 


CONSTANTINOPLE  *l 

Mb  %  yurtir  tribaU  of  10,000  ducat*.  Id  14SS  the 
Turks  took  tha  cit?  by  aaMult,  atteT  a  Bl«g«  of  fortj 
dayi.  Id  tbia  gUge  the  Tutka  had  uvanl  eanDon  ot 
thna  and  four  feet  callbn. 

S.  Undrr  tha  Turki.— for  the  space  of  three  daje  af- 
ter tbe  takinK  of  the  dt;  it  waa  gireii  Dp  to  pillage, 
and  waa  the  aeene  of  fHghttnl  muucra  and  dotrQc- 
tloa  of  public  and  private  propeTty.  After  the  thiw 
days  bad  elapaed  Hahomet  caosed  the  camaga  to  be 
aliped,  andoehred  to  such  Greeks  as  choae  to  remain 
fnitectloD  in  their  property  and  ia  the  exerciie  of  their 
nligloa.  Tbe  paltaii  then  entered  apon  tha  erection 
of  a  leriaa  of  pnblic  ediflces.  Ha  bnilt  the  caslte  of 
seTen  (overs,  the  tiro  aeragllos,  and  a  number  of  mag- 
BiSeCDt  moiqDeB.  He  also  tranifDrmed  St.  Sophia  and 
Dtlwr  chorchea  Into  mosqaes.  Tbe  chief  sultans  after 
Mahomet  hare  fbUowad  bis  eiample  in  bailding  at 
least  one  magnificent  moaqna.  Constaotlnople  his 
■Bfferad  frequently  from  fires  that  have  often  devas- 
tated whole  quarters.  In  IT30  tha  flnt  printing-presa 
was  set  ap  in  tbe  cl^.  During  an  oatbreak  In  the 
Gieak  qoBitar  in  ISil,  during  tha  Greek  Rerolation, 
the  Greek  patriarch  vaa  hung  by  the  mob.  In  1836 
the  power  of  the  Jani»arict,  who  had  opposed  moat 
hnatically  the  introdnction  of  modem  clTilization  by 
tbe  saltan,  «a>  completely  broken  by  the  shouting  of 
40,000  of  them  by  the  other  troops  of  tbe  army. 

11.  DaeripliiM  of  Ue  Cits  p^™>—  '"  •<•  Occt^mtiiM 
taOu  Turit  (H63).— Tha  ancient  Byiantinm  occnpied 
tba  extreme  point  of  tha  penlniala  between  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  and  the  Golden  Horn,  upon  which  the 
great  capital  was  afterwards  builc  As  Constantino- 
ple, the  city  was  enlarged  to  lU  present  limits.  On 
the  water  ^de  waa  built  a  tingle  wall  without  a  ditch. 
On  tbe  land  side  waa  a  doubts,  later  a  triple  wait,  each 
part  from  11  to  iO  feet  high.  20  feet  thick,  with  a  ditch 
36  feethraailia  front,  defended  aim  by  518  towers,  and 
a  castle  at  each  coiner  of  the  great  triangle  which  the 
city  covered,  and  penetrated  by  8  gates.  Tbe  private 
tKHises  were  small  and  poor. 

Of  tbe  many  pnblic  places  or  ediflces  we  can  notice 
bat  ■  few.  (a)  The  Forum  of  CvulmMiu  (now  part 
of  tbe  seraglio  palace),  which  Constantine  sanounded 
with  a  circus,  an  Imperial  palace,  ehnrches,  baths,  and 
many  private  palaces.  Here  he  placed  the  porphj-ry 
colnmn  aurroiinded  with  wreaths  of  gold,  "  the  Palladi- 
om  of  Rome,"  which  he  bniaght  from  that  city;  on 
this  pillar  be  placedabroniestitae  of  Apollo,  broogbt 
from  Hellopolia,  In  Phrygia,  and  which  Constantino 
wished  to  hare  considered  as  his  own  statue,  sohsti- 
tnting  the  nails  of  tha  passion  for  tbe  rays  of  the  tun. 
In  Older  to  gire  the  itatae  a  resemblance  to  Christ. 
This  statne  is  now  lost  The  column  is  partly  destroy- 
ed, the  remainder  being  called  the  "Burnt  Colnmn." 
(A)  The  Fonm  of  ThtodonMM,  laid  out  by  Theodoelaa 
(A.D.  393X  and  containing  a  trinmphai  pillar  like  tbe 
Colnmn  of  Trajan  In  Ronia,  and  an  equestrian  statue 
of  a  nun  with  winged  feet,  whom  the  popular  tradition 
held  to  be  Jodoa  eommsiidmg  the  sun  to  stand  still ; 
■Dder  the  left  foot  oT  the  horse  waa  buried  the  PaUa- 
dium  of  CoMtaUHupfa,  eonttsting  of  a  doll  or  body 
wrapped  In  woollen  garments,  and  which  the  Latins 
(in  1J04)  dog  up  and  burnt,  after  having  destroyed 
the  aUtne.  (e)  The  Famm  Bovu,  conuining  the 
bnuen  bnll  in  which  criminals  were  burnt  to  death. 
(rf)  The  ffippodnmu  or  Cirau,  near  St.  SophU,  In 
which  races  and  other  games  were  held,  and  which 
Constantine  adorned  with  the  best  works  of  Grecian 
art,  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  empire :  orer  the 
gate  through  which  the  hones  entered  the  circns  stood 
tbe  four  bonaa  of  Lyslppns,  which  originallr  were 
placed  in  Athena,  were  brou^t  hen  from  Chios,  then 
taker  to  Venice  (1406),  to  Paris  by  Napoleon  (1797), 
and  Anally  rammed  to  Venice  (ISlfi);  an  obelisk.  SI 
feet  high,  brought  from  Egypt  to  ACiens,  and  thence 
to  ConsUnlinopIe,  is  yet  standing;  the  triple  bmrie 
snakes,  tbat  fbrmed  the  interior  of  the  Tripod  of  Del- 
1I._IC- 


CONSTANTINOPLE 

phos,  IB  laches  in  diameter  and  10  feet  high,  is  yet 
standings  one  serpent's  head  baring  bean  cut  off  by 
Hahomet  with  his  sabra  when  he  entered  tha  city 
(1456),  the  other  two  having  been  remored  daring  the 
laM  century.     These,  then,  are  ail  the  remains  of  an- 

number  brought  to  Constantinople.  What  few  the 
Crusaders  left  (1204)  the  Turks  have  since  destroyed, 
(a)  The  fmprriai  Palace  stood  on  the  site  of  the  old 
seraglio.  It  contained  many  mogniflceat  buildings 
and  rooms ;  in  (he  chapel  of  SL  Theodor  went  the  rel- 
ics, consisting  of  the  "original  cross"  and  the  "staff 
of  Moaes."  (/)  The  SOidomoti  Palaer,  where  Leo 
PhUosophoa  held  his  school,  containing  five  golden  tow- 
ers, supporting  a  golden  tree  on  which  golden  birds 
snug,  and  containing  tba  "bead  ot  John  the  Baptist." 
(ff)  Tha  Palace  and  BallU  of  Laaiai,  adomed  with 
mony  works  of  art,  and  containing  the  imperial  library 
of  120,000  volomes  (burnt  475).  (A)  The  many  hea- 
then temples  were  either  turned  in(o  churches  or  sec- 
ularized by  Theodosiua.  (i)  Of  cAwtAat,  by  far  the 
most  Important  is  that  of  SI.  SejAia  (q.  v.).  (j)  Tbe 
Choral  Church  contained  a  "picture  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  painted  by  St.  Luke,"  which  the  Turks  cut  to 
pieces  when  they  took  the  city,  (it)  The  Oarrh  "f 
the  Bolg  ApottUi,  buili  by  Constantine,  together  with 
the  Heroon  (the  burial-place  of  the  emperors  from  the 

treasures,  were  plundered  by  the  Crusaders  In  1204, 
and  desboyed  in  1463.  (Q  The  Chardi  if  SI.  Gmrgi, 
the  Greek  patriarchal  chorch.  Is  an  ancient  edifice, 
with  many  mosaics  and  Byiantine  paintings.  Exter' 
nally  It  Is  entirely  destitute  of  ornament.  Itconti^ns 
tbe  "chair  of  St.  Chrysostom,"  richly  InUld  with 
pearl,  and  on  which  tbe  patriarch  sits  during  great 
festirsls;  also  the  "pillar to  which  Christ  waa  Inund 
when  ho  was  sconrged."  (m)  The  BiacKednen  Charch, 
containing  the  "  holy  chest  with  tha  garments  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,"  and  a  "miraculous  imago  whose  veil 
lifted  Itself  every  Friday  evening,  and  settled  down 
again  on  Saturday  at  vespers."  On  the  yearly  festi- 
val of  this  church  a  great  procession  took  place,  with 
(be  emperor  at  Its  head,  (n)  The  Churdt  of  the  Vir. 
gin  at  fAe  Golden  Springy  near  a  spring  or  cistern  of 
tbat  name  containing  golden  or  "  ftied  flsh."  A  tra- 
dition has  it  that  "during  the  last  assault  by  the 
Turks,  a  Greek  monk  In  the  monastery  at  this  place 
disbelieved  the  report  that  the  Turks  had  entered  the 
walls,  saying. '  I  wonld  sooner  believe  that  these  fish 
I  am  frying  would  leap  out  of  the  pan  of  hot  oil  and 
come  to  life  again  iu  the  cistern.'  Scarcely  bad  he  ut- 
tered these  words  when  the  flsh  sprang  o 


ciatem.     Their  descendanli 


e  red  oi 


in  commcmamtion  of  this  event." 
(o)  ifotuiMterie*  aboonded  In  the  city  soon  after  the  or- 
igin of  this  Institution.  Some  ofthcm  were  large,  and 
occnjued  sightly  positions,  (ji)  The  Jntt  were  allow- 
ed a  srnagogno  by  Constantine,  but  they  were  expelled 
from  the  city  by  Theodosine.  (3)  Large  aqatdacti  sup. 
plied  the  city  with  an  al>undaQCO  of  water ;  some  of 
these  ate  yet  In  use,  others  are  out  of  repair,  (r)  Vast 
ciifenu,  or  subternmean  reservoirs,  were  dug  out  dnr^ 
log  the  reigns  of  the  fliit  emperors.  Most  of  these  are 
now  out  of  repair,  and  but  few  contain  water.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  was  the  cistern  of 
Phlloienus  (now  calledthe  cistern  of  the  thousand  and 
one  columns),  containing  thine  stories,  supported  each 
by  2S4  pillars.  It  Is  now  used  for  silk-spinning.  It 
contained  1,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  The  ciatem 
of  St.  Peter  contained  6,000.000  cubic  feet  of  water. 

III.  The  Modem  or  Twtiih  Ci(y.— With  Christiaii 
nations  the  city  retains  its  Greek  name,  Contlaatlno- 
plc.  The  Turks  call  It  Slambnti,  or  lilambtmli  also 
Aoilana.  The  beanty  of  situation  of  the  city  Is 
world-renowned.  Each  of  the  seven  bills  is  crowned 
by  a  masque,  with  Its  Ia1l  slender  minarets.  The  rich 
prof^on  of  foliage  tnta  tbe  pnblic  and  private  gar- 


CONSTANTINOPLE  41 

dem  blenda  with  the  broim  at  Oa  nnpainted  wooden 
bonus,  and  conlnits  with  the  white  of  the  moaqueg 
ead  other  pulilic  bnildinga,  pretentiag  a  plctureWjuB 
effect  to  be  Hen  in  no  other  European  citj-.  The  bai- 
boT  ia  crowded  with  veueli  and  steamert  (rom  all  parta 
of  the  world.  Slight,  alender  c^qoea  durt  betweaa 
the  larger  boats,  and  ^ve  an  nnuioal  animatioD  to  the 
already  over-crowded  harbor.  The  luburha  of  Pera 
and  GalaCa  riie  on  the  otliet  aide  of  the  Golden  Horn, 
covered  with  masaive  palace*  and  atone  homes.  Acroea 
tlie  BoaphoruB  ia  Scutari,  with  ita  vaat,  dark,  ej-preaa- 
bound  cemeteriea;  and  In  the  diitance  the  anow-cap- 
ped  Olympus  raiaea  ita  bead  abore  the  horizon. 

Conatantinople  IS  at  preaect  the  capital  of  the  Turli- 
Iih  empire,  of  which  it  forma  a  distinct  province.  It  la 
the  teaidence  also  of  the  Greek  patriarch,  who  bolda 
here  the  patriarchal  aynod,  ooDipoeed  of  twelve  biah- 
opa.  Here  are  slao  an  Anneoian  patriarch  and  a 
Greek-Catholic  bishop.  The  Protestant  nilaaiona  of 
Europe  and  America  for  the  Orient  have  their  beed- 
qnarters  in  Cocitantinopte.  The  city,  with  Its  imme- 
diate auburbe,  containa  above  a  million  inhabiCanta. 
Stamboul,  or  the  old  city,  containa  about  half  this  nnni- 
ber.  More  than  half  of  the  population  are  Turks; 
(lie  remsJnder  ire  Grceka,  Atmeniane,  Bulgariana,  and 
eome  duNiaanda  each  of  Dearly  every  natioa  of  Europe, 
Wettem  Ajia,  and  Nortbem  AMca. 

Witbin,  the  city  loeea  much  of  ita  cbaim.  The 
stieets  are  narrow,  uncloaoly,  and  full  of  doga ;  they 
are  not  lighted,  and  every  pjsscr-bj-,  after  nightfall, 
ia  arrested  if  he  has  cot  a  lighted  lantern  :  the  atreeta 
are  not  named,  nor  the  houses  numbered,  (a)  The 
hmtu  are  almost  entirely  of  wood,  are  nnpuated,  of 
two  or  three  stories,  and  have  projecting  tsttioed  win- 
flows.  (A)  Of  public  iquan*  there  are  but  few  of  Im- 
{KUtancs.  The  chief  are  the  fUppodromt  (see  above, 
J)  and  the  Beratkai  Plate,  containing  the  officea  of  tbo 
«ai  department  and  the  lofty,  fine  tower  from  whicb 
ia  to  be  olitsined  the  Aneat  view  of  ConataDtinople  and 
its  enviroua.    Thia  place  ia  about  a  mile  in  circumfcr- 

did  palace  of  theaultans,  bad  not  been  used  as  a  royal 
palace  ernce  the  erection  of  the  new  SfragUo  en  the 
Bosphorua.     It  was  burned  io  1866.     Near  the  old 
seraglio  ia  t^e  office  of  the  grand  viiier,  eaterod  by 
the  "Sabllme  Porte,"  where  the  sessions  of  the  eabi 
net  are  held,  and  where  the  sultan  meets  the  foreign 
ambaaaadora.     There  are  many  Idmki,  ot  roj-al  anioi- 
mer-hDUses  on  the  Boephoms  and  the  Golden  H( 
(d)  Constantinople  contains  thirteen  imperial  motq 
ahova  a  baodred  large  mosquea  (or  Djam't,  i.  e.  pU 
nf  teuaion),  and  more  Uian  a  hundred  besidea  of  sm 
er  mosquea  (or  Uedjid,  i.  e.  placss  of  prayer).     The 
ehief  moaqoe  is  that  of  Omar.    See  St.  Sopuia,    Tho 
second  mosque  of  Importance  is  that  of  Aellmet  Iha 
Fir^  (built  in  1610).     Uere  are  cclcbiBled  with  great 
pomp  the  Cestival  of  Bairam,  thjt  of  Hevloud  (tho 
birth  of  the  Prophet),  and  that  of  the  departure  of  tho 


Itbsi 


re  of 


tho  black  stuno  of  Mecca,  (i)  Ckurciaaiid  Sfnagtyet, 
— The  Greeks  have  twenty-one  churchw  in  the  old 
city.  Of  these,  St.Gtorge'i  (see  above,  11,2)  ia  the 
chief  or  patriarchal  church.  The  Annonbna  have  a 
numlier  of  churches,  among  them  tho  Palriarcial 
rburch  (or,  rather,  two  churchcF — one  for  men,  tbe 
other  for  women),  and  the  Church  of  the  Nine  Angel- 
choirs,  containing  a  "miracle-working  pilUr,"  to 
whicb  the  aick  of  fevera  are  brought  The  liominh 
nnd  Protestant  choTches  are  in  Pera.  There  are  sev- 
eral synagognes  In  the  old  city.  Tlio  Drltisb  and 
American  Bible  Societies  have  their  hend-qusrlera  in 
the  old  city.  {/)  There  are  many  Mohammedan  aon- 
ntUriei  for  the  different  orders  of  dervishes,  and  also 
several  Greek  moncstcriea.  (g)  Burial-placri  for  the 
e  found  near  all  (be  mosques.    Burial-chapels 


(Turbis)  for  the  aulUns,  the  four 
their  families,  are  found  within 


raofm 


if  the 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


mosquea.  (1)  n«p«Uie  iMtrwcltDii  was  reorEaniud  ia 
1847.  Schools  were  divided  into  three  grades.  At- 
tendance upon  the  primary  scboola  la  oUigatray.  In 
them  are  taught  ruding,  writing,  arithmetic,  geogra^ 
phy,  religion,  history  of  the  Turkish  empire,  and  the 
Torkisb  language.  In  the  second  grade,  the  history  ot 
the  Mohammedan  religion,  mathematica,  natorml  eel* 
enca,  and  other  branebes  are  taught.  1'he  '**''"■—? 
scboola  are  many  In  number,  as  the  two  achooU  in  tha 
masques  of  Achmat  and  Seiim  for  tbe  peraoni  designed 
for  civil  offices ;  tbe  school  founded  by  the  aultaneas  ia 
I860  for  the  education  of  diplomatists  and  other  bigh 
officers  of  state ;  the  colleges  for  the  educatioD  of  tbo 
ulemas  or  priests ;  the  achoob  of  military  and  naval 
instruction ;  the  college  of  medicine ;  the  veterinary, 
and  other  schools.  All  of  these  are  aopportad  by  tbe 
state  when  tbe  endowments  do  not  suffice.  The  Uni- 
versity, comprising  many  of  their  highest  scboola,  has 
a  larjiB  building,  but  Is  only  partly  organized.  Tho 
school  systems  of  the  Christiana  and  Jews  stand  on- 
der  the  direction  of  their  chnrch  aathoritiea,  and  are 
much  neglected,  (i)  Or  Jiiniriel  there  are  over  >  hun- 
dred amsller  ones  connected  with  the  moeqaes,  and 
forty  large  ones,  some  of  which  have  fine  rooms,  and 
nre  accessible  to  non-Uohammedam. 

IT.  7-is  £iiniMa  of  ComMbmliitipb.  —  (a)  Eymb, 
above  Stamboul,  on  tbe  Golden  Horn,  ia  the  most  as- 
cred  Bpot  in  Turkey.  Eyoob  was  the  atandard-bcam' 
of  the  Prophet,  and  perished  in  the  fir^t  attack  on 
Constantinople  by  the  Saracens  (C66).  Uis  body  was 
miraculously  discovered  by  Mahomet  II  (lUS),  who 
built  here  the  mosque  of  Eyoub,  There  la  also  a 
stoDP,  surrounded  by  a  silver  plate,  containing  su 
"impression  of  tbe  foot  of  the  Prof^et,"  which  he 
made  in  tlH  rock  at  the  building  of  the  Caaba.  Vitlt- 
in  this  mosque  is  tbe  siconi  n/*  Oikmat,  which  tbe  aol- 
tana  ^id  on  as  tbeir  Insugaral  ceremony  instead  of 
lieing  crowned.  Around  the  mosqua,  which  ia  richly 
built  and  decorated,  are  tombs  of  nuny  great  men  of 
state,  mingled  with  trees  and  shrubbery,aDdanrTound- 
cd  by  boepitals  and  an  eitensive  cypress -covfTtd 
grave-yard,  (6)  GohOa,  on  the  opposite  side  of  tbe 
Golden  Bom,  was  formerly  a  Genoese  dty.  It  now 
containa  many  important  Europoau  houKs  of  bnuness, 
end  one  part  is  filled  with  the  ocum  of  all  EuropriJ) 
nations.  (<)  Pera,  on  the  crown  of  the  hill  above 
Galata,  contains  the  residences  of  European  smbarse. 
dors  and  merchsuta,  many  fine  and  lofty  reridrnrer, 
and  many  Chriatjan  churches,  (c)  At  Katam-paika, 
uhere  vessels  of  war  are  built,  and  at  Top-lama,  where 
rorlu  rival  those  of  any  Enn> 


(e)  Scutari,  on  the  Asiatic  j 


of  the 


Burpboms,  Is  the  landing-place  of  all  the  commerce  to 
and  from  Asia,  and  hence  has  many  sod  laE^  kharr. 
As  tbe  place  from  whicb  Mohammedanism  set  out  in 
Its  conquest  of  Europe,  it  ia  conaidered  by  the  Turks 
to  be  sacred  ground,  and  Its  burial-place  is  by  tar  tbo 
largest  around  Conatantinoplo.  Near  this  burial-plan 
are  tiic  fumous  mosque  and  barracks  of  Selim,  and  tho 
hospital  whero  Florence  Nightingale  performed  hir 
deeds  of  mercy  during  the  Crimean  war.  (/)  The 
fionpionuLa  lined  with  palaces  of  the  auUon.  of  pashas, 
merchants,  and  ambsssadors,  and  with  cities  and  viU 
lages.  In  one  of  Ihcm,  BeUk,  is  a  college  founded 
by  the  missionary  Dr.  Hamlin,  and  endowed  by  Amer> 
lean  Christians  with  (IOO,000.~Hesycbiuf ,  De  orvjn- 
ibuM  ConttaniitvtpoIeaM,  160G  (Leipzig,  1830);  Visqnc^ 
nei,La  7'iir;ws(Paris,4  vola.8vo);  Th.  Gautier,  Coa- 
ttaiUaopteil'ii-rw,\S5S);  Dallaway,  CantaifBS^,  Jn- 
Hent  and  Modrm ;  Adolphe  Joanne  et  Emile  Isambert, 
Idnhain,  dtMcriptjf,  ^lorigut,  ti  aniiologijut  ia 
eOrient  (Paris,  1867);  Hammer,  Biitoira  de  ftrnpin 
Ottomm  (Paria,  8  vols.  8vo) ;  Hsmmer,  CcmtltnilitiifU 
iifld  dfr  Boipona. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  CotniciLS  or.  I.  Gemtnd 
Bftadt. — The  following  are  leicarded  as  lecDmrnicrl 
by  tbe  Latin  or  Ly  tbo  Greek  Churcli,  or  by  Loth :  X. 


CONSTANTINOPLE  41 

Tie  Finl  (Emmemait  Comal  o/CotubmliiKpU  (or  the 
•ocoDd  in  tbe  llu  of  mcaniBnical  eoimdlii)  WM  eon- 
tvlffi  at  ConMutiaDple  in  B81  bj  Thaoduiiu  tbs 
Great.  Thars  were  prcHnt  160  oitbcxlox  biihopi 
(moctly  Elaitcm),  and  3<6  fullowen  of  Macedoniiu,  who 
left  CotuUntioopIc  when  their  doctrino  wi«  rejected  by 
the  Rujority.  Tbe  council  condemned,  b«idea  the 
Uaoedoniaiu,  tfaa  Ariuis,  EanDmUns,  and  Eadaxiana, 
and  conSrmed  the  reaolutioni  of  the  Coancil  of  Nice. 
It  ueigned  lo  tbe  blehop  of  Conatantinaple  tbe  second 
rank  in  the  Cbarcb,  next  to  the  blihop  of  Rome,  and 
in  roDCrovenle*  iKtweeu  the  two  rcrcrred  tbe  declalon 
to  the  empoior.  S.  The  Stamd  (Ecymaiail  Carnal  n/ 
Conkalaiople  (the  Bftb  in  the  litt  of  cecnmenical  coun- 
ab),  held  in  b&3  on  tccoant  of  the  Thno  Cbaptera' 
controvenj,  bj  166,  moetly  Oriental,  biihops.  Tbli 
cnoncil  excoinmDaIeat«d  the  def-inden  of  the  Three 
Cbaptsn,  Thaodon  of  HopsaeaUa,  Ibai,  and  other>>, 
and  the  Kontui  biflhop  Vi|^iiu,  who  refEuied  to  con- 
demn tbe  Three  Chi^ter*  unconditioDallr-  8.  Tit 
TUrJ  (Ecnmaucai  CimeU  of  Cotatanlmnplt  (tbe  aizth 
in  the  Hit  of  ncameaical  conncili),  held  from  680  to 
«dl  in  the  TnilUn  pjUce,  and  attended  Lj  383  bUh- 
opi,  among  wbom  were  three  Orlentjl  patriarchs, 
and  toia  legate!  of  the  Roman  bishop  Agatliop.  Tbe 
opinioni  of  the  Moaothelitei  wer<i  condemned,  eape- 
ciallj  through  the  inflaence  of  the  Roman  legatea,  ai 
beretictL  *.  The  General  Coancil  conyoked  in  691 
bj  the  emperor  Justinian  II,  and  also  held  in  tbe 
Ttnllan  palace.  Ai  It  wae  regarded  as  supplementing 
the  6fth  and  slxlli  CBCiunenicBl  councihs  which  bad 
given  BO  Chareh  laws,  it  was  called  QuMwrxM  iSyno- 
dai)  or  QtimaitiBK  QCmdlaun).  Ilgare  102  stringent 
Canons  on  tha  morals  of  clergymen  and  ecclosiaAtlcal 
discipline.  It  Is  recognised  as  en  iBcumeoical  couacil 
hj  the  Greeks  only.  6.  TSefiJiA  (ErumBiicat  Council, 
held  in  754,  and  attended  by  SSB  bishops.  It  passed 
motatioQS  against  tbe  veneration  of  Ima^s,  which 
■rare  repealed  by  the  second  (Ecumenical  Council  of 
Nice.  It  \i  not  recognised  by  the  Latin  Chnrcb,  bat 
0QI7  bj  the  Greek.  6.  Tkt  aiA  tBamrmeal  Cowieil 
<by  the  Church  of  Rome  regarded  as  tha  fourth  (Eca- 
■lenical  Council  of  Constantinople,  or  tbe  eighth  in 
tb]  lut  of  cecnmenical  councils),  held  in  860.  It  de- 
posed patriarch  Photioa,  restored  pitriarch  Ignatius, 
and  garo  l:iwa  on  Church  ditdpline.  It  is,  of  course.  I 
not  recognised  by  the  Greeks.  7.  In  879  anothi 
eral  Synod  was  held  at  Constaotineple,  attended  by  SfO 
Ushope,  among  whom  ware  (be  legates 
Till.    Fbotiua  was  recalled,  ' 


It  him 


1  the  pi 


nf  tbe  patriarch  ot  Constantlnopla  to  tbe  pope  del 
Tbe  Greeks  ntimbei  tbls  council  as  the  Eighth  <£cu- 
Diaoical.  S.  Tha  ninth  (Ecumenical  Coandl  of  the 
Greek  Cbuicb  was  held  In  Constantinople,  under  tbo 
emperor  Andronicas  tbe  ganger,  In  tSll.  It  con- 
demned the  opinions  of  Barlaam  as  heretical. 

n.  Piirtimlar  Sifiunla.— Tbe  most  Important  of  the 
panieutar  synods  are;  1.  and  i.  In  S.%  and  8S9,  two 
Arian  eynodi,  Bnder  tha  laaderahip  of  Euseblus  of  Nl- 
comedia.  Tbe  farmer  deposed  and  excommanlcated 
HarccUns  of  Ancyra  1  the  latter  deposed  and  expelled 
bishop  Paului,  of  Constantinople,  and  appointed  Euse- 
bins  his  snccessor.  8.  A  semUArian  synod  againut 
.£ciiu,  who  was  banished.  4.  In  426,  a  synod  hold 
against  tbe  Hesaalians ;  In  448,  449,  and  4G0,  synods 
against  the  Eatychiaos.  6.  In  49S  and  496,  Eutychian 
lynoda,  condemning  their  opponent*,  and  recognising 
the  Hemotiam  of  Zeno.  G.  A  synod  in  fil6,  condemned 
tbe  molntion*  of  the  Conncil  of  ChalcedOD.  T,  In 
M6,  against  Sevems.  Antbimns,  and  other  chiehi  of 
theAcephall.  B.  In  541  (543?),against  some  views  of 
Origen.  9.  In  815,  twosynodaontheqaestlon  of  ven- 
eration of  Imagea,  the  one,  attended  by  !70  bbhops,  in 
h*or,  and  tbe  second  airainst  the  imager.  10,  In  SGI, 
iMrodndng  pstrlsnh  Pbotlim.  and  approving  Ibe  ven- 
•raUon  of  images.    11.  In  1170  (according  to  others  in 


II  CONSTANTINOPLE 

1168),  a  lynod,  attended  by  many  Eastern  and  W«M> 
em  bishops,  on  tlie  reunion  of  tbe  Eastern  and  Latin 
chnrcbea.  Similar  synods  were  held  in  ISTT,  1381!^ 
1285,  at)  without  elTect.  1!.  In  1450,  a  council  coif 
Toked  by  the  emperor  CunilaDtine  PalBologns  de- 
posed the  patriarch  Gregory,  put  ia  bis  place  the  pa- 
briarch  Athanasins,  and  declined  to  accept  the  resolu- 
tions passed  by  the  Conncil  of  Florence  in  fliTor  of  tbe 
anion  of  the  Greek  and  tbe  Latin  churches.  13.  In 
1688  and  1642,  two  synods  held  against  tbe  crypto-Cal- 
vinlsm  of  the  patriarch  Cyril  Lncaris.— Pierer,  Pm- 
(vrs.-Iex.  tv,  897;  Wetior  n.Welto,  Kirdim-La.  11, 
888;  Chridian  Remamb.  April,  1854,  art.  t;  SchaO; 
Bin.  of  Ae  Cirvtiim  Churdi,  ii,  iii ;  Landon,  McnmtU 
ofCotmalt;  Uttde,  CancU.-GcMekU  1  UtirAurgk  Bt- 
pine,  July,  1867,  p.  49. 

Coi<aTANTtKOPi.B:,  Patbiabcbatk  or.  Until  the 
time  of  Constantine  tbe  bishop  of  Constantinople  was 
subject  to  the  bishop  of  Heradea  as  metropolllin. 
When  Constantinopla  became  the  rasideDce  of  the  cm- 
perar,  tbe  dignity  of  the  bishop  naturally  rose.  Tbe 
aecond  teeamenicol  coancil,  in  881,  gave  to  tiM  bishop 
of  Constantinople  a  precedence  of  honor  next  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  on  the  ground  that  Constantinople 
was  New  Rome.  This  canon  Implied  no  eitCDiion  of 
jurisdiction  except  the  exemption  of  the  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople f^m  tha  metropolitan  Jurisdiction  of  tbe 
bishop  of  Heradea ;  but  gradually  tbe  bishop  of  Ckin< 
sisntinople  obtained  a  right  of  superintendence  over 
tbe  exarchs  of  the  nelgbboring  dioctees.  Early  in  tbe 
Gih  century  an  Imperial  edict  placed  Eastern  lllyricam 
under  tha  jurisdiction  of  tbe  bishop  of  ConManUnople, 
but  the  Roman  bishop  Boniface  protested  against  this 
as  an  encroachment  on  the  patriarchal  rights  of  Roma 
in  lllyricam,  end  the  decree  was  not  carried  thnugh, 
Theodoaias  II  Issued  a  decree  that  no  bishop  in  Asia 
and  Thracia  should  be  ordained  without  the  consent  of 
tbe  Conncil  of  (TonsUntJnople.  The  execution  of  this 
decree  met  with  much  opposition,  but  tlie  metropolitan 
Jurisdiction  over  Thracia  and  Asia  was  neverthelesa 
graduallT  confirmed,  and  it  was  even  extended  over 
Ponlus  and  the  patrian:hata  of  Antiocb.  In  461  the 
Council  of  Cbalcedon  tbrmally  sancdoned  tbls  right 
of  Jurisdiction,  Canon  9  snthoriied  Ushope  and  cler- 
gymen lo  appeal  fiom  the  decisions  of  the  metropoll- 
Cans  to  either  tha  exarchs  or  to  the  see  of  Constant 
nople.  Cunnn  28  gave  to  the  bl  shop  of  Constantinople 
equal  ecclcBiasdcal  prerogatives  with  Ibe  bishop  of 
Rome,  stating,  however,  that  the  sea  of  Oinatantinoplo 
was  the  second ;  and  provided  that  the  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople sboold  have  the  right  to  ordain  the  metro- 
politans of  the  three  dioceses  of  Asia,  Pontus,  and 
Thracia,  and  of  tbe  bishops  of  the  pagan  coantries  be- 
loURing  to  those  tbree  dioceses.  The  papal  legates 
protested  against  tha  iSlh  canon,  and  their  protest  was 
raddcd  by  tbe  Roman  bishop  Leo.  The  opposition  of 
tha  Roman  bithopa  against  this  canon  prevenl«d  it 
from  being  received  into  the  Oriental  legislation,  al- 
though tbe  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  never  relin- 
qaished  any  of  the  rights  conceded  to  tbem  by  the 
Ckiudcil.  During  the  controversy  on  the  images,  Leo 
Isauricus  separated  tbe  Illyriin  churches  from  tbe 
patriarchate  of  Rome  and  united  them  with  that  of 
Cnnatantlnople,  Entire  separation  from  Rome  was 
carried  through  by  tbe  patriarchs  Pholius  and  Michai-I 
CcndarioB.  The  extensive  diocese  of  tbe  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  containing,  since  the  Bib  century, 
the  whole  of  Eastern  lUyricum  and  tha  three  diocrsea 
of  Asia,  Thracia,  and  Pontos.  embraced  (since  the  10th 
mtury)  also  Sossia,  tOi  which,  bDWevsr.  in  tbe  16th 
mtury,  a  special  patriarchate  was  established  at  Mos- 
cow. See  RcHaia.  In  the  14th  eentnry  a  special 
Servian  pattianbate  was  established,  which,  however, 
ras  again  dissolved  in  1766.  See  SiRViA,  Afur  tbe 
Btablishment  of  the  Independence  nf  Greece,  tha 
Chnrcb  of  Greece  made  itself  Independent  of  the  Jurie- 
dictiooof tbepalriarcbof CoDstantinopleinlSSS.   See 


CONVENTICLE 


494 


CONVERSION 


the  tnencUctnt  ortera  «nd  of  the  regnUr  derki  proTidM 

for  the  holding  of  "proTlnciJ  convents"  {or  previo- 
ilal  chapters),  conMsUng  of  tha  heuda  of  the  moaa»- 
terie»  of  s  province,  nod  "generml  conrsnt*"  (or  gan- 
•T^  chapten),  consudng  of  the  chiefs  of  all  the  mo- 
nastic piOYincea  ("provincials").  But  the  latter,  in 
modem  timet,  have  genarall;  fallen  into  diaoae,  and 
written  report,  have  taken  their  place.  (2.)  The  word 
ia  also  need  to  denote  a  nocicly  of  monlts  or  nnna  In 
one  establishment,  or  the  bnilding  itself  in  which  they 
dwell.— Welaer  u.  Wclte,  Ktrthea-Ltx.  li,  809.     See 

also  MOSASTBBT. 

ConvenUcla  (jJac*  o/  maiing,  Lat.  amvemicu- 
lum,  diminutive  of  eaaBottHi).  The  word  corwentieu'im 
was  known  to  the  primitive  Chnrrh  to  designate  a 
bouse  of  prayer,  amvmtintla  ubi  nrnmai  onOur  Dan 
(Araob.  It  i  mb  also  LacUot.  v,  11 ;  Onuiw,  vU,  IS). 
Ju  after  times  it  denoted  a  cabal  among  the  monks  of 
a  convent,  to  socore  the  election  of  some  &T0tila  can- 
didate (br  abbot  or  superior.  The  tann  conventiclo  is 
«ald  to  have  been  first  applied  In  England  to  the  as- 
•emhllee  of  Wickliffe'i  followers ;  but  In  tba  reign  of 
Cbailea  II  it  waa  given  contemptuously  to  the  meet- 
ings for  religious  vonhip  of  Protestant  dissentei  ' 
the  Chnrch  of  England,  which  wera  not  at  th' 
sanctioned  by  law. 

CoDventlcl«  Act,  an  act  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, palKd  In  16C4.  It  enacted  that  only  Ave  per- 
sona above  sixleen  yesin  of  »ge,  besides  the  family, 
were  to  meet  for  any  worship,  domeatic  or  social.  Tbj 
first  oflbice  on  the  part  of  him  who  offlcialsd  wai 
three  months'  imprisonment,  or  five  ponndi'  fine ;  Ou 
second,  siz  months'  imprisonment,  or  ten  pounds  ;  the 
third  offence  was  transportation  for  life,  or  a  Ai 
ono  hundred  ponnds.  ThoHi  who  permitted  coi 
ticles  to  be  held  in  their  bains,  hoiues,  or  oulht 
were  llabla  to  the  same  forfeitures ;  and  married 
en  taken  at  socb  meetings  wen  to  be  imprisoned  for 
twelve  months,  unless  tbeir  husbands  p^d  for^  shil- 
lings fbr  th^  radamptioD.  The  poww  of  enforcing 
the  act  waa  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  single  Jnstice  of 
the  peace,  who  might  proceed,  without  the  verdict  of  r 
jury,  OD  the  bane  Oath  of  an  informer.  In  conse 
qnenc«ofthisact,honsBa  were  broken  open,  goods  am 
cattle  distruned,  persons  arresleil.  and  the  ^la  in  th 
different  eountias  filled  with  those  who  had  been  guilty 
of  no  other  misdamMnor  hut  that  of  assembling  to- 
gether to  wDiahip  God,  or  listen  to  tba  eipoaition  of 
his  baly  word.— Buck,  TAcof.  DicHimary,  s.  v. ;  Neal, 
Biitoty  n/Ue  Pwitasi,  part  Iv,  ch,  vilj   Orme,  lift 

"■     ■      ■  "~1,2M. 


Conventuals,  (lOUonks  or  clerical  knights  wbo 
are  membera  of  a  con  vant,  and  have  tba  right  of  voting  ; 
at  tba  meetings  (enniailut).  SeeCoKVKNT.  (2.)Uanks 
in  general,  in  oppoaition  to  hermits.  (S.)  In  several 
orders,  especlaDy  tlM  mendicant.  Conventuals  is  a 
name  for  those  congregations  which  follow  a  mitigated 
rule  (sea  FBANCIScAKa,  Caiuiklite«X  1°  opposition 
to  the  Oheervants  (q.  v.),  who  demand  the  observance 

pass  beyond  it.  The  name  is  especially  applied  to 
the  Franciscan  conventuals  (see  Franc iscakb).  (A.) 
Sometimes,  also,  a  community  of  candidates  for  the 
priesthood,  who,  in  a  monastic  manner,  lived  in  com- 
mon under  a  provost,  were  designated  by  this  name. 

Convtttnation  Op'^,  de'rek,  icaj  Psa.  xxxviii, 
14 ;  I,  23 ;  Apocrypha  and  N.  T.  iraerpof  i,  but  Tpe- 
trm:  in  2  Hacc.  xx,  12 ;  Heh.  xiii,  6)  is  never  used  in 
the  Scriptures  in  the  sense  of  osioJ  eonmunicolKM,  but 
always  in  its  now  obiglete  meaning  of  course  of  life 
or  H/jtartnierit,  inclndinE  all  one's  words  and  acts.  In 
Phil,  i,  27;  iii,  20,  a  dilTerent  term  is  found  in  the 

i/D/ini,  iroX(THJ^D),  which  literally  sig. 


other's  bouses  for  the  purpose  of  social  intemmsi^ 
but  rather  prefer  to  resort  to  some  ipot  out  of  doois, 
where  frianda  can  meet  together,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  gate  of  the  city  is  generally  cboeen.  Sea  GiTC 
Such  was  the  custom  of  old,  and,  accordingly,  we  End 
that  to  each  city  among  the  Jews  there  was  an  opsa 
space  near  the  gate,  which  was  fitted  up  with  scats  te 
the  accommodation  of  the  people  (Gen.  xix,  1;  I'ss. 
Ixix,  12).  Thoae  who  wore  at  leisure  occupied  a  po- 
sition on  theeo  aeata,  and  either  amuaed  tbcntsclrea 
with  witneasing  those  who  came  in  snd  went  out,  sad 
with  any  trifling  Dccnrrencea  that  might  prNent  Ibini- 
selres  to  tbeir  notice,  or  attended  to  the  Jodidai  trials, 
which  were  commonly  investigated  at  pnbtic  places  of 
',iakind(Gen.xxxiv,SO;  Ruth  Iv,  11 ;  Psa.  iivi,*, 
;  cixvti,  G),  Promenading,  so  agreeaUle  in  colder 
latitudes,  is  wekrlaome  and  unpleaJiant  in  the  Karai 
climates  of  the  East,  and  this  is  probably  one  leaaon 
ihy  the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  preferred  boM- 
og  intercourso  with  one  another  while  sitting  nej  tbe 
gate  of  the  city,  or  beneath  the  shade  of  tbe  Sg-tree 
id  tba  vine  (1  Sam.  zxii,  C ;  Hicah  iv,  4). 
This  mode  of  paasing  the  time  is  still  customaiy  is 
the  East.  "  It  is  no  uncommon  thing,"  aaya  Hr.  Jow- 
see  an  individual  or  a  group  of  pemns,  eiea 
iry  well  dressed,  eittins  with  their  feat  drawn 
under  them,  upon  the  bare  earth,  passing  vbtAc  bom 
idle  convaraation.  Europeans  would  require  a  chair, 
but  the  natives  here  (Syria)  prefer  tha  ground;  inlte 
heat  of  summer  and  autumn,  It  is  pleasant  to  them  u 
while  away  their  time  in  this  manner  under  the  shade 
of  a  tree.  Bichiy-adomed  female*,  as  well  ai  men, 
may  often  be  seen  thus  amusing  themaelvea." 

The  Orientals,  when  engnged  in  conversation,  sit, 
in  general,  very  mild  in  their  demeanor,  and  do  net 
feel  themaelvea  at  liberty  directly  to  contradict  the 
person  with  whom  they  are  convening,  althongh  tbey 
may  at  the  same  time  be  aware  that  he  is  telling  Ihtni 
blsehooda.  The  ancient  Hebrews,  in  particBlar,  veiy 
rarely  used  any  terms  of  reproach  more  severe  thu 
those  of  lUto,  soJon',  meaning  "  adversary,"  or  "op- 
poser;"  HB'<1>,  TTftaJi',  pnica,  "  contemptible ;"  and 
sometimes  V2I,  noial',  "fool,"  an  aipreasion  whidi 
means  "  a  wicked  man,"  or  "  au  atheist,"  not,  as  Willi 
us,  a  person  deficient  in  understanding  (Job  ii,  10; 
PBa.xiv,lj  Is».ixiil,6iM«tt.v,2S;  xvi,S3).  S» 
Fool.  When  anything  waa  sai^  which  wai  net  ic- 
ceptable,  tbe  dissatlafled  person  replied,  "  Let  it  sofliee 
thee"  (Dent,  iii,  26),  or  "  It  is  enough"  (Luke  ui, 
38).  In  addressing  a  superior,  the  Hebrews  did  not 
commonly  use  the  proDonne  of  the  fint  and  leeaDd 
person,  but  instead  of  "I,"  they  said  "thy  sarvant,' 
and  instasdof  "thou,"  they  employed  the  wolds  "ar 
lord."  Instances  of  this  mode  ofeipresnon  repeated- 
Iv  occur  in  Scripture  (as  in  Gen.  xxxii,  4;  xliv,  K 
10;  xlvi,3i;  Dan.  a,  IT;  Luke  i,  88). 

Tbe  form  of  assent  or  affinnatlon  was,  "Tlxinhatl 
said,"  or  "Then  hast  rightlj'  said;"  and  modern  trav- 
ellers inform  ni  that  this  ia  the  prevailing  mode  of  i 
peiaon's  expressing  his  assent  or  affirmation  to  tliit 
day  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  espscially  when  Ihiy 
do  not  wiah  to  assart  anything  in  eipreaa  terms  (comii. 
Matt,  xivi,  64).     See  ArFiXMATivx. 

Conweralon,  a  theological  tzrm.  need  to  deua 
the  "  turning"  of  a  sinner  to  God.  It  occnn  in  AcU 
IV,  8  ("declaring  tbe  cooveraion  [iwiOTpofiH  of  Ihi 
Gentiles").  The  verb  iriorpffw  ia  need  in  the  M-X 
actively  in  the  sense  of  toming  or  conrertiiig  otttn 
(Luke  i,  lt>,  et  si.);  intransitively,  in  tbe  seias  of 
"turning  back,"  "retnming;"  and  tiopicallT,  lofc- 
note  "taming  to  pood,"  "to  be  converted"  (Uto 
xxii  as,  "  when  thou  art  converted,  strengtbea  *» 
iralhren").     I  n  general,  the  word  la  need  to  deiip't' 


nifieB  rtadmct,  or  relations  to'a  community  as  a  citi-ithe  "turning  of  men  from  darkness  unto  light  u"^ 
nan.     See  CiTiiENsKir.  |  from  the  power  of  Saun  unto  God  "  (Acts 

Orientals  are  Lttle  In  the  habit  of  repairing  to  each  I  In  a  general  sense,  heathens  or  infidels  ara 


CONVERSION 


495 


CONVOCATION 


•d"  wbcii  thay  kbandon  paganlim  or  DnbaliaCI  and  ]  ijnigogiie  Mrvlee.  Tbe  Sapt.  treata  it  aa  an  adjw- 
•mbr&ca  the  Ctuutian  bith ;  and  man  In  general  are  tive  (rAigriiCi  IrirXifroc ;  tolled) ;  bat  there  can  be  no 
I»«perly  aaid  to  be"conTeTlad"iTbentlwj'anbroasht '  doubt  that  tbe  A.T.  la  correct  In  ita  randering  (Smltli, 
to  B  change  of  lilb  thiongh  the  inflnance  of  divine  a.  t.).  See  Cohgreoatiok.  lika  tbe  Greek  wat^ 
grus  npon  the  aool.  |  yupic  or  mau-meating  (Smith's  Diet.  o/Clati.  Amlif. 

Sp-ciCsoMj,  tben,  converalon  may  be  said  to  be  a.  r.  Panegyrii),  it  aigniflea  "a  mmttag  or  aalemn  aB> 
"thu  cbangB  In  thetboughta.deiirea,  diipoaitiont,  and  '■  aembljrof  a  whole  people  for  the  purpoaa  of  worahlp- 
lifi)  of  a  aioner  which  li  broaght  about  when  ths  Holy  ping  at  ■  common  unctiui}-."  The  phrase  "  bol; 
Ghoat  eaten  the  heart  ai  tbe  reanlt  of  the  cxerclie  of  convocatjon"  ii  applied,  I.  To  tbe  FEtSTa :  1.  To  tho 
■  BBring  (aith  in  the  atonement,  b;  which  the  ainnar  [  Sotiddtt,  all  of  which  were"hol}' convocation*"  (Lav, 
U  Joatifled.  The  procesa  by  which  tbli  great  change  I  iiiU,  !,  S).  3.  To  the  Pauovert  (a.)  ita  jEnf  da; 
U  affected  i>  this  :  The  ainner  ii  convinced  of  ain  by  i  (Exod.  xil.  16 1  Lev.  xkIH,  7  ;  Nam.  zxvili,  18) ;  (6.) 
tbe  Hoi;  Spirit ;  he  azetciiea  a  penitent  faith  In  Christ    ita  but  day  (Ezod.  xil,  16 ;  Lev.  xxiii,  T    " 


2E).  S.  To  the  PnHtcntt  (Lev.  iiiil,  !1).  4.  To  the 
Featt  f/Trvmpett  on  the  1st  ofTiari,  the  New  lear'a 
day  of  the  civil  yoar  (Lev.  ixvill,  tt;  Nam.  xxlx, 
1).  S.  To  the  Feoji  o/  Wttki  or  Firt-fruili  (Nnro. 
iivlii,  !6).  6.  To  tho  Ftail  of  TabtntacUt:  (a.)  its 
jCrXday  (Lev.  xxiii,S5;  Num.  iilx,  T2)j  (6.)  )te  W 


■  bti  Skvionr ;  God  immedbtaly  jas^fiei 
Holy  Sphit  attests  to  the  penitent  tbe  fact  of  hia  pii- 
doD,  ajid  instantly  sheds  abroad  the  love  of  God  in  the 
heart,  when  all  tiiiags  are  indeed  new"  (Farrar,  SiUi-   ] 
eol  liiaiiMiay,  s.  v.). 

The  word  ia  also  used,  in  a  narrowo'  ae 
the  "  Tolnntary'  act  of  the  soul  coneciDUsly  emtindng  i  day  (Lav.  ixiii,  S6).  7.  Aa  introdnctoiy  \a  the  i 
Christ  in  £iithj"  and  In  this  aenao  It  is  to  be  dislin-  merelion  of  these  ftests  (Lev.  xxiii,  4),  and  as  cloalng 
piishiril  from  regeneration,  which  Is  "  a  aecond  crea-  it  (ver.  7).  II.  To  the  one  great  Fast,  the  annoal 
tion,"  wronght  only  by  tho  Spirit  of  God.  Kling,  In  Cojo/'Jtonniifnf  (Lev.miLi,2T;  Nnro.iilit.T).  To 
Herxog,  Aea^£JKjiU(9>dtlK(s.v.  Bekehntng),  gives  tbe  the  deep  Kilemnltiea  of  "the  Holy  Convocation," 
fultowing  statement  of  the  relations  between  God  and  '  whether  of  joy  or  of  sortow  ("afflicting  the  soul,"  aa 
nun  in  the  whole  work  of  conversioa ;  "  It  is  not  a  |  in  the  lost  passage),  one  great  fsatare  was  common, 
purely  personal  act  of  mia  (Jer.  iixi,  18,  TWn  iJuM  .  marked  by  tbe  command, "  Ye  siialtdo  no  servile  work 
Be  md  I  $kaU  be  tuned'),  but  incladea  both  ths  di-  therein"  (see  ail  the  passages) ;  or  moro  fully  in  Exod. 
vine  act  and  the  hnmin.  Conviction,  calling,  and  |  ill,  16, "  No  manner  of  work  shall  be  done  in  them, 
Justificatian  ace  of  God.  The  Word  of  God  declares  .  save  that  which  every  man  most  eat,  that  only  may  be 
God's  will  convindngly  In  the  law,  and  offers  salva-  <  done  of  you."  (Such  as  are  cnrioos  sbont  tbe  Bab- 
tioQ  through  faith  in  Christ  In  the  Gospel.  In  Christ  |  bialcal  opinions  of  whst  might  be  done,  and  what 
law  and  Gospel  are  naited.  None  of  these  divine  acts  might  not,  on  these  occasions,  may  And  them  In  Bnx- 
preclnde  man's  activi^(PhlL  U,  12,  IVori;  oul  yoar  ovn  '  torTs  Synagoga  Judaitn,  especially  cb.  xix;  the  Joy- 
tahatioit,  etc.).  .  .  .  The  truth  Ilea  midway  between  \  ons  celebrations  are  described  in  ch.  xxl,  and  the  ei. 
that  extreme,  on  the  one  hand,  wbich  teaches  that  the  piatoiy  in  cb.  xiv,  xivl;  see  also  Ugollnl  TitMair. 
will  of  man  is  enljcely  absorbed  by  the  grace  of  God,  Iv,  9SS-1I)&!).  With  this  may  be  compared  Strabo's 
and  that  false  Synergism,  on  tho  other,  which  con-  statement  (bk.  x), "  This  is  a  common  practice  both 
eeives  min's  will  as  capable  of  action,  la  tho  work  of  of  Greeks  and  barbarians,  to  perform  their  sacred  serv- 
convenion,  without  tbe  inworking  of  divine  grace,"        ices  with  a  festive  cessatioQ  of  labor."     See  Sabbath. 

Wesley  (JLeBer  (o  BMop  Laringlaa,  Wonb,  T,  8fi«)  CONVOCATION,  a  convention  of  the  English  cler- 
remarks:  "Converaloa  Is  a  term  I  very  rarely  ase,  be-  gy  to  discuss  eccleshutical  affairs  in  time  of  Parlla- 
cauae  it  rarely  occnra  In  the  N.  T."  Lavington  had  ment  Thb  body  grew  out  of  the  ecdrslastlcal  conn- 
apoken  orWetley't  idea  of  convcrsionaa  "  to  start  up  dls  held  In  the  earlier  limes.  Fnm  tbe  time  of 
perfect  men  at  once."  "  Indeed,  sir,"  replies  Wetiey.  :  Edward  I,  when  the  Commons  were  first  assembled  in 
"  it  Is  not.  A  man  is  ususlly  converted  before  he  Is  Parliament,  it  beome  the  practice  to  sammon  the 
>  perfect  man.  It  is  probable  most  of  thoee  F.phsaians  '  Convocation  at  the  same  time.  About  the  year  1400 
to  whom  St.  Paul  directed  his  epistles  were  converted,  '  It  assnmed  its  present  fbrtn.  There  was  at  this  lima 
jettbey  were  not  come  (few.  If  any)  to  a  perfect  man,  a  Convocation  for  the  province  of  York,  and  another 
to  the  meaanra  of  the  stature  of  the  fnlnaaa  of  Christ."  for  tbat  ofCdnUrbury.  At  the  Beftirmation  the  king 
See  RxrBSTAKCx;  StOBHSBATioa.  assumed  the  title  of  supreme  bead  of  tho  Church. 

CONVERSION    OF  ST.  PAUL,  FeaW  o»  the,  i  Both  convocations  beaitated  to  acknowledge  his  cidm, 

obanved  In  the  Roman  Church  00  the  35th  of  Jannary.  I  t^ttlie  Wng,  says  Strype,  r 

irally  supposed  that  this  ftatival  had  if  ■-   ' '"''  ""''  ""  '■™'™i"™  "'  " 


It  is  gene 


^  be-  '  I**'!  <^d  the  recognltli 


order  of  Innocent  III.     Baroi 

Oth  century.     After  the  13th  century  it  became  gen- 
erally obeerved.     See  Pacl. 

CbavlctiDn.  Tbe  first  stage  of  repentance,  when 
a  penitent  is  Ir^  to  see  tho  evil  nature  of  sin,  and  has 
been  prored,  to  himself^  f'l'S  of  it     See   Refent- 

Convocation  (M^^^'O,  mitra',  from  X^^,  kara', 
to  call  I  comp.  Nam.  x,i;  Iso.  i,  IS),  applied  invaria- 
bly to  meetings  of  a  rtHgion*  character,  In  contradis- 
tinction  to  co»ffngatitin,  in  wh'ich  political  and  legal 
matters   wen   occasionally  settled.     See   Govern- 

d  with  cnp,  iWj,  and  Is  !  fmr 


_  ,  the  first  place,  to  ei 
or  constitution  should  be  enacted  or  enlbrced  bat 
with  (he  king's  permission ;  secondly,  that  the  exlet- 
Ing  cniulllntlons  should  lie  revised  by  bis  majesty's 

tions,  lieing  agreeable  to  the  laws  of  God  and  of  the 
land,  sbould  he  rnfbrced.  The  bisbops  demurred,  but 
the  king  and  the  commons  were  against  them,  and 
they  were  compelled  to  yield ;  and  in  IS34  their  sub- 
misaion  was  ronflrmed  l>y  act  of  Parliament.  Since 
this  period  the  Convocation  can  only  be  assembled  by 
the  king's  writ;  when  assembled,  It  cannot  make  new 
ithout  a  royal  ^iornsr,  wbicb  is  a  separate  act 
■    ■     ■  "      '   viogaf 


applied  only  to  the  Sabbath  and  the  great  annna]  fee-  canons  with  the  royal  license,  they  cannot  !«  pablish- 
tivala  of  the  Jewa  (Exod.  xii,  16 ;  Lev.  xxlil, !  sq. ;  ed  or  take  eflect  until  confirmed  by  the  sovereign ; 
Nam.  xxvlil,  18  sq. ;  xxlx,  1  sq,).  In  this  pense,  with  |  nor,  lastly,  can  they  enact  any  canon  which  Is  against 
one  eiception  (Isa.  i,  18,  "assembly"),  the  word  Is  pe-  .  the  law  or  customs  of  the  land  or  the  king's  preroga- 
euliar  la  the  Pentateuch  ;  but  in  laa.  Iv,  &,  It  denotes  tive,  even  should  the  king  himself  consent.  Prior  (o 
the  pfaca  of  gathering  ("  assemhlica"),  and  in  Neh.  vlil,  '  this  period,  the  archbishop  of  each  province  could  aa- 
S,  II  aignlflea  the  pablk  "  ntKUng"  of  the  law  In  the   semble  bis  provincial  aynod  at  hia  pleasore ;  though. 


CONVOCATION  496  COOK 

jt  the  wma  time,  tb»  tavenAga  c«aM  aannDon  both       Couvnlsionlata,  >  Urni  aiqiUMto  penoDB  who 
provlQcea  b;  ■  rorll  writ  (Hook).  were  the  lulijecti  of  At*,  of  wbich  thtj  wan  uM  to  be 

Engluid  1>  divided  IdId  the  two  pravtncea  of  Can-  «D»d  by  viiltiiig  ths  tomb  of  the  abbi  Faria,  a  eeb. 
tarbnTy  and  York,  and  bj  the  tarm  Convocation  ii  brated  lealot  among  the  Janaanlita.  The  namg  waa 
meant  the  STDod  or  provlndal  coddcH  d(  thoae  prov-  afterwatda  given,  In  France,  to  those  wkoee  baaticitm 
incL'i.  There  ue,  therefore,  two  coDvocationn,  each  or  Impoatnre  canaed  them  to  work  tbemaelvaa  Dp  Into 
independent  of  the  other;  but  inataacea  have  t^  the  atrongeat  agllatiani  or eoovnlriona,  during  whidi 
quentlf  occurred  in  which  they  have  acted  together  they  recdved  wonderful  (evalaltent,  and  abandmied 
by  mntual  conaent.  Commiuionen  have  sometlmea  I  themaelvea  to  the  most  extravagaol  antiea  that  were 
been  Kent  from  York  to  ait  in  the  Convocation  of  Can-  ever  exhibited.  They  threw  themaelvea  ioto  tbe  moat 
terbury,  with  full  powers  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  north-  violent  contortions  of  body,  rolled  about  on  the  grannd, 
an  Convocation.  Since  the  ReKmnation,  for  obvioiu  Imitated  birds  and  beaata ;  and,  when  they  bad  com- 
reasoni,  the  legialatjou  of  the  Charch  of  England  waa  pletely  axhaostad  themaelTea,  went  off  in  a  swoon. 
virtually  in  the  hands  of  the  aoalheni  Convocation.  PinaulC,  an  advocate,  who  belonged  to  the  Omnt- 
Tbat  of  York  seldom  originated  any  Important  maaa- ,  sionista,  maintained  that  God  had  aent  him  a  peculiar 
ore,  or  paniited  long  in  resisting  the  decision*  of  Can- 1  kind  of  flts  to  humble  his  pride.  See  Jansbhibm. 
terbury.  It  became  at  length  the  lalut  echo  of  Ita  Conybeate,  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  divine  and 
mere  favored  siater-s  voice.  The  Convocation  of  di,tingnished  preacher,  was  bom  at  PInhoe,  Devon- 
Canterbnry  consista  of  all  the  bfahops  of  the  province, '  .^j^  ;„  i^^  ,„  j  ,,„  educated  at  Eieter  CoUeee, 
who  constitute  the  apper  hooaei  and  of  the  dean.,  I  Q^forf  of  which  he  became  fellow  In  1710.  In  17M 
archdeacons,  proctors  of  chapters,  and  proctors  fbr  the  ,,g  i,^,^,  ,^„  „f  St.  Clement's,  Ojford,  and  in  ITST 
parocfaial  clergy  who  compose  the  lower  house.  In  ott^^  ^^  celebrity  by  his  vialUtion  nrmon  on 
1867  the  npper  house  of  Canterbury  consisted  of  ai  ,„i,„ription.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  hia  college 
m«nbers,  and  that  of  York  of  7  members;  while  tbe  in  1780,  dean  of  Christ  Church  two  year,  after,  and 
lower  house  of  Canterbnry  had  146  i^'^'h,  2*  deans  ;  g^,„  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1750.  He  died  at  Bath. 
M  archdeacons,  M  proclo™  for  catbedr»Uhapter^  and  j„,  jg  1755,  „,  published  several  wo.k-,  the  most 
84  proctors  for  the  clergj),  and  that  of  York  67  mem-  [„  ^^  of  which  arc,  A  Dffinu  ofRfreakd  Jhligim 
bers  (G  deans,  15  archdeacons,  7  proctors  of  tbe  chap.  ■  -^  ^^  f^crptum,  o/[TindaVs]  CWari™.^,  «  Old 
tare,  and  89  proctor,  for  the  clergy).  A.  president,  „  ^^^  Cr^Ui^,  (Lond.  ITBt  8Y0>:-i^<™™  (London, 
the  archbiahop  summons  the  Convocation  to  meet  at ,  „jj  3  ^.„^  8vo).-DarUng,  Cgd.  BOI.  a.  v. 
tbe  command  of  the  king.     Were  ^e  to  attempt  to        _'        .  '__.,,,         J^   .   ,    . 

assemble  a  .ynod  by  his  o»n  authority,  he  would  be !  ConybeatB.  WlUlam  Dnniel  dean  of  Llaa- 
.subject  to  a  nnemunire.  aud  the  proceeding,  of  anch '  ^''^'  '"  ^"^  "  ""o  '^t''"  ■  ""t^T.  Si.  Botolph'a, 
aynod  would  be  void;  Smce  the  Act  of  Submi«iion  the  '  Biabops^le^  June  7, 1787.  He  entered  Christ  Church 
power  to  summon  the  Convocation  at  the  commf  nee-  C-ollega.  Oxford,  in  January,  1805,  and  took  hla  degree 
ment  of  a  new  Parliament  has  usu.llv  been  panted,  "'  »-*■  i"  1*08  and  M.A.  In  1811.  Mr.  Conybeare 
though  tWm  the  time  of  George  I  (1717)  until  recent-  ™  ™''  "'  ">"  "S""""'  promoters  of  the  Geoloeital 
ly  no  business  waa  tranaacled.  It  la  also  tbe  dnty  of  Society,  and  the  important  services  he  haa  rendered 
the  archbishop  to  prorogue  and  dissolve  Uie  Convoca-  "•  gwloSiMlscloneo  may  be  seen  in  his  nuinerou.  ra- 
tion, under  the  direction  of  the  crown.  Oflatethe  I™  pnntedin  the  socie^s  "Transactmns."  In  1839 
eonvocations  of  Canterbury  and  York  have  been  re-  5'-.",??!"^'?,"  'f,","'"'  *^  '"  '"'''  ^™  '^""^ 
vlved,  and  the  revival  of  ihe  Irish  Convocation  has  i''^'"^*^.^-  Hedied  near  Portsmouth,  Aug.  12.  W6-. 
been  strennonslyurged,  especially  by  the  Hifib-Church  ^"^'^  ^''."7"?"?  """"K"  "^  8?»"'B''^  "'P".  "" 
party.  The  decirions  of  Convocation  bavo  no  legal  P^^hfbcd  ThtChrulan/alkrtdun^lMe  Ai^f-tcau, 
(btce  in  England.  "A.  essentially  interwoven  with  ^'"■'^(9^'^^;'''"'P*?"  ^,'i""!'!"i'  H«M-tor, 
tbe  State,  the  Church  po»iesse.  no  independent  action ;  I  ^™™  "/  TUoU^gKol  lActvra  (Lond.  1886,  am.  Svo). 
ita  srticlea,  liturgy,  organiaation  as  to  benefices,  etc.,  CoaytMU'e.'V?.  J.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
are  all  regulated  by  Parliament;  while  ita  discipline  ftequenl  contribntor  to  the  Edaimrgk  Anne,  eepe- 
fUls  within  the  Kope  of  the  eccleaiastical  courts,  a  j  cially  on  ecclesiastical  toi^cs.  Together  with  the  Rev. 
clasB  of  tribunals  apart  from  the  ministering  clergy.  J.  8.  Howsoc,  he  published  the  Uft  and  EjiiOl^  of  St. 
The  Church,  therefore,  In  its  distinct  capacity.  Is  left  Paid  (Lond.  1864,  i  vols.  Svo,  rvprinted  in  N.  Y. ;  also 
little  to  do  In  the  way  of  jurisdiction.  It  is  further .  abridged,  I  vols.  ISmo),  one  of  the  best  works  of  it* 
urged,  as  a  reason  for  restricting  the  power  of  Convo-  class.  He  died  in  1857. 
cation,  that,  bwog  porely  Mcerdotal,  it  might  be  apt        Cook  (male,  nSB,  taMocA',  I  Sam.  ii,  £3,  34 ; 

to  run  into  excesses,  and  put  forth  claims  adverse  to   ,       ,      _!_„    ,„.;  "...      —    n    1    .1.      1 

.,  .,.  *-       .r       .  ,._,        __  ^  _      female,  nnas.  labbtKkak  ,  vm,  B,  both    properly  a 

the  prevailing  tone  of  sentiment  on  religious  matters ;  '       '  ■  -'  ,,,,,,        ,       J\ 

that,  in  short,  as  thbig.  stand,  it  is  safer  for  the  pub-  '%")■  "  T«"on  employed  in  families  of  rank  to  per- 
lie  to  be  under  the  authority  of  Parliament  than  to  be  I  form  culinary  service.  Cooking  (ic:?,  iosUcr). 
anbject  to  the  ordinances  of  a  body  of  ecclesiastics"  however,  among  the  Hebrews  (at  least  in  early  time*) 
Chamber*,  Encidi^dia,  s.  v.).  There  is  an  able  ar-  j  was  generally  done  by  the  matron  of  the  family,  even 
tide  again.t  the  revival  of  Convocations  in  the  £WM.  though  .he  were  a  princess  (Gen,  ivtii,  'i-6;  Judges 
Btr.  Jan.  1857.  For  further  informaUon  as  to  the  his-  \  vl.  19).  Among  the  Egyptians  the  cook  was  a  pro- 
tory  of  Convocation,  see  Collier,  Ecda.  Biit.  of  Great  fessional  cbaracCer.  (See  Wilkinson's  Attdent  Ecgp. 
Brilaiai  Wilkin.,  Conci/ia  J/a^rae  CKbnMtie  (l.ondoii,  !  fioni,  i,  174,  abridgm.)  The  process  of  cooking  seem* 
1787,  4  vols,  fol.)  ;  Wake,  Slatt  oflht  Ch.  of£iuflami,  .  to  have  been  very  expeditiously  performed  (Gen. 
etc.  (Lond.  170S,  fol.,  containing  a  large  collection  of  1  xxvil.  8,  4,  9,  10),  and  aU  the  flesh  of  the  slain  ani. 
doeumenta  on  Convocation):  Fellows.  CoMWOtrm  i  trt  mal,  owing  to  the  dlfGcul^of  preserving  it  in  a  warm 
Origin,  Progrta,  and  AtOhoriiy,  Lfgiilatire  and  Judi- .  climate,  wn*  commonly  cooked  at  once,  which  fa  the 
dai,  inM  (I  Selitmt/or  amaiding  tit  Power  and  ContU- '  caxtom  of  the  East  at  the  present  day.  (See  Rosen- 
tvHon  (l.aiHl.  1862 ;  propoK.  to  establish  one  Convoca-  '  mfillCr,  Morginl.  ii,  117 ;  Thomson,  Load  muf  fioort^  il, 
tion  inflead  of  the  thrpo  [2  English,  1  Iriih]  then  in  162.)  Sea  Fooi>,  The  Assyrian  monuments  lately 
existence);  Uthbury,//«r.  a/Caatoealicn  (Lond.lfSB, !  discovered  by  Layard  and  Botta  contain  eimilar  delin- 
8vo,  Sd  ei1.);  I..andon,  Manual  of  Camtilt,  a.  v.  /.on-  eations  of  eunuchs  cooking  over  cbarmal  brasin*, 
io»:  Canlnell,  i>i>niiiirfUaiy.4nfii)li<0:if.  1844,2  vols. .  and  engaged  In  other  coltnary  operutions,  often  al- 
8vo);  Mnrsilen,  CAun-b'a  and 5nYs,  p.  noS  .q. ;  Chria.  tended  t>y  a  servant  with  a  dy-flap.  See  BaER; 
flfrH™ft™n™-,Oct.I«64.  p.368;  Overall,  fontviOTd'on  CHACKMKr.. 
«oot(i)if..rd,  1M4,  Kvo);  Palmer,  On /*f  CTun A.        |      "As  llesh-meat  did  not  form  an  aitide  of  mitinnj 


497  COOK 

.  hole  dug  tn  th«  etrlh,  irsll  he>t«d,  and  oer. 

1/  ered  ap  (Burckbardt,  fMet  on  Bedaatiu, ), 

y  I  I  S40).      The    Pauhal  Umb  *ru   rt»at«d  liy 

11  I  the  flrrt  of  thsM  methodi  (Eiod.  lii,  B,  9 ;  S 

Pn  I  A  Chnn.  xzxT,  13).     Boiling,  bowever,  wu 

Ij^^^  the  mora  ataal  method  of  cooliing,  both  In 

1^^^^'  tbe  CMa  of  Mcriflcm,  other  than  the  I'uchal 

lamb  (Lev.  Tii),  31),  and  for  donieMic  pur- 
poHM  (Eiod,  iTi,  23),  10  much  bo  that  b:J3, 
JujAoC,  to  coot,  generally   included   even 
roattiitg  (DeuL  xvi,  T).     In  this   caxe  tbe 
animal  waa  cut  up,  the  right  shoulder  being 
,  J  .  .  .        first  taken  off  (hence  the  prieafa  joiiil,  Lev, 
cjS.ll       vij,  33),  and  tbe  other  Join U  in  euccuclon  ; 
'^  "  *  -^  I       th°  ^"^  *"  aeparated  from  the  twnea  and 
minced,  and  tbe  honag  themaclves  ircro  bro- 
ken up  (Micah  iii,  S) )  the  whole  maas  wii 
then  Uirovn  into  a  caldron  (Ezek.  ixiv,  4, 
B)  Hlled  with  water  (Exod.  xii,  9),  or,  as  we 
ma  J  infer  fhim  E:iod.  xxiii,  19,  occaBionally 
with  millt,  aa  i>  itiil  neual  among  tbe  Aratis 
(Borckhardt,  JVofei,  i,  6S),  tbe  prohibition 
'  not  to  seethe  a  kid  in  hii  mother'!  niiik' 
having  reference  apparently  to  some  heathen 
practice  connected  with  the  olTering  of  the 
flrat-lVnito  (Esod.  1.  c, ;   xxvv,  86),  which 
rendered  the  kid  so  prepared  andean  food 
i   s  -  —  K.      (Doot-  '",  21).     No  Booking  waa  all™«i 
I'S^SiS      ^*  ''"  "^  ^^  S^batb  (Exod.  i 
''°  '      I   See  FiBB.    Tbe  materials  for  making  coaia 
"     ~  ZL.    The 


dirl  among  (he  Jews,  the  art  of  cooking  waa  not  car- 
fi.'.l  Id  any  perfection  ;  and,  owing  (o  ttie  difficulty  of 
p«»«rving  it  from  patrefactlon,  few  animals  (other 
than  MCTilicei)  were  ■langbtered  except  for  purposes 
of  hmpiiality  or  fesUvlty.  Tbe  proceeding  on  luch 
on-aiiona  appear  to  bare  been  as  follow !  On  the  ar. 
riral  of  ■  guett,  tbe  enimal,  either  a  kid,  lamh,  or  calf, 
ru  kdltd  ((ien.  iviil,  7;  Lake  iv,  23),  ila  throat  be- 
bg  cnlao  (hat  the  blood  might  be  poured  out  (Lev, 
*ll,  !6):  It  waa  then  flayed,  and  waa  readv  either  for 
nnattaa  ("^X)  or  boiling  (boa) ;  Id  tbe  formir  caui 
the  animal  waa  prcserred  entire  (Exod.  xii,  i6),  and 
n>«»ted  either  over  a  Are  (Exod.  lil,  8)  of  woi^  {Ifa. 
«liT.  IS),  or  perbapa,  aa  the  mention  of  fire  implici 
mother  method,  in  an  orell,  consisting  rimply  of  a 


=  sZ'^ijli   ^  FiBB.    Tbe  materials  for  making  ei 

^jBS  a  were  grass  and  cow-duDg,  See  Fuei-  ' 
I  la  .  j-^2  "Idron  was  boiled  over  a  wood  fire  (E. 
g  S  &'"     e  •!    xxiv,  10)  ;  tbe  ■( 

§  ^si^g  '  face  was  from  time  lo  iimo  rcmovea,  oinerw 
"  ■■''•.lid  ^'*°  the  meat  would  torn  out  laa(h>ome(S); 
J  .Sjg?^  salt  or  tpicea  were  tbrown  In  lo  season  H 
a  itari'K  (10);  and  when  sufficiently  boiled,  the  meat 
"^   rfS  '    and  the  bn)th(p^H;  Sept,  tiu;ioc;Vulg.ji«) 

iji  I    were  served  up  separately  (Jodg,  vi,  19),  the 

%%  I    brotb  being  used  with  unleavened  bread,  and 

i";  ^   butter  (Gen.  iviii,  S)  as  a  sance  for  dipping 

,„  i    morsels  of  broad  into  (Burckhardt,  A'(4«, 

■  ^  I    i,  03).     SomeCiraea  the  meat  was  so  highly 

:Si  ._  :  epiccd  that  its  flavor  could  hardly  be  distin- 
*l^'jy<l  guifhed:  such  dishes  were  cailiNi  D^ns»^, 
iaE^|j  utalammim' lGta.xxrii.il  Prov.  xiii'i,'B). 
Is  I  ?  "  3  "^^^^  "  '  "fik'ng  similarity  in  the  culinary 
5*~^N  °I»ratiDna  of  the  Ilebraws  and  Egyptians 
^■'£€;S  (Wilkinson's  ,4iir.£',9jp/.ii,  B74  a<j.).  Veg- 
.E"^*  B  ;  etahles  were  usually  boiled,  and  served  up 
i^s"!  a  "  P'K'ee  (Gan-  hit,  S9;  2  KioRB  iv,  88). 
FinIc-.  J-  Fish  was  also  cooked  (LtikeiKiv,4S),prob- 
■S'-J  S'll'  '■''y  broiled,  '  The  cooking  waa  in  early 
g  I  "-tsS  times  performed  by  (be  mistress  oflbobonse- 
^,'^BkS  hold(Gen.xriil,6);  profevicnal  cooks  were 
I  =  =  |o»|  afterwards  employed  (1  Snra.  viii,  13 ;  ix, 
^'Sii.-li  28).  The  nUnsils  re<|urrcd  were:  B"^''!, 
"^llsSt  faVo'jFtn  (Sept.  x«rpdiro('fc;  Vulg.  ciyrn^w. 
C  I*"),  a  cooking  range,  hnvinp  places  for  two 

or  more  pots,  probably  of  earthenware  (l.eT. 
xl,  85);  1i»3,  Ugor'  (Xi^^K,  W«),  «  caldron  (1  Sam. 
'U^*)i  ih^y3,iiualnj'(i!pittypa;J^4eintila).il»Tgttatk 
or  flesh-book;  TD,  iir{\ijiiK;  oflu).  a  wido,open  met- 
al vessel,  resembiinz  a  fish-kettle,  adapted  to  be  used 
aa  a  wash-pot  (Tsa.  Ix,  8)  or  to  rat  from  (Kxod.  xtI, 
3);  151B.  por«r';  1>n,  dtd;  PFlip.  fcittlfi'al*,  pota 
probahiy  of  earthenware  and  high,  but  how  diffi^ring 
from  each  other  does  not  appear ;  and,  lastly,  nnix, 
UaUack'oA,  or  r'niis,  Ittloduth',  dishes  (2  Kinps  ii. 
SO;  s»i,  13;  Prov.  iix,  24 1  A.  V. 'boeom')."  Hie 
:]X-i,  re'luph  ((em.  ripX"^),  was,  according  (o  Ge> 
senius,  a  hot  liimt,  used  fur  baking  on;  or,  as  Wi- 
ner thinks  (in  Simonis  /^z.  p.  920).  fur  cooking 
milk  or  broth,  by  throwing  it  into  tbe  veaacij  l»«t 


Rojtl  Kitchen  of  the  Andeot  AMjrl«in. 

Cook,  Chailea,  D.D.,  od*  or  tbc  foDoden  of 
French  MethodUm,  wm  bom  in  London,  Hay  31, 1787. 
Skeptical  in  youth,  ba  wM  converted  at  twen^-ooe, 
chiefly  nndat  the  Instmction  of  the  Rar.  Jacob  Stan- 
ley. Aftar  apeoding  a  few  years  u  tutor  in  a  wnii- 
nary,  he  entered  the  miniatry  of  the  Wealeyan  Heth- 
odiEt  Chupcii  in  1817.  In  1BI8  he  wai  Mnt  to  France, 
and  cMmmeoced  his  miniitry  at  Cwin,  in  Noiniandy, 
He  soon  acquired  a  good  French  ityle,  both  in  writing 
and  epeslting,  and  became  eminently  popular  and  n«e- 
ful  Bi  an  evangeliit.  The  Snnday-ecbool  Society  and 
Bible  Society  were  oriRlniited  chiefly  IhrouKh  the  ii 
pulse  given  by  him.  In  numeroui  evangelical  joi 
neve,  CBpecially  in  the  aoath  of  France,  be  preached 
in  the  Reforaied  churches  with  great  acceptance,  and 
revivals  of  religion  followed  his  labors.  His  admin- 
istrative talent  was  very  great.  Merle  d'Anbigni,  in 
a  letter  U>  M.  Gallionne,  president  of  the  French  Con- 
ference, says  that  Cook  "was  to  France,  Swilierlaiid, 
and  Sardinia  whstWealey  was  in  his  day  to  EnRlsnd." 
He  died  Feb.  21, 1868.— J.  P.  Cook,  VTf  dr  Charta  Coot 
(Paris,  1862) ;  Stevens,  Sutorj/  a/MtOodim. 

Cook,  Ruaaell  B.,  an  Amaricsn  Congregational 
derg}'man.  was  bom  in  New  Haribomugh,  Uaas., 
March  6. 1811.  After  being  for  a  short  time  In  a  Uw- 
Ter-B  office,  he  studied  theoiopy  at  tho  Theological 
Seminary  at  Anbuni.  In  1836  he  was  ordained  paster 
of  the  Congregational  church  in  Lanesboro,  Mass. 
1839  he  was  elected  secretary  of  tha  American  1 
Society,  in  which  office  he  remained  nntil  1856,11 
failing  health  obliged  him  to  retire.  He  was  a  regn- 
lar  contribotor  to  the  Aneriem  Mt—mger,  the  month- 
ly organ  of  the  society ;  and  to  Ilia  labor  the  develop- 
ment of  the  colportage  lystem  was  greatly  due.  After 
B  visit  to  Europe  in  1866,  ha  in  18i7  became  the  «ec- 
retary  of  the  Sabbath  Committee  in  New  York,  and  in 
1863  ho  added  to  his  work  on  this  committee  several 
weeks  of  eihauiting  labor  in  organising  and  energis- 
ing the  Christian  Commission  in  New  Tork.  He  died 
at  Pleasant  Valley,  near  Poujthkeepaie,  N.  T,,  Sept.  1, 
J864.— See  AimtalAntricm  delop./or  186i,  p.  S54. 


COOKMAN 

Seminary,  tlx  second  Methodist  lilerarT  laslilntiiM  It 
America ;  afterwards  was  some  time  principal  iif  Har- 
rodsburg  Academy,  and  finally  removed  to  a  farm  nasi 
".usselville,  Logan  Co.,  Jty.,  whore  he  resided  otitD 
is  death.  In  his  youth  he  was  very  studioot  sad 
irioni,  and  became  in  snbsequent  life  a  good  dasiiral 
scholar.  He  had  great  reputation  as  an  eloquent  sad 
effective  minister.  Many  were  converted  by  his  preadi- 
and  his  inSnance  was  widely  eitendad — Sum. 
Life  o/Cxi  (NaihvlUe,  1866, 13mo)i  MeUuiid 
Q-tarl.  Rtt.  April,  18S9,  p.  183 ;  Geo.  Peck,  D.D.,  Ev^ 
JfcUodwn  (N.Y.1860,l2nio,p.7),T!,  86);  Sprague, 
Aimalt,  vii,  161 ;  Summers,  Bioyraph.  Sirtdta,  p.  183. 
Cooke.  Pabsohb,  D.D.,  an  American  Congrtga- 
tional  minister,  was  bom  hi  Hadley,  Uaas.,  in  11140. 
Ha  waa  educated  at  Williams  College,  where  he  grsd- 
liited  in  1821.  In  1E26  he  was  ordained  aa  psBlcc  of 
the  Congregational  church  in  Ware,  Mass.  After  coa- 
tinning  in  this  pastorate  for  ten  or  eleven  yean,  be 
itor  of  the  First  Congregational  church  iu 
Lynn,  Mass.,  with  which  he  remained  nntil  his  iatix, 
a  period  of  twentj--eight  years.  While  paatorstLyna 
bo  established  the  "New  England  PnriUn,"  ■hich, 
after  some  time,  was  united  with  the  "  Recorder,'  im- 
der  the  n:ime  of  the  "  Puritan  Becorder,"  which  name 
was  later  clisnged  to  that  of  the  "Boston  liecoidn," 
"  '  Mr.  Cooke  became,  and  remained  until  bis 
death,  the  senior  editor.  In  18?9  be  pulilisbed  a  sa- 
in on  The  Exclutivetitu  of  Unilariavum,  and  afttr- 
irdi  several  other  controversial  writings.  He  di(4 
Lynn,  Fob.  13, 1B61.— Sea  Amwal  Amenctnt  Cj^Sop. 
/or  1864,  p.  866. 

Ccxikiiiai],  GKonoB  GniHSTO!',  one  of  the  motf  & 
tingnished  Methodist  preachers,  was  bom  Oct.  31,1801), 
BtKingiton-upon-HuU,En[!lsnd.  Hisfather.a  manof 
wealth  and  position,  waa  a  Wesleysn  local  |H^h(T,  sad 
gave  his  chililren  a  thorough  religious  (raining  and  i 
careful  academical  education.  In  eariy  youth  Caaknsa 
gave  promise  of  his  powers  to  oratory  by  apeeches  ■> 
Snnday-achoot  anoiveraariea,  etc.,  which  excited  u- 
traordinary  interest.  When  about  twenty-one  jt»ii 
old  be  visited  America  on  business  for  his  fither,  sod 
while  at  Schenectadv,  N,  T.,  he  be^^n  bis  Isbonaia 
local  preacher.  In  1881  he  returacd  to  Hull,  and  ca- 
tered into  business  with  bis  father,  exercising  his  UX- 
enta  meanwhile  sealoDslv  in  the  Wesleyan  local  nuD- 
istry.  He  continued  in 'his  father's  Rrm  during  fuur 
years,  but  with  a  restless  spirit ;  and  finally,  deciding 
to  enter  the  ministry  in  America.,  he  took  passage  for 
Philadelphia  In  1826.  After  laboring  a  few  mnntfai  ia 
that  city  as  a  local  preacher,  he  waa  received  into  Ihs 
Philadelphia  Conference  in  1826.  He  continued  in  the 
itinerant  ranks,  without  in termiaeion,  tbe  remainder  of 
his  life,  laboring  with  ii 


antly  li 


ibiiity  a 


of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  tlie  Dit- 


rt  of  Coll 


nbia. 


Mr.  Coakman  was  slight,  but  sinewy  in  pcnm,eiid 
capable  of  great  endurance.  His  arms  wire  1mi|!' 
which  gave  a  striking  pecaliarity  to  his  gestures.  In 
the  act  of  public  speaking,  every  nen-e  and  mnacleiif 
his  lithe  f^me  seemed  instinct  with  the  exdtenieBtof 
his  Buiject  In  18SS-S9  he  was  chsplain  to  the  Ancf- 
ican  Congrees,  and  the  Hsii  of  Ke presents ti™  at 
Washington  never  echoed  more  eloquent  tones  llisu 
during  his  chaplaincy  to  Congreas.  Severs]  ef  hii 
Cook,  Valentltie,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 1  distinguished  hearers,  both  in  Congrcae  and  the  ei«- 


D  Virginia;  was  converted  in  youth;  entered 
Cokcsbury  College  while  a  boy,  where  he  waa  one  of 
tie  four  boys  placed  on  tbe  charity  foundation,  and, 
after  a  partial  course  in  1787,  entered  the  itinerant  mia- 
Istry  in  1788.  In  1794-7  he  was  presiding  elder  on 
Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg  districta:  and  in  1798,  mie- 
tionary  to  Kentucky.    Inl799  betook  cba^eof  Bethel 


pealB.  Imsglnatlnn  was  Ur.  Cookraan's 
mental  facnlty.  It  can  hardly  be  dnnbted  atl.Ui 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  production  of  some  voit  ia 
this  rare  and  difficult  department  of  literaim.  he 
might  have  become  a  worthy  disciple  of  the  gltri™ 
old  dreamer  of  Bedfbrd  .lall.  On  tho  11th  of  Miirh, 
1841,  be  embarked  in  the  Ul-&ted  steamer  Freadnt 


COOFER,  Vy.KKIVJ,  41 

Itar  K  Tiilt  to  Engluid,  and  wu  lUTar  beard  of  more. 
Fbw  of  hii  wrmoDI  and  apeecbtia  hava  twan  publialied. 
A  amall  volams  of  ^p«aUi  (S.  Y.  1841,  ISmo)  eon- 
Ulna  Ihooa  Rhrced  to  aboTe  and  aome  othen.  .Some 
KCDont  of  him  ia  f^ttn  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Ridgaway,  in  hi* 
£i/r  o/lkt  Rai.  Alfred  Cookwun,  the  nn  (K.Y.  1878). 
— JVofimoI  JVavacMC.  Aag.  ISfiA;  ^MAodiU  Quart. 
AfpanD,  JuIt,  ISSl;  Spiague,  ilanaii,  vii,  711. 

Coopar,  Bmeklel,  an  carlj  and  calabtatad  Hcth- 
odiat  pnachcr,  bom  In  Caroliae  CoaDt7,  Hd.,  Feb.  2S, 
1763.  He  joined  Cho  Conferencs  in  1T8A ;  lahond  from 
Boatou  to  Baltimore  ai  a  traTelting  preacher  for  manj 
Toara,  and  was  editor  and  general  agent  of  the  Book 
Concern  from  1799  to  1804.  His  abilltiea  for  thia  of- 
fice were  toon  sbown  to  be  of  tho  higheat  order.  Ho 
gave  to  the  "Book  CoDcem"  an  impnlw  and  organ- 
UatioD  vbich  baa  leodered  it  the  largeit  pabliiUag 
eatablishmeiit  ia  tho  Now  World.  After  mannglag 
ita  interesta  with  admlrubla  ancceu  Ibr  aix  jean,  dur- 
ing which  itt  capital  itock  had  rlaen  from  almost  notb- 
Idj  to  torty-flvs  thonaand  dollars,  he  nanmed  hia  itin- 
erant labom,  and  continued  them  In  Brooklyn,  New 
Tork  city,  Wilmington,  Dal..  Baltimore,  etc.,  for  eight 
jtaxi,  when  he  located.  He  remained  in  the  latter  re- 
lation daring  eight  years,  when  ha  re-eotered  the  trav- 
elling ministry,  but  was  soon  oflerwarda  placed  on  the 
anpamamerar;  list  in  the  Philadelphia  ConfsreDce. 
He  continacd,  however,  for  many  yean  to  perfbrm  ex- 
teniive  service,  TlsiCing  the  churchea,  and  part  of  tho 
time  suparintendlng  ■  district.  During  Che  latter 
jean  of  hia  life  he  raaided  in  Philadelphia,  where  he 
died  Feb.  21, 1847.  Howaadisdnguishe.!  forpulpit  elo- 
quence, logical  ability,  and  eapecially  fut  his  oiultifa- 
tioas  knowledge,  which  obtained  for  him  among  tau 
brethrao  the  title  of  "  the  Walking  EocyclopMdia." 
He  published  a  •'  Fnneral  Sermon"  on  Rov.  Jobn  Dick- 
eiu,  and  "Uie  Substance  of  a  Funeral  Discourse  on 
Rbv.  Franeia  Atbury,"  etc.,  Pbiiad.  1819.  The  latter 
waa  a  32mD  volume  of  230  pagei  (Slavens,  Bid.  of 
J/erA.  ijnj.  CtarcA.  vol.  iil;  SpragDe,.4iMSiib,Tii,  108; 
J/saUet  of  Cot^tratex*,  iv,  104). 

Coopar,  Bamnel,  D.D.,  ■  Congregatianal  min- 
ister, wan  bom  in  Boston,  March  38,  ITifi.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1743,  and  was  chosen  collegiate 
pastor  with  Dr.  Colnua  in  the  Brattle-street  Church, 
Dec.  SI,  1741.  He  was  ord^ned  pastor  Hay  SI,  1746, 
and  died  Dec.  28,  I78S.  He  was  made  D.D.  by  the 
University  of  Edinbnrgh  in  1767.  Dr.  Cooper  pnb- 
liebed  a  few  occasional  seroiona,  and  wrote  contribu- 
tions for  the  Boston  GaxtUt  and  Fud^tndait  Ledgtr. 
He  was  elected  president  of  Harvard  in  1774,  bnt  did 
not  accept.— Spragae,  Aiaudt,  I,  440. 

Cooper.  Bamnsl  C,  a  Methodiit  Episcopal  min- 
ister, wss  bom  in  Baltimore  1799,  converted  in  Ohio 
1618,  acted  efficiently  as  eibener  and  local  preacher 
for  soma  years,  and  entered  the  itinerancy  In  18S7. 
He  ilied  at  Greencastle,  Ind.,  July,  1856.  He  lllled 
the  positions  of  pastor,  presiding  elder,  and  agent  for 
the  Asbury  Univertitr  with  axcellent  aDcc«s«.  He 
was  twice  delsgal«  to  the  General  Conference,  and  his 
attendance  at  the  Conference  of  1856  was  his  last  ser- 
vice to  the  Church.— JfiiKKei  nf  Confavna.  vl,  184. 

Cooper,  Tttomaa,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  bora  at  Maidstone,  Eng.,  in  1819 ;  emigrated 
to  Antcrica  while  young  ;  was  converted  at  Mount 
Vemon,  Ohio,  while  a  boy;  studied  with  snccess  at 
the  Korwalk  semlnaiy  under  Dr.  Thomson,  and  en- 
tered the  Itinerancy  In  1812.  As  an  agent  of  the  Ohio 
Wealeyan  University,  a  seamen's  missionary,  and  in 
the  regular  pastoral  work,  he  was  very  able  and  uae- 
nil.  until  hU  sndden  death  by  cholera,  July,  1849.— 
Thomson,  Biosrapliical  Sttlchti,  p.  ISl. 

Cooper,  'WUllam,  a  Congregattonal  minister, 
wu  a  Dative  of  Boston,  bora  in  IGM,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  17IS.  He  commenced  preaching  in  1715,  and 
wat  ordained  collegiate  pastor  of  the  Brattle-street 


Church,  May  28, 1716.     Ha  was  elected  preaident  of 

Harvard  m  1787,  but  declined  the  honor.  He  died 
Dec  12, 1743.  Ur.  Cooper  published  A  Tract  defni- 
ing  Inoculation  Jar  lie  Smadfox  (plY);  The  Doctrine 
of  Predeatiuation  inefo  Ufa  mndicatfd  tn  four  Sermeme 
^740);  and  several  occasional  discourses. — Spragne, 
Annaii,  i,  288. 

Co'oa  [or  rather  Coa,  aa  it  ia  naoally  written] 
(Ki3c.  contracted  for  Kdwc,  Angliciied  "Coos"  only 
In  Acts  xxi.  1),  a  small  island  (about  80  stadia  in  cir- 
cumference, Stnbo  X,  488),  odd  of  the  Sporades,  in  tho 
Mgrniu  Sea,  near  the  coast  of  Carin  In  Asia  Minor,  and 
almost  between  the  promootories  on  which  the  cities 
CniduB  and  Halicamuaius  were  situated  (l>liu.  y,  36>. 
Its  more  ancient  names  wdtd  Cea,  SlofAjilia,  Ngmpliaa, 
and  Afervpii,  of  which  tho  last  was  the  most  common 
(Thucyd.  Tiii,4I).  Homer  mentions  it  as  a  populous 
settlement  (/f.  ii,  184 ;  xiv,  ibS),  no  doubt  of  Dorian 
origin.  Its  fertility  is  attested  by  its  celebrity  for 
wine  (Plin.  xv,  18;  ivii,  80),  iu  costly  oiotmenta 
(Atben.  XV,  caa),  and  its  f.ibrics  ofa  tnnspannt  text- 
ure (Horace,  OJ.  iv,  18, 7 ;  Tibull.  ii,  4,  G).  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Hippocrates.  "It  is  ppedfled.  In  tho 
edict  which  resulted  (h>m  the  communicalions  of  Si- 
mon Maccabans  with  Rome,  as  one  of  the  places  which 
contained  Jewish  residents  (1  Mace  iv,  23).  Jose- 
phna,  quoting  Btrabo,  luenUons  that  the  Jews  had  a 
great  amount  of  treasure  stored  there  during  the  llith- 
ridatic  war  (Jat.  xlv,  7,  2).  Frum  the  aame  source 
we  leain  that  Julius  Csaar  issued  an  edict  in  favor  of 
the  Jews  of  Cos  (ib.  10,  IS).  Herod  the  Great  confer- 
r«l  many  tkvors  on  the  island  (Joseph.  ITar,  I,  21, 1 1 ) ; 
and  an  inscription  in  BOckh  (No.  2602)  aaaoclales  it 
with  Herod  the  Tetrarch.  Tho  apostle  Paul,  on  the  re. 
turn  ftom  his  third  missionary  )oumay.  passed  the 
□ight  here,  after  sailing  from  Uiletus.  The  next  day 
be  went  on  to  Rhodes  (Acts  xil,  1).  The  proximity 
of  Cos  to  these  two  Important  places,  and  to  Cnidus, 
and  its  position  at  the  entrance  to  the  Archipelago 


wClan- 


from  the  oast,  made  it  an  island  of  considerable  coni«- 
qnence.  It  was  celebrated  also  for  a  temple  of  X*- 
culaplut,  to  which  a  school  of  physicians  was  attached, 

and  which  was  virtually,  from  its  votive  m-"-'- 

seum  of  anstomy  and  pathology.  The  en 
dius  bestowed  upon  Cos  the  priTileges  of  a  tnM  el 
(Tac.  Ann.  xil.  61).  The  cbieftown  (of  the  same  name) 
was  on  the  N.E.,  near  a  promontory  called  Scandarium, 
and  perhaps  it  is  to  the  town  that  reference  is  made 
in  the  Acts  (I-  '■)"  (Smith).  It  is  now  called  aian- 
CO  or  StaneUo  (a  corruplion  of  Ii  rdv  Kil),  and  pre- 
•ents  to  the  view  fine  plantalionB  of  lemon-trees,  In- 
termixed with  stately  maples.  Its  popnlation  is  about 
eight  thousand,  who  moetly  profess  the  Greek  relig- 
ion (Turner's  rour  n  Ihe  Ueanl,  ili,  41).  "  There  b 
a  monograph  on  Ckis  by  KDiter  (De  Co  Innda.  Halle, 
1888),  and  a  vorj-  usefiil  paper  on  tho  subject  hy  Col. 
Leake  0"  "la  Tram,  of  the  /ioi,al  Soc.  nf  Liierabirt, 
vol.  1.  second  series).  An  acconnt  of  the  island  will 
be  found  in  Clarke's  TnatU  (vol.  ii,  pt.  I,  p.  196-218, 


COPE  6( 

■nd  Tot.  11,  pi.  ii,  p.  S31-333) ;  but  ths  but  dsMription 
Is  In  Row  (Aum  nock  Km.  Ralieartuum,  V.  i.  w. 
H4ll«,  1662,  witb  whicb  bU  Rriten  aH/dtn  Grieei.  /k- 
ttln  Bhoald  bs  compared,  vol.  U  [1S4S],  p.  86-9! ;  Tol. 
Ii!  [1Mb'],  p.  136-139)"  (Smitb).  Sen  al»  tba  Pfnng 
Cydopadia  4nd  Smith'!  Diet.  ofCltai.  Geoffr.  t.  v.  Co*. 

Cope  (Lot.  capo,  Fr,  chapt),  a  wrt  of  clcuk,  Ibnn- 
I  ing  p*rt  of  the  Mcerdotal  rcBtmoDti  In  tba  Bomui 
Cbmcb.  It  na>  ftonnerlj  worn  bj  the  clergy  of  tba 
Church  of  Englaad  during  divino  Mrvic«,  but  has  fall- 
en into  dlnoss,  except  on  each  occisionB  u  a  corona- 
tion. It  leacbos  from  the  neelt  niiarlj  to  the  tvt,  and 
Is  open  in  front,  except  >t  tbe  top,  where  it  ii  fastened 
by  s  band  or  clup.  Tbe  canons  of  the  Church  of 
England  dsicribe  it  as  a  part  of  clerical  disss.  See 
Du  Cange,  s.  t.  Cupa. 

CopiStSB  (toriara!,  from  roiruiw,  to  toil),  nnder- 
taken,  graTe-diggers ;  In  ancient  times  a  aabordinita 
class  of  serTOnts  of  the  Charch  and  clergy,  intrusted 
irith  the  care  of  funerals  and  the  baiial  of  tbe  dead. 
They  are  also  called  vtipilhnri,  h-ipelionei.  vtrpoSdir- 
rai:  also  ordo /ottariomm,  Joiaortt,  graviydiggDra; 
iKlicari',  bearers  of  the  bier ;  and  cdlegiaS,  decani, 
collcgialu  and  deans.  Tho  onier  is  supposed  to  havo 
been  firM  instituted  by  Constantinc.  and  in  some  codos 
tbcy  aro  designated  cferici. — Bingluni,  Orig.Ecd.  Ill, 

Coping  (aim  called  capping),  a  coarse  of  atones, 
ratlicr  flat  or  eloping,  to  throw  olTtho  water,  especially 
Qsed  in  tbe  end  walla  of  Gothic  edillceB. 

COPl^a(n\^,U'phac\,ahand-ina^;  Sept.  rrl 
yitaa)  occurs  in  1  Kings  vil,  9,  as  an  architectural 
term  for  the  oorbUt  (iBHtali)  or  projectin;;  stones  In  a 
wall  on  which  the  ends  of  the  timbers  are  laid.  Sea 
Corbel. 

Copooins  (Grsciied  Kiuruviof),  the  Brat  Roman 
procurator  of  JudKS,  eatabllshed  by  Augustus  after 
tho  banlahmonl  of  Archelana  (Joaephus,  ITar,  ii,  d,  1), 
A.D.  G.  He  was  of  the  equestrian  oc^er  (josepbns, 
Ant.  xviil,  1,  1),  and  was  tuceeeded  by  M.  Ambivus 
(ii,  3,  2),  A.D.  9.  He  was  probably  the  same  person 
as  Calus  Coponius,  a  prKtor,  who,  having  eaponscdtbo 


tnwiy  escaped  e: 


nbytl 


Smith's  Di«.  o/Cfan.  Bioj.  ».  T. 

Copleston.  Editabd,  D.D,,  bbbop  of  Llandaff 
and  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  was  bom  at  Offwcll,  hi  Deron- 

shira.  of  which  parish  bis  father  was  at  once  tbe  patron 
and  incumbent,  Feb.  3,1776.  In  1791  be  was  elected 
to  a  schoiarsbip  at  Corpns  Christi,  Oxford ;  in  1793  be 
obtained  the  chancellor'a  prize  for  a  Latin  poem ;  and 
in  1705  be  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College.  In 
1797  he  was  a^^inted  college-tutor,  though  be  had 
not  then  taken  bis  degree  of  M.A.  In  1803  he  was 
elected  prafeseor  of  poetry  to  tba  Unirarsit]'.  He 
published  In  18IS  the  substance  of  the  lecture*  which 
be  bad  delivered,  under  tbe  title  of  Prtrlicti'mtt  Aca- 
dntine,  a  work  which  gained  him  a  high  rrpntation 
for  oleRsnt  i*tin  composition.  In  IBH  he  was  elect- 
ed provost  of  Oriel  College,  and  soon  afterwards  the 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  diploma. 
His  ablest  work  is  An  Ivqaii-y  intn  lie  Doctrine  of  Nt- 
imifg  imd  Prrdritinalion,  utilh  ft'ota  and  an  Appaidix 
mrhrlllAArHde  o/ Ihe  Chtirch  c/ fa^fond  (London, 
]«31,  «vo).  Between  the  yeara  1811  and  1822  he  con- 
trtbiitod  many  articles  to  tho  QmrteAy  Jteeietc.  In 
18->ij  he  was  appointed  dean  of  Chester,  and  in  1837  he 
succeeded  Dr.  Sumner  in  the  bishopric  ofUaudaffand 
desnerr  of  St.  Paul's.  He  died  Oct.  U,  1W9.  Dr. 
Wbstely  poWished,  after  Copleston'a  death,  hia  Be- 
f»mu.  ,rilk  Urmint^rmcri  o/A«  C/r  (8vo>.  See  also 
W.  J.  Copletton,  Jfonoira  «/  E.  Cnpleiton.  vilh  Silte- 
(foM_/Voin  Aw  DioTy  and  Comjpomfcnce,  etc.  (London, 


Coppw  Cr"CSnj,  fMcb'sAs&l  [whence  also  propcrlj 
a*  an  adjective,  vm,  nocfaut',  Atomb,  fem.  nc^ro, 
necAiuAoA'] ;  Greek  xa^'of)  oeeura  in  tho  comisoB 
translation  of  the  Bible  only  in  Ecra  Tiii,  27  ("  two 
vessels  ofcopiwr,  pnclons  as  gold,"  L  e.  probably  of  k 
purer  kind  or  more  finely  wrought  than  ordinary),  b»- 
ing  elaewbero  incorrectly  nnd^ed  "  brats,"  and  occ*- 
alonally  even  "steel"  (2  Sam.  xxil,  S6;  Jer.  xv,  IS), 
i.  e.  bsrdaned  so  as  to  take  a  temper  like  iron).  "  Tha 
expression  '  bow  of  ateel'  (Job  xx,  31 ;  Psa.  xtuI,  E4) 
abould  therefore  be  rendered  'bow  of  copper,'  tlnco 
the  term  for  ateel  is  rra^?,  or  IIBEB  bl-ia  (nortker* 
iron).  Tbe  ancients  eoubl  hardly  bare  applied  copper 
to  these  purposea  without  possessing  some  jndicioiia 
system  of  alloys,  or  perhaps  some  forgotten  secret  for 
rendering  tho  metal  harder  and  more  elastic  than  w* 
csn  make  it.  It  has  been  maintained  that  the  cut- 
ting-toots of  tbe  Egyptians,  witb  which  tbey  worked 
the  granite  and  porphyry  of  their  monuments,  wera 
mads  of  hroDoe,  in  which  copper  was  a  chief  ingredi- 
ent. Tbe  arguments  on  this  point  are  found  In  WIU 
klnaoD  (Jnc.  i^.  ill,  349,  etc.),  but  they  are  not  eonclu. 
sivc.  'There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  tbe  an  ofmsk- 
ing  iron  and  excellent  ateel,  which  has  for  ages  tieen 
practised  in  India,  may  not  have  been  equally  known 
to  the  Egyptians.  Tbe  quickness  with  wbicb  iron  de- 
composes will  fully  account  for  the  non-discoTetT'  of 
any  remains  of  steel  or  iron  Implements.  For  analyses 
of  the  bronzo  tools  and  articles  found  in  Egypt  and 
Aaayria,  aee  Napier  {AneiaU  Worttn  m  ifrlal,  p.  fS). 
This  metal  is  usually  found  at  pyritea  (lulphurct  of 
copper  and  iron),  malachite  (carb.  of  copper),  or  in  Ibe 
state  of  oxide,  and  occasionally  in  a  native  state,  prin- 
cipally in  tbe  New  World.  It  was  almost  eicluaiTcly 
used  by  tho  ancients  for  common  purposes,  for  which  ita 
elsstlcand  ductile  nature  tendereditpracdcally  availa- 
ble (see  Smith's  Diet.  a/Cbm.  Antiq.  b.t.  Acs).  It  is  ■ 
question  whether  in  the  earliest  times  Iron  was  known. 
In  India,  however,  Ita  manufacture  bos  been  practised 
from  ■  very  ancient  date  by  a  proceaa  exceedingly 
simple,  and  possibly  a  similar  one  waa  employed  t^ 
tbe  ancient  Egyptians  (Napier,  vl  np,  p.  IST).  Tbcre 
is  no  certain  mention  of  inm  in  tbe  Scriptures ;  and, 
from  tbe  allusion  to  it  as  knonn  (o  Tubal-Caln  (Gen. 
Iv,  a),  tome  have  ventured  tn  doabt  whether  la  Ihst 
place  bna  means  iron  (WDklnion,  Ame.  Eg.  iii,  341). 
The  vessels  of '  line  copper,'  mentioned  in  Eira  viil,  77 
(comp.  1  Esdr.  viil,  67, 'vaacs  of  CurinAxan  lirau*), 
were  perbsps  similar  to  tboMi  of  'bright  braaa'  in  I 
Kinga  vii,  45;  Dan.  i,  G.  They  may  have  been  of 
aruAalctim,  like  tbe  Persian  or  Indian  vasea  found 
among  the  treasures  of  Darius  (ArittoL  Ih  MirA, 
AutcvSi.').  There  were  two  kinds  of  this  metal,  one 
Boftiral  (Serv.  ad  jCn.  ili,  87),  which  Pliny  (ff.  \eL 
ixxiv,  !,  3)  says  bad  long  bo«i  extinct  in  hb  time, 
but  whicb  Chanlin  alludes  to  ai  found  in  Samatra  un- 
der the  name  calnibaei  the  other  an^frial  (identUed 
by  some  with  electrum,  iJAtcrpoi'.  whence  the  mataken 
spelling  aurichalcum),  which  Bochart  (JTierot.  vi,  ch. 
16,  p.  871  sq.)  considers  to  be  the  Hebrew  -^-'T'l 
cAaiJmal',  a  word  compounded  (he  says)  of  CH!  (c<q>- 
per),  and  Chald.  K^blS  (?  gold,  Eiek.  1,  t,  87  j  Viii,  S). 
On  tbia  substance,  aee  Pansan.  v,  12;  Plin.  xxxiii,  1, 
§  23.  GescniuB  conaidera  the  xa^'oXifiavor  of  Rev, 
i,  16,  to  be  x"^^  Xi]rapoc=^Odn ;  be  diHen  (torn 
Bochart,  and  argues  that  it  meant  merely  smooth  or 
polished  brass,"  See  AuBKa.  'Hany  of  the  an* 
cient  copper  alloys  hod  to  stand  working  by  tbe 
hammer;  and  Ibeir  working  waa  aucb,  ciiber  lor 
tougbiieas  or  hardness,  that  we  cannot  at  the  pressM 
day  make  anything  like  it"  (Napier,  ul  tap.  p.  64). 
The  llciicans  and  Fetuvians^  when  fint  visited  by  itt* 


COPPERSMITH 


SpuiUrdi,  were  in  pouauion  of  tampered  implemaots 
□r  copiier,  and  bad  th«  mwuia  ef  Bmelting,  reflninti, 
and  torgiiig  thLa  metal.  They  were  also  sbla  U>  bsid- 
en  it  b^  allo^iDg.  "The  meUl  lued  far  thia  latUr 
purpose  wai  (m;  and  the  various  Perurlin  trtidea 
■objected  to  analyili  are  found  lo  coDialn  from  three 
to  aiz  per  caoL  of  that  metal"  (Sillimau'a  JourmtU,  U, 
Al).     See  Hetau 

Tnbnl-Caia  i*  reeordad  la  the  flnt  aitiflcer  in  brua 
>Dd  nun  (Gen.  iv,  3S).  In  the  time  of  Solomon,  Hi- 
ruD  of  lyio  wu  calobnt«d  as  ■  worker  in  braaa  (1 
King!  vii,U;  ixtmp.  2  Chron.  ii,  14).  Tojodge  from 
Ueau>I  iOp.  tl  Diet,  134)  and  Lncrat.  (r,  I2B6),  the 
KTt  of  working  In  copper  waa  even  prior  tothat  in  iron, 
pRkbabl^  !iom  its  being  foand  In  larger  maieea,  and 
from  iCa  requiring  leaa  labor  in  the  procesa  of  manu- 
facture. Paleatine  abounded  itt  copper  (Deut.  vlil.  i\ 
tha  mines  being  apparenllj  worked  bj  (he  IsraeliUs 
(I»-  lit  Oi  lud  David  left  behind  him  an  immenie 
qoantlty  of  It  lo  be  employed  in  building  the  Temple 
(1  Chron.  nil,  B-14).  Of  copper  ware  made  all  sorte 
of  veiaeU  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple  (Lev.  vl 
Kom.  xvi,  391  !  Cbron.  iv,  16;  Ezra  viii,  2T),  weap- 
on*, and  more  eapeciallj  halmele,  armor,  ahitlda,  apeare 
(1  Sam.  xvli,  6,  0,  38 ;  3  Sam.  xii,  IS),  and  bowa  (2 
Sam.  xxii.  35),  also  chaini  (Judg.  xvi,  21),  and  even 
mirrora  (E:tod.  xixviil,  8 ;  Job  xxxvii,  IS).  The 
larger  veaiwis  were  mouldod  In  foundriea,  anch  ■«  lav- 
an,  the  great  one  boinq  called  "the  copper  »ea"  (2 
Kings  nxv,  18 ;  1  Cbnn.  nviii,  8) ;  also  the  piibirs  for 
architectural  omnmenta  (1  Kings  vii).  It  woold,  bow- 
cnr,  appear  (1  Kbigs  vii,  14)  that  the  art  of  copper- 
fonnding  was,  even  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  but  iittlo 
known  among  the  Jewi,  and  was  pecniiar  to  fortiRn- 
era,  paKiculariy  the  Phmnlcians,  who  aeem  to  have 
imported  the  material  and  even  wroaght  articles  from 
a  dutant  quarter  (Eiak,  xxvli,  13),  probably  from  the 
lIoaAl,  etc,  who  worked  the  copper  mines  in  tho 
neighborhood  of  Mount  Cauciuua.  UlcbaDlls  {ilo$. 
RttU,  Iv,  21T,  314)  observe*  that  Moses  seema  to  have 
given  to  copper  vessels  the  prefereooe  orer  earthen 
(Lev.  vi,  28),  and  on  that  ground  endeavoni  to  ramavo 
the  common  projndico  against  their  nse  for  culinary 
parposes.  From  copper,  nlso,  money  was  coined  (Ei^xek. 
xvi,S6;  Matt  x,B).    SeeBaaaa. 

COPPEBSMITH  (xnXouf,  q.  i.  bnuifr.  IVom  xaA- 
r.ic,  copptT),  a  worker  in  metals  of  any  kind,  a  tmith 
(Hesycfa.  s.  v,) ;  a  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used  in 
other  Greek  writings  (Horn.  Od.  Ix,  S91).  Alexander, 
an  opponent  of  Paul,  la  designated  as  being  of  this 
trade  (2  Tim.  iv,  14).  See  MecqaSic. 
Coptto  CbnrolL  See  Com. 
Coptio  Iiaag(UIB«,  a  mixture  of  ancient  Ef^yp- 
tian  irith  Greek  and  Arabic  words,  spoken  In  Egypt 
after  the  introdactioa  of  Christianity.  It  is  not  i 
a  spoken  language,  having  been  everywhero  auppli 
od  by  the  Anbic.  It  lias  not  been  spoken  in  Lower 
Egypt  since  the  tenth  century,  but  lingered  for  some 
centuries  longer  in  Oppei  Egypt.  It  ia,  however,  still 
Bsad  by  the  Copts  in  tliair  religions  services,  but  the 
leasona,  after  being  read  In  Coptic,  are  explained  in 
Arabic.  The  Coptic  literature  contista  in  great  part 
of  Uvea  of  eainta  and  homlliea,  with  a  few  GnoHIc 
-works  (Chambers,  s.  v.).  It  is  eapecialJy  interesting 
as  giving  ns  a  claw  to  the  meaning  of  the  iitrogtspUet 
(q.  v.)  after  they  have  bean  phonetically  deciphered. 
it  ia  divided  into  three  dialecto,  the  Hemphitic,  or 
Lower  Egyptian,  which  is  the  mc«  polished,  and  la 
aomelimei  exclotively  called  Coptic;  the  Sahidic,  or 
Upper  Egyptian  ;  and  tbo  Baahmnric,  which  was  spo- 
ken in  the  Delta,  and  of  which  only  a  few  icmalns  ti- 
lat  (Aim;  (>DfapRliri,  s,  v.).  See  Eqtpt.  A  fall  list 
of  works  on  the  subject  is  given  by  Jokwici,  BMiMhtea 
jBffyptiaca,  p.  101  eq.,  233 ;  also  the  Snpplem.  p.  29  >q. 
Bee  Cons. 
The  gender  of  DODW  i*  indlcatad  by  the  brmt  of  the 


COPTIC  LANGUAGE 


n 

IS 


Vida.  ... 
Oamtna. , . 
Dalda 


Hidi.... 
Thida.... 
I&uda . . . 
Eabba... 
LaDla... 


Ui.. 


Fei 

Hori 

Khei 

Bhei 

Jiuyia 

Skima 

Del  (ligature) 


B   & 

r  u 

G   e 

H     H 

;  e  e 

i  ^     * 

Ir  k 
^.  >^ 

H  Ji 

E  £ 

10  o 

,  n  n 

'  C   c 

T    T 

T    T 

X  X 

**•  -^ 
^  q 

t  ft. 


o  ihort 

p,b 


COPnC  LITURGY  602  COPTS 

■rUcle,  nunely,  pi,  p,  f,  tor  the  muc. ;  t,  Ih,  li,  tbr  tli*  ;  which  havs  be«n  repMtedly  mpplled  b^  the  Bibia  8o> 
fcm, ;  »',  nen,  for  the  eomnioD  pinr.  The  timple  artl-  detj' (500  la  1859,  at  the  KHjueteoTDr.Tittuii).  Tba 
cle  is,  Binj;.  u,  plur,  haa.  The  plur.  of  noana  i*  ax-  iduiIdd  wu  subsoqnently  tranBfernil  to  the  care  of 
pnsscd  parUj  bj  the  tanDlmtkHi,  u  -t,  hi,  -y,  -z ;  ^  the  Daitad  PreBbjteriaa  Charch  of  the  United  Sta^ 
psrtlj'  by  (in  internal  change.  The  o«i  are  auppUed  '  and  hia  aiace  then  greatly  incTBaaed  in  extent  and  Im- 
by  the  enclitic  additional  nam.  -aye,  gen.  -tntt,  dat,  '  pottance.  Severn]  native  eongregetiani  have  been 
and  accus.  -r.  Tbe  idjectlTea  are  Indeclinable,  bnt  constituted,  and  have  been  oi^nlied  into  the  Uianon- 
are  compared  by  means  of  Ana  —  more,  ennaia  —  very,  ary  Preabyteij  of  Egypt,  in  connection  with  tbe  Geo- 
Thenumcralaare:  1,  uoi;  2,  ouk,-  S,  lAoni,'  i,fidit;  eral  Aisembly  of  the  Chnrch  in  tbe  United  8lat«a. 
6,tiiti  G,tou;  l,iiuiMhf;  %,  ikmHi!  9,  ptibs  10,mirft,etc.  I  At  the  General  Aaaembly  for  1867  the  fullowintc  (U. 
The  ordinala  are  fbrmed  from  these  l>y  the  addition  of  :  tiatica  of  the  Pnabytery  of  E(!ypt  were  n^ioited : 
•mak.  The  peraonal  pronouna  are  mot^l,  aitkak  miniBterB,9;  congregationa,  3 ;  &niillea,46;  eomms- 
(maac.)  and  mUo  (fern.)  — thon,  nJAo/'  — he,  endliw—  nicsnta,  126.  Bealdn  a  namber  of  valoable  miaaioo- 
ahe,  anun— we,  auhdtat—yt,  ntAAi— they.  Ahhre-  scboola,  there  la  a  theological  school  for  training  tbe^ 
vlated  furnis  of  theae  are  naed,  aome  aa  poasea^vea,  logical  etudenti  In  Oiiool.  For  eeTeral  yeara  tbe  mia- 
etc.,  othcn  aa  auffixes  to  nouna,  verba,  and  particlea.  aion  hai  received  a  contribntjon  of  £1000  aaunally 
Bat  instead  of  tbem  the  worda  ro  (i.  e.  "  mouth"),  tot  tiam  the  mabarsjab  Dboleep  Singh,  beeidei  oci^uiaaal 
0.  e.  "Iiand"),  etc.,  are  commonly  employed,  with  libera]  donations,  the  maharajah  having  met  his  wib 
their  varioua  inflectiona.  The  tensea  are  tbnned  part-  in  one  of  ttie  miaalon-achoole  at  Cairo.  The  maba- 
ly  by  additional  ayllables,  and  partly  by  means  of  '  rajah  alao  preeented  tbe  miaslonarlea  at  Cairo  with  a 
anxiliaries.  There  ore  grammars  of  the  language  by  '  printlng-prex,  which,  up  to  1867,  baaiaaBeda  aeleclia) 
Eh^her  (Rome,  1636),  Blumberg  (Leipiig,  1716),  Tuli  of  the  bonk  of  Psalma  and  SODO  copiea  of  Brown'a 
(Borne,  1778),  Sciioli  (Oxford,  1778),  Valperga  (Par-  Skari  CaUM*».  The  Coptic  patriarch  Inrtllated  a 
ma,  1783),  Tattam  (Lend.  18B0,  2d  ed.  18S3),  Rose llini  fitrce  peraecution  againat  all  the  Copta  asaociating  with 
(Rome,  1837),  Peyron  (Turin,  1841),  Schwartio  (Berl.  the  miaatonariea,  causing  their  cblMren  to  he  L««tcn 
1860),  Uhlemann  (l.px.  IBfiS) ;  and  dictionariea  by  La  and  withdrawn  from  the  schoulo,  and  buming  all  tbe 
Cross  (Oxford,  ITTG),  Tattam  (ib.  I8B6),  Peyron  (Tn-  I  BiUlea  and  other  religious  books  be  could  lay  hands 
rin,  1835),  and  Parthey  (Berl.  18M).     See  Nive,  J/o»- '  on.    The  Unaautman  aulhoritica  at  firat  countenanced 

lUMd/j  ifc  fa  ionjuetVipte  (in  thefliiwe  CtuAofijua,  Lou-   "'  "        ■   -  " 

vain,  18&3).     For  a  reading-book  the  learner  may  nso 

the  ao-called  Purir  Btphia,  published  by  PetermaDii   |_ 

(Latin  version  by  Schwartie,  Berlin,  1861).— Pieier,        IL  DQCtnntt.—U  haa  already  been  remarked  that 

UmKTiil-LeiikoH,  iz,  'li.  tlm  Copta  are  Monophysitea  (q,  v.).     Tbey  bold  seven 

CopUo  LitniBy-    SeeL.TnnoT.  T'^T^a    '^^'^T^^^^^^y^^J^A^'^'^'f^:. 

_  _  „  dren  Mrty  days,  and  that  of  girls  dghty  days,  and  ad- 

CopUo  Vernon.  See  Eoiptias  Vebbiosb.  oiinisUr  it  only  in  cbureh.  In  case  of  emergency, 
CoptA,  a  denominetion  of  Manophysite  Christiana  tbi^-  substitute  baptiim  for  anointing.  They  agrea 
In  Egypt.  Some  writers  derive  tbe  name  from  Cnptot,  wLIh  the  Greek  durch  In  using  trine  Immersion,  and 
once  B  great  city  !n  Upper  Egypt(Wilkins;  Pococke),  alao  in  the  doctrine  and  adminittration  of  tbe  Lotd'i 
but  it  is  generally  taken  aa  an  abbreviation  of  the  Supper.  Confeasion  among  them  ia  ran,  and  ta  gen- 
word  Aiyiiirrof.  The  native  Christians  of  Egypt  orally  followed  by  nnction.  Unction  in  general  la 
chose  this  name  when  tbe  Monophysite  doctrines  he-  used  among  them  very  extensively  in  the  case  of  sick- 
came  prevalent  among  them,  and  they,  on  this  account, '  ness,  and  la  administered  not  only  to  tbe  sick,  but  also 
Ml  out  with  the  court  of  Constantinople.  Tbe  Mono-  '  to  the  hy-etanders  and  to  the  dead.  They  invoke  tba 
pbydtes  chose  their  own  patriarch,  while  the  imperial  saints,  pray  for  the  dead,  and  venerate  images  and  ral- 
court  sustained  an  orthodox  patriarch  at  Alexandria,  ica,  hot  they  lejoct  all  sculptured  tepreaentationa  ex- 
The  MouopbysltaB  callod  themselves  EggpUan  ta  Cop-  cept  tbe  crosr.  Their  fasts  are  long,  frequent,  and 
tic  Christians,  and  gave  to  their  opponents  the  nick-  rigorous.  They  oliaerrc  four  Lentf — one  before  East- 
name  ilflduift,  i.  e.  Imperial  Christiana  (from  Heiek,  ei,  which  commences  nine  days  earlier  than  in  tbe 
king ;  see  Neander,  Ch,  /Till.  vol.  iii).  Latin  Church  j  a  second  after  tbe  week  of  Pentecoet, 

I.  Butory. — The  Copts  are  not  in  unmixed  race,  which  lasts  thirteen  days;  a  third  after  the  feaat  of 
Their  ancestors  in  Ibe  earlier  times  cf  Christianity  In-  Assumption,  lasting  nfteen  days ;  and  a  fourth  hefon 
temurried  with  Greeks,  Nubians,  and  Abyssinians.  Christmas,  which  Utts  foity-tbroe  days  fbr  tbe  cler- 
Afler  tbe  condemnation  of  Monopbysitism  bv  the  <  gy  and  twenty-three  fbr  the  people. 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (A.D.  iSl),  the  CopU  were  op-!  III.  ITarjii}),— Tbey  have  three  liturgies,  called  at^ 
pressed  so  grievously  that,  ftxim  hatred  of  the  Greeks,  ter  St.  Bafil,  Gregory  of  Naiianxns,  and  Cyril  of  AU 
ther  (bcilitated  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Moham-  exandtla  (see  Litcbot),  which  are  translated  inloCop- 
medans.  We  know  from  tbe  Arabic  historian  Hacriit  tic  tram  the  original  Greek.  Tbey  continue  to  on 
(see  below)  that  at  that  time  there  were  in  Egypt  only  I  the  Coptic  language,  though  bat  few  persona,  even 
alwut  300.000  Jacobites,  but  several  millions  of  Copts.  ■  among  the  priests,  underatand  it.  The  litur^cal  books 
Persecution  and  intermarriages  with  the  Moslems  have  been  translated  Into  Arabic  Tbe  reading  of 
greatly  reduced  their  numbers  in  the  course  of  time,  homilies  ttota  the  fathers  ia  generally  snbatitnted  Sr 
and  laid  waste  msny  of  their  chnrcbes  and  convents,  pieaching.  Instead  of  seats,  the  coogregationa  an 
It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Hebemct  All,  In  tbe  be-  ;  provided  with  crutches,  on  which  they  rest  tbamsclvea 
ginning  of  the  19th  cenlnry,  that  they  ceased  to  be  a!  during  the  service.  One  part  of  tie  worship  is  cele. 
despised  race.  Some  of  them  have  since  been  raised  I  brated  with  tbe  clangor  oif  cymbals,  in  imitation  of 
to  the  rank  of  beys.  Tbe  sad  condition  of  the  Coptic  David's  rejoicing  before  the  Loid.  The  conduct  of 
Church  induced  the  Chnrch  Missionary  Society  of  the  priests  at  divine  service  is  described  by  all  travtl- 
Eauland  in  1B35  to  send  two  German  missionansa  to'  leraascarelsaa,  if  not  indecorous.  In  |vivate,  it  ia  said, 
Cairo  for  the  purpoae  of  awakening  among  them  a  I  they  abide  more  strictly  than  other  Orientals  by  the 
new  spiritual  life.  They  established  leversl  schoob  prescribed  daily  se^vice^  which,  in  referenco  probably 
and  a  small  theological  seminary  fcr  Che  training  of  i  to  David's  rMolntion  (Pea.  cxlx,  164),  are  tevm  in 
priest!!,  where,  among  others,  also  the  present  obuna  !  number.  The  full  term  enjofais  the  recital  of  one  sev- 
of  the  Ahyssinkn  Church  was  educated.  The  patri- 1  enth  part  of  the  Inok  of  Pulms  at  each  nervloe:  bnt 
arch  for  some  time  neemed  to  favor  the  missionaries,  |  there  ia  a  shorter  form  Ibr  tbe  lower  classes,  containing 
and  to  aid  their  eSbrts  for  the  education  of  the  clergy  In  each  of  tbe  seven  dally  prayers  the  "Pater"  seven, 
and  tbe  circulation  of  tbe  Bible,  numerous  copies  of  {  and  the  "  Kyrie  Eleisoa"  forty-ona  times — a  string  of 


COB 

■o  nunjr  beula  bdnE  owd  foe  ths  porpow.  Thli  ht- 
▼icB  Quy  be  gone  througb  irbils  >  peraon  1>  walking, 
or  TidiDg,  or  punuiag  may  ardinuy  emplojnient, 

IV.  iVuflil  Coiuktioj,  and  Kctlairutical  SloHHiet.— 
Id  some  paiM  of  Upper  t^Tpt  there  are  itill  lillagea 
txcIiuLTrl7  inhaliitsd  by  Copta,  and  ia  svary  village 
of  modenta  liu  ii  a  moilliiii  (a  tills  given  to  all  Copta 
except  thoM  of  the  poor  elau  or  pauanta),  who  kee 
tba  regisUr  of  the  taiei.  Uost  of  the  Copta  in  Cai 
■IS  amployed  ai  wcretsiiaa  and  accoantanta  or  trade*- 
men.  They  ale  the  chle/  employia  In  the  goTern- 
ment  officea;  and  aa  meichanta,  goldimiUu,  ailver- 
*mith>,  Jewellen^  architecta,  builder*,  and  carpenter*, 
ther  are  generaiiy  coniidered  more  akliful  than  the 
Uoatemii.  In  the  viliagea  tbey  are  employed  in  agri. 
cnlturs,  like  tlie  raat  of  tlie  peuantry.  Pettj'  cauaea 
amon);  tbem  are  jodged  of  by  their  clergy  and  the 
patriarch,  bot  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  cadi.  They 
bear  ■  hitrwi  to  other  Cbrietitm  deDomlnationa,  and 
■re  not  permitted  by  their  Church  to  intermany  with 
tham.  The  clergy,  on  the  whole,  are  poor  and  ignor 
rant.  At  the  head  of  the  clergy  it>nd*  the  patriarch 
of  Alouuidria,  who  reaidca,  however,  in  Cairo.  Uia 
jnriadiction  extendi  alu  over  Nubia  and  Abyulnla, 
for  wliicb  latter  country  be  bas  the  right  of  conaecrat- 
ing  the  ahana  (q.  v.).  He  hlmielf  ia  alwaya  choaen 
(hnn  among  the  monka  of  the  cooTont3orSt.Uacariui, 
in  the  desert  of  Scete.  It  ia  caitomary  for  the  patri- 
arch elect  to  ilecUne  the  dignity,  and  only  In  yield  ' 
■ptnrent  force.  Beaidea  the  patriarch,  there  are  fo 
matropoliUn*  (Cairo,  Lower  Eg}•pt,Codu^  Uounoulla) 
■Dd  eleven  bithopt.  Tbey  are  appomled  by  the  patri- 
arch, and  generally  choaen  among  Uymen  who  are 
widowers.  Their  income  conaista  of  tithes,  which  they 
collect  for  themaelvea  and  for  the  patriarch.  The 
priest*  are  generally  simple  mechanics,  and,  although 
they  are  at  liliarty  to  marry,  they  live  mostly  in  ce' 
Ibaey.  The  number  of  chorchea  and  convenla  is  aai 
la  amoant  to  about  l&O.  A  few  years  ago  Taltam  and 
CuTxon  diacovered  in  aome  of  those  convpnts  ■  num- 
bav  of  the  most  valuable  manuscripts.  The  population 
ia  astimatad  Arom  160,000  to  2M,000,  of  whom  about 
10,000  reside  in  Cairo.  The  number  of  Copta 
hare  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  pope  (United 
Copt*  since  1TB2)  Is  about  10,000.  In  1BA5  the 
appointed  one  of  their  prieata  vicar  apoatolli' and  b 
tmpanHiu.—yitkiVLUHulonaO^ilonnClini  ' 
an  j¥^gypto^  Amb,  ri  ta  timptam  Lot.  trantlaia, 
Wetier  (Soliabaci,  IS2B) ;  Schaff,  UtHoiy  oflkt  Ckrit- 
Han  Ckurck,  J  145 ;  SUnley,  EaHer»  Church,  Lect.  I ; 
Cian*mim't  Cattndar  far  ISGT,  p.  IGSi  EvaageUcal 
Stpotitory,  July,  1867. 

Cor  (^3,  hor,  properly  a  round  veasel  \  Gr.  co^of), 
a  meuure  both  (or  liquids  and  solids,  containing  ten 
■phahs  or  bath*  (Kiek.  xlv,  14),  and  equal  to  tho  io- 
mtr  (q.  v.).  In  1  Kings  iv,  »;  r,  11;  2  Chron.  ii, 
ID;  xxvii,  fi;  Luke  xvi,  T,  it  is  rendered  indefinitely 
"measare"  (q.  v.);  but  In  1  Eadr.  vlii,  30,  it  is  cor- 
raetly  Anglicized.     3ee  Ubtbolooi. 

CorXoln  (toparivot,  a  Latinized  form  ftir  aopaii- 
i^.rrom  «npa£,  a  rorfli),  a  kind  offish  (so  called  prob- 
ably fn>m  its  Hack  color],  foond,  according  to  Jos». 
|Ana  (  War.  ili,  10,  R).  in  the  apring  of  Capemaum  (q. 
T.)  and  in  the  Nile  (Theopbylact,  Hiit.  vii,  17 ;  Oriba. 
sins,  Mtdic.  Coiltcl.  ii,  68);  accustomed  to  leap  like 
the  salmon  (Pliny,  zaili,  6,10),  and  called  likewise 
the  Maprrda  (Athencus,  vil,  16)  and  other  nsmes  (Ste- 
Tsni,  Tha.  Or.  a.  t.  ;  Reland,  Fairtl.  p.  I7i). 

Coral  is  usually  understood  to  l>e  denoted  by  tho 
weed  n-i^X^  (rowoa',  VMnilyke!gilt,Lr.liigi-prierd 
or  ralnable  things,  or  from  its  uprigki  growth ;  Sept. 
furiv(Ni,batinEsek.'Pdfio3),inJobziilil,lS;  Eiek. 
XztU,  IS;  and  tbla  interpretation  ia  not  unsuitable 
(oomp.  NIebahr,  Bttchr,  p.  41),  although  the  etymol- 
ogj  ia  not  well  made  ont  (Pireau,  D*  immorfaSlatii 


3  CORAL 

ikXiKu  16b  [DaventT.  1806],  p.  S!l  sq.),  and  the  difc 
lects  afford  little  sopport.  According  to  the  Rabbins, 
It  means  nd  corait.  The  ancient  tranaUtora  were  ev. 
idently  much  perplexed  to  detcrmitie  whether  tba 
word  D'^l'^lD  (pentittn',  literally  hraachn;  rendered 
"ruble*,"  Job  ixviii,  18;  Prov.  iii,  15;  vlii,  11;  xx, 
16;  xxxi,  10;  Lam.  ir,  7)  meant  conia  or  pearls. 
This  will  always  be  doabtfiil;  but  the  text  in  Lam. 
iv,  7,  by  describing  the  article  as  red,  suggests  a  pref- 
erence of  the  former.  It  Is  scarcely  credilile,  indeed, 
tliat  euch  a  product  should  have  clreulaled  under  two 
different  names  (if  ramolA  also  means  coial);  but  sure- 
ly there  is  no  difficulty  in  concaivine  thit  one  word 
may  have  denoted  com/  generally,  while  another  may 
have  distinguished  (hat  raf  coraJ  which  waa  tbe  moat 
estaemed,  and  the  moat  in  use  for  omament  (see  Gesa- 
nius,  TIta.  BA.  p.  1113, 1249). 


Coral  is  a  hard,  eretacaous  marine  prodoction,  trit- 
inghom  the  deposit  of  calcareous  matter  by  a  minuta 
polypous  animal,  In  order  to  form  tbe  cell  or  polypt- 
dom  into  whose  hollows  the  tenant  can  wholly  or  par> 
tially  retire.  The  corals  thus  produced  are  of  various 
shapes,  most  usually  branched  like  n  tree.  The  marsea 
are  often  enormous  In  the  tropical  seas,  where  they 
lop  tho  reelk  and  cap  the  submarino  mouDt«in!>,  fre- 
quently rising  to  or  near  the  surface,  so  as  to  form 

to,  P.'d.  BQ^,  on  Job  xxviii,  18).  These  abound  in 
the  Red  Sea  (Wellstad,  Trot,  ii,  181 ;  Ruppol,  Aiymi. 
),  140),  tram  which,  most  pnHsbly,  was  derived  the 
coral  with  which  the  Hebrews  wciu  acquainted;  lint 
coral  ia  also  found  In  the  MediteiTanean.  The  coTal 
brought  by  the  merchant*  of  Syria  to  Tyro  muFl  lisva 
come  ftom  tbe  Indian  seas,  bv  tho  Euphmtea  and  Da- 
mascus (comp.  Plin.  ..ill,  2).  Coral  waa  in  higher 
esteem  formerly  aa  a  precious  subsUnce  than  now, 
probably  bacaosa  the  means  of  obtaining  it  in  a  lino 

It  1j  of  different  colora — whito,  black,  red.  Tho  red 
was  anciently,  as  at  prasant,  tho  most  valued,  and  waa 
worked  Into  varioos  ornaments  (Plin.  ixiii,  II;  comp. 
Hartmann,  i7i6r.  I,  276  sq.).  For  tho  iwientiHc  clasal- 
flcatioD  of  corals,  see  tbe  Amjf  Cgdopnlia,  a.  v.  Poly- 
paria.  The  red  variety  ii  the  aioiiy  akelelon  of  a 
compoond  loophyle,  allied  to  the  ses-auemone*  of 
our  coaala,  It  rorma  a  much-bniiiching  shrub,  tbe 
beautiful  scarlet  atone  conili luting  tbe  solid  axis, 
which  in  covered  during  life  by  a  Seshy  bark,  out 
of  which  prolmde  here  and  Ihcrs  upoD  the  surface 


1.  SuHD  id  ConL    1.  Put  eoUlsad  le  iboir  the  Zoophyt*. 

minute  polypes  vith  eight  tenticlee.  Tt  ia  taoaA  tX- 
tached  to  tbe  Todu  «t  considerable  depthp,  u  fram  SO 
to  120  fathoiTiB.  Tbe  dcmund  Ibr  it  hu  given  rite  to 
B  fishery  of  some  importance,  ebout  180  boats  being 
employed  in  it  on  tbe  coast  of  Algeria,  of  which  166 
fish  In  the  neighborhood  of  Bona  end  Catli,  obtaining 
86,000  kiloBrammes  (.boat  720  cirt.)  of  coril  j  aod 
this,  seUing  at  tbe  mte  of  60  francs  per  kilogramme, 
prodoces  e  return  of  ♦450,000.  The  mode  by  which  it 
la  obtained  Is  tho  some  which  has  always  pievsiled, 
and  Ib  rude  and  wasteful.  A  great  cross  of  wood  load- 
ed with  stones,  and  carrying  *t  the  end  of  each  arm  a 
Bort  or  net  fbnned  of  cords  partir  untwisted,  is  lowered 
from  a  boat,  and  dragged  over  the  bottom.  Tbe 
branchee  of  the  corals  aiB  entangled  in  this  apparatus, 
■nd,BB  the  boat  moves  on,  are  torn  oS;  at  intervals  It 
is  pulled  Dp,  and  the  produce  secured.  Of  course  ii 
great  deal  must  be  broken  off  which  is  not  secured, 
but  yet  it  is  a  proAtablo  employment.  A  boat  manned 
by-nina  or  ten  bands  has  been  known  to  bring  in  80 
or  100  kilogrammet  is  a  day,  yielding  giOO  or  tl2fi; 
but  such  success  Is  rare.  The  fishery  is  proeecuted 
ftom  tbe  Ist  of  April  to  the  end  of  Septembsr,  during 
which  there  may  be  on  the  average  about  100  days  in 
which  the  fishermen  can  work  (Milne  F'dwardp,  'nitt. 
dtt  Coratlinu).     See  Gkx. 

Cor'bait  itun^av,  for  IS^g,  fcrfton',  an  o^trinj), 
a  Hebrew  word  (occurring  frequently  in  the  original 
of  tho  0.  T.,  but  only  in  Lev.  and  Nnmb.,  eiccpt  in 
Eiek.  XI.  28;  x\,  4S)  employed  in  the  Hellenistic 
Greek,  just  as  the  corresponding  Greek  word  iagov 
was  employed  in  the  Kshbinical  Hebrew  (Buctorf,  Lez. 
Kab.  col.  679)  to  designate  an  oUatioB  of  any  kind  to 
God,  whether  bloody  or  bloodless,  but  particularly  in 
fulfilment  of  ■  vow  (Jahn,  BHA.  Are\.  v,  g  BM,  894). 
It  occurs  only  once  in  the  New  Testament  (Hark  vii, 
11),  whero  it  is  explained  (as  also  by  JoscphUB,  AnI. 
It,  4, 4;  eoafro^p.  i,22)l)y  tbe  word"gifL"  Money, 
lands,  and  liouBcs,  which  had  been  made  the  subject 
of  this  low,  became  tb*  property  of  the  tabernacle  or 
tho  Temple,  except  that  the  land  might  be  redeem- 
ed before  tho  .vear  of  Jubilee  (Lev,  xxvii,  1-24). 
Amouff  other  fjlso  doctrines  taught  by  the  Hiariscos, 
nho  were  the  keepers  of  the  lacrod  treasory  (topjia- 
vac,  from  corhim.  Matt,  xxvii,  G),  was  this,  that  as 
aoDQ  SB  a  person  had  pronounced  to  his  father  or  moth- 
er this  form  of  consecration  or  offering,  "Bo  it  (or,  It 
is)  corfton  [i,  e.  devoted]  whatever  of  mine  eball  pr»6[ 
thee"  (^V  nni  "Sttti  "il-i;;),  bo  thereby  conso- 
oTBted  all  ho  had  spoken  of  to  God,  and  must  not 
thcncrforth  do  anytbhig  for  hb  indigent  parents  if 
they  solicited  support  from  him.  Therefore  our  Lord 
rcproachea  them  with  having  destroyed  by  their  tra- 
dition not  only  that  commandment  of  the  Law  vrbich 
enjoins  children  to  honor  their  father  and  mother,  but 
also  another  divine  precept,  which,  under  the  Eever«at 
pennltv,  forl>ndo  that  kind  of  dinbonDr  which  consists 
in  conlumeliouB  words  (Mark  vii,  0;  x,  13).  They, 
how»vcr,  proceeded  even  further  than  this  unnatural , 


i4  CORBEL 

gloss ;  for  though  the  son  did  not  give,  or  even  mcaa 
to  give,  his  property  to  the  Temple,  ytX,  U  be  ail(T- 
wards  should  repent  of  his  rashneES,  end  wish  to  np. 
ply  biB  parents  with  anything,  what  be  had  fonnerly 
said  precluded  the  possibility  of  doing  so^  for,  acctird- 
ing  to  the  Pharisaic  doctrine,  the  sacrad  treumy  had 
Bclalmnpon  himin  preference  to  his  parents,  altfaongh 
he  was  perfectly  at  Uberty  to  keep  it  to  himself  (see 
Llghtfoot,  Sor.  HA.,  and  Grotius,  AnuBt.,  on  Matt. 
XT,  5).  The  taw  laid  down  rules  for  vows,  1.  affiriD* 
atlve  \  2.  negative.  By  tho  former,  persona,  animala, 
and  property  might  be  devoted  to  God,  but,  with  ccr- 
tain  limitations,  they  were  redeemable  by  money  pay. 
Bients.  By  the  latter,  persons  interdicted  tbemaelvea, 
or  were  interdicted  by  their  parents,  bom  the  use  of 
certain  things  lawful  in  themselves,  as  wine,  eitber 
foralimited  or  an  unlimited  period  (Lev.xzvii;  Kmn. 
XXI;  Judg.  xiii,  7  ;  Jer.  xzxv;  comp.  Josepfaoa,  .^nT. 
iv.  4,  4i  Wor,  ii,  15,  1;  see  Acts  xviii,  18;  xxi,  W, 
24).  Sea  Vow.  Upon  these  mice  the  traditionisti 
enlarged,  and  laid  down  that  a  nan  might  biterdirt 
himself  by  row,  not  only  ftttra  using  for  himself,  but 
from  giving  to  another,  or  receiving  from  him  rorae 
particular  object,  whether  of  food  or  any  other  kind 
vthataoBVer.  The  thing  thus  Interdicted  was  consid- 
ered aa  DDrhn,  and  the  form  of  interdiction  was  vir- 
tually to  this  effect:  "I  forbid  myself  to  touch  or  be 
concerned  in  any  way  with  the  thing  forbidden,  as  if 
it  were  devoted  bylaw,"  i.e.  "let  it  be  ecrion."  (The 
exact  fijnnula,  ^b  hJhS  "SK^  CSip,  "[that]  hai 
been  given  [to  God],  which  [in  refpect  to]  me  is  bcn- 
ofldal  to  thee,"  of  which  tho  Kvangelist'e  iiipov,  d  iai 
ii,  ijirr  T^eXijS^c  seems  a  strict  rendering,  is  cited  by 
SchOttgen,  Bar.  /7rfr.  i,  188,  ftvta  the  Mithna,  Ntia- 
rim,  fol.  24, 1.)  So  ftx  did  they  carry  the  principle 
that  they  even  held  aa  binding  the  incomplete  excla- 
mations of  anger,  and  called  them  F^il^,  hamdla.  X 
person  might  thus  exempt  bimietf  from  aisiatiug  or 
receiving  assistance  from  some  particular  person  or 
persons,  aa  parents  Id  distrefs ;  and,  in  short,  ttfim  any 
inconvenient  obligation  under  pica  of  ceriam,  thon^ 
by  a  legal  fiction  be  waa  allowed  to  suspend  tbe  re- 
striction in  certain  cases  (Surenhnsins,  Mitefma,  it 
V'otii,  1,  4 ;  U.  2).  It  waa  with  practices  of  this  soft 
that  oor  Lord  found  laalt  (Uatt.  xv,  5 ;  Mark  vii,  II), 
a»  annulling  the  spirit  of  the  law.  See  Owrsatva. 
Theophraitua,  quoted  by  Joaephus  (Ap.  i,  22),  no- 

but  in  naming  the  word  oorioa  identifies  it  with  Jada- 
ism.  Joeephoa  (War,  ii,  9,  4)  catla  tho  treasury  in 
which  offerings  for  tbe  Temple  or  its  services  were  de- 
posited, icof>/3avaf,  cinicmaii  and  Msltliew  (xxvii.  6) 
uses  the  same  word  to  signify  the  treasury,  saying 
that  tliB  chief  priests  did  not  think  it  lawful  to  put  the 
money  of  Judas  into  It  (ti'c  tIv  sopjiavov)  (Bingham, 
Orig.  Ecel.  v,  4,  2).  Origen'a  account  of  the  eorho'- 
system  is  that  children  sometimes  refused  assistance 
to  parents  on  the  ground  that  they  bad  already  con- 
tributed to  the  poor  fund,  ftom  which  they  alleged 
their  parenta  might  be  relieved.  In  the  early  Church, 
oblaUons  were  presented  monthly,  and  they  were  al- 
ways voluntarily  placed  In  the  treasury.  Baronial 
thinks  thJa  treaanry  waa  called  corAon,  because  Cyprian 
uses  tho  word  when  he  speaks  of  the  offerings  of  tba 
people,  rebuking  a  ridi  matron  for  coming  to  celebrate 
the  Enchariat  without  any  regard  to  the  cariaa.    See 

Corn>i  (Xop/3>',  Vulg.  Charaba},  one  of  the  captivt 
Jews  whose  "sons"  (to  the  number  of  70o)  are  stated 
to  bavo  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  12) ;  appar- 
ently tho  Zaccai  (q.  v.)  of  tbe  Hebrew  lists  (Euiii, 
Bi  Neh.  vU,14), 

Corbel  (Fr.  anitOb,  a  basliet),  in  Gothic  airhitM- 
tare  a  projecting  ftone  or  limber  to  bear  the  superin- 
cumbent weight,  usually  of  some  architectural  tata- 
ber  of  the  structure,  as  the  tibs  or  groins  of  an  sich. 


CORBEI,TABLE 

Gmt  rarlctjr  b  UMd  in  otnunnttiiig  tha  cartxl,  it 
wpr—enting  Kimiitlmei  an  ■nlmil,  ■  hnnun  lialB){,  ■ 
plaot,  or>  groapef  inonldings.     See  CoPtHO. 

Corbel-t«bIe,  ■  mw  of  corbcU  tnppaitiD;  ■  cor- 
nice, panipel,  or  other  projaccing  pvt  ot »  wiU. 

Coibey  Maauscilpt  (_Codex  Carbttauii,  to  call- 
ed trcoB  tha  ibbef  of  Corblo  or  Corbej,  In  Hcmrd;  [ics 
below],  wblcb  once  conUiniKt  )t),  the  urns  of  «  ver; 
ancieiit  MS.,  or,  rjther,  or  two  partlillj  confiued  codi- 
cc*  of  the  G«paU  In  the  Old  I^tin  venlon. 

1.  A  MS.  rrom  wfaicb  Mirtiuuy  edited  Matthew  ( 
Ue  fKfysIa  Afijua  I^itma,  etc.,  Par.  1695),  and  whli 
b  nputed  bj  Bluichinl  (in  hli  fKMpelarim  (^>a 
ntpUx).  S«fa«tin' givea  Its  virioni  reidingi,  but  teen 
Is  conrouad  It  with  the  fbllowlDg. 

S.  A  M3.  difbctiTe  In  the  flrit  eleven  chRptare  i 
Malthew.  Iti  readinga  are  cited  Id  the  three  other 
Go«pcU  by  Illuchini,  mnd  throughout  b;  Sebatier. 

Tbeie  taxti  (which  tre  deilgnated  reapeclively  u 
W  uid  ff*  of  the  Ooapali)  are  mixed)  tbey  occashm- 
•Hj  preserve  good  reading!,  bat  there  la  mucb  officious 
m-isloa  (tee  Scriveiwr,  /•/ml  loN.T.^  257).  See 
ILsxrscBipre,  Biblical. 

Corbl«  ^Carb^a  Aiiti^ta,  also  called  A»na  and 
GatHca),  t,  Banedidioe  moiustary  in  Pitardy,  France, 
built  in  657  by  St.  BatbUdIa,  wife  of  Iting  Clavit  11 
■■d  mother  of  Ctotaire  III.  The  flrst  mooki  In  Cor- 
Ue  were  Anglo-Sucon*  from  Laxanil,  the  monaaterr 
of  St.  Colomban.  Corbie  ramained  one  of  the  moat 
prominent  monisteiles  of  the  Benedictina  order.  An 
ellUioot  of  Corbie  was  the  German  maoaateiy  at  Cor— 
M7  (q.  V.).— Wetier  luWalte,  Kirdt-Lei.  i),  ST!. 

Coibie-«t«p«,  the  steps  ap  the  gibla  of  a  baiae ; 
eAeo  tued  with  very  plctnresqoe  afllsct,  but  mofe  coin- 
moB  in  domeitic  than  in  eecleiiasticat  architacture. 

Corblnian,  Sanr,  bora  it  Chaftres  in  CSO,  was 
(at  Ibnrteen  yean  a  hermit,  and  then  went  to  Rome, 
wltcre  the  pope,  Gregory  II,  consecrated  bini  bishop. 
He  letomed  to  hii  aolitDdr,  and  afterwards  travellad 
alaog  the  Danube  and  the  laar  to  preach.  Duke  The- 
odo  II  of  Bavaria  appointed  him  flrat  bishop  of  Frels- 
Ing.  Re  died  in  7B0,  and  is  commemoratad  as  •  satnt 
OB  Sept.  8.— nerer,  UtunrKd-Lenbon,  i.  v. ;  Batter, 
Imb  -fSmaU,  Sept.  8. 

Corblt.  Ibrabl  3.,  a  minister  of  tha  Hatbodlat 
Zpiaaipal  Church,  was  bom  in  Pbikdelpbb,  Feb.  IS, 
1817,  and  enlernl  tba  itinarancT  in  tbe  Mew  Jeraey 
Conference  in  1844.  He  died  at  Bordentqwn,  N.  J., 
April  11, 18M.  Mr.Corbit's  ministry.  In  the  most  In- 
portant  ttitions  of  bis  Conference,  was  eminently  lac- 
teanfal.  "A  snblimity  caught  from  long  convene  with 
the  Bible  and  the  Chrlatian  poets  ran  tbrongfa  all  hia 
tlioaghts.  He  wa*  accompiUhed,  eloquent,  and  labo- 
rioas.  and  gave  full  proof  of  his  mlniatry." — Uimultt 
./Co-/*r«™,vi,». 

Cord,  the  CHdering  in  the  Aatb.  Tar.  of  th*  fol- 
)nriDgHeb.word*;  (1 .)  oiDally  bin,  dk'M (bat  not 
i?ri).  a  rope  [see  Chsbsl]  ;  ().)  ^^^  ye't*rr,  a  afrtus 
('•  witbe,"  Jodg.  xvi,  7, 8i  8;  tent-rope,  "  eicelleney," 
Job  Iv,  a  :  bow-"atring,"  Fn.  xi,  3;  halter-" cord," 
Jo!,  xix.  11);  (8.)  •'n-a,eK)rt*a»-',aaiM(e.g.tant- 
Top*.  Exod.  xiiT,  18;  xiiix,  40i  Num.  ill,  SB,  87; 
ir.i6,Sl;  Ita.liT,];  Jer.x,!0;  bow-"itrlnfr,"4>sa. 
xxi,  13) ;  (4.)  rZS,  abdh',  a  braid  (e.  g.  "  wreath- 
ed" work,  Exod.  xxviil,I4,etc.;  ''band,"Job  xzxlx 
10;  E»k.  iii,  !S ;  iv,  8  ;  Hoa.  xi,  4 ;  "  rope,"  Jodg.  xv, 
a,  U:  Psa.  11,  8;  cxTiii,  17;  cxxlx,  4);  (5.)  wn. 
dml  (EccL  It,  12,  a  "  lArral,"  Gen.  xiv,  33 ;  Josb.  11, 
18;  Jodie-  xvi,  IS;  Cant,  iv,  3;  ■■ilne,"  1  Kings  vil, 
»:  "flUat,"  Jer.  Ul,  SI).  The  first  of  theae  terms  is 
Ike  meet  comprehensive,  being  from  the  not  bsn,  to 
•ra^  hence  EngL  oMt.  This  word  ocean  often  In 
lb  proper  aaote,  ai  wdl  ai  in  the  special  maanlngi  of 


mtaturirngJim  (hence  also  rtgtai),  mtan  (Paa.  ckI,  6), 
and  irulk.  In  Hie.  U,  6,  it  signlAes  "  portion"  (as  it 
is  fteqnently  rendered  elsewhere);  and  tbe 


The*! 


of  Inb 


le  of  a 


Ixnd  of  men  (1  Sam.  x,  6, 10).  and  dtlnuSm  (Uic. 
10).  See  RoPK.  "  In  tha  N.  T.  the  taim  trxfiwia  is 
applied  to  tbe  whip  which  oor  Saviour  made  (John  ii, 
16),Bndtotbe'T(^>ea'ofaablp(ActsxxvU,S2).  Al- 
ford  Dndentands  it  In  the  former  passage  of  tbe  rushes 
on  which  tba  cattle  were  littered;  but  the  ordinary 
rendering  oorili  seems  more  consistent  with  the  use  of 
the  term  eleewhere.     (See  below.) 

"The  materials  of  which  cord  was  made  varied  ac- 
cording to  tbe  strength  reqnlred ;  tbe  strongest  rope 
waa  probably  made  of  strips  or  camel  hide,  still  used 
by  tba  Bedouins  for  drawing  water  (Bnrckbardt't 
Nota,  i,  46);  the  Egyptians  twisted  these  strips  to- 
gether into  thongs  for  sandals  and  other  purposes 
(Wilkinson.  AtK.  Egjpl.  Hi,  146).  Tbe  flner  sorts  weta 
madeof  flax(lBa.  xli,  9).  Tbe  fibre  of  the  date-palm 
was  also  used  (Wilkinson,  iii.  210) ;  and  probably  reeds 
and  rushes  of  rarions  kinds,  as  implied  in  the  origin 
of  the  word  ffi^oiWov  (PUn,  xix,8),  which  is  generally 
need  by  tbe  Sept.  for  Vsn,  and  more  particalarly  in 
tbe  word  li'SSX,  rui  (Job  xli,  !),  which  primarily 
means  a  reed ;  In  tbe  Talmud  (frntin,  fol.  liS),  bnl- 
nuhea,  osier,  and  flax  are  enumerated  as  the  mslerial* 
of  which  rope  was  made;  In  tha  Hlsbna  {Solak,  i,  $  6) 
tha  ^1313  33n,  or  Egyptian  rope.  Is  explained  as  a 
ropt  Iff  met  or  osicn.     See  HiciiAaia 

"Of  the  various  purposes  to  which  cord,  bicludiug 
nnder  that  term  rope,  and  twisted  thongs,  was  applied, 
tliefoUawIng  areespccially  worthy  of  notice:  (1.)  For 
bstaning  a  tent.  In  which  sense  ^n'^O,  mestiiar',  is 
more  particnlarly  used  (e.  g.  Exod.  xxxr,  IS ;  xxxix, 
40;  lBa.liv,S).  Aa  the  tent  supplied  a  fiivorlte  image 
body,  the  cords  which  held  it  in  its  |daco 
le  principle  of  life  (Job  iv,  SI):  'Are  not 
irds  (A,  V.  'excellency')  torn  away  V  (Eccl. 
xii,  6).  (2.)  For  leading  or  binding  lalmals,  as  a  bai- 
ter or  rein  (Psa.  cxviU,  27;  Hot.  xl,  4),  whence  to 
'loosen  the  cord'  (Job  xix,  lI)  =  to  fme  ftom  author- 
ity. (3.)  For  yoking  them  either  to  a  cart  (Isa.  v,  18) 
or  a  plough  (Job  xixix,  10).  (1.)  For  Undlng  pris- 
onen,  more  particularly  r=;,  aboO,'  (Jodg.  xv,  18; 
Psa.il,  8;  cxxlx,  4;  Eiek.  iii|  2S),  whence  the  metk- 
pborical  expiwsion  'ioids  of  lone'  (Hoa.  xl,  4).  (G.) 
For  bow-strings  (Psa.  xi,  2),  made  or  catgut;  sue h  are 
spoken  of  in  Jndg.  x»l,  7  (D-nb  O-^-IP^,  A.  V.  'green 
wlths ;'  but  more  properly  vitipni  iiypai,  fresh  or  moist 
bow-rtrings).  (6.)  For  the  ropes  or  'tackling*'  of  ■ 
vessel  (Isa.  xixiii,  18).  (7.)  For  measuring  ground, 
the  fall  expression  being  H^o  bsn  (2  Sam.  vili,  2; 
Paa.  Ixxvlil,  55 ;  Amos  vli,  IT ;'  Ze^h.  H,  1) ;  hence  to 
'  cast  a  cord'  -  to  assign  a  property  (HIc  ii.  8),  and 
cord  or  lim  became  an  expreselon  for  an  Inheritance 
(Jash.xvU,U;  xii,a;  Psa.  xvl,  S;  Eiek.  xlvU,  IB), 
and  even  Air  anv  defined  district  (e.  g.  tbe  AiM,  or 
tract, a/.4r^,  DeaLiU,4).  See  Chbbeu  (8.)  For 
flailing  snd  sparing.  See  FiauiNO ;  Fowlibo  ;  Udxt- 
ina.  (9.)  For  attaching  armies  of  dress;  as  the 
tcrvtlim  ekani  (P37),  which  were  rather  twisted  cords, 
worn  by  tbe  hIgh-prieMs  (Exod.  xxviii,  14,  SS.  24; 
xxxlx,  IS,  IT).  (10.)  For  fistening  awnings  (Esth. 
I,  8).  (11.)  For  attaching  to  ■  plunmeL  The  line 
and  plommat  are  emblematic  of  a  regular  rule  (S 
~'  {■  xii,lS;  Isa.xxvlil,1T);  henoetodestroyby 
and  plummet  (Isa.  xxxlv,  11 ;  Lam.  ii,  8 ;  Amoa 

,  T)  baa  l«nn  undentnod  as  a  regular  systematic  de- 
struction iad  mormam  el  JiMhss,  Oesenius,  TlieiaiiT.  p. 
125) ;  it  may,  however,  be  referred  to  tbe  carpenter's 
level,  which  can  only  be  need  on  a  flst  snrhce  (comp. 
Tbenlns,  Qmm.  In  S  King*  xxl,  13).    (U.)  Fat  draw- 


CORDELIERS  50 

log  ««tel  Mil  af  a.  wall,  or  niiing  hnry  welgliU ' 
(lotb.  ii.  lb:  Jer-  xixtIU,  6,  IS).  (13.)  To  pUce  k 
rope  on  the  bead  (1  Kings  xx,  SI)  in  place  of  tha  oidi- 
nary  head-dniM  was  a  algn  of  a1;)jen  sabmlnlon" 
(14.)  The  "amall  eordi"  (nywvfoi',  a  nitA-ropt)  uaad 
by  our  Saviour  in  expelling  [he  tndcn  from  the 
Temple  (John  ii,  15)  vere  pnbablr  the  ame  UKd 
fot  leading  tha  animals  for  ucriflee  aikd  binding 
Ihem  W  tha  altar  (M^,  Pm,  cxvUI,  37).  (16,)  The 
laine  word  is  emplgyod  in  Acts  axvli,82,  "ropea,"  i.e. 
cordagt,  with  wbieb  the  jawl-boab  vera  wcured  to 
the  sliip  (([.  v.).     See  Rbbh, 

Amon);  tha  figurative  uses  of  the  word  the  fullow- 
ing  are  the  most  striking:  (I.)  To  gird  one's  self  with 
a  cord  WHS  constdered  a  token  of  sorrow  and  humilia- 
tion (1  KInga  XX,  31-83;  Job  xxxvi,  8).  (2.)  To 
stretch  a  line  or  cord  aboat  a  city  slgnines  to  ruin  II, 
to  destroy  it  entirely,  and  to  level  it  wilh  the  ground 
(Um,  ii,  8).  (3.)  The  cords  (-in-^n)  extended  In  sot- 
ting op  tents  furnish  several  metaphors  in  the  pro- 
phetical hooks  (Isa.  xxxiii,  20;  Jer.  x,  20).  (1.)  Hence  ' 
to  ''loose  one's  cord"  waa.a  meEapiior  for  dissolving 
one's  comfort  and  hopea  (^H"",  ye'lhtr,  eliewhero 
"  withe").  (5.)  "The  cOrds  of  sin"  (Prev.  v,  22).  met. 
aphorically  speiaking,  are  the  consequences  of  crimes 
and  bad  habits.  (Sj  Tb»  "  »1'<"  ™"1'"  0-  •■  composeil 
of  silvery  threads,  Eccl.  xil,  6)  is  generally  supposed 
to  refer  to  the  s[JiuJ  marrow,  to  which,  as  to  its  farm 
and  color,  it  may  not  lie  Inaptly  compared.  (7.)  A 
"thrsB-fold  cord"  (f. «.  one  of  treble  strands)  Is  pat  as 
the  symbol  of  nnion  (Eccles.  Iv,  IS,  WH,  that,  else- 
where "thread").  (8.)  The  "cords  of  a  man,"  in  IIos. 
xi,  4,  are  immediately  explained  as  rnosning"tbe 
bands  of  love,"  although  some  Interpreters  Join  this 
clanse  to  the  preceding  sentence,  and  render  It  "amid 
tbe  dttolaHoiit  of  men,"  referring  to  the  plagues  of 
£g]-pt  (Honley,  in  loc.).  See  Like.  For  atrdt  nf 
sitot,  see  SsADES  of  DE.tTB. 

Cordsllera,  a  name  given  to  the  FninelsciinB  (q. 
V.)  in  France.  The  name  is  said  to  have  originate]  in 
the  war  of  St.Louii  aguinst  the  Infidels,  in  wliichthe 
friars  having  repulsed  the  barbarians,  and  the  king 
having  inquired  their  name,  it  was  answered  they  were 
people  conldiii,  that  Is,  tted  wltb  ropes.    See  Fnxn- 

CordonnlAiB  at  Talllmirs,  Fnlnsa  (brotlicn 
SAoemaktrtaiuiTaU^rt),  Clio  title  of  a  leli^ous  sodety 
founded  in  France  by  Henry  Michael  Buch,  a  shoe- 
maker, in  1646.  They  chose  as  their  pstmn  Crispin 
uid  Crispintan,  tiro  sainted  sboemakert.  The^  lived  i 
in  community,  and  nnder  fixed  statutes  and  officers,  ' 
by  which  they  were  directed  both  in  tlioir  temporal 
and  Hpirtual  concerns.  Tha  prodnce  of  their  labor  v.n> 
put  into  a  common  stock  to  furnish  necesesries  Tot  their  ' 
support ;  any  surplus  was  distributed  among  tbe  poor.  ' 
Tho  society  became  extinct  in  the  French  lievolutlon.  '■ 

Cordova,  on  ancient  ci^  of  Spain  (callcil  bv  the 
Romans  Corduba),  scat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  Ijlshop. 
and  noted  fur  its  cathedral  chnrcb, which  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  nil  Spain.  1.  A  celebrated  Sgnod  ofCor- 
dota  was  held  on  occasion  of  the  persecution  of  Span, 
ish  Cliristians  from  8S0  to  860,  during  tha  caliphate 
of  AlHlerrahmon  II  ()  852)  and  of  Mohammed.  The 
apiod  was  called  at  tho  wish  of  Abdermhman,  in  or- 
der b)  enjiiin  ninderation  npon  monks  and  others  who 
cravrd  niurti'rdom  by  provokinn  the  Mobammedans.  i 
In  ncCHTdance  with  this  wish,  tho  coancU,  of  which  ^ 
the  metropolitan  Hostejis  of  Malaga  seems  to  have  I 
been  the  lending  spirit,  forbade  se1f-SDu«ht  martyrdom.  I 


Thisi 


oppos 

of  the  rlgnrints.  who  cslled  the  synod  IBI- 
'itilmbifii.  The  acts  of  the  council  are  lost, 
amp  to  l>c  ni-nerallv  disowned  liy  the  Span- 
.     2.  Tkt  School  KfCardota  waa  one  of  the 


e  COREA 

moat  colabrated  literaiy  insUtntlrais  of  tha  Araba  la 
Spain.  It  was  founded  about  980  b}'  caliph  Ilakena 
II,  and  had  tbe  lirgMt  Arabic  librar}-  in  Spain,  wbid^ 
according  to  one,  undouljtedly  exaggerated,  aeca<uit, 
numbered  as  many  as  COO,000  volumes.  The  acbocd 
of  Cordova  became  in  particular  celebrated  for  tba 
Impulse  which  It  gave  to  the  study  of  the  ArlstotrUaa 
philosophy.  One  of  tbe  moat  celebrated  professon  tt 
Cordova  waa  Averrhoes  (q.  v.).  The  conquest  of  Cor- 
dova by  the  Christians  put  an  end  to  this  fchool,  aa 
alao  to  the  flourishing  Tatmadic  achool  of  tbe  sam* 
city. — Heriog,  R«i/-£Bfjifopdife,  s.  v. 

Co'rd  (KopOi  ■  node  of  Greciiing  (Ecdns.  xlv, 
18 ;  Jude  II)  tbe  name  of  tho  rebelUaus  Kobau  (q. 
v.)  of  the  MosjIc  history  (Num.  xvi). 

Coiea,  a  dependency  of  China.  It  is  an  cztenriva 
peninsula,  bounded  east  b}'  tbe  Sea  of  Japan,  south  hj 
tha  Strait  of  Corea,  west  by  the  Yellow  Sea  and  Ilia 
Gulf  nfLeaoton)!,  and  north  by  Hantcburla.  It  is  guT- 
crnedby  a  king,  who,  though  tributary  to  China,  exer- 
cises virtually  an  absolute  power.  The  prera II intr  relig- 
ion is  Buddhism.  Confnclus  also  has  many  followcn. 
The  area  Is  about  87,660  Englbh  squaiv  mites;  Um 
papulation,  according  to  a  census  of  1798,  won  T.S4}, SGI, 
and  in  188a  was  estimaitit  si  H,(>(»U,UUO.  The  Reman 
Catholic  missionaries  in  Chiua  and  Japan  apeak  of  aoi>- 
versions  of  natives  of  Corea  to  their  Church  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  tha  IGth  century.  In  the  ITtb  ccnloiy  ou 
of  the  kings  of  Corea  was  a  patron  of  the  celebrated 
Jesuit  Adam  Schall.  There  stems  alwa\-s  aincs  la 
liBve  been  soma  small  number  of  Roman  Cathrdk* 
In  Corea,  and  In  1800  tbe  total  number  of  Cbri>.liaDa 
was  reported  to  amount  to  10,0001  but  tbe  progrtm 
of  tho  Church  was  prevented  by  constant  peraefn- 
tbn.  Early  in  the  present  century  the  mission  of 
Corea  was  placed  under  the  Paris  "Congregation  of 
Foreign  Missions."  Tbe  mirslcnaries  greatly  extol 
the  zeal  of  the  native  converts,  and  report  a  nnm- 
lier  of  accessions  to  their  Church.  Thus,  in  1853, 
tha  number  of  catechumens  who  were  admitted  ta 
baptism  was  stated  to  be  460.  A  new  perseculioD 
broke  out  in  February,  186G.  Two  Roman  Catholic 
bishops  and  seven  prlcstF,  all  natives  of  France,  wcio 
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king  for  preaching  a  for- 
bidden relieion.  Throe  others  succeeded  in  conceal- 
ing themFclves,  and  one  of  them  arrived  at  Chtf.o^ 

nicnto  the  sad  intelligence.  The  escaped  mimionary 
asserted  that  there  were  60,000  conveits  in  Cerra,  and 
that  great  consternation  was  produced  among  them 
by  the  flerceness  of  the  persecution.  The  missionary 
proceeded  to  Pekln  to  Invoke  the  aid  of  the  Prcndi 
amlia.isadnr.  In  October,  1860,  the  French  anderlwk 
an  oxpedilion  against  Cores,  demanding  the  punlFb- 
inent  of  the  three  principal  ministers  who  instinatHl 
tho  execution  of  tbe  miraionaries,  and  the  concluFion 
of  a  treaty  guaranteeing  the  Christians  acainit  fu- 
ture persccntions.  The  expedilicn  was  not  luccef  sfol, 
and  in  December  returned  (o  Shanghai.  Mr.  WO- 
iiomson,  the  agent  of  the  Scottish  National  Bilite  So- 
ciety, wrote  in  1F60  fWim  Cbsfoo,  China,  that  he  bad 
visited  two  Roman  Catholic  natives  of  CoTea  who 
bad  come  to  tiiat  port.  According  to  their  statement, 
there  are  In  Corea  eleven  Europetu  priests,  who  via- 
it  from  house  to  house.  Ihry  have  no  templeo,  bitt 
worship  in  privata  houses.  Ibey  showed  a  cata- 
chii>m  containing  a  full  statement  of  their  faith,  in 
which  Mr.  Williamson  was  delighted  to  find  much 
(rtith  forcibly  expressed.  They  appeared  to  be  tgM^ 
rant  of  any  distinction  between  PnitestantiFm  and  Ro- 
man CsthoticiFm,  and  uhrn  Mr.  Williamson  s[«ke  to 
them  of  Jesus,  at  once  raluted  him  as  "holy  fslher." 
They  agreed  to  act  as  the  fuides  of  tbe  Rev.  J.  R. 
Thomas,  who  offerrd  lo  accompiin'-  thrm,  on  their  tw 
iL.i..  i.j  Cures,  as  iha  ^ant  of  tha  Bihie  Society,  lin 
mission  of  tha  Pr««hyf«tiaa  board  was  first  bexun  ia 


COKEM  C( 

tHI,  It  now  fall  2S  eommunieanEi,  6  attivt  hdpcn, 
and  aft  pupila  in  achooL  In  ISSfi  the  HeihodiM  £pi*- 
oc^  Church  eatend  Cora.  It  hu  13  funign  workin, 
3  native  ordained  pretchen,  4  eommanieanta,  ISOadber- 
enta,  and  6S  pnpili,  Ttae  National  Bible  Society  nf  Scot- 
Und  publiabed,  in  lSse-7,  tvoof  lh«Goapeliin  Corean. 
CorSse  (Kopiai),  a  fottifed  pUca  mentioned  bj 
Joiepbna  (^Anl.  xit,  8,  l)u  lying  on  tbe  northern  bor- 
der of  Jndoia,  on  the  ronte  of  Pompey  to  Jernulflm 
(War,  i,  6,  6X  nnd  iIm)  viiiled  by  Veapuian,  wUo 
marched  In  one  day  tbilber  from  NeapoUs,  and  tbe 
next  raachad  Jgricbo  (_fFar,  iv,  8, 1).  Mair  thii  place 
(w-fwc)  wM  situated  tbe  fortmi  Alezandiium  (q,  t.], 
where  the  princes  of  Alexander  Juansiu's  family  were 
mostly  buried,  and  whither  Herod  cnrriKl  the  remains 
of  his  eoni  Alexander  and  Aristobulos  (who  were  ma- 
ternally of  that  family),  after  they  had  been  pat  to 
death  at  Sebaete  (Joeeph.  ^a/.  iUi,S4;  iIv.G.lD,  27; 
zvi.  2,  et  nit.)-  The  eittution  of  Cores,  which  deter- 
ralnes  that  of  the  caKle,  ig  not  Icnown  j  but  Dr.  Rob- 
tnaon  (^Bii,  Saeardia,  iii,  83)  conjectures  that  he  may 
hare  fonnd  it  in  tbe  modem  Kirigtt,  wbicb  is  about 
eight  mOei  S.  hr  B.  from  Nablous  (Shechem),  and 
luiru  hour  N.  by  E.  of  Shilob  (Bitter,  Erdt.  it,  465). 
It  ia  email,  with  no  vei^  definite  traces  of  anUq'iity 
(Wolcott,  in  the  BibHolluea  Sacra,  1S4S,  p.  72).  The 
rinutarity  of  name  to  that  of  Betb-cai  (Xdppoia.  Jose- 
phoa,  AtO.  Ti,  3S)  leemi  to  be  accidental.     See  £b>b- 

CoroftthA  (Kupiil^i)),  an  episcopal  rlllaga  ofTra- 
chonitls  (Beland,  PoJoifl.  p.  318)  mentioned  in  the 
early  Chnrch  noticee  (9.  Panlo,  Gtogr.  Ban.  p.  61); 
probabljT  the  modern  KirataA  (miter,  Erdt.  xv,  866), 
OD  the  sonthera  edge  of  the  Lejah  (Porter,  il,  316). 

Corlandsr  (ni,  ^ek^  from  the  root  n^l,  to  mahg 
-  an  ncifion,  refeirlng  to  the  fdrrovs  In  tbe  seed).  The 
Syriac,  Chaldea,  and  Arabic,  with  tbe  Sept,  and  Vn\g., 
render  this  word  corlaader  (Oesenlae,  Thenar.  Beb.  p. 
164),  as  does  our  Tersion  In  Exod.  xtI,  IS ;  Nam.  xl, 
7,  the  only  psasages  where  It  dccutb,  and  in  both  which 
tbe  appearance  of  manna  is  compared  Co  that  of  Its 
aeeda  as  to  form,  and  in  tbe  former  paiuge  as  to  color 
also.  See  Uaitma.  According  to  Dioscoridei  also 
OH,  34)  the  aacienl  Carthaginian  name  for  coriander 
was  goid  (yai  J),  evidently  klndivd  with  tbe  Hebrew 


i7  CORINTH 

gad.  Celeiiu  states  (BUroi.  ii,  78  sq.)  that  tbe  cori- 
ander ie  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Talmud  (where 
it  ia  called  "^£03,  iiatar',  or  ISI^^S,  huebar").  It 
was  known  to  and  used  medicinally  \iy  Hippocrates: 
It  is  mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  aa  well  as  Dioscori- 

Arabs,  In  tbelr  works  on  Maltria  SUrdica,  give  lorum 
as  the  Giesk  synonym  of  coriander,  which  they  call 


ePersi 


.  of  In- 


dia (compare  Pliny,  xx.  82)  dhitagj.  It  is  known 
throughout  all  these  coantries.iu  nil  of  which  it  is  cul- 
tivated, baintf  universally  employed  as  a  grate  fid  spice, 
and  as  ono  of  the  ingredienU  of  currie-powder  (see 
BOschiDg,  WOckatO.  Naclv.  1775,  p.  43;  Rauwolff, 
ReiM,  p.  M ;  Gmelin,  Reit  darch  Saul,  iii,  S82).  It 
is  also  found  in  E)cypt(PrDap.  Alpin.Acs.  jSg.  ii,  9,  p. 
IfiG).  It  is  now  very  common  In  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  also  in  England,  being  cnltivaled,  eppeclslly  In 
Essex,  on  account  of  its  seeds,  which  are  required  by 
confectionen,  dmg^ts,  and  dlstUlen  in  Urge  quanti- 
ties; in  gardens  it  Is  reared  on  account  of  its  leaves, 
which  aro  used  In  soups  and  salads  (tee  Hereira's  Jfo- 
ttria  Medica).  The  coriander  Is  the  Coriandnini  lati- 
vum  of  botanists,  an  nmbelKferous  plant,  with  a  round 
tall  stalk.  The  Sowers  are  small  and  palo  pink,  the 
leaves  are  mncb  divided  (especially  tbe  upper  ones) 
and  smooth.  The  fruit,  commonly  called  seeds,  is 
globular,  graylsb-colored,  about  the  tile  of  peppercorn, 
having  its  surface  marked  with  fine  stiia.  Both  ila 
taste  and  smell  are  agreeable,  depending  on  the  prea- 
enco  of  a  volatile  oil,  which  is  separated  by  distillation 
(see  Ptiay  Cfdopadia,  a.  v.).     See  Botani. 

CoT'lDth  (Kiipii^oc,  occurs  AcU  xvili,  1 ;  xix,  1  j 
lCor.i,2;  2Cor.l,l,2S;  2Tini.iv,30i  "Corinthus," 
subacr.  to  Ep.  to  Rom.),  a  Grecian  city,  placed  on  the 
isthmos  which  Joins  Peloponneeos  (now  called  the 
Korea)  to  the  continent  of  Greece.  A  lofty  rock  risal 
above  It,  on  which  was  the  citadel,  or  the  Acmcorin- 
thus  (Livy  xlv,  3S).  It  bad  two  harbora :  Cenchren, 
on  the  eastern  side,  about  seventy  stadia  distant;  and 
Lechaum,  on  the  modem  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  only  twelve 
stadia  from  tbe  city(Straba,viii,G).  lu  earliest  name, 
as  given  by  Homer,  Is  Epigrt  ('Ef  lipii,  IL  vi,  163);  and 
mysterious  legends  connect  it  with  Lycia,  by  moans  of 
the  hero  Bellerophon,  to  whom  a  plot  of  ground  waa 
consecrated  in  ^ntofthe  dty,  dote  lo  a  cypress  grove 
(Pansan.  Ii,  3).  Owing  to  the  great  difflcalty  of  weath- 
ering Malsa,  tbe  sonthern  promontory  of  Greccfl,  mer- 
chandise passed  through  Corinth  from  sea  to  sea,  the 
citv  becoming  an  enlitpii  for  the  goods  of  Asia  and 
Italy  (Strabo,  vlii,  6).  At  the  same  tlmr,  it  com- 
manded the  traffic  by  tand  from  north  to  south.  An 
attempt  made  to  dig  through  the  isthmus  was  frustia- 
ted  by  the  rocky  nature  of  the  soil;  at  one  ]>eriad, 
however,  they  had  an  invention  for  drawing  galleys 
across  from  sea  to  sea  on  trucks.  With  such  advan- 
tages of  position,  Corinth  was  very  early  rpiiowned 
for  riches,  and  seems  lo  have  been  made  liy  Oiiture  for 
the  capital  of  Greece.  The  numerons  colonic,  which 
she  sent  forth,  chiefly  to  the  west  and  to  Sicily,  ^ave 
her  points  of  attachment  in  many  parts ;  and  tho  unod 
will,  which,  as  a  mercantile  aUte,  she  orefully  main- 
tained, made  her  a  valuable  link  between  the  varioDS 
Greek  tribes.  The  pnblic  and  foreign  policy  <•(  Cor- 
inth appears  to  have  been  generally  remarkable  for 
honor  and  justice  (Herod,  and  Thucyd.  patiini);  and 
the  Isthmian  games,  which  were  celebrated  there  ev- 
ery other  year,  might  have  l>ecn  converted  inlo  a  na- 
tional congress,  if  the  Corinthians  bad  been  \ers  pi'ace- 
ful  and  more  ambitiouB,  When  the  Achcn  len^Tie 
was  rallying  the  chief  powers  of  Southern  Greece, 
Corinth  became  its  military  centre;  and,  ai  the  fpirtt 
of  freedom  was  aptiva  in  that  confederacy,  the>'  were 
certain,  sooner  or  later,  to  give  the  Romans  a  pretence 
fhr  anacking  them.  The  fatal  bh>w  fell  on  Corinth 
(B.C  146),  when  L.  Unmmiua,  by  order  of  the  Roman 


ita  mtond,  u  Tltved  from  tba  AerocorlDlhi 


■cnala,  butaroaalj  dflrtie7c4  that  twantlfttl  town 
(Cic«ni,  Perr.  i,  !1),  emiiMnt  ctcd  In  Gtsece  for  paiot- 
ing,  scnlpttiTe,  and  all  workhiK  in  metal  and  potter]' ; 
and,  ai  the  territory  wai  girea  over  to  the  Sicyonius 
(Stnbo,  I.  cOi  ire  mast  infer  that  the  whole  popalitioD 
was  aold  Into  elavery. 

The  Corinth  of  which  we  read  in  the  New  Terta- 
ment  waa  quite  a  new  dtr,  liaTing  been  rebuilt  and 
Mtabllihed  as  a  Bomin  colony,  and  peopl/d  wilfifivrd- 
mtn  from  Soma  (Pinuniai  and  Strabo,  n.  a.)  b;  tba 
dictator  Cawr  a  little  berore  bis  aauuiination.  Al- 
though the  soil  irai  too  rocky  to  be  fertile,  and  the 
territory  Tery  limlEed,  Corinth  again  bccAme  a  great 
and  wealthy  diy  In  a  short  time,  especially  as  the 
Roman  proconnili  made  it  the  seat  of  govemment 


(Acts  iviil)  for  JMrflsw  Gieaca,  which  waa  now  called 
the  province  of  Achaia.  Id  earlier  times  Corinth  bad 
been  celebrated  lor  the  great  wealth  of  Iti  temple  of 
Vennr,  which  had  a  gainfal  traffic  of  a  moat  diafaomt. 
able  kind  with  the  numerons  merchanU  resident  there 
— supplying  them  with  harlote  nnder  the  forma  of  t«- 
ligion  (hence  ropivSuiCdrSoi  =  inrtan',  aee  Scbottl 
Adagia  Gr.  p.  668).  The  same  phenomena,  no  doubt, 
reappeared  lu  the  Uter  and  Cbriftlan  sgc.  The  little 
which  is  said  in  the  Mew  Teat,  iecms  to  indicate  a 
wealthy  and  iDSurioug  commnnlly,  prone  to  imparity 
of  morals ;  neveithelesf,  all  Greece  was  so  contamina' 
ted  tbat  we  mav  easily  overcharge  the  aocnaatiea 
egainit  Corinth.  We  find  Gallia,  brother  of  the  phi. 
losopher  Seneca,  exercising  the  fanctlona  of  proconsul 
here  during  the  apostle  Paul'a  fitn 
residence  at  Corinth,  In  the  reign  of 
Claadius.  This  residence  continurd 
for  a  year  and  dx  montha.  and  the  ctr- 
cumKta  nets  which  occurnd  during  the 
conrae  of  it  ere  related  at  stme  length 
(Acts  iTiii,  1-1B).  The  apwtle  had 
recently  passed  throngb  Uacedonia. 
He  came  to  Corinth  from  Athens ; 
shortly  after  his  arriTal  Silas  and  r>- 
tnothcus  came  from  Macedonia  and 
rejoined  him ;  and  about  this  time  the 
two  epistles  to  the  Thespaioaians  were 
wTltleD(prob«blvA.D.4gand&(').  It 
s  at  Corinth  that  the  apostle  fint 
-ame  ac<|uainted  with  Aquila  spd 
Pritcllla.  and  ahortiy  after  his  depar- 
ture Apollos  came  to  this  city  from 
Epbeaua(ActBXTUi,!T).  Corinth  was 
'    e  of  great  mental  activilr.  ai 


well  a 


ofcc 


nmenial  and  n 


turing  enterpriM.  Its  wealth  was  so 
CPlebrated  as  tn  be  proverbUI  \  so 
were  the  Vice  and  proAigacy  of  itK  in- 
hahilsDls.  TbeKorthlpofVcnushfiB 
was  attended  with  ihamef^l  liorit- 
le  points  ere  indt- 
rectly  ilLusbated  1>t  paa«aires  in  the 
two  epbtlei  to  the  Cwlnthians,  whkh 


CORINTH  50 

nre  wrHtaa  (pmbiblj  A.D.  54),  tb<  first  daring  I 
Paal'i  sUy  at  Epheaiu,  the  lecond  IVoid  HacedonLi, 
■bortly  before  tbg  Mcond  visit  to  CorlDtb,  which  is 
bdeflf  staled  (Acta  xi.  S)  to  Iutc  luted  tbiee  moatba. 
Sm  CohiittbiaHS  (EriBTLKR  to).  DnrlDg  tbis  vis- 
It  (probabj;  A.D.  bi)  the  opistle  to  tb«  KoiiUDS  was 
viltt«n.  From  the  tbiee  epiitlee  tut  laentloned. 
cDinpuvd  with  Acta  isir,  17,  we  gitber  that  Paul 
was  macb  occupied  at  this  time  with  a  coUection  for  ; 
the  poor  Cbriatlaos  at  Jemialem.  It  hat  been  well  ' 
observed  that  the  great  namlitr  of  Latin  oamas  of 
persona  mentioned  in  the  epistle  to  the  Romans  Is 
in  hannony  with  what  we  Icdow  of  tbe  colanial  ori- 
gin of  a  la^  pait  of  tbe  population  of  Corinlb.  Ac- 
cording to  Philo  iOpp.  ii,  587),  it  w«b  extensively  col- 
miixed  bj  Jew*.  From  Acts  ivlii  we  maj  eonclnde 
that  there  were  manj  Jewish  converts  in  the  Corin- 
tbisn  chorcb,  thoagh  it  would  appear  (1  Cor.  xil,  1) 
that  the  Oentiles  pTsdoinlnat«d.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  Is  evident  fh>ni  tbe  whole  tenor  of  both  epiatlei  that 
the  Judaiiing  element  was  very  etrong  at  CoiinUi. 
PkTtv  *|Hrit  also  wu  extremely  prevalent,  tbe  names 
of  Paul,  Peter,  and  Apolloa  being  used  ai  the  watch- 
words oifrastlosa  fhctlons.  AmooKtbe  eminent  Chris- 
tians who  lived  at  Corinth  were  Stepbanis  (1  Cot.  1, 
1«;  zvi.  le,  IT),  CrlapDa  (Acts  xvili,  B:  1  Cor.  i.U), 
Caioe  (Bom.  xvl,  SB;  I  Cor.  i,  14),  and  Erastui  (Rom. 
xvi,  28:  2  Tim.  iv,  »).  The  epistle  of  Clrment  to 
the  Corinthians  is  among  the  most  interesting  of  the 
poet-apostollc  writings.  The  Corinthian  church  ia  ro- 
markable  in  the  epialle*  of  Paul  by  the  vaiiaty  of  Its 
spiritnal  gifts,  that  leem  for  the  Ume  to  bava  eclipsed 
or  SQperteded  the  office  of  the  elder  or  bishop,  which 
in  most  chorchea  became  fVom  the  beginning  so  prom- 
inent. Very  soon,  however,  this  peculiarity  was  lost, 
and  the  bbhops  of  Corinth  Like  a  place  co-ordinate  to 
those  of  other  capital  cItiM.  Ono  of  them,  Dionyslua, 
appears  to  have  exeroised  great  Inflnence  over  many 
and  distant  charche*  In  the  latter  part  of  the  aecond 
century  (Eusebins,  Bill.  Eaitt.  Iv,  £8).  In  the  year 
163  of  tbe  Christian  era  tbe  city  was  bomed  by  the 
Goths,  and  in  62iS  it  wis  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
Dnring  the  Middle  Ages  Corinth  shared  the  fate  of 
many  of  tbe  cities  of  Greece  in  being  wrested  from  thp 
•mperotB  of  Conatantlnople  and  poueised  by  a  enc- 
easaioii  of  advanlnrers,  and  at  length  formed  a  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Athens,  ruled  first  by  the  French,  then 
by  the  Amgonese  kings  of  Sicily,  and  finally  by  the 
AccaloU,  a  &mlly  of  Florence,  frciai  whom  it  was 
taken  by  Hohsmmed  II  in  1460.  Dnring  a  war  be- 
tween tbe  Venetlaaa  and  Uie  Tnrkt,  It  was  captured  by 
tbe  former  in  16ST,  but  was  recovered  bv  tbe  Turks  in 
ma,  nnd  held  by  them  nntll  the  period  of  the  Greek 
rcTolatlon,  when  It  became  the  seat  of  the  new  gov. 


9  CORINTH 

emmeut,  altbongh  taken  and  ntaken  more  than  onc« 
during  the  war.  Corinth  is  still  an  episcopal  ace, 
Tbe  cathedral  chnrcli  of  St. Nicholas,  "a  very  meao 
place  for  ancb  an  ecclesiastical  dignity,"  uaed  la 
Turkish  times  to  be  in  tbe  Acrocorinthus.  The  city 
has  now  shrunk  to  a  wretched  villuge,  un  the  old  site, 
and  bearing  tbe  old  name,  which,  honwr.r,  is  often 
corrupted  Into  GartKo  (see  Uassel,  Uradbudi  diraaieU 
ErdbttdtnO).  Ill,  t,  673  sq.). 

Paoranlas,  in  describing  the  antiquities  of  Corinth 
as  th<7  existed  in  his  day,  dutlngnishes  clearly  lie- 
tween  those  which  belonged  to  the  old  Greek  city  and 
those  which  were  of  Roman  origin.  Two  relics  of 
Boman  work  are  stUi  to  be  seen,  one  a  heap  of  bricki 
work  which  may  have  been  part  of  tbe  baths  erected 
hy  Hadrian,  the  other  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre 


ixdiuof  Cortnth. 


CORINTHIAN  SI 

with  rabtcRinflftn  ■tnngeaieiita  for  gUdUlon.  Fmr 
more  interaating  are  the  mini  of  the  mnclsnt  Greek 
temple— the  "uld  column)  which  bars  looked  daim 
on  the  rise,  the  prosperity,  and  the  detolstion  of  two 
[in  fact,  three]  ancceUlTa  CorintfaB."  At  the  time  of 
Wbeler'a  riilt  in  1678  twelve  colunini  were  (ttDdlng; 
before  1795  they  were  reduced  to  Ave  ;  Knd  further  in- 
Jnrj  hsa  ver7  recently  been  Inflicted  by  in  earth- 
quake. It  is  believed  Chat  tbia  temple  U  the  oldeac  of 
wbieb  any  remaina  are  left  Id  Greece.  There  are  also 
diitioct  traces  of  the  Poaidoninm,  or  aanctoary  of  Nep- 
tnne,  the  scone  of  the  Isthmian  gamea,  Trom  which 
Paul  Lxirrowa  some  of  hla  most  MrikinK  imagery  in  1 
C(7,  and  other  cpiattea.  See  Games.  The  fountain 
of  Peirene,  "  full  of  sweet  and  clear  water,"  as  It  la 
described  by  Strabo,  la  atUl  to  be  seen  In  the  Acroco- 
linthua,  a>  well  as  the  fountaina  la  the  lower  city,  of 
which  it  wsa  suppoaed  by  him  and  Pauaanlaa  to  bo  the 
NDTce.  The  walla  on  the  Acrocorinthna  were  in  part 
erected  by  the  Veueliana,  who  held  Corinth  for  twen- 
^.five  year«  in  the  17th  cenlui?.  Tbia  city  and  iti 
neighborhood  have  been  described  by  many  travellers, 
bat  we  must  especially  refer  V>  Leake's  Uorea,  iil, 
139-301  (London,  1830),  and  bja  Ftlopmnmxca,  p.  893 
(London,  IMS) ;  Curtloa,  PtIopomtM,  li,  G14  (Gotho, 
1851-1852);  Clark,  /Wtyaiwrnu,  p.  il-6l  (London, 
1868).  Sea  also  Paaly,  StaUEneykl.  ti,  6J8  aq. ;  Pott, 
Prtrifsg.  in  lad  Cor. ;  Conybeare  and  Howaon,  8t. 
Foul,  ch.  xil.  There  are  four  Geninaa  monogrephs  on 
tba  subject— WUckena,  Reran  CoHtiihiacanm  ipta- 
mm  ad  iibatroHoitfm  iitriuigut  Epiilola  PaaltKa  (Bre- 
men, 17  J7;  also  in  Oelrich's  (7oUrc<.  6^ui>.  1, 1!7  aq.) ; 
Wnlch,  Anti^mtalet  Corinlhiara  (.lena,  1761);  Wag- 
ner, Hemm  Corialhiaearvm  ipetimat  (Dannsl.  1824); 
Barth,  CorinUiorun  ComntTcii  tt  Mtnatvra  Bitlorim 
parlieula  (Berlin,  1844).  For  a  full  elucidation  of 
the  historv  and  Copographj  of  the  city,  see  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Clauical   Gtajriiphi),  s.  r.  Curinthus.      See 

ACHAIA, 

Corln'thiltn  (KopiVSioc),  an  InhabiUnt  (Acta 
IviU,  8 !  3  Cor,  vi,  11)  of  the  city  of  Corinlh  (q.  v.). 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  the  latest  developed  and 
the  most  ornamental  of  the  three  orders  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture. The  column  (q.  v.)  ii  about  ten  diamcUra  In 
height,  and  ia  Qnted.  The  capital  is  over  a  diameter 
of  the  column  in  height,  has  two  rows  of  Hchiy-carred 

which  roll  out  volutes,  aurmounted  by  leavea,  ond 
crowned  bv  a  moulding,  called  the  abacas.  The  base 
Is  richly  moulded.  The  Corinthian  order  wsa  largely 
Introduced  in  the  Renaissanca  architecture,  both  in  cc- 
elesUstical  and  civil  buildings.    See  ABci]n'i>ciiini!. 

CotinthlaiiA,  FiRtT  F-fiari.K  to  tub.  1.  The 
testimony  of  ChrisUan  antiquity  bfull  and  nnanlmoas 
In  ascribing  this  insjdnHl  production  t«  the  pen  of  the 
apostle  Paul  (Lardiier's  CrflibiUtg,  H'orlu,  vol.  ti,  plur. 
lie.;  see  also  Heydenreich,  Comnitat.  in  priorrm  D. 
Faali  ad  Cor.  epiil.  Prohg.  p.  CO;  Schott,  ItaffOfff.  ia 
N.  T.  p.  S.16, 239  >q.).  Tlie  e:<temal  evidences  (Clem. 
Rom.  ad  Cor.  ch.  47,  48;  Polycorp,  ad  PAU.  ch.  11 ; 
JgnBt.Dd£iii.ch.  2;  IrenieuB, //or.  iii,ll,  0;  lv,V, 
8;  Athenag.  tfe  Rrmrr.  p.  Gl,  ed.  Col.;  Clem.  Alex. 
Paahj.  i,  33 ;  Tertull.  de  Frater.  ch.  BS)  are  extremely 
distinct,  and  with  tbia  the  Internal  evidence  ariung 
from  allusions,  undesigned  coincidences,  etvle,  and 
tone  of  thought  fully  accords  (ace  Davidson, /n/rdd.  ii, 
263  sq.). 

2.  The  epistle  seams  to  bare  been  occasioned  partly 
by  some  intelligence  received  by  the  apoatle  concern- 
ing the  Corinthian  chnreh  thim  the  domeatics  of  Cbloe. 
a  pious  female  connected  with  that  chureh  (i,  II),  and 
prebably  also  frem  common  report  (ncoi'iiriii,  v,  i), 
and  partly  by  an  epistle  which  the  Corinthiana  them- 
selves had  addreaaed  to  the  apostle,  asking  advice  and  I 
fnatruction  on  several  points  (vii,  1),  and  which  prob- 
ably was  conveyed  to  him  by  Slephauas,  Fortunatus,  I 


CORINTHIANS 


and  Achaiciu  (ivl,  IT).  Apollof,  alio,  who  ai 
tbe  apoetia  at  Corinth,  bat  who  seems  to  have  beta 
with  him  at  the  time  thb  epistle  was  written  (xvl,  U), 
may  have  given  him  information  of  the  state  of  things 
among  the  Christiana  in  tbat  city.  Prom  these  soarcea 
the  apostle  hod  become  acquainted  with  tba  palafBI 
&ct  that  since  he  had  left  Corinth  (Acta  xriii,  IB},  tba 
church  in  that  place  bad  sunk  Into  a  state  of  great 
cormption  and  error.  One  prime  source  of  thb  evH 
state  of  things,  and  in  Itself  an  evil  of  no  infMor  mag- 
nitude, was  the  existence  of  scliisms  or  par^  diviskina 
In  the  church.  "  Every  one  of  yon,"  Paul  tells  them, 
"  salth  I  am  of  Paul,  and  I  of  Apolloe,  and  I  of  Cephas, 
icd  I  of  Christ"  (i,  12).  This  has  led  to  the  conclis- 
sion  that  four  great  parties  had  arisen  in  the  chnreh, 
which  boasted  of  Paul,  Apolioa,  Petor,  and  ChtiM  as 
their  respective  heads.  By  what  pecnliaritieB  oT  sen- 
timent tbeao  parties  may  be  supposed  to  have  been 
distinguished  fmm  each  other  il  is  not  difficult,  with 
the  exception  of  the  last,  to  conjecture.  It  appear* 
that  the  achiama  arose  merely  from  quairels  among 
the  Corinlhians  as  to  the  comparative  excellence  ot 
their  respective  teacberi — those  who  had  learned  irf 
Paul  boasting  that  he  excelled  all  olhen,  and  the  con- 
vert* of  Apollos  and  Peter  advancing  a  similar  claim 
fbr  them,  while  a  fourth  partj  haughtily  rrpudbted 
all  anbordinate  leaching,  and  pretended  that  they  de> 
rived  all  their  religiooa  knowledge  from  tbe  direct 
teaching  of  Christ.  The  language  of  the  apostle  in 
the  Hrst  four  chaptera,  where  alone  he  speaks  directly 
of  theae  acbisma,  and  where  be  reaolvaa  their  crimi- 
nality, not  into  thoir  relation  to  false  doctrine,  but  into 
their  having  their  source  in  a  dispoaltion  to  g\otj  in 
men,  must  be  regarded  as  greatly  ftvoring  this  view. 
(Comp.  also  I  Cor.  v,  16.) 

The  few  facta  supplied  to  ua  by  the  Acta  of  tbe 
Apostles,  and  the  notices  in  tbe  epistle,  appear  to  be 
as  follows :  The  Corinthian  church  was  planted  by  the 
apostle  himaelf  (1  Cor.  Hi,  6)  in  his  seccnd  missionary 
journey,  after  hb  departure  from  Athuis  (Acta  xriii, 
1  sq.).  Ho  rbode  In  the  city  a  year  and  a  half  (ch. 
xvlii,  II),  at  Hret  in  the  house  of  Aqolla  and  PriaciUa 
(ch.  xvlii,  8),  and  aftarwards,  apparently  to  mark  em- 
phatically the  factious  naturo  of  the  conduct  of  tbe 
Jews,  In  the  house  of  tho  proselyte  Jnatna.  A  short 
time  alter  the  opostlo  had  left  the  city  tbe  eloquent 
Jew  of  Alexandria,  Apotlos,  after  having  reoeived, 
whan  at  Ephesus.  more  exact  Instruction  in  tbe  Goaprl 
from  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  went  to  Corinth  (Acts  xix, 
1),  whore  he  preached,  as  wo  may  perbafa  Infer  from 
Paul's  comments  on  hia  own  mode  of  preacbing,  in  a 
■naiMer  marked  by  unneuai  eloquence  and  peraua^ve- 
ness  (comp.  ch,  11, 1, 4).  There  ia,  however,  no  reason 
for  concluding  tbat  tlic  n&itnnn  of  the  teaching  was 
in  any  respect  different  Oom  that  of  Paul  (see  ch.  i,  1 8 ; 
xvi,  12).  This  circumalance  of  tbe  viait  of  ApoUoa, 
owing  to  tbe  aenauous  and  carnal  spirit  which  marknl 
tho  church  of  Corinth,  appeare  to  have  formed  the 
commencement  of  a  gradual  division  into  two  parties, 
the  followera  of  Paul,  and  the  foliowen  of  ApoUoa 
(comp.  ch.  iv,  C).  Thcao  divisions,  however,  were  to 
be  multiplied  ;  for,  aa  it  would  seem,  shortJy  aftsr  the 
departure  nf  Apollos,  Judaiiing  teachers,  supplied  prot^ 
ably  with  lottcn  of  commendatlau  (2  Cor.  iii,  I)  fTon 
the  chnreh  of  Jeruaalem,  appear  to  have  come  to  Cor- 
inlh, and  to  have  preached  the  Gofpel  in  a  ainrit  of 
direct  antagonism  to  Paul  pertoiudlg,  in  every  way 
seeking  to  depreMi  his  claims  to  lie  considered  an  apoa- 
tle (1  Cor,  li,  2).  and  to  exalt  those  of  the  Twelve,  and 
perhaps  especially  of  Peter  (ch.  i,  12).  To  tbii  third 
parly,  which  appears  to  hsTe  Imn  chancteriied  by  a 
spirit  of  excessive  Idttemesa  and  faction,  wo  may  per. 
bapa  add  a  fourth,  that,  under  the  itsDM  of  "  the  fol- 
lowera  of  Chriat"  (ch.  i,  Vi),  sought  at  firat  to  sepanlc 
themselves  from  the  firtious  adherence  to  particular 
len,  but  were  eventoatly  driven  by  antagonism 
poeitlons  equally  sectarian  and  I'p'^"'^!  to  th* 


CORINTHIANS 


■Bl^  of  the  ebarcfa.  At  this  meoMitoiii  period,  bs- 
foiv  poitlai  had  baconie  con*alldBt«l,indlud<Uitinct- 
Ij  Hlthdrawn  from  commnnion  with  one  anotber,  the 
apoatle  vHtea;  Mid  in  the  ontset  of  the  epbtle  (ch. 
l-iT,  12)  we  have  hiA  noble  and  iiapoAAioned  proioat 
•gsintt  ibbi  fourfold  renctiag  of  the  robe  of  Cbiiat. 
This  apirltof  dtvUon  *ppeira,  by  the  good  provldei 
nf  Ood,  to  have  eventatdlf  yielded  lo  his  Bpoetolic 
bDk«,  as  it  ia  nollcvaUe  that  Clamant  of  Rome,  In  his 
oplstle  to  this  chnrch  (ch.  47),  alindea  to  then 
loiif;  put,  and  es  but  alight  compared  to  those  whkh 
■xisted  in  his  own  time.  See  Divisiohb  (i 
CanncH  at  CaRiirra). 

Besides  tbo  lohiams  and  tlie  emmeoDB  opinions 
which  had  Invaded  the  church  at  Corinth,  tbe  apostle 
had  teamed  that  tnany  immoral  and  diaoiderly  prao- 
tlcma  were  tolentcd  among  them,  and  were  in  same 
C)u«e  defended  by  them.  A  connection  of  a  grouly 
IncflBtaous  cliaracler  had  been  formed  by  one  of  the 
mam  ben,  and  gloried  in  by  bis  brethren  (v,  1, !) ;  law- 
mite  before  heathen  jodgea  were  Institntad  by  one 
Chriadaa  against  another  (vl,  1);  licentioDa  indnl- 
genos  WIS  not  so  firmly  denounced  and  so  carBfully 
•Toided  as  the  parity  of  Christianity  nqalred  (vl,  D- 
SO);  the  public  meetings  of  the  brethren  were  brought 
into  dlsrepDte  by  the  women  appearing  in  them  un- 
veiled (xi,  3-10),  and  were  disturbed  by  the  confnsed 
and  disDiderlj  manner  in  which  the  persons  possessing 
•piritnal  gifts  chose  to  exercise  them  (ill-xlv);  and, 
in  flue,  the  rtydirai,  which  were  designed  lo  be  scenes 
of  lore  and  anion,  became  occasions  for  greater  con- 
tention IhroDgb  the  aelRahness  of  the  wealthier  mem- 
bers, who,  lastead  of  aharing  in  a  common  meal  with 
the  poorer,  brought  eacb  his  own  repast,  and  partook 
of  it  by  himself,  often  to  excess,  while  his  needy  bnlh- 
er  was  left  lo  fast  (xi,  M-M),  The  judgment  of  the 
apostle  had  also  been  solicited  by  tbe  Corinthians  con- 
cerning tbe  oomparatlTe  adrantagea  of  tbe  married 
and  the  celibate  etale  (vil,  lUO),  as  well  as,  apparent- 
ly, the  duty  of  CbrlslUns  in  relation  to  the  use  for 
fbod  of  meat  which  had  been  olfered  to  idols  (rlii, 
1-18).  For  the  correction  of  these  errors,  the  reme- 
dying of  these  disorders,  and  the  solntion  of  these 
ik>abts.  Chit  epbtle  waa  written  by  the  apostle. 

8,  The  epistle  consists  of  fonr  parts.  The  first  (i-W) 
la  designed  to  reclaim  tbe  Corinthians  from  schismatic 
contentions ;  the  second  (v-tI)  Is  directed  agalnat  the 
Imtnoralltiea  of  tbe  Corinthians ;  the  third  (tII-xIv) 
contains  replies  to  the  qoerjes  addressed  to  Paul  by 
the  Corinthians,  and  strictures  upon  the  disorders 
which  preTailed  hi  their  worship  i  and  the  ftortb  (xv- 
xri)  contains  an  elaborate  defence  of  tbe  Chriatlan 
doctrine  of  the  reanrrection,  followed  In  tbe  cloee  of 
the  epistle  by  some  general  InstmeUone,  Intimatlona, 
and  greetings. 

The  apoMie  opens  with  his  osoal  aalntation  and  wlUi 
an  expression  of  thankfnlness  (or  their  general  atato 
Of  Christian  progresa  (ch.  I,  1-0).  He  then  at  once 
passos  on  to  the  lamentable  divisions  there  were  among 
them,  and  incidentally  justifies  his  own  conduct  and 
mode  of  preaching  (ch.  I,  10;  iv,  IB),  conclnding  with 
a  notice  of  the  mission  of  Timothy,  and  of  an  intended 
authoritative  vlsitonhisown  part  (ch.iv,  17-21),  The 
apoMls  next  deals  with  the  esse  of  incest  that  had 
taken  place  imnng  them,  and  had  provoked  no  cen- 
rare  (ch.  v,  IS),  noticing,  as  he  passes,  soma  preylous 
ISmarks  he  had  made  upon  not  keeping  company  with 
fbmlcalon  (cb.  v,  S-IS).  Ho  then  comments  on  their 
•Til  practice  of  litigation  before  heatben  tribDuals  (ch. 
Ti,  1-8),  snd  again  reverts  to  the  plagne-spot  In  Co- 
rinth bn  life,  fomlcal  Ion  and  uncleanness  (eh.  vl.  O-SO). 
The  last  Bubject  natarally  paves  the  way  for  his  sn- 
■wers  to  their  Inqnlrin  abont  marriage  (cb.  vil,  1-34), 
and  abont  the  celibacy  of  virgina  and  widows  (eh.  vil, 
S&-40).  The  apostle  next  makes  a  cnnsltion  to  the 
anbjectof  the  la wfalnesa  of  eating  tbinos  sacrificed  to 
Idola,  and  Chriatian  fraedom  generaUy  (ch.  vili),  which 


1  CORINTHIANS 

leads,  not  unnaturally,  to  a  dlgreaaion  on  the  mauiM 
in  which  he  waved  hit  apostolic  privileges  andperftirin- 
ed  bis  apoatellc  duties  (ch.  ii).  He  then  reverts  to  and 
concludes  the  subject  trf'tbeose  of  things  olTeied  to  Idola 
(ch.  x-xl,  1),  and  paaaaa  onward  lo  reprove  bis  con- 
veru  for  their  behavior  in  the  assemblies  of  the  church, 
both  In  respect  to  wtmien  prophesying  and  praying 
with  uncovered  heads  (ch.  xl,  2-16),  and  also  tbeir 
great  imgularides  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord'a 
Sapper  (ch.  xi,  17-31).  Then  follow  tall  and  minute 
instructiona  on  the  exercise  of  spiritual  gifts  (ch.  xli- 
xlv),  in  which  Is  Included  tbe  noble  panegyric  of  cliaN 
Ity  (cb.  xiii),  and  further  a  defenco  of  tbe  doctrino  of 
the  rasurrectloa  of  the  dead,  abont  which  doubts  and 
difflcukles  appear  In  have  arisen  In  this  unhappily  di- 
vided church  (ch.  xv).  The  epistle  closes  with  some 
directions  concerning  tbe  eootiibations  for  the  saints 
at  Jeniaalem  (cb.  xvl,  1-1),  brief  notices  of  his  own 
intended  movement*  (ch.  xvi,  5-8),  commendation  to 
them  of  Timothy  ond  others  (cb.  xvi,  10-18),  gieetinge 
flum  the  churches  (ch.  xvi,  19,  SO),  and  an  autograph 
saluUtion  and  benedktion  (cb.  xvi,  21-34). 

4.  From  an  expression  of  the  opustle  in  ch.  v,  9,  it 
has  besn  Inferred  by  many  that  (he  present  waa  not 
the  Snt  epistle  addressed  by  Paul  to  the  Corinthians, 
bnt  that  it  was  preoeded  by  one  now  lost.  For  tbia 
opinion,  however,  the  words  in  question  aflbtd  a  vary 
unsstlsfactory  tiasls.  Thsj-  are  aa  foUowa;  typa^n 
it/xlv  iv  ry  JinfrroX^.  r.  r-  X-  Now  these  words  muat 
be  rendered  either  '■  I  have  written  to  you  In  (Au  epl*. 
tie,"  or  "  I  wroW  to  yoa  In  that  epistle ;"  and  our 
choice  between  these  twonnderings  will  depend  part- 
ly'on  grammatical  and  partly  on  historical  ground*. 
As  tbe  aorist  ty poijia  may  mean  either  "  I  wrote"  or 
"I  have  written,"  notliing  can  be  concluded  from  it 
In  either  way.  It  may  be  doabted,  however,  whether, 
had  the  spostio  Intended  to  refer  to  a  former  epistle, 
he  would  have  used  the  article  rf  simply,  wicboot  add- 
ing irpiirip^,"{cTmfT\"  while,  on  the  othor  hand,  there 
•re  cases  which  clearly  ahow  that,  had  tlie  apostle  iD> 
tended  to  refer  lo  the  present  epistle.  It  was  in  accord- 
ance with  bis  practice  to  use  the  article  in  the  sense 
of  "  tMt"  (cnmp.  i;  IwaToKij,  Coloea.  Iv,  16,  Ti,y  tjmrr. 

1  Thess.  V,  37).  In  support  of  this  oonclusion  it  may 
be  added,  1st.  thsl  the  apostle  had  really  in  this  epiEtla 
given  the  prohibition  to  which  he  nfcts,  viz..  In  tho 
verses  immediately  preceding  tbst  onder  notice;  snd 
that  his  design  In  the  verses  which  follow  Is  ao  to  ex. 
plain  that  prohibition  as  to  preclude  the  risk  of  their 
snppodng  that  he  meant  by  it  anything  else  than  (hat 
in  tke  Aiinh  they  should  not  mingle  with  Immoral 
persons ;  Sd,  tliat  It  ia  not  a  little  stnngD  that  tho 

ipostle  should,  only  in  this  cursory  and  Incidental 
nanner,  refer  to  a  circnmstanco  so  Important  In  It* 
bearing  upon  the  caae  of  the  Corinthiana  aa  his  having 
ilready  addreaaed  them  on  their  sinful  practices ;  and, 
Id,  that,  bad  such  an  epistle  ever  existed,  it  may  be 
suppoeed  tiiat  some  hint  of  Its  txlBtenco  would  have 
been  found  in  tbo  records  of  tbo  primitive  Church, 
which  is  not  tho  case.    Alford,  indeed  ^ConnerU.  In 

2  Cor.  i,  16),  thinka  that  1  Cor.  iv,  IS,  contains  an  al- 
lusion likewise  to  the  lost  letter,  but  tbe  information 
there  spoken  of  may  easily  have  been  otherwise  com- 
municated. On  these  graunda  we  atrongly  inclino  to 
the  opinion  that  the  present  Is  the  first  epistle  which 
Paul  addressed  to  tbe  Corinthians  (Bloomfleld,  Recm. 
no  St/Hopl.  in  loc. ;  Billroth's  CommaHani,  Eng.  tr.,  i, 
4,  nnte  a).  The  same  view  is  taken  by  Laoge  {Apoil. 
Ztilali.  1,  206)  and  olhen. 

6.  There  Is  a  general  agreement  as  to  tbe  date  (at 
least  the  placr)  of  this  e|datle.  It  was  written  ftnm 
Ephesua  (chap,  xvi,  8),  probably  abont  tbe  time  of 
Paasover  (clup.  v,  T,  8)  of  the  apostle's  third  year 
there  (AcU  six,  10 ;  xx,  Sl),after  his  first  severe  treat- 
ment  (chap,  iv,  82 ;  Acts  six,  9)  had  somewhat  obated 
(chap,  xvl,  V ;  Acts  xli,  17),  and  when  be  had  formed 
tbe  pnrpose  of  a  jonmey  through  Uacedonia  and 


CORINTHIANS  61 

Onece  (chap,  xvi,  G ;  Acta  xlx,  31),  and  btfbrt  tlie 
ealmiaatlDK  act  of  mabbiug  (which  cannot  in  an; 
eaae  b«  referred  to  in  chap,  xt,  SS,  since  the  apontle 
wai  Btill  in  Alia,  chap,  xvl,  19;  and  he  mentiaiu  Ihii 
incident  in  hia  next  letter  ai  a  special  (rfece  of  n«wB,  2 
Cor.  i,  8),  that  only  (erred  to  eipedits  hi*  plan  (Acta 
XX,  1;  comp.  xiz,  !S).  See  Aura.  Thli  opinion  ia 
flirlher  reritied  bj  the  following  coincidence* :  [chap. 
1, 1,  "  Soathenea"  bere  vas  a  Chriitian,  and  therefwe 
different  fhim  the  president  of  the  tfnagogne  at  Coi^ 
ldth,Acts  xvUi,]7Jchip.i,ll-lB;  ii,l;  iii,  1-6,  Paul 
had  left  the  Coriathian  charch  in  It*  Infancy  aoms  time 
rfoce,  and  Apollo*  had  visited  them  meanwhile  (Acta 
iTiH,  18 ;  xlx,  1) ;  chap,  iv,  17,  19  j  xvi,  10, 11,  Paul 
hod  jnat  Eent  Timothy  to  them,  and  designed  visit- 
ing them  himself  Bhortly  (Acta  xlx,!l,2Si  x.T,l,2); 
chap.  xv,S2,he  had  Bome  time  previoDily  bean  vioient- 
Ij-  oppoeed  (iiiixV")  "*  Ephesus  (Acts  xii,  9) ;  chap. 
xvi,  1.  be  hud  viaited  Galatia  not  very  long  before 
(Acta  xviii,  23);  chap,  zvi,  A-7,  he  waa  about  to  aet 
out  for  Macedonia,  and  thence  to  Corlntti,  vhera  he 
doaigned  to  spend  the  comiDg  winter  (Acts  xx,  I-S) ; 
chap,  xvt,  8,  he  still  expected  to  ataj  (iiripviS)  at 
Ephesua  till  Peatecoat,  which  atay  was  prolonged  till 
the  uproar  abont  IMana  (Acta  xix,  S2,  !S) ;  chap,  xvi, 
S,  4,  be  ftlterwards  deaigned  to  visit  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xix,  21)  [chap,  xvi,  12,  ApoUos  was  at  this  time  in  Ibe 
vicinity  of  Paul,  but  was  not  about  to  revisit  Corinth 
Just  yet,  Acta  xix,  1] ;  chap,  xvi,  Ifl,  Paul  waa  sur- 
rounded by  the  churches  of  Asia,  in  the  capital  of 
which  Aquila  and  Prisdlla  were  now  settled  (Acta 
xviil, 18,19,36).  Finally,  the  nOicripHon  (so  far  aa  of 
any  authority)  agrees  with  all  this  (camp,  chap,  xvi, 
17),  except  aa  to  Timothy,  who  woi  then  on  hia  way 
to  Corinth  (chap,  tv,  17 ;  xvi,  10)  [for  from  3  Cor.  viii, 
17,  le,  it  doe*  not  necessarily  follow  that  Timothy 
(even  sapposlnit  him  to  be  there  alluded  to)  did  not 
Tisit  Corinth  till  aflerwaida] ;  and  also  except  aa  to 
the  date  at  Fhilippi  (the  best  copici  read  Ephesus),  an 
error  of  Daditjon  apparently  arising  from  the  fkct  lh:it 
Paul  was  doubtless  expecting  to  poaa  through  iiiipx"- 
liai)  that  city  (Acta  xi,  G).  See  ToioTHr.  (Cnmp. 
Couvbearo  and  Iloweon's  Zi/s  uwJfjpMlw  a/£r./'aiij, 
il,  89).  The  dale  aaslt^ed  this  epiitio  by  the  forego- 
ing particulars  is  the  spring  of  A.D.  hi.  Ths  bearers 
were  probably  (according  to  the  common  sabscrlption) 
Stcplianis,  Fortunatus,  and  Achsicua,  who  hod  been 
nccntiy  sent  to  the  apoetle,  and  who,  la  the  conclusion 
of  this  epistle  (chap,  xvi,  17),  an  especially  commendod 
to  the  honorable  regard  of  ths  church  of  Corinth.  For 
Bemmmtaritt,  see  below.  Of  treatises  on  special  poiata 
wemay  nBmetbeftillowiDg(in  Latin):  those  of  Faost 
on  the  alleged  lost  eplalle  (Argent.  1G7]);  on  the 
Kdusm*  of  the  Corinthian  Church,  Dorscheus  (Hafh. 
1722),  Uoeheim  (Holmst.  173G),  Schongard  (Hafn. 
17B8),  Titringa  (Ob*,  mct.  ill,  BOO  sq.) ;  on  "  leading 
about  a  wift,"  Qnistorp  (Rost.  1692),  Witte  (Viteb. 
1691);  on  otlier  national  ailnsions,  Oieaiioa  (Lipa. 
ISOi),  Scblager  (Uelmst.  1739),  WoUe  (Up*.  ITSl). 
See  Paul. 

CORINTHIANS,  Secoxd  Epistls  tothb.  1.  Ws 
have  teen  above  that,  when  writing  his  first  epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  Paul  expected  shortly  to  visit  them, 
and  bad  indeed  formed  a  detailed  plan  of  the  Journey. 
But  wa  may  safely  infer  from  2  Cor.  1, 15, 16,  28,  that 
Paul  had  not  been  at  Corinth  between  the  writing  ' 
the  first  and  second  epistles,  so  that  ne  must  place  1 
■econd  epistle  very  soon  after  the  writinit  of  the  firat 
epistle,  protably  on  his  arrival  at  Phllippi.  The  place 
whence  it  was  written  waa  clearly  not  Ephesus  (sen 
chap.  i.  8),  but  Macedonia  (chap,  vii,  6 ;  viii,  I ;  ix,  2), 
whither  the  apostle  wont  by  way  of  Troa*  (chap.  ii.  12), 
after  waiting  a  short  time  in  the  latter  place  for  the 
return  of  Titus  (chap.  11,  IS).  The  Vatican  &1S.,  the 
balk  of  later  MSS.,  and  the  old  Syr.  verdon,  positive- 
ly assume  Phllippi  aa  the  exact  place  whence  it  was 
written ;  that  the  bearers  were  Titna  and  his  assod- 


2  CORINTHIANS 

atei  (Lnke  ?)  la  apparently  sabatantialad  by  chap.  riO, 

2Si  ix,a,&. 

The  Ibllawiag  colncidencta  will  aerve  to  estaUisb 
this  date  :  chap,  i,  1,  Ttmotby  (who  bad  now  rejoined 
Paul  by  way  of  Corinth,  1  Cor.  xvi,  10,  ]  1)  vaa  in 
Paul's  company  (Acta  xx,  4);  chap.  1,6,  Paul  had  late- 
ly escaped  death  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix, 80);  chap,  i, 
IS,  16,  be  had  originally  intended  to  go  tbnxmb  Ca- 
Inth  to  Macedonia,  and  retuni  through  Corinth  to  Jd- 
daa,  but,  upon  receipt  of  the  Infoimation  which  called 
fiirtfa  bis  drat  epistle,  he  had  so  far  altered  hia  plas 
(chap,  t,  17 ;  1  Cor.  Iv,  IB,  19)  as  to  determlite  to  forego 
the  first  of  these  visits  to  Corinth,  and  (o  nuke  tba 
second  a  longer  one  (I  Cw.  xvt,  7),  and  he  iras  idll. 
mately  csmpelled  to  paas  tbrou^  Macedonia  to  Cot- 
inth,  and  return  thruugh  Macedonia  to  Jerusalem 
(Acta  XX,  1-S) ;  chap.  11, 13, 13,  on  bis  way  to  Uacedo- 
nia,  since  writiag  the  first  epistle,  he  had  touched  Ml 
Troaa  (as  usual,  AcU  xvi,  II;  ix,  6),  but  did  not  Ftay, 
on  account  of  Titos'*  absence,  who  ailsrvarda  met  hba 
In  Macedonia,  with  latelligence  of  the  good  t  fleet*  of 
his  former  letter  (chap,  vi,  B-16) ;  chap.  Wii,  I ;  ix,  3, 
4,  he  we*  now  in  Macedonia  {Act*  xx,  3) ;  chap,  viii, 
6,  ie-15, 22, 28,  this  letter  was  sent  bi-  Ulus  (compu* 
tubtenplvm)  (Acts  xx,  4);  chap,  vil'l,  10;  ix,  3,  I>aal 
was  collecting  Ibnds  for  the  church  at  Jeninlem  (Ada 
XI,  16),  and  had  heard  of  the  Coriuthians' readiness  to 
contribute  a  year  since,  probably  by  ApoUor,  wha  had 
now  returned  to  Ephesus  (Acta  xix,  1,  compared  witli 
1  Cor.  xvi,  12).  Finally,  the  tiAiaifliim  exactly  tal- 
lies with  thefo  particulars;  comp.  chap,  viii,  IB,  IS. 
(See  Conrbcare  and  Hovroa'a  Ufe  and  FpMa  of  St. 

2.  From  2  Cor.  11, 1 ;  xU,  14 1  xili,  1, 2,  many  have 
Inferred  that  before  writing  thia  e|datle  Paul  had  tma 
visited  Coriuth,  and  that  one  of  these  visits  had  be«n 
after  tbo  church  there  h*d  fallen  into  an  evil  state; 
and  the  second  of  thefe  visits  has  been  most  plauaiUy 
assigned  to  tbo  apostle's  three  years'  stay  at  Epbceoa. 
So  Chrysoetom  and  bis  follower*.  (Ecumcnius  and  Tbe- 
ophytact,  and  in  recent  limes,  Mailer  {Dt  Iribui  Pamli 
Uin.  Basil,  1881),  Anger  (_Ral.  Tiii^.  p.  TO,  sq.),Wie(«- 
ler  iCIinmoL  p.  280),  and  the  majority  of  modem  crit- 
ic*. Olshauseu  adopts  a  still  more  complicated  tbeuir 
{Commeet,  iv,  124  sq..  Am.  ed.).  Wo  have  eeen  above 
that  thia  vMt  did  not  take  place  between  the  two  epis- 
tles, and  as  it  cannot  be  assigned  to  the  subfcquenl 
residence  in  Greece  (Acts  xx,  2,  S),  those  who  think  it 
occurred  arc  obliged  to  suppose  one  not  mentioned  in 
the  Acts.  (See  this  position  maintained  by  AUWd, 
Commmt.  n  A'.  7*.,  11,  proleg.  49  K).)  Thia  expedient 
of  interpolating  an  event  in  a  continuous  history  is  al- 
ways  a  doubtful  one,  and  in  thia  case  seema  excluded 
by.  the  poaltiva  terms  In  which  Paul's  residence  and 
laboisaraconflned,  during  the  whole  time  in  queatioB, 
to  Ephesus  (see  Acta  xix,  10,  22,  compared  with  xx, 
61).  Nor  la  this  hypothesis  necetsarj';  the  passages 
that  seem  to  imply  an  intended  third  visit,  when  cir*- 
fully  examined,  merely  speak  of  a  third  iofeiiftiHi  (rpi- 
rov  iroifjuic 'X"  'U<<'',  chap.  xlI,  14,*nd  rpinv  !pi^ 
/uii,  chap,  xill,  1,  do  not  slat*  two  actual  prior  vluta,  aa 
contended  by Alfbrd, Comii'iif. in loc. ;  see  Homc'a/n- 
tnd.,  new  ed.,iv,  £29)  to  visit  them,  only  one  of  whxA 
had  heretofore  been  auccessful  (Act*  xviii,  1 ;  camp.  I 
Cor.  i,  ]&) ;  and,  in  like  meaner,  the  "  aecond,  condnK 
to  them  in  heaviness"  and  "humbling,"  instead  of  dep- 
recating H  second  such  scene,  simply  intimatea  tha  poa- 
sibility  of  such  a  scene  on  his  second  coming.  (Sea 
Davidson's  lotnd.  to  N.  T.  ii,  218  Bq.)  This  quea- 
tion,  however,  does  not  aSM  the  dates  assigned  eodi 
e;dstle  above,  except  so  Osr  as  the  aupposed  middle 
visit  may  be  taken  aa  the  occaaion  of  one  or  both  of 
them — a  position  which  we  have  shown  to  be  wboUj 
gratuitoua  and  untenable.    See  Paul. 

8.  "On  arriving  at  Troaa,  Paol  expected  to  meet 
Titua  with  Intelligeaee  from  Coriath  of  the  Mate  of 
things  in  that  chnrcfa.   According  to  the  common  opio- 


CORINTHIANS  613  CORINTHIANS 

ton  Ulna  tud  been  sent  by  Paul  to  Corinth,  putly  to  ten  therewith  conoected.     In  the  second  (iv-uc)  ba 

collect  moiHj  in  lid  of  tbe  dittreiiMd  CbriBtinaii  in  discouraea  on  the  aulistance  and  effecU  of  the  religion 

I^lestino,  putlj  to  obHi-ve  the  effect  of  the  apoetle'i  which  he  piocUimed,  and  tnma  from  thia  to  an  appeal 

flnt  Bpiitle  on  the  Corinthiani.     In  thu  expectation  on  behilT  of  the  claima  of  the  poor  eainta  on  their  Ub> 

of  meMin){'ntua  atTrou  Paul  waa  diasppointed.    lie  emlily.     And  in  the  third  (x-xiii)  he  vindicataa  hia 

accordingly  proceeded  into  Macedonia,  where  at  length  own  dif^ity  and  authority  aa  an  apoatle  against  the 

hU  deaitewaa  eratifled,  and  the  wiahed-br  information  parties  by  whom  these  were  oppoaed.     The  divided 

obtained  (S  Cor.  ii,  IB ;  vii,  1&  aq.)-"  atate  of  feeling  in  the  apostle's  mind  will  acconiit  snf- 

'■The  epiitle  waa  occaaioned  by  the  informatlan  ficieutiy  forthe  differenre  of  tone  perceptible  between 

wbich  (he  apostle  had  received  alio,  aa  it  would  car-  the  earlier  and  later  purta  of  thia  epistle,  without  our 

tainly  aeein  protMhIe,  from  TVmoAy,  of  the  reception  of  hnTin);  recourse  to  tbe  arljitniry  and  capriciona  hy- 

thfl  llntepiatle.     It  hu  indeed  recently  been  doubted  pothesia  of  Semler(/>iiKr(,  de  dujjice  appemUce  Ep.  ad 

by  Saander,  Do  Watte,  and  others,  whether  Timothy,  Ron.  Hal,  1767)  and  Weber  (Frog.  dr.  nument  epp.  ad 

wbo  had  been  deflniteiy  aent  (o  Corinth  (ICor,  It,  17)  Cur,  reetiiu  ixmtilaendo,yitemb,  1798),  whom  Pauloa 

by  way  of  Macedonia  (Acts  lii,  22),  really  reached  Ibllowa,  that  thia  epistle  haa  lieen  eitensiTely  interpo- 

hia  destination  (comp.  1  Cor.  xri.lO);  and  it  has  been  lated." 

urged  that  (he  miasion  of  Timothy  would  hardly  have  i  "A  close  analyata  ia  acarcety  practicable,  aa  In  no 
been  left  unnoticed  in  t  Cor.  xii,  17,  It)  (see  RQckert,  one  of  (he  apoetle'a  eplatlea  are  the  changea  more  rapid 
Com.  p.  409).  To  thia,  however.  It  liaa  been  replied,  and  frequent.  Now  he  thanka  God  for  their  general 
apparently  convincinf^iy,  that  aa  Timothy  is  an  asso-  state  (chap,  i,  3  sq.]  )  now  he  glances  at  hla  purpoaed 
ciata  in  writing  the  epiatle,  any  notice  of  bis  own  mis-  visit  (cliap.  1,  IS  aq.) ;  now  he  alludes  to  the  epecial 
sion  in  the  third  person  would  have  aeemed  inappro-  .  directions  in  tbe  first  letter  (chap,  ii,  3  aq.) ;  again  ha 
priate.  Hia  viait  was  aaaumed  oa  a  fact,  and  as  one  returns  to  hla  own  plana  (chap,  il,  13  aq,),  pleads  Ua 
that  naturally  made  him  an  associate  with  the  apostle  ,  own  apoatollc  dignity  (chap,  iii,  1  aq.),  dwells  long 
in  writing  to  the  church  he  had  ao  lately  visited.  i  upon  the  spirit  and  nature  of  hia  own  Ubora  (cbap.  iv, 
*'  It  la  more  difficult  to  asaign  the  precise  reason  ftir  1  sq.),  his  own  hopes  (chap,  v,  I  sq.),  and  hia  own  auf- 
tlie  miasion  of  Titus.  That  be  brought  bacli  tidings  feringa  (chap,  vl,  1  sq.).  returning  again  to  more  spo- 
of the  lecapdon  which  Paul's  firat  epiatle  had  met  with  cillc  declarations  of  hla  love  tOHarda  hla  children  in 
BMina  perfectly  clear  (chap,  vii,  6  sq.),  but  whether  he  the  faith  (chap,  vi,  11  iq.),  and  a  yet  further  deciara- 
waa  specially  aent  to  ascertain  this,  or  whether  tn  coo-  tion  of  hla  vievg  and  feelinics  with  regard  to  tbsm 
Tey  fresh  directions,  cannot  be  accertdned.  There  ia  (chap.  vii).  Then  atfain,  In  the  matter  of  the  alms,  be 
s  ^w  of  plauaibility  in  the  supposition  of  Bleek(.^(u(j,  stirs  up  their  liberality  by  alluding  to  the  conduct  of 
M.  Krit.  1R30,  p,  625),  followed  more  recently  by  Mean-  the  churches  of  Macedonia  (chap,  viii,  1  sq,),  their 
der  iPJIan.  il  Lai.  p.  437),  that  the  apoatle  had  made  spiritual  progress  (ver.  7),  the  example  of  Christ  (var. 
Titui  tbe  hearer  of  a  letter  couched  in  terma  of  decided  9),  and  pasaea  on  to  speak  more  fully  of  the  present 
aeverity,  now  lost,  to  which  he  la  to  he  supposed  to  re-  mission  of  Tltue  and  hia  associates  (ver,  18,  sq.),  and 
(er  Id  chap,  ii,  3  (compared  with  ver.  4,  9) ;  vii,  3, 11  to  reiterate  his  exhortations  to  liberality  (chop.  Ix,  1 
sq. ;  but,  aa  haa  been  joatly  urged  (see  Meyer,  EinUit,  ,  sq,).  In  the  third  portion  he  paasea  into  language  of 
|>.3),  there  is  quite  enough  of  severity  in  the  first  epia-  aeverity  and  reproof;  he  tTavely  warns  those  who  pre- 
tte  (conalder  chap.  iv.  IS-Sl ;  v,  2  aq. ;  vi,  6-S  ;  xi,  17)  sume  to  hold  lightly  his  spo^tulical  authority  (chap,  x, 
to  call  forth  the  apoatle^a  affectionate  anxiety.  Uore-  1  aq,)  ;  he  puts  singly  forward  hia  apostolical  dig- 
over,  the  aupposition  of  a  lost  letter  Is  in  Itself  impiob-  nlty  (cbnp.  iJ,  B  aq,);  be  illuetrates  his  forbearance 
able.  If  It  bs  desirable  to  hazard  a  conjecture  on  this  (ver,  8  aq.) ;  he  makes  honest  boaat  of  hia  labon  (ver. 
mission  of  Titua,  it  would  aeem  most  natural  to  sup-  23  sq.)  -,  he  declares  tbe  revelations  vouchsafed  to  him 
pose  that  the  return  of  Timothy  and  the  Intelligence  (chap,  xii,  1  aq,):  ho  again  returns  to  the  nature  of  his 
ha  conveyed  might  have  been  aucb  as  to  make  the  doallnga  with  his  converts  (ver.  13  aq.),  and  concludes 

contentiaas  church  one  of  his  immediate  followers,    brief  greetings,  and  a  doxology  (ver.  11-14). 
wUh  lostracttons  to  support  and  atrengthen  the  effect  I       &.  "The^niiiiwnuiand  aulhailidig  Is  aupported  by 
of  the   epistle,  and   to  bring  back   the    most   recentj  the  most  decided  external  testimony  (Irenmus,  llaer, 
tidlnca  of   the    apirit   that  was   prevailing    at    Cor.    Iii,  7, 1 ;  Iv,  38,  3 ;  Athenagorae,  dt  BetHrr,  p.  CI,  ed. 
inlh."  Col. ;  Clem.  Alex.  .^'tron.  iii,  94 ;  Iv,  101 1  TertuU.  de 

"  The  Intelligence  brought  hy  Titus  concerning  the  I  PudirtI,  chap.  13),  and  by  internal  evidence  of  such  a 
church  at  Corinth  was  an  the  whole  favorable.  The  '  kind  (hat  what  haa  been  aald  on  thia  point  with  reepect 
censurea  of  the  former  epistle  had  produced  in  their  <  lo  tbe  first  epiatle  is  hare  even  atlll  more  applicable. 
minda  a  godly  sorrow,  had  awakened  in  tliem  a  regard  The  only  doubt*  that  modem  pseudo-criticism  baa 
to  the  proper  discipline  of  the  church,  and  had  led  to  been  able  to  bring  forward  relate  to  tbe  unity  of  tbe 
the  exclusion  from  their  fi^llowahip  of  the  incestuous  !  epistle,  but  these  are  not  such  aa  seem  to  di'Krve  ae- 
person.  Thia  had  ao  wrought  on  the  mind  of  the  lat-  ]  rioua  consideration  (see  Meyer,  Einleil.  p.  T).' 
tor  that  he  had  repented  of  his  evil  course",  and  ahow.  6.  Tbe  following  are  the  aeparate  Cimateataria  on 
ed  aucb  oontrlUon  that  the  apostle  now  pities  him,  and  both  ejustlea,  the  most  important  being  de'l^-nated 
exborta  the  church  to  restore  him  (o  their  communion  by  an  asterisk  (•)  preflxed :  Jerome,  CommaibiTii  fin 
(1  Cor.  il.S-11;  vii,  8  sq.).  A  cordial  reaponse  had  0pp.  U,  901);  Chrysoatom, //onifu  (in  6^.  x,  1.486; 
alao  been  given  to  tbe  appeal  that  had  been  made  on  ,  tranal.  In  the  Library  o/FiMrTM,  Oif.  1839, 1H4>',  vol. 
bahalfoftheSLiintainPHleatlne(ix,3).  But  with  all  4,  7,  and  37);  CrAmer,  Ep.  ad  Cor.  (Calfna  Gr.  Pair. 
theae  pleasing  symptoms  there  were  some  of  a  painful  j  v);  Hugo  a  S.Victore,  AmoltiiioKtt  (in  Opp,);  Aqul- 
kind.  The  anil- Paulino  Influence  bi  the  church  bad  nas,  fzpanfio  (in  0pp.  yi);  Zuingle,  .4nao(a(irma  (in 
increased,  or  at  leaat  had  become  more  active  ;  and  0pp.  iv) ;  •Calvin,  tr.  by  T^mme,  CommaUarit  (Ijmd, 
those  who  were  actuated  by  it  had  been  seeking  by  all  1517,  4(0);  also  tr.  by  Pringle,  Commmiary  (F^inb. 
meana  to  overturn  the  authority  of  the  apostle,  and  1&43.  !  vols.  Svo);  Butlinger,  Cammentar'ivt  (Tignr. 
discredit  hia  claims  aa  an  ambaaaador  of  Christ.  laW-S,  S  vols.  Svo);   Sarcer,  MttSiatimtu  (Argent, 

4.  "  Thia  Intelligence  led  the  apo»tle  to  compose  his  :  l.i44,  Bvo);  Never.  Aimolalumai  (Bemie,  IMfi,  4to>; 
Bocond  epistle,  in  which  the  languSRe  of  commends-  I  Major,  EnarratK  (Titemb.  1&&8, 1661,  Svo) ;  alao  Prt- 
tion  and  love  is  mingled  with  that  of  censure,  and  even  '  d  ym  (Jen.  Ifi68,  Svo) ;  Musculus,  CDmatnfariu  (Ba- 
of  threatening.  Thia  epistle  mav  \m  divided  into  three  |  all.  1559,  1562,  1582,  1600,  Ifill,  fol.) ;  Sbangenlwrg, 
sections.  In  the  Arst  (l-lil>  the  apostle  chiefly  dwells  I /VrdiyM  (Pisleb.  1561-4,  2  vols,  fol.);  Aretius,  Tom- 
on  the  elbcti  produced  hy  hia  ArstepisUe  and  the  mat-' meiiraWu(Lanaan.  1579,  Svo;  More.  1583,  fol.);  Sta- 
1I.-17 


CORINTHIANS  6 1 4  CORMORANT 

p]tioa,  Aiii!Jola  (_Xat.ii9i  m.,  3  voIb.  8vo);  Bollock,  menlui  Unpuga:  the  flnt  U  called" 71c .^nidli  ef 
Commmtariut,  cum  lutif  I.  Piscstoria  (Herbom.  1600,  tin  CorMtimi  to  Paul  (At  Apvtilt,"  aad  the  atraoi 
Jen.  1603,  Sto);  Runga,  DuputalVMn  (VlCemb.  1606,  |  "The  EpMa  e/ Paul  Oi  Apailb  to  Ok  ConaOitau.' 
4to);  SUiurl,  OnmtyUarii  (IngDldnUdt,  1608,  4U)i  Thej  wen  avldcTitly  b4Md  upon  tha  euly  bdicT  tlwt 
Weinricti,  CunmAiliin'iu  (Lip*.  1609, 1610,  4to)i  Cout-  the  apMtlg  bad  writtea  to  thew  converts  mon  thu 
ten,  Comnentaria  (Colon.  1631,  fol.);  Perez,  /■  tpp.  twice.  Tbeir ipniioiuiieH hu been ihown by Carpm* 
ad  Cot.  (Baicin.  lfiS2,  fol.) ;  ScUter,  EtyUcotio  (Oxon.  iEputola  dm  apocrfplia,  etc  Ll|w.  1776)  end  Ullfun 
1633,  lto)i  Wandtlln's  puiphrue  (in  Dubb,  Co-  (ffeufaAer^er  JoArt.  1S2S,  vl).  The uriKhial ARnvnUo, 
penhigen,  1E4S,  4ta);  Sa,]iMTaTi,  DupulatioHti  (In  0pp.  wilb  ■  tnnalation,  will  be  found  bi  Anclwr,  I  m  fi  iim 
xiv))  Cocceiui,Cannfli/arnu(m(^.v);  Itreitbaupt.  Mar(p.U3-iai);  it  wu  al»  edited  by  Rink  (Heidelb. 
Prtdiglen  (Hal.  1696,  4to);  •Bienuann,  Virliar,ugt  VSU).  Tbeee  epiitlea  ere  tnnilated  into  Aralk:,  Lat- 
(Tr.  a.  Bh.  1706-8,  8  vols.  4to);  Locke,  .Vote!  (Lood.  in,  and  Engliib,  in  Whiaton'i  JetteoMc  BieordM  (n, 
1738,  4(o);  Pfrnniger,  tfrUariinj  (Z&r.  1769,  8vo);  586-<(M).  Tluin  nttUo  "  Tm  Hpiil'eM  of  Ofmrmt  la 
■BaamgarUD,  Auilegiimg  (Hal.  1761.  Ito)]  *Moahaim  ti»  CorMktaiu"  extant, tbe  Hcond  of  vbicli,  at tawt,ii 
(ed.Windheim),  ErUaningiFltath.l7ea,  3  vols.  Ito);  '  probabl.v  apocr^'phal.  SeeCLEKuraor  Rome;  Clu- 
Semler,  Airqiirarif  (Hat.  1770  and  1776,  3  volt.  Svo);  KHTUoa.  AiiEngliibveraionoftheinaxiBtaln  Wake'i 
Uddsnhauer,  Ertldnatg  iHtmb.  l"l,  8va)j  Scbulz,  \ApoiliiliaJ  Falitn;  aim  a  onnnnentarr  on  than  bj 
Bri/fi  a.  d.  Kor.  (Hal.  1784-6,  Svoli.  in  1, 6»o) ;  Zach-  ,  Ligblfoot  (Lond.  1869,  8vo).  See  Enn-i^  {Sp^^). 
arii,  ed.Volborth,  Aitatrk.  (film.  1786,  2  voLi.  8vo),  CorlntlMM  (K^.vSoc).  an  ArabUn,  one  (rf  Hetnd'. 
Storr,  Notilia  (Tailing.  1788,  4to) ;  Gfipfert,  Auntrk.  body-guard,  greatly  tmated  by  bim  till  armted  on 
(Lpz.  1788,  8to);  Monu,  ErOdr.  (Lalpi.  I7M,  Svo) ; ' infonnation  bv  Fjbataa  of  being  bribed  by  Syllauu 
Wlrtb,  Utb.  d.  Br.  a.  d.  Kor.  (Ulm,  1825,  Svo);  Pott,  '  k,  kfH  bla  muter,  nhlch  be  CDnfe>-Mid  on  totare.  and 
Ammt-iSiotia  (Gfitting.  1826,  Svo) ;  Flatt,  Vorltttmgea  ^aa  aent  by  SaWrninn*  to  Roma  tor  paniahmtm  {Jo- 
(TGb.  18*7, 8vo)  i  Lothian,  iwhina  (Edlnb.  1828,  Svo) ; '  «,phui.,  ^irt.  i  vii,  8,  !  ;  War,  i,  tt,  8). 
•Kllrotb,  C™™j»-  (Lpx.  18M,  8vo ;  t«n.l.  by  W.  I      Conn»0  MacCoui-ah,  a  biabop  and  king  of  Han. 

jr-  ^'iTf^  ^^■^■}^-\  *  ^"^i.  *?''  ■"^TT'  ^r   tbor  or  collector  of  the  Aoftn-  of  CoM,  >  work  that 

iCr.  (Tdb.  18B7,  Svo) ;  G.  D ,  Ezpla<tat,at  (Und.    ^^^^^,  ^^^  romance,  of  the  Hilnlan  klnc*,  a  cow  of 

1843,  I2mo) ;  .S-nlry,  J^.tc.  etc.  (Lond   1865,  1863,  1 1^'^^^  th^Pri  "h^n^^e  a^ng  ^»^ffi 
1866,  2  Tole.  8vo);  Hodge,  ExpcMon  (N.Y  1857-60   ]  ^j-f„u«dy,  wa.  ^nln'  Lln-erick  «  late  »  ITlf. 

3  vol..  lam^i   Mder,  Co™mm.or  (Freib.  1857-66,  3    h/^,  ^^^^  ^j,  ,h„,,  yf,  ,„  y,,  j„ti«  of  .vligioa 
you.  Svo) ;  O.I«ider,  C™™™ter  (Stuttg.  1847,  1858,  j  „j  ^„i^,  „r'^|it,„,a„,  founding  non,er,  ^*^ 


S  vol..  8vo)i  Robertaon,  Lfchtra  (London,  1869, 
1870,  8to)  ;  *Neinder,  A  lulej-ng  (in  Si.  TUol.  Vork- 
ttmsni,  ed.  Bevncblag.  Berlin,  1859,  Svo)  -.  KMa^,  Con- 
twnbir  (Viteb.  1861,  8va).     See  El-ISTLBS. 

On  the  whole  of  the  FIRST  epistle  alone  :  Sampran, 
/ngj.pr.tid  C(?r,(Undon,lMG,evo);  Martyr,  Com- 
mintaritu  (Tlgur.  1551,  15U8,  4to;  1668,  1589,  fol.); 
Uaiino,  TrattiluM  (in  Ducheiy,  Spieihg.  i,  43);  Hua, 
Ei^ticalio  (in  MammtiHa,  S,  83)  i  Covilloniua,  Condti- 
nana  (Rome,  1564) ;  HeknchthoD,  Commen/ariui  (VI- 
temb.  1661,  Svo);  Prndeniiu,  OimmaataWu  (in  0pp. 
Ba.iL  1663.  fol.) ;  Andrea.,  KxrgaU  (Francfort,  1585, 
-     •     "  ■■  MiuB,Pmi^<«i(Lpi.l690,fol.);  Sleuart, 


Ing  king,  he  wa*  forced  to  llgbL  Before  Ui 
finit  and  only  engagement  be  mada  hi.  will,  uarm- 
bled  hia  blahopo,  named  hi.  BDccaaor,  gave  tfaem  good 
■dvioe,  aald  be  would  die  In  battle,  went  into  it,  and 
died. 

CoRUorant.  There  are  two  Hebrew  wnrdi  tkn. 
tnnalated  In  oar  vanion.  (See  Bochact,  ffMroc  ill, 
20  aq.) 

1.  '?l^t|^(a«a:ai',thatwblchcaa(iilaeIfilwn,-&epL 
nira^puET^,  Vulg.  ■vrm/u,  Syr.  and  Chald.  j[>l- 
ciitrhrr;  occotring  only  in  l*v.  li,  17 ;  Dent,  xlv,  17), 
in  common  with  tiie  uaual  Greek  version  orroparrK- 
Coetfluntarta  (Ingolat.  1594,  4to);  Slorton,  Expoiifio  |ls  conaldered  to  have  reference  to  darting,  raaliiiig,er 
(Lond.  1696,  Svo) ;  Mylo,  EzpUtalio  (Jen.  1600,  8va) ;  |  attoping  like  a  falcon ;  and  accordingly  has  been  v». 
Yaldeslua's  CotnmcDtury  ^In  Spaniab,  without  date  or  |  riouely  applied  to  the  eagle,  tbe  jerfalcon,  the  gannet. 
place) ;  Crell,  Connntnt  'riui  [on  cha.  1-x,  xv]  (Kacov.  .  the  great  goU,  and  the  cormorant.  The  paaaagit 
1685,  8vo) ;  Burgeaa,  Cotmeitlary  (London,  16:19,  fol.) ;  where  it  occurs  only  infonn  ua  that  it  was  in  oodtan 
Llghtfoot,  J7or.  Aebr.  (Cantab.  16G4.  A mit.  1677,  Uj]i>.  bird,.and  aaaociaU  It  wilb  tbe  "gnll."  . 
1673,  4to);  Schmid,  Paraphrotit  (Hamb.  1691,  1696,  Its  apparent  Greek  name,  enlanicfea,  thongh  Batioid 
1701,  4to){  lUbcrKn,  Exptkatio  (Tilb.  1699);  *Ko- 1  by  aeveral  autbot^  la  not  always  referred  to  tbe  nme 
Ding's  C«nm.(in  Dutch,  Dort,  1703, 4tn)i  *Akenlo»t,  I  genus,  Hime  msking  it  •  minor  gull,  others  a  dinr. 
I's^tagt  (Leyden.  1707,  4to)  ;  Van  Til,  Vtriharingt  I  Cuvier  thinks  Geaner  right  in  conaidering  it  to  denoH 
(Amsterd.  17S1,  4tn) ;  *Mnabeim,  ErlUinmp  (Alt.  and  |  a  gull,  and  it  certainly  might  be  applied  with  pnpria- 
Flensb.174],  4t<i);  N'icolai.  BilracAtiaigm  (Lpz,  1747,  j  ty  to  tbe  black-backed  gull,  or  to  tbe  glaDCoDi,'  bat, 
4to)i  Pe«rc*,far(/jiAra»((lnComnierJ.  ii);  Sflhl,/>i)r- !  although  blrda  of  auch  powerful!  wing  and  marine  ia*. 
optroaif  (Copenb.  1779,  4to) ;  Vitrings,  Exrrcitationa  i  itat  are  spread  over  a  great  part  of  the  wtsld,  it  doea 
(Franeq.  1784-9,  4to);  Krause,  Amotatio  (Fnncof.  !  not  appear  thut, if  knownat  the  eatremity  of  theNed- 
1792,  Svo,  to],  i);  Valckenaer,  Sehola  (ed.  Waesen-  j  iterranean,  they  were  aufGckntly  commoD  to  ban 
burgh,  Amst.  1817  aq.);  Ileydenreich.  Cmnitflif irttu  [  been  clearly  indicatsd  by  either  the  Hebrew  or  Omk 
(Marlwrg,  1826, 1828,  3  vols.  8vo);  Tolley, T^anrpAniK  '  names,  or  to  have  merited  being  noticed  in  the  Honic 
(L<Hid.  1836,  8vo)j  Peile,  Anmitiiluma  (London,  184S,  i  prohilution.  Both  the  aliove  are  in  genetal  ninbera 
8vo);  Burger,  ErUar.  (Eriang.  18.i9,  8vo).  |  r^idents,  being  rarely  seen  even  so  low  as  tbe  Bayirf 

On  tbe  BEcniiD  epistle:  Ilesbaaius,  ExpHealh  Biscay,  and  the  species  now  called  " l.eatiia  catanc- 
(Helmst.l580,8vo)i  *Konlng'sO>innniln'y(in  Dutch, !  tes"  is  excluaively  Arctic  With  regard  to  the  ear 
Amat.  1764,  4lo)i  Tan  Alphen,  yerilaanng  (Am't.  morant,  birdaof  that  genus  are  no  dnolt  found  oi  th  i 
1708,  enlarged  L'trccbt,  1735,  4lol ;  Gahler,  IHtnerintio  coast,  of  Pale»tint,  where  high  cLff.  extend  to  tbe 
(Lemgo,lBI>4,  8vn):  !.eun.,la°o(n(>'>n'>{l.<'mgn.  1804,  ses-aborp,  auch,  for  example,  as  tbe  Piafamnra 
8vo):  Rn;nard«,Z>i(pi(tiil>o(Tr.adRh.l8I9.8vcO:*tiu-l  p^jmiiai  but  all  the  species  dive,  and  seldom,  if  eva, 
inerling,  Cammentaritu  (Lips.  1S23,  8vo);  Frit»>che,  rush  flying  upon  their  prey,  though  that  habit  baa 
Disurliaioiia  (Ups.  1824.  Svo) ;  •Scharling,  Coimnt*- '  been  claimed  for  Ihem  by  cammentators,  who  have 
[ar(Copenb.  1840,  8Tn)iTunibul!,  r.oiu'H(i«i(Lond.  mixed  up  tbe  natural  hiatory  of  ■■cormoranb"  wilh 
1849);  Pridham  (llild.  1869,  J-.tm>i).  ftp*  Ei'inti.k.  ,  that  of  the  "aula"  or  "gannet,"  which  really  daits 
CORINTHIANS.  Ar<H-RVpnAi.  ErtSTi.Rs  To  akd  ,  from  grant  elevations  into  tha  aea  to  catch  )ti  |a«y, 
FROM.    There  an  tno  £Uch  letter,  extant  in  the  Ar-  rising  to  tbe  suifkca  Mnnetime.  nearly  half  a  auants 


COKMORANT  si 

■flar  Ae  plunge.  But  the  guinat  (wlan  gooK)  nrety 
coDH  futhcr  Hath  thao  tha  Bridih  Chunal,  ud 
doM  not  appetr  Id  have  bean  noticed  in  the  Meditci- 
ttaata.  It  i*  tiu«  that  mveivI  other  marine  birda  of 
the  North  frequent  the  Levant,  but  oona  of  them  an 
entirelj  claim  Ariatotle  and  Oppian's  characteni  of 
"  cataractaa ;"  tor,  tboagh  the  wide  throat  and  rather 
larm  head  of  the  dwarf  cormorant  may  be  adduced, 
that  bird  «jiceeda  In  atature  the  required  aiza  of  a 
■null  hawh,  and  fiehei,  it  miiy  be  repealed,  swimminj; 
and  diriD^,  not  by  darting  down  on  the  wing,  and  Is 
not  iofficiently  numerona  or  important  to  have  re- 
quired the  attention  of  tlia  ucred  legislator. 

Thus  rednced  to  roalte  a  choice  where  the  objectionfl 
an  laas  and  tha  probabUitiaa  atroDger,  we  conclude 
the  akalat  to  have  been  a  tpeciea  of  "tem,"  conoid- 
end  to  be  ideatical  with  tba  8lrnia  Catpioa,  m  called 
hecaose  it  li  found  about  the  Caainan  Sea ;  hot  it  la 
eqnally  oommoii  to  the  Polar,  Baltic,  and  Black  Seaa, 
and,  tf  truly  the  sacae,ia  not  only  abundant  for  aeverol 
montha  in  the  year  an  the  coaat  of  Paleatine,  but  fn- 
qnants  tha  lakes  and  poola  Ikr  inland,  flying  bctdh 
the  deaerta  to  tha  Buphratea,  and  to  the  Peraiao  and 
Red  8«aa,  and  proceeding  ap  the  Nile.  It  la  tha  largeat 
of  tlu  tern  or  aea-awallow  genus,  being  aboat  tbe 
weight  of  a  pigeon,  and  near  two  feet  in  length,  hav- 
ing a  large  black-naped  head,  powerful,  pointed  crim- 
Mm  bill,  a  white  and  grey  body,  with  forked  tail,  and 
wings  greatiy  eaoMding  the  tips  of  the  tail ;  the  feet 
■ra  Tary  small,  weak,  and  but  alightly  webb^  ao  that 


Kiwlmi 


CkspUnTem. 
la  petiiape  only  accidentally,  bat  with  auBlcient 
power  on  land  to  spring  up  and  to  liie  f^om  level 
groDnd.  It  flies  with  immense  velocity,  darting  along 
tbe  surface  of  the  sea  to  snap  at  mollusca  or  small 
flibea,  or  wheeling  thcongh  the  air  in  pursuit  of  In- 
sects ;  and  in  calm  weather,  after  rising  to  a  great 
heigfat,  it  drops  perpendicularly  down  to  near  tbe  sur- 
face of  the  water,  liut  never  alights  except  un  land  ; 
and  it  is  St  all  times  disposed  to  utter  a  kind  of  laugh- 
ing acream.  This  tern  nestles  In  high  cliA.  sometimes 
It  a  very  considerable  distance  from  tha  sea.  (See 
tbe  Pem^  Cyelnpadia,  a.  v.  Tem.) 

2.  TK;?  (taalh'),  rendered  "cormorant"  hi  our  ver- 
sion in  Isa.  iixiv,  11  i  Zaph.  ii,  11,  Is  ebiewhere  trans- 
latad  "  Pbucan,"  q.  v. 


.5  CORN  ■ 

The  cormorant  htlongs  to  tha  natural  order  of  tho 
Pelicamida  of  Linnieus,  and  the  species  have  tbe  char- 
acteristic babit  of  watching  on  high  cliA,  and,  on  per- 
ceiving a  fish  in  the  wai^r,  of  datting  down  like  an 
arrow  and  seiiing  it«  prey.  The  "greater  cormo- 
rant," however,  mote  frequently  shoots  along  in  ■  lino 
□early  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  or,  sitting  on 
tbe  wave,  dives  after  the  prey.  It  is  trained  to  flsh 
for  man's  use  in  China.  It  is  common  on  the  coastn 
of  Syria  and  Palestine;  Rauwolff  saw  numbera  of  them 
along  (he  sea-washed  ctags  of  Acre,  which  tie  mistook 
for  sea-eagles.  The  cormorant  is  a  widely-diffused 
genus,  and  i>  found  in  almost  evaiy  country  In  the 
worid.  (See  the  Pfm;/  Csclopadia,  s.  v.  Pclicanidn.) 
The  targe  kind  weighs  about  seven  pounds,  and  is  nea^ 
ly  of  the  same  size  as  tbe  gooao ;  It  lives  upon  fish, 
and  has  a  lung,  straight,  and  compressed  bill,  with  the 
upper  mandible  hooked  at  the  point,  to  conflne  the  prey 
with  tbe  greater  secorilj' ;  its  head  and  neck  are  of  a 
sooty  blackness,  more  reseniLliog  in  tigure  those  of  the 
goose  tiian  of  the  gull.  Its  distinguishing  character, 
however,  oonalsts  in  Its  toes  being  united  by  mem- 
brsnes,  and  hy  the  middle  toe  being  notched  like  a  saw, 
to  assist  it  in  holding  its  fishy  prey.  On  tha  approach 
of  winter  these  birds  are  seen  dispersed  along  tbe  sea- 
shore, and  ascending  the  mouths  of  rivers;  they  aro 
remarkably  voracious,  and  have  such  ■  quick  diges- 
tion tliat  the  appetite  appears  insatiable.  They  build 
their  nests  on  the  hi|-hesC  parts  of  the  cliffs  that  over- 
hang the  aea ;  tbe  female  usually  lays  three  Or  four 
eggs  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  goose,  and  of  a  pale 
green  color.     See  Bird. 

Com.  There  are  aeverai  words  thus  tranalated  In 
the  English  version  of  tha  Scriptures,  in  which  it  is 
used  in  the  proper  sense  of  ymia  of  any  kind,  and 
never  in  the  American  application  of  maize  or  "In- 
dian com"  (Zeu  mast  at  Linn.),  which  it  Is  generally 
thought  was  anciently  unknown.  In  iei7,  Pannen- 
tier  iNouveav  Dioiaataire  d'Hit.  NaturtUr,  vol.  xvili), 
founding  on  tbe  silence  of  Varro,  Columella,  Pliny, 
and  the  other  agricultural  and  botanical  writers  of 
classical  sntlquity,  concluded  that  maize  was  an- 
known  till  tha  discovery  of  America;  and  to  1834 
Meyer  asserted  that  "  nothing  In  botanical  geography 
is  more  cerUin  than  the  New-World  derivation  of 
maiie"  (quoted  by  Duchartre  In  Oibigny's  Diet, 
iHitl.  Natar.).  But  since  then,  in  the  magnificent 
monograph  (//u(.  NtOartUt  du  Mmi,  18B6),  H.  Bona- 
foas,  the  director  of  the  Rnyal  Garden  of  Agriculture 
■t.7urin,  has  shown  Uist  It  is  figured  in  a  Chinese  bo- 
tanical work  as  old  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury— a  time  when  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  could 
scarcely  have  penetrated  to  the  Celestial  Empire  j  and, 
what  Is  more  conclusive,  in  IH19  H.  Rifaud  discovered 
under  the  bead  of  a  mummy  at  Thabes  not  only  grains, 
but  leaves  of  Indian  com.  Nor  Is  it  at  all  imposslijls 
that  the  Zaa  of  Homer  and  Tboophrastus  may  include 
the  plant  in  question.  The  wide  diffusion  of  this  com 
through  tbe  Indian  archipelago,  and  on  tbe  Indian 
continent  itself,  is  in  favor  of  the  hypothesis  which 
clalma  it  as  a  native  of  the  Old  World ;  and  if  it  was 
known  to  the  Egyptians,  nothing  could  be  mora  natii- 
ral   Ihau   iu  early  iuliodiicliuu  into   Paleiliiie.     See 

1.  The  word  ',i'J,  dagan'  (from  Its  mertait),  which 
isrendered"grain,"  "com,"  and  sometimes  "wheat" 
in  the  Anth.Ven.,  is  tha  nuet  general  of  the  Hebrew 
terms  representing  "com,"  and  is  more  comprehen- 
sive than  any  word  in  our  langnage,  seeing  that  it 
probably  includes  not  only  all  the  proper  cereals,  but 
also  various  kinds  of  pulse  and  seeds  of  plants,  whkh 

I  of  "grain."     It  may  therefore  be  taken  to  rep- 
it  all  the  commodities  which  we  describe  l>y  the 
.    ^ffisrent  words   com,    grain,   seeds,   pease,  beans. 
Among  other  places  in  which  this  woi^  occnn,  aea 


CORN 


iL27;  Dei>Lxxvlll,Sl; 


Gen.  xxviS,  28-87 1  Num.  xvUL 
Lam.  il,  12,  etc.     S«a  Gkain. 

J.  Tbare  !■  Bnother  word,  "O,  bar  (L 
-which  denotea  any  kind  of  cleansed  com,  that  ia,  corn 
purified  froRi  the  chaff  and  lit  tor  lua  (Gen,  xli,  S&- 
49 ;  PrOT.  xi,  2fl ;  Jer.  iv,  II  j  Joel  ii,  24).  The  Mme 
vord  is  mare  rani;  used  to  deacribe  com  in  a  tpvwing 
atate  (Pm.  Ixv,  IS).  II  elsewhere  i^ifiea  the  open 
■'  fleldi'-  or  coanlry.     See  L*jid. 

8.  The  word  ISd,  lit'ber  (broken,  L  e.  Brllt),  which 
ta  Bometlmes  rendered  com,  denotes  In  a  general  Betuu 
"  provlaiona"  or  "  viotuala,"  and  by  conaequeiice 
*^com,"  aa  the  principal  article  in  all  proviaioaa  (Gen.  ~ 
xlii,  1,  2,  20;  Exod.  viii,  6;  Neh.  x,  82,  etc.).  See 
Victuals. 

4.  The  Greek  sTroc  correaponds  to  tbe  first  two  of 
the  aboJe  Hebrew  words,  for  which  it  often  aCanda  in 
the  Sept.  (Matt,  lii,  12j  Luke  iii,  17;  John  xli,  24; 
Arts  vii,  12,  etc.).     See  Eab  {o/«™). 

The  other  words  occaaionally  iraoalated  "com" 
in  the  Bible  are  h-'hs,  ttlif  (Job  xxiv,  e),"profm- 
der"  (laa.  xxi,  24)  or '"fodder"  (Job  vi,  6) ;  ■i-:iS,  jo'- 
rBit(DeBt.  XTi,13),elaewhero  "  UufUng-Jloiir i"  rraj;, 
kanuA'  (Deut.  xvi,  9)  laa.  xvil,  6),  "ilimdiig  torn," 
la  aflen  elsewhere ;  Kuttof  (John  xii,  24),  ■  "jfratn" 
of  any  kind,  aa  elaewheni;  and  Bir6(,i^a  (Matt.  «ii,  1), 
a  "com-dcld,"  aa  elsewherej  beaidea  kindred  or  dif- 
ferent terma  rendered  "  beaten  com,"  "  standing 
com,"  "cara  of  corn,"  "heap  of  com,"  "com  ground,'' 
etc.  A  aingle  ear  is  £~.33]lJ,  thiLbo'ltth^  "pounded 
wheat,"  n'iD-''1,rt>io(A'(2S«ni.xvu,I0;  Prov.  iiTii, 
22).  The  most  common  kinda  of  com  were  vAaof, 
Tq/n,  ckUlah'f  bartry,  rTlJb,  atirah';  tptU,  (A.  V., 
Ezod.  Ix,  32,  and  laa.  xzviij,  26,  "  rye ;"  Eiek.  iv.  9, 
"fltcbes"],  DpD3,  jhute'iiu<A(oriDplur.farmD'<^IBZ, 
fauKmiBi') ;  and  tmlUt,  ^iTI,  A/iAan :  oata  are  men- 
tioned only  by  rabbinical  writers.  The  doubtful 
word  n^iiS,  torah',  rendered  "principal,"  as  an  epi- 
thet of  wheat,  in  the  A.V.  of  laa.  iiriii,  25,  ia  prob- 
ably not  distinctive  of  any  epeciea  of  grain  (see  Geie- 
niua,  s.  v.).  Tbe  different  products  coming  under  the 
denomination  of  corn  are  noticed  under  the  nsual 
heads,  as  Barlet,  Wheat,  etc. ;  their  culture  under 
Aoriccltdbb;  their  preparation  under  Bread,  Food, 
Mill,  etc. 

"Com  crops  are  still  reckoned  at  twpnty-fold  what 


^ientiy  u 


ears  on  one  stalk'  (Gen.  xli,  22)  ia  no  unusual  pho- 
Domenon  in  Egypt  at  this  day.  The  many-eared 
atalk  ia  also  common  in  tbe  wheat  of  Palestine,  and  it 
isofcoarae  of  the  bearded  kind.  The  'heap  of  wheat 
aet  about  wilb  lilies'  (which  prohaljly  grew  in  the  field 
together  with  it)  mnv  allnde  (o  a  cuitom  of  ao  decorat- 
ing the  sheaves  (Cant,  vii,  S).  Wheat  (see  2  .Sam.  iv, 
fi)  was  stored  in  the  bouse  for  dotneatic  purpoaen— the 

than  the  common  chamber  where  the  gneata  were  ac- 
commodated. It  is  at  present  often  kept  in  b  dry  well, 
and  perhaps  the  '  grouud  com'  of  2  Sam.  xvii,  19,  was 
meant  to  imply  that  tbe  wel!  was  so  used.  Frnin  Sol- 
omon's time  (2  Chrnn.  Ii,  10,  15),  I.  e.  na  agHculture 
became  developed  under  a  settled  government,  Pali's- 
tine  vaa  a  cam-exporting  country,  and  her  grains 
were  lar,nly  tiiken  by  her  commercial  neighbor  Tvre 
(Ezek.  xxvii,  17;  comp,  Amos  viii,  S).  'PUnly'of 
com'  was  part  of  Jacob's  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii,  28; 
comp.  Psa.  Ixv,  13).  The  '  stnre-honaea'  mrntionefl  2 
Cbron.  xxxii,  2S,  as  built  by  Hczekiah,  were  perhap 
In  conavqucnce  of  the  havoc  made  lay  tbe  Aasyrian 
armiea  (comp.  2  Kings  xix,  39) ;  without  such  protec- 
tion, the  countrj-,  in  its  exhausted  state,  would  have 
been  at  the  mercy  of  the  desert  maraudeis.  Grain 
crops  were  liable  to  'i'<P^^,  serahon',  'mildew.'  and 


6  CORNELIITS 

'^eri,  Mdttaplum',  'blasting'  (aae  t  KbiBa  viii.  87), 
as  well  as,  of  course,  to  Are  l>y  accident  er  malir* 
(Exod.  zxit,  6;  Judg.  xv,  6).  Some  good  getieral  re- 
marks will  be  found  hi  Saalschati,  ArdkSiil.  i.  Brir." 

See    HUSBAMDBI. 

ConiaiiatB,  the  disciples  of  Theodore  Comheit  cr 
Koornhert,  secreUry  ot  the  Stales  of  Holland  (f  I&90). 
Ue  wrote  against  the  Romaniata,  the  Latherani,  aod 
Catvinista.  He  maintained  that  every  religioaa  com- 
munioD  needed  reformation,  hut  be  said  no  one  had  a 
ri/ht  to  engage  In  it  without  a  mission  aapported  by 
tniraclea.  Ha  was  alao  of  opinion  that  c^innection  with 
the  visible  Church  or  Cbritt  waa  not  essential  to  ii- 
perimestul  Chrintlanily.  Armlnius  waa  directed  to 
refute  the  writings  of  Coombert  against  predettiiia- 
tion,  and  in  studj'ing  the  autject  was  led  to  abandon 
that  dactrina.  The  complete  works  of  Coomhen 
weni  collected  at  Amsterdam  in  1680  (S  vols.  foL\ 
See  Hosheim.  Church  Hitters,  iH.  *^ ;  Bayle,  Die- 
lioBoTy,  s.  V.  Koomhart,  and  tbe  article  Abuisux- 

Corae'llOB  (Kopvq^coc,  LaL  ConnKtui.  Theeen- 
turion  uf  thia  name,  whose  history  occurs  in  Acts  i. 
most  proLialily  belonged  to  the  ConulU,  a  noble  aad 
distinguixbed  family  at  Rome.  He  is  reckoned  by 
Julian  the  Apostate  aa  one  of  the  few  persona  ofdis- 
(iiKd'm  who  embraced  Christianity.  His  atation  ia 
society  will  appear  upon  considering  that  the  Reman 
soldiers  were  divided  Into  Irgions,  each  legion  into  ten 
cohorts,  each  cohort  into  three  bands,  and  each  band 
into  two  centuries  or  hundreds;  and  tliat  Coinelias 
was  a  commander  of  one  of  these  centoriea  (imrei^ 
Tapxtt)  belonging  to  the  Ilatic  band,  so  called  from 
its  consisting  chiefly  of  Italian  soldiers,  ftirm«d  oat  of 
one  of  tbe  sis  cohorts  granted  to  the  procnnton  of 

rea,  tbe  usual  residence  of  tbe  jirocuralora  (Jahn,  Bib- 
SnJu:  .4rc«doi!i^,  ii,  2IB,  Wien,  1824).     £m  CEXtTN 

The  rrliijioia  poiitiom  of  Cometius  before  his  intrt- 
vlew  with  Peter  has  been  the  auliijecl  of  much  debate. 
On  the  one  aide  it  is  eonteoded  that  be  waa  what  ip 
called  a  prmeliile  of  lie  gale,  or  a  Gentile,  who,  having 
renounced  Idalutry  and  worahipidng  the  true  God, 
submitted  to  the  aeren  (supposed)  precept*  of  Noah, 
frequented  tbe  synagogue,  and  offered  sacriScca  by 
the  hands  of  the  priests,  buL  not  having  received  cir- 
cumcision, was  not  reckoned  among  Uie  Jews.  Ia 
support  of  this  opinion  it  is  pleaded  that  Comelina  is 
^lioifiiiicf:  riv  fiiav  (a  man  fearing  God),  ver.  !,  the 
usual  appellation,  it  ia  alleged,  for  a  proaelyts  of  tbe 
gate,  <u  in  chap,  xili,  10,  26,  and  claewben  ;  that  be 
jirayed  at  the  naual  Jewiah  hooia  of  prayar  (x,  BO); 
that  be  read  the  Old  Testament,  because  Peter  relen 
him  to  tbe  prophets  (x,  43);  and  that  he  gave  raach 
alms  to  the  Jtvith  people  (i,  2,  IS),  On  the  otbn 
Fide  it  is  answered  that  the  phrases  ^fiop/iiivi  ny 
af,':v.  and  tbe  similar  phrases  iMa^iie  and  (UfnjSHC. 
are  used  rnfpccting  any  peraona  imbued  with  rercr- 
encB  towards  God  (s,8.i;  Luke  i,M;  ii,g5i  Col.  iii, 
22;  Rev.  xi,  18);  that  he  Is  s^led  by  Peter  lUXJfc- 
Xof  (a  man  of  aiuMher  race  or  naticnX  with  whom  it 
was  anlaii-ful  for  a  Jew  to  araodata.  wbereaa  the  bv 
attowrd  to  foreigners  a  perpetual  residence  amtrng  Ibt 
!  Jews,  provided  they  would  renounce  idolatry  and  ab- 
stain (rum  blood  (Lev.  xvii,  10, 11, 18),  and  even  com- 
manded the  Jews  to  iove  them  (Lev.  xix,  33,  S4) ;  that 
they  mingled  with  the  Jews  in  the  synagogue  (Arli 
xiv.  1) and  in  private  Ufe (Luke  vii,  8);  that, had  Cm- 
neliua  boan  a  proselyte  of  the  gate,  his  conveniea  Id 
Christianity  uould  not  have  occasioned  to  much  sur- 
prise to  the  Jewish  Christiana  (Acts  i,  48),  nor  would 
'-  they  that  were  of  the  circumcision"  have  contended 
with  Peter  so  much  on  bia  account  (il,  t);  that  be  i> 
expressly  classed  among  tbe  Gentiles  by  jamas  (av, 
14),  and  by  Peter  himself  when  clmiming  tbe  honor 


CORNELIUS  51 

df  bsTing  fint  pn>cb«d  to  the  Oentile*  (_xv,  7] ;  tlutt 
tbe  lecuBrk  of  tbs  opposing  put;  Bt  Jerusuleni,  whin 
0OaTific«d,  '^  then  hath  God  hIho  to  tbe  G«ntiies  grant- 
ed nptniaiKe  imlo  life,"  would  h«ve  been  Inapplicable 
tipui  the  very  prindples  of  tboee  who  usert  tbst  Cor- 
nelius iraa  a  proBflljte,  Bince  they  orgne  from  tha  tn- 
ditioai  of  moderD  Jewa,  the  moat  emlDent  of  wham, 
MumonideB,  kdmita  ■  siucete  pmelyte  loheina  Malt 
Bftakatiim.  The  other  arguments,  derived  bnm  the 
obaarraDai  of  tba  Jewish  honra  of  pnysr  by  CorD»- 
lins,  anil  his  uqiuintsnce  with  the  Old  TesUnient, 
an  all  reaolvable  Into  a  view  of  his  religtoaa  position, 
which  wiU  shortly  be  stated.  The  atrongest  objection 
■gainat  lbs  snppoaition  that  ComeUiu  was  a  proselyte 
of  the  gate  aiisea  ttom  the  very  reasonable  doubt 
whether  any  such  distinction  existed  in  the  time  of 
the  apostles  <>ee  Tomline,  EltmmU  nf  Titohgy,  i,  966 
sq.)'  Dr.  Lardner  baa  remarked  that  the  notion  of 
twD  anrts  of  proselytes  is  not  to  be  fouDd  In  any  Cbris- 
tiaa  writer  befbra  the /oHrtwutl  cMutury  (IForia,  vi, 
5^).  See  also  Jennlu)p'a  JevM  Anliqiiiliti  (bk.  i, 
ch.  S).  The  arguments  on  the  other  side  are  ably 
stated  by  Townsend  {Chnmolog.  ff.  Tat.  note  in  loc.). 
See  Pbosilyte.  On  the  whole,  the  poaitian  of  Cor- 
nelias with  regard  to  religion  appears  to  have  been  in 
that  class  of  psrsona  dcKribed  by  bishop  Tomline, 
eansiating  of  Gentiles  who  bad  >o  far  benefited  by  their 
contact  with  the  Jewish  poople  as  to  have  become  cMn- 
Tinced  that  theirs  was  the  troa  religion,  who  conse- 
qaeatly  worshipped  the  troe  God,  ware  acqoainCed 
with  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  moat  prob- 
alily  in  the  Greek  translation,  snd  observed  sever^il 
Jewish  coatoms,  as,  for  instance,  their  hours  of  prayer, 
or  anything  else  that  did  not  involve  an  act  of  spcciul 
prsttoaiun.  This  class  of  persons  seems  referred  to  in 
Acta  xiii,  16,  where  they  are  plainly  distin){iiished 
from  the  Jews,  though  certainly  mingled  with  them. 
To  the  aame  class  is  to  be  refeiTed  Csndace'a  treasurer 
(Acts  viii,  37,  etc.) ;  and  in  earlier  times  the  midwives 
of  Ejypl  CEiod.  I,  17),  Rahah  (Josh,  vi,  25),  Ruth, 
Araonah  the  Jebutite  (2  Sam.  xxlv.  18,  etc.),  the  per- 
aiHis  mentioned  1  Kiuga  viii,  Al,  4S,  i3,  »aaman  (2 
Kings  T,  16, 17),  See  also  Josephua,  Ani;q.  slv,  7,  2, 
and  hia  account  of  Alexander  the  Great  going  into  the 
Temple,  and  olTering  sacriflce  to  God  according  tu  the 
Arvction  of  the  high-prieat  libid,  xi,  8,  5) ;  of  Antio- 
chui  the  Great  (ihid.  xii,  3,  S,  4),  and  of  Plolemv 
Phlladelphna  {ibid,  xll,  !,  1.  etc.).  ODder  the  influ- 
(oee  of  these  facts  and  arguments,  we  regard  Corne- 
lias aa  hnring  been  selected  of  God  to  become  the  j!rar- 
fimil  of  (Ac  GtiMa.  Hia  character  appears  anited, 
M  mach  as  possible,  to  abate  the  prejudices  of  the 
Jewish  eonrerts  against  what  appeared  to  them  ao 
great  an  innovation.  It  ia  well  obaerved  by  Tbeopby- 
laM  that  Comeliaa,  though  neither  a  Jew  nor  a  Chris- 
tiaa,  lived  the  h/t  efa  good  Christian.  He  was  liai- 
0Ik,  influenced  by  apontaneoos  rarerence  to  God.  Ho 
pneUcally  obeyed  the  roaliaints  of  religion,  for  he 
(■and  God.  and  this  Utter  part  of  the  description  is 
extended  to  all  hia  tunily  or  honsehold  (ver.  2).  He 
waa  liberal  in  alma  to  the  Jewiah  people,  which  show- 
ed his  respect  for  tham!  and  ha  "prayed  to  God  al- 
ways," at  all  Ihehoora  of  prayer  observed  by  the  Jew- 
ish nation.  Such  [^y,  obedience,  fsitb,  snd  charity 
prepared  him  tor  aaperlor  attainments  and  benelltK, 
aDdMCured  to  him  their  beatowment(Psa.xxv,9;  1, 
a;  UaR.  xiii,13;  Luka  viii,  IS;  John  vii,  IT).  His 
poaitian  in  command  at  Canarea  doubtleaa  brought 
him  Into  eoDtact  with  intelligent  Jewa.  from  whom  be 
learned  the  truths  respecting  the  Messiah,  snd  he 
■eanu  to  have  lieaD  prepared  by  a  persoati  knoiriedge 
of  the  external  facta  of  Christianity  to  welcome  the 
nnaaage  of  Peter  as  of  divine  author!^. 

The  remarkable  circumstances  under  which  the 
beoefita  of  the  Gospel  were  conferred  npon  him  are 
loo  plainly  and  forcibly  related  in  Acts  x  to  reqaira 
1  Paley,  EBtdtKCtt,  prop,  8,  ch.  2 ; 


7  CORNELIUS  A  LAPIDE 

Nlemeyer,  Charatl.  I,  650  sq. ;  Nsander,  nmtSiig  and 


;d«,.).     Whil. 


t  the 


hour  of  the  day,  he  beheld,  In  walcing  viiion,  an  angel 
of  God,  who  declared  thst  "his  prayers  and  alms  had 

to  send  to  Joppa  for  Peter,  who  was  then  abiding  "  at 
tbe  hoose  of  one  Simon,  a  tanner."  Cornalius  sent 
accordingly ;  and  when  hia  messenger  had  nearly 
reached  that  place,  Peter  was  prepared  by  the  symijol- 
ical  revelations  of  a  noonday  ecstasy,  or  trance,  to  un- 
derstand that  nothing  wtticb  God  had  cleansed  was  to 
be  regarded  us  common  or  unclean.— Kitto,  s.  v.  This 
event  took  place  about  September,  A.D.  32  (see  MfA. 
(biart.  Review,  IS50,  p.  4D9-501).  "On  his  arriving 
at  the  house  of  Comeilus,  and  while  he  was  eiplsining 
to  tbem  the  vision  which  he  had  seen  In  reference  to 
this  miseion,  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  the  Gentiles  pres- 
ent, and  thus  anticipated  the  reply  to  the  question, 
which  might  atiti  have  proved  a  difHcult  one  for  the 
apostle,  whether  they  were  to  be  b^tized  oi  Gmtila 
into  the  Christian  Church.  They  were  so  boptiied, 
and  thus  Cornelius  became  the  flnt-ftuit  of  the  Gen- 
tile world  to  Christ,  publicly  recognised  as  such. 
Tradition  haa  been  busy  with  hia  life  and  acts.  Ac- 
cordiog  to  Jenime  (ode.  Jot'm.  I,  p.  BOl),  he  built  • 
Christian  church  at  Ciesarea ;  but  Ister  tradition  makes 
him  bishop  of  Scamandioe  (Scamandria  ?),  aod  ascribes 
te  him  the  working  of  a  great  miracle  (^Umol-g.  GrtK. 
1, 139)." 

There  are  monographs  on  the  history  of  Corne- 
lius in  German  by  Under  (Basel,  1B80),  Krummacbar 
(Brem.  1829,  transl.  Edinburgh,  ll^BS),  in  Latin  by  Ba. 
sil  iOpp.  p.  108),  in  English  by  Evans  (Bcripi.  Biog. 
iii.  S09);  also  in  Lilin,  on  hia  character  by  Facht 
(RoBt.l70I),Feuerlin(Altorf.  1786);  on  Peter'a  vision, 
by  Daysing  (Marb.  1710),  EngeNtrOro  (Lund.  17«J); 
on  the  effusion  of  the  Spirit,  by  Goetae  (Lulwc.  171!); 
on  hia  bspliam,  by  the  aame  (lb.  ITIS) ;  on  his  ptay- 
era,  by  Michaalie  (in  the  BibL  Bnm.  v,  679  sq.)  ;  on 
Peter's  sermon.  In  English,  by  Taylor  (London,  16S9). 
See  also  Kruromaeher,  Ufi  o/Comdiiu  (Edinb.  1889, 
I2ma):  Jour.  Sae.  Lit.  April,  ISeL 

ComaliuB.  bishop  of  Rome,  succaoded  Fabianna 
in  that  see  June  i,  A.D,  'i!il.  Some  of  the  clergy  and 
poople  of  Rome,  n*t  approving  of  the  election  of  Cor- 
nelius because  of  his  controversy  with  Novatiamis 
about  the  lapti,  to  whom  Complius  was  disposed  to  be 
lenient,  chose  Novstianus  bishop,  and  three  Italian 
bishops  ordained  him ;  he  tberefora  was  the  first  anti- 
pope.  In  October,  SGI,  Cotncliua  having  convened  a 
numerous  council  at  Borne,  consisting  of  sixty  bishop* 
and  a  nnuiber  of  presbyters  and  deacons,  they  conlirm- 
ed  his  election.  He  did  not  enjoy  his  honor  long,  for 
banished  by  the  emperor  Gallus  to  Civita  Vec- 


s,  where  he  < 


d  (or,  , 


■ding  U 


suffered  martyrdom)  September  14,  262.  Ten  of  Gyp. 
risn's  letters  are  directed  to  Coroelius.  There  are 
two  genuine  letters  of  Comelina  to  Cyprian  still  pre- 
served among  Cyprian's  epistles;  they  are  the  forty- 
sixth  and  forty-eighth  (ed.  Oberthur).  Besides  these. 
Cornelius  wrote  a  long  ietter  to  Fabiauus  concemine 

extracts  fmm  which  Eusahiui  has  preserved  (Ilit: 
Ecci.  bk.  vi,  chap,  xliii).— Lsrdner,  Worit.  iii.  74  sq. ; 
Cave,  nil.  lAt.  i,  80 ;  Wetaar  u.  Well*,  Kirriat-L  x 
ii,  879. 
Comeliaa  Agripp*.  See  AaitirrA, 
Comalltia  a  Laplde  (CnniiELis  CoBNEi.T<'.an» 
VAN  DEK  Stbhh),  a  learned  Roman  Catholic  com- 
mentator, waa  born  about  [fi6«at  Bocholt  in  the  diocese 
of  Liege,  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  stLouvain,  where  he  gave  exsgetical 
lectures  (or  twenty  years.  He  was  then  made  profess- 
or at  Rome,  where  he  died  March  IS,  1637.  He  wrote 
eommentarlea  on  all  the  books  of  Scripture  eieapt  Job 
aod  the  Psalms,  which  ara  in  great  estesm,  man,  bo^' 


COENELIUS,  ELIAS  51 

ever,  tima  tbe  rich  miterial  In  the  form  of  elUtioDi 
from  tbe  fiithen  thin  froni  in;  critical  ikill  of  hi*  own. 
The  coiDinentariei  on  tbe  Pentitsach  ind  the  Piulina 
Epiatlee  ire  commonly  regarded  u  the  beet.  Tbey 
were  pabliahed  it  Aatvirp,  1661  (10  volt,  fol.);  at 
TsDlce,  17B0(11  vole.  Ibl.) ;  and  it  Lyoi»(beet  ediUon, 
ISSE^  11  vola.  4to).— Wetier  n.  Welte,  Xifttkei^Iet.  ii, 
673. 

ConwIiOH,  BllU,  D.D.,  a  CongngiUonil  min- 
laler,  wu  bom  In  Somen,  N.  Y.,  July  31,  1T94.  He 
gnduated  it  Yile  in  ISIS.  In  IBlfl,  after  being  li- 
c«need  to  preicb,  hewu  appointed  agent  of  tbe  Amer- 
ican Board  or  CooiiaiuunerB  for  Foreign  Uiuiuna. 
In  tbe  spring  of  1S17  ha  aturted  on  ■  miHionary  tonr 
to  the  Creeka  and  Cherokeea,  and  then  to  New  Orleani, 
wbere  be  renulDsd  until  April  2,  1818,  wben  he  re- 
turned to  Boston,  viiiting  the  Indian  Uifuion  on  hie 
way.  He  wu  ord^ned  coUegUte  pulor  of  Tibemicle 
charch  in  Silem  July  SI,  1619.  In  Oct.  1826,  be  re. 
(igned,  and  entered  apon  hie  dntiee  as  aecreliiy  of  the 
American  Education  Society.  In  Oct.  IBSl,  he  waa 
elected  aecretity  of  tbe  American  Board  of  Commis- 
aioncTB  toi  Poreign  Ulaaiona.  He  died  Feb.  13,  IBS!. 
He  pnbllshed  Mveral  oecaalonil  aermons  and  nnful 
tracta. — Spngas,^mait,1i,  638;  Edwarde,  J/aiwir ^ 
Comsat  (Boat.  1634, 13ilio). 

Coruer.  The  words  tbae  translated  In  our  venion 
of  the  Bitde  ate  the  following: 

1.  nip,  fOMtth',  aigniHea  properly  ■  pttmaelt,  as 
Seating  up  (S  Cbron.  xivi,-16;  Zeph.  i,  16;  iii,  6)] 
hence  an  em^e,  property  exterior,  aa  of  i  hooee  (Job  i, 
19),  of  a  alreet  (Prov.  vil,  8) ;  alao  Interior,  aa  of  a  roof 
(Proir.  ixi,  9 1  ixv,  84),  of  a  conrt  (Eiek.  xlil,  30),  of 
■  city  (!  Cbron.  xxtHI,  34).  It  ia  put  meUphoricilly 
for  1  proKt  or  chief  of  the  people  (1  Sam.  xiv,  88  j 
Jndg.  XX,  i;  laa.  xlx,  IS).  Tbe  ibbreriated  form, 
IB,  pen,  occura  Pror.  tII,  8 ;  Zech,  liv,  10. 

3.  raxa,paik',  properly  the  moafk,  then  the/ooe; 
bence,  generally,  a  "nde"  of  anything  (eapecially  i 
point  of  tlie  compasa,  aa  on  the  eaat  aide,  1.  e.  eastward, 
"the  four  comets"  standing  for  the  whole  ext«nt),  or 
region,  u  of  the  fkce  ("part,"  Lev.  xiil,  11) ;  of  coun- 
tiy  ("  cormrt,"  Neh,  iK,33,  i.  e.  Torioua  dittrieli  of  the 
promised  land  allotted  to  the  Israelites;  so  "corner of 
Moab,"  Jer.  ilviii,  16,  I.  e.  that  nmmtry:  and  in  the 
plural,  "eamrt  [literally,  tbe  fun  tidrt]  of  Uoib," 
Nam.  xxiv,  IT,  the  »io/«  ItmS).  Secondarily  it  de- 
ootea  the  ei<raiu  port  of  anything,  as  of  a  Held  (Lev. 
xii,  9i  Kxiii,  33),  oftbeaacredUble(Exod.  xxT,  3e; 
xxxvii,  IS),  of  a  conch  or  divan,  the  place  of  honor 
(Amoa  Iii,  12).  The  "comen  of  tbe  head  and  beard" 
(Lev.  xlx,  37 :  xxi,  6)  were  doubtleu  the  extremities 
of  the  hair  and  whiskers  ninnini;  around  the  ear*, 
which  the  Jews  were  (torbidden  to  cut  or  shave  o£f 
round,  like  the  dipped  far-lncki  (mistnnslated  "ut- 
most comers,"  Jer.  ii,  3fl;  XIV,  28:  xlix,33)  ofthe 
heilhen  and  the  ancient  Anba  of  the  desert  (Herod, 
ill,  8).  Illnstrations  of  thla  f^hion  are  stili  eiUnt ; 
Indeed,  Hr.  Osbum  (in  his  A  ncieid  Egypt,  p.  12S)  seems 
to  hive  identified  some  fignres  on  the  Egyptiin  mon- 
nmenta  with  the  ancient  HitUte*,  one  of  the  very  tribea 
here  alluded  to,  and  who  ire  exhibited  is  wearing 
helmets  or  sknll.«ip«  of  a  peculiar  form,  so  as  to  leave 
eipoaed  this  peculiar  nationa]  badge,  Tbey  appear 
to  have  had  a  bideoui  custom  of  shaving  a  square 


miille  Ear  .locks. 
pUoe  Just  above  the  ear,  leaving  the  habr  on  the  side 
ofthe  &ce  and  tbe  whiskers,  which  hang  down  in  a 

pUtedlock. 


CORNER 

B.  tljf ,  JlauipJI',  a  mag  (a*  clBawben  ohm),  ii  «m4 
1  laa.  xi,  13 ;  Eaek.  vli,  7,  to  express  "  the  four  Mr- 
era  ofthe  earth,"  or  the  whole  land. 

4.  rjPS,  kalSrp\',  a  Aaaider  or  aide  (as  often  die. 
>heieX  occun  in  3  Klnga  xi,  11,  In  speaking  of  tbe 

opporile  parte  of  (he  Temple. 

5.  9*1X177;,  milMa'd  (\\tml\y  cut  off  at  hrmty,  u 
iH^,  spoken  ofthe  external  exlnmitifa  of  tbe  taber- 
nacle (Exod.  xxvt,  34;  xxxvi,  29),  and  tbe  intaTDal 
onesofacoart(EMk.  ill,  33;  xlvl,21,i3);  alsoofs 
bend  or  "turning"  of  a  wall,  conventhnally  ^iplitd 
apparently  to  the  intersection  of  the  Intrmal  wall  of 
Jerusalem  skirting  Mount  Zlon  on  tbe  east,  with  tbe 
conUnDition  of  that  on  the  aorthem  brow  towards  tbe 
Temple  (3  Chron.  xivl,  9 ;  Nob.  Hi,  19, 30,  34,  2S>.  A 
kindred  form  occure  In  the  last  elanae  of  Ezck.  ill,  si, 
where  some  render  fouT.j;ii(irs. 

6.  BVp.  pa'^K  (literally  a  Mtp,  uinally  a  "tlDc'' 
or  instance),  spoken  of  the  four  comers  of  tbe  ucird 
lak.  (Fjtod.  XIV,  13),  and  of  the  hraien  liv«  (1  Kiars 
vli,  801 

7.  7;x,  Isela'  (lilerslly  a  ri&  or  side,  ae  often  else- 
where), spoken  of  either  extremity  of  each  side  of  tbe 
attar  of  Incense  (Exod.  xxx,  4;  xxzvil,  37). 

8.  nx^,  baltaJk',  in  ewj  (as  ebewhere  usuany), 
spoken  of  the  four  comen  of  the  aime  (Exod.  KXvU,  4). 

9.  n'')1,iat>tlA',spoken  ofthe  "conN»"ofUMahsr 
(Zech.  Ii,  15) ;  flg.  of  the  oonm-  ooAninu  of  a  palace 
(Psa.  cxliv.li,  "that  onr daughters  may  be  aa  corDtt- 
stones"),  finely  sculptured.  In  allusion  probably  to  ths 
carifiaidti,  or  colnmna,  representing  female  figures,  s> 
common  in  E^typtian  irchitectare  (the  point  of  ceo- 
parioon  lying  in  the  slendemeaa  and  lallneea  comUncd 
with  elegance,  comp.  Cant,  v,  16 ;  vil,  8). 

10.  The  Greek  word  yuvi'a  signiScs  properly  as 
«^&,  either  exterior,  as  wben  streets  meet,  forming 
a  iquare  or  place  of  public  resort  (Matt,  vi,  fi),  or  in- 
terior, a  dark  r(<cea^  put  (br  lecrtqi  (Acts  iivj,  36). 
"  Tbe  fbm-  cnrwm  of  the  earth"  denote  the  whole  bwl 
or  world,  as  In  No.  1  above  (Rev.  vli,  1  j  <  qnarten," 
XI,  8).    On  "the  head  of  llw  eanter,"  oee  Cotxsa- 

11.  The  "coriMn"  of  the  great  sheet  in  Peter's  Ti. 
■Ion  (Acts  X,  11 ;  xi,  6)  repieaent  a  dlflkrent  wad  b 
the  original,  Aflxh-  which  baa  elaewbere  naualty  tba 
signilicatiDn  ot ^*btffimimg" 

"The  HKB,  peSk',  or  'corner,'  i.  e.  of  the  field,  was 
not  allowed  (Lev.  xii,  9)  to  be  wholly  reaped.  The 
law  gave  a  right  to  the  poor  to  carry  off  what  waa  as 
left,  and  this  wis  a  part  ofthe  maJnteDance  fMm  the 
soil  to  which  that  closa  were  entitled.  Kmilariy  lbs 
gleining  of  Helds  and  ^it-treea,  and  tbe  taking  cf 
a  aheaf  accidentally  left  on  the  ground,  weie  secaied 
to  the  poor  and  the  stranger  by  law  (ixili.  It;  DeA 
xiiv,  19-21).  See  Glbakino.  These  tnsa  Id  n, 
amid  the  sharply  defined  legal  rights  of  which  slooa 
civlllutlon  is  cogniiant,  loose  and  inideqniCe  psvii- 
slons  fbrthe  relief  of  tbe  poor.  Bat  custom  and  rb- 
mon  liw  hid  pRibably  enaored  their  obeerrance  (Job 
xxiv,  10)  previously  to  the  Hooaic  enactment,  and 
continued  for  a  long  but  indefinite  time  to  give  fne- 
tiral  fiirce  to  tbe  stitate.  Nor  were  the  '  poor.'  lo 
whom  apperuuned  the  right,  the  vague  don  of  saf- 
ferers  whom  we  ondenland  by  the  term.  On  tbi 
principles  of  the  Meaaic  polity,  every  Hebrew  hmSj 
had  a  hold  on  a  certain  fixed  estite,  and  conid  by  no 
ardlnuy  ind  caaual  calamity  be  whoUv  btggini. 
Henoe  Its  Indigent  memben  bad  tbe  claim's  </kbdnd 
on  the  '  comers,'  etc.,  of  the  Held  which  their  iBBdad 
brethren  reaped.  Similarly  tbe  '  KUmBgai'  wis  a  rec- 
ognised dependent ;  '  within  thy  ptes'  being  hii  si- 
pressivs  description,  as  sharing,  thoagh  not  by  any 
tie  of  blood,  the  domestlo  claim.  There  was  Oiss  a 
further  security  An  the  matntsnanea  of  tbe  ri^  in  in 


CORNER  61 

4cfiBiU  mud  ■K«rt4in*1>le  chsractw.  IlelChcr  do  wi 
dUcovcr  in  tbe  earlier  period  of  th«  Hebrew  polity, 
dowiiv  detailed  »  ill  lociiil  reatime  mre,  toy  general 

the  country  wliicb  reaulta  (mm  It — ancli,  for  inatuice, 
u  ia  piored  by  the  banditti  of  tbe  Herodiau  period. 
David,  a  popolu  )ewi«r  (1  Sun.  xriii,  SO;  xxl,  11), 
mold  onlj'  muster  from  fonr  to  aiz  bnndred  man  out 
of  all  Jadah,  thaagb  arerf  one  that  wai  in  diitresi,  in 
debt,  and  every  one  that  wu  diacan(«nl«d,'  came  to 
him  (1  Sam.  xxU,  2 ;  ixt,  IS).  Further,  the  position 
of  the  L.e>it«a,  who  h»d  tbemnelrea  a  dmilar  claim 
on  the  produce  of  the  Isnd,  bat  no  posaeuion  in  Itii 
•ofl,  would  HCDre  their  inflnence  ae  expounders,  teach- 
er*, and.  In  part,  admin  latralora  of  tbe  law,  in  favor  of 
niji  a  claim.  In  the  later  period  of  tbe  prophet!  their 
constant  complaints  conoerainK  the  deflnading  of  the 
poor  <,!■«.  T,  S ;  Amoa  t,  11 ;  viii.  t)  wem  to  show  that 
each  U«>  had  loit  their  practical  force.  (IhfH  two 
pnaaages,  ipeaking  of  'taking  bnrdana  of  wheat  Ih>m 
tho  poor,'  and  of  'Mliing  the  refoie  [^D^]  of  the 
wheat,'  L  e.  parhapa  the  gleaningi,  aeem  to  point  to 
•anM  ipadal  evaalon  of  the  harvest  lawa.)  Still  later, 
■Oder  the  Scribes,  minute  legislation  fliad  one  alxtleth 
as  Uta  portion  of  a  field  which  wat  to  be  left  fbr  the 
k«al  'comer,'  but  provided  also  (which  seems  hardly 
eoBsistent)  that  two  fields  should  not  be  so  joined  as  to 
laaTe  one  comer  onlv  where  two  shoald  fairly  be  reck- 
oned. The  praportlon  being  tbas  fixed,  all  the  grain 
mlKht  be  reaped,  and  enoDgh  to  satls^  tbe  regoiatlon 
anbseqaently  separated  (Toni  the  whole  crop.  This 
'comer'  was,  like  the  gleaning,  tithe-free.  CerUio 
fndt-trees,  e.  g.  nnta,  pomegranates,  vines,  and  olives, 
were  deemod  liable  to  the  law  of  the  oonier.  MaJmon- 
ides,  indeed,  lays  down  the  principle  (CoulirMiiMu 
de  don't  paajKram,  cap.  II,  I)  that  whatever  crop  or 
growth  is  at  fbr  food,  Is  kept,  and  gathered  all  at  once, 
aad  carried  Into  store,  is  liable  to  that  law.  A  Gentile 
balding  land  In  Falestine  was  not  deemed  liable  to  the 
obligation.  At  regards  Jews,  an  evaelon  seems  to 
have  been  oanctioned  as  follows :  Whatever  Held  was 
consecraled  to  the  Temple  and  its  services  wm  held 
exempt  from  the  claim  of  the  poor;  an  owner  might 


thus  c 


«  it  while  tl 


n  It,  whan  in  the  sheaf,  to  bis 
the  poor  would  lose  the  right  to  the  'comer.'  This 
moindi  uj  of  the  ■  Corban'  <MBrk  vil,  11).  For  fur- 
ther  Informatiaii,  sea  AoucirLTtiBB.  The  tnatise 
PeaJi,  in  tlie  Hisboa,  ni»y  likewise  be  cutisulled, 
especially  chsp,  I,  2,  S,  4.  6.  0;   U,  iv,  7;    aim  the 


The  CosaiB-OATB  (REpn  ns;^) 
■pokenof  JnaKingsxiv,  13;  !  Cbron.  xxvl,  9;  Jer. 
xixi,  38,  was  on  the  N.W.  side  of  the  ancient  city,  In 
Josepbni's  "second  wall,"  and  between  the  present 
iltes  of  Calvary  and  tbe  Damascus  Gate.  (See  Strong's 
Bamtomiimd  E*po*UiiM  c/tht  CofpeZi,  Appen^x  11,  p. 
17.)    See  Jebdbalim. 

CoBiCKH-VTOlls  (ntp  13!t.  Job  xzxTill,  6;  Isa. 
xzvill,  16;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  ci^X^  yuviae),  a  qnoin 
or  block  of  great  importance  in  binding  together  the 
sides  of  a  bnilding.  (On  Psa.  ciliv.  13,  see  Ko.  9 
above.)  Some  of  the  eDmer.«tones  In  the  ancient  work 
of  the  tomple  fmndationti  are  IT  or  19  feet  long,  and 
T(  feet  thick  (Robinson,  Jtrimrtirt,  i,  42!).  Comer- 
atone*  are  asnally  laid  sideways  utd  endways  alter- 
nately, so  that  the  end  of  one  appear*  above  or  below 
the  side-face  of  the  next.  At  Nineveh  tbe  comers  are 
■ometimee  fbrroed  of  one  angnlar  stone  (Litynrd,  f/ine- 
*et,  ii,  iOl).  The  corresponding  expression,  "bead 
of  the  comer"  (riO  DXi),  in  Ps*.  cxviil,  22,  Is  by 
•am*  nnderstood  to  mean  the  copin  g  or  ridge,  "  coign 
of  riDtage,"  1.  e.  topstone  of  a  building;  hut  aa  in  any 
It  of  necessity  be  of  great  im- 


9  CORNET 

porlanoi,  the  phrase  "comer-stone"  is  soroetJmn  naad 
to  denote  any  principal  person,  as  tbe  princes  of  Egypt 
(Isa.  xii,  IR),  and  is  thus  applied  to  cor  Lord,  who, 
liaving  been  once  rejected,  was  afterward  set  in  the 
highest  honor  (Uatt  xxi,  42;  see  Grotlus  on  I'sa. 
cxviil;  comp.  Banner,  Ott.  ii,  SAG).  The  symbolical 
title  of  "chief  comer-stone"  (Xr'daf  arpoyaiviaiot)  la 
also  applied  to  Christ  In  Eph.  U,  20,  and  1  Pet.  ii,  8, 16, 
which  last  passage  is  a  quotation  from  Isa.  xxviii,  IS, 
where  the  Sept.  hiis  the  same  words.  The  "  comer- 
stone,"  or  half- underlying  buttress,  properly  make* 
no  part  of  the^'UKfa'iiM,  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
in  Jer.  Ii,  56;  though,  aa  the  edifice  lesta  thereon,  it 
may  be  so  called.  Sometimes  it  denotes  tboae  ma*- 
sivs  slabs  which,  beina  placed  towards  the  bottom  of 
any  wall,  serve  to  bind  the  work  together,  as  In  I*a. 
xxviil,  IS.  Of  these  there  were  often  two  laj-en, 
without  cement  or  mortar  (Bloomfleld,  Steau,  j^nwp. 
OD  Eph.  ii,  20).  Christ  is  called  a  "comer-stone," 
(1.)  In  reference  to  bis  being  the  fonndatlon  of  the 
Christian  &1th  (Eph.  11,  SO)  ;  (2.)  In  reference  to  the 

pie«  (1  Pet.  K,  l>);  and  (8.)  Since  men  often  stumble 
against  a  projecting  comer-stone,  Chrirt  is  therefore 
so  colled,  because  bis  gospel  will  be  the  csiue  of  ae> 
gravated  condemnation  to  those  who  reject  it  (UatL 
xxi,  44),     See  STtrHBLiNO-aroNX. 

The  prophet  (itech.  x,  4),  speaking  of  Jodab,  after 
the  return  from  the  exile,  says,  "oDt  of  hlra  cam* 
[1. 0.  shall  come]  forth  the  comn-  [L  e,  primee'].  out  of 
him  the  nail;"  probably  rehiring  nltiDutely  to  tbe 
"  comer-stone,"  the  Hezslab. 

Comertis.  Chkibtofhobub  (Korkeb),  ■  German 
divine,  waa  bom  in  Franconia  IfilS,  and  wa*  educated 
under  his  ancle,  Conrad  Wlmpina.  In  1540  be  was 
made  profeawr  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  ecelesl- 
BBticol  superintendent.  He  aided  Andreft  In  the  prep. 
aralion  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (see  Co:(COBd),  and 
wrote  several  works  in  BiliUcal  literstnre  and  theology, 
now  of  little  account.  He  died  April  IT,  1649.— Hal- 
chior  Adam,  V'tdi  Endilonm,  i,  S15. 

Cornet;  properiy^Ei3,sl(ipAar'(prob.  from  "^Dt^, 
to  be  brigit,  with  reference  to  the  clearness  of  *annd ; 
comp.  rnil^,  Psa,  xvl,  6),  Gr.  oriXin/£,  Lat.  buerima, 
a  loud-sounding  instrument,  mode  of  tbe  horn  of  a  ram 
or  of  a  chamois  (sometimes  of  an  ox),  and  nsed  by  the 
ancient  He'iniwa  for  aignsla,  for  announcing  the  S?*!^, 
"jnbllee"  (Lev.  ixv,  9).  for  proclaiming  tbe  new  year 
(Mishna,  RinS  IladuanA,  iii  and  iv),  for  the  purpose  of 
war  (Jer.  iv,  5.19;  comp.  Job  xxiix,  25),  aa  well  as 
for  tbe  sentinels  placed  at  tbe  watcb4owen  to  giva 
notice  nf  the  appmach  of  an  enemy  (Ezek.  xxxill,  4,  &). 
SiipSar  la  generally  rendered  Inthe  A.V.  "trumpet," 
but  "comet"  Is  nsed  in  1  Chron.  xv,!e;  2  Chron.  xv, 
14;  Pea.  xcviil,6;  Hoa.  t,  8.  "Comet"  ia  also  cm- 
ployed  in  2  Sam.  vi.  6,  for  0^3373^,  mmnamn',  tittra, 
a  musical  instrument  or  rattle,  which  gave  a  tinkling 
sound  on  being  •kaien  (used  in  Enypt  in  tbe  wor-blp 
of  laia  ;  see  Wilkinson,  ii,  323  sq.).  Finally,  in  Dan. 
iii,  5,  7, 10, 15,  for  the  Chald.  (and  Heb.)  term  V.^p, 
is'rea,  a  Anra  (as  elsewhere  rendered)  or  aimpie  tube. 

Oriental  scholars  for  the  most  part  consider  the  Ao- 
fkar  and  the  ktrrn  to  be  one  and  the  same  musical  in- 
i>tmmeat ;  but  some  Biblical  critics  regard  the  sloplor 
and  the  n^xisn,  A«Ii)Iit^'  (Invariably  rendeied 
"trumpet"  in  tbe  A.V.),  as  belonging  to  the  specie* 
of  tbe  h  rva.  the  general  term  for  a  horn  (Joel  Brill,  in 
preface  to  Mendelssohn 'a  veraion  of  the  P»alma).  Jahn 
distinguinbes  fcins,  "  tbe  horn  or  crooked  trumpet," 
from  cjlatwffrrnA,  the  straight  tmmpet,  an  initrument 
a  cubit  in  length,  hollow  throughout,  and  at  tbe  larger 
extremity  to  shaped  as  to  resemble  the  month  of  a 
short  hill"  (^AniiAiog.  xcv.  4,  5);  bnt  the  generally 
received  opinion  Is,  that  kerat  designates  tha  crooked 


CORNET  51 

bun^  and  ilupiar  the  Iodk  and  Mntght  oac.  The 
eomtl  propsrlj  dcnotea  a  ibrill  wind  miliUr}'  instm- 
m«iit  of  wood,  DOW  moetly  auperieded  by  the  o6oe.  It 
«u  blown  with  ■  moath-piece,  and  ririal  Id  >i»  and 
tone  (MeiiHiane'i  Hamume  Umvertelley  Th«  soundi 
emitted  from  the  comet  Id  modem  timea  are  exceed- 
lngl}f  hanh,  altboagli  the^  produce  a  aalaniD  effect. 
&M  Mcatc. 


"The  aHrer  tnimpeta  (733  PliSISn)  which  Mo- 
aes  wai  char|[ed  to  fnmiih  Tor  the  liraelitaa  were  to 
be  utad  for  the  following  purpoges :  for  the  calling  to- 
gether of  the  UHmhly,  for  the  journeying  of  the 
campe,  for  aonndiDg  the  alum  of  war,  and  for  cele- 
brating the  ucrifice)  on  feativala  and  new  moons 
(Sum.  X,  l-IO).  The  divine  command  throagh  Mosee 
waa  reatiicted  to  two  trumpets  only,  and  tbe<e  were  to 
be  Mranded  by  the  aona  of  Aaron,  the  anointed  priegti 
of  the  aanctuaTy,  and  not  by  laymen.  It  wonld  seem, 
however,  that  at  a  later  period  an  impreuioti  prevail- 
ed that 'while  the  tnimpeta  were  hi  tFjred  to  be  soand- 
cd  odIv  by  the  prienli  within  the  vanctuary,  they  might 
be  niecl  by  otber*,  not  of  the  prieithnod,  vifAoul  the  m- 
cred  edifice'  (Conrad  Iken's  Anli^ilata  Htbraica,  per, 
i,  aec.  vii, '  Sacerdotum  cum  Instmmentia  ipaomm'). 
In  the  age  of  Solomon  the  '  silver  trumpeta'  ware  ia- 
creaaed  Id  number  to  130  (2  Chron.  v,  13) ;  and,  inde- 
pendently of  the  objecta  for  whirh  they  had  been  flret 
introdueed,  they  were  now  employed  in  the  orchestra 
of  the  Temple  aa  an  accompaniment  to  aongs  of  thanks- 


bnee'(i>3:'n  ri3;  conip.Lev.XKv,lS,l&,wtlhxxv, 
28,  SO),  generally  denotes  the  Institution  of  Jubilee; 
bnt  in  aome  inatances  it  is  apoken  of  aa  a  muaical  in- 
atrnmenl,  KxvmblinK  in  ita  Direct,  if  not  In  ita  shape. 
thetvmiand  the  ihopkar.  Geeenlua  prononncee  jnArl 
to  be  '  an  onomalo-poetio  word.  signifying^HMtna  or  a 
joyful  soand,  and  hence  applied  to  the  aound  of  a  trum- 
pet eignal,  like  n^^l'ln' ('alarm,'  Nam.  x,  S);  and  Dr. 
Hunk  is  of  opinion  that '  the  word  iobrl  la  onlv  an 
epithet'  {PalaOnf,  p.  456  a.  nota).  Still  it  ia  diScalt 
to  diveat  go6tl  of  the  meaning  of  a  aonnding  instru- 
ment in  tiia  following  instances:  '  When  the  trumpet 
(^Z'l^n)  aonndeth  long,  tber  ahall  come  up  to  Ibo 
monnt' (Exod.  xli,  13);  'And  it  shall  come  to  pass 
that  when  they  make  a  long  blast  with  the  ram's 
horn'  (^3"«n  Tipa,  Joshua  vi,  B);  'And  let  seven 
prieal*  bear  seven  trumpets  ofroma'  homa'  (r*~G1'^ 
C-Var--,  Joih.  vi,  6).     Sec  JrBii.EE. 

"  The  aoanding  of  the  comet  O^iti  rr-pt^)  was 
the  distinguishing  illnil  feature  of  the  festival  ap- 
pointed by  Mo«a  to  be  held  on  the  first  day  of  the 
aereuth  month,  under  the  denomination  of  'a  day  of 
blowing  trumpeta'  (n?B~ri  Bl"".  Num.  mix,  1),  or  'a 
memorial  of  blowingof  trumpets' rns^n  yrt,  Lev. 
liil,  3-1) :  and  that  rile  is  ctill  obsKrved'  by 


0  CORKICE 

(pnx^  rt-^pi).  Bnt  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
name  of  the  festira]  ia  derived  from  the  usnal  kind  of 
tnunpeta  (ram's  homa)  then  in  use,  and  that  the  oi)- 
Ject  of  the  festival  waa  the  celebration  of  the  new  year 
and  the  eabortation  to  thonhsgivinga  for  the  bleaaiaga 
experienced  In  the  year  }aat  Snlsbed.  The  use  of  on* 
Deta  by  the  priests  in  all  the  cities  of  the  land,  not  ia 
Janiaalem  only  (where  two  silver  trumpets  wen  add- 
ed, while  the  Leviles  chanted  the  Mat  Psalm),  waa  a 
suitable  means  for  that  object'  (^Morgailaiid,  vol  a, 
Ho.  837,  on  Uv.  sxiLi,  W). 

"Although  the  festival  of  the  firet  day  of  the  nv- 
enth  month  is  denominated  by  the  Hlshna  'Newreu,' 
and  notwlUi  standing  that  it  waa  ohaerved  aa  aoch  by 
the  Hebrews  In  the  age  of  the  second  temple,  then  ii 
no  r^naon  whatever  to  believe  that  it  bad  inch  a  DaDK 
or  character  in  the  times  of  Hoeea.  Tbt  Pentaleiirk 
fixes  the  vernal  equinox  (the  period  of  the  Inrtitiitim 
of  the  Passover)  as  the  commencement  of  the  Jeiri* 
yesr;  but  for  more  than  twenty  centuries  tie  Im 
have  dated  their  new  year  ftnm  the  autumnal  «|ii 
nux,  which  takes  pUce  alont  the  seaaon  when  the  fa 
tivalof 'Ibeday  of  BouDdingthe  comet' la  held.  Bit 
binical  tradition  represents  this  festival  as  the  unl 
vemry  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  bat  the  suieorni 
receives  no  direct  support  from  ScriptBre.  Oa  tba 
contrary,  Hoees  expreaaly  dedatea  that  the  moatli 
Abib  (the  moon  of  the  spring)  is  to  be  n^aidtd  by 
the  Hebrews  aa  the  firat  month  of  the  yearr'TIm 
month  shall  be  unto  yon  the  begioning  {iVT)  of 
montbs ;  It  shall  be  the  flrst  (^K*^)  month  of  the  y<ai 
toyou'(Exod.iii,2)(Monk,ftifcrf»f,  p.l84(>  S« 
Tear. 

"The  intention  of  the  appointment  of  the  featitil 
'of  the  aounding  of  Iho  comet,'  as  well  ai  the  duties 
of  the  sacred  institution,  appear  to  be  act  forth  ia  Ihi 
words  of  the  prophet,  '  Sound  the  cornet  (~E't]  in 
Zion,  sanctify  tho  fast,  proclaim  the  solemD  aHcnblj' 
(Joel  ii,  15).  Agreeably  to  the  order  in  which  thii 
passage  runs,  tho  institution  of '  the  festival  of  soanl- 

*    '■         '  it  day  of  atonen 


n  their 


rat,  which 


land  for  that  bat  ia 


now  coll'theday  of  memnrlal'dl^rffl  01"),  and  al?o 
'Kaw  Tear"  (njl'n  'iX~).  '  Some  eommentitora, ' 
aaya  Roeenmaller,  'have  made  this  festival  refer  to 
the  preservation  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxli),  whence  It  la 
:s  called  by  the  Jews  '  the  Binding  of  Isaac' 


The  divine  com- 
Ihat  for'tliediT 
by  the  conjunctive  paititle 
"^Et.  '  Lihrviit  on  the  tenth  day  of  this  htsiiIIi 
monthistliadayofatanement'(L(!v.xxili,g;).  Hen 
TfK  (likewise)  unitea  the  festiral  'of  the  day  of  !onnd. 
Ingthe  comet'  with  the  solemnity  of  the  day  ofatnnr- 
ment  precisely  as  the  same  particle  connecU  the  fn- 
tlval  of  taliemacles'  with  the  observance  of  tbs  c*n- 
monial  of  'the  fruit  of  the  jiodor-trea,  the  pal" 
branches'  «tc-  (!•«'-  "<■>.  U-iff).  The  won)  'sol- 
emn Bsaembly'  (n^Itr)  in  the  Terse  from  Joel  qnolrd 
above  applies  to  the  featival  '  eighth  day  of  (olnsn 
assembly' (r-SS  ''S'"319)  (Lev.  xxlU,  36),  Uietioati; 
rite  rt  the  festive  cycle  of  Tltri  (see  Marks.  Ril's/ca 
Ditamne;  i,  2!)1-!). 

■'  Besides  the  use  of  the  comet  on  the  feslivil  d 
'  blowing  the  trumpets.'  it  is  also  wnndrd  in  the  ryoi- 
gogue  at  the  close  of  the  nervice  for  the  day  ofalrni^ 
ment.  and,  among  the  Jews  who  adopt  the  ritual  of 
the  Sfphardim.  OB  (he  seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  Ub- 
emaclea,  known  by  the  poet-biblical  denoaiiiisii«i 
of  '  the  Ureat  Uosannah '  (njT  rarijiri).  Sm 
Trumpet. 

ComheTt  or  CootnhBTt.    See  CooHABan. 

Comiea  (Gr.  mpiiwr,  a  fBTnrfffiw),  a  horienul 
moolded  prnjection  crowning  the  angle  of  a  baOiat 
or  anv  of  iu  parts,  varying  with  the  diliierent  oidin 
and  periods  of  architecture.  In  the  early  Gothic  lbs 
romlce  consiated  of  a  corbet-Uble  (q.  v.).  LMtrr,  s 
deep  hollow,  with  a  simple  moulding  (artngal)  bdoa, 
and  one  or  more  ntonldlngt  ahvv^  ami  with  lovtrh 


521        CORPORAL  INFLICTIONS 


nlmli,  or  lagcla  lieblj  tami  Id  the  bolknr,  ooDiti- 
nUd  till  pndomiiuiit  futora.    Witt  ''     " 
Ike  tUMJcil  comic*  nlnrned. 


Corona  (Lat.),  tb*  )awar  moaber  af  ft  clualcal 
tunica.  Ths  biviiaatftl  noder  gorfkca  of  it  ii  oiled 
tbe  tagU.  EogUah  eccluUKieil  writan  olton  bsva 
ipplied  the  tarn  corona  to  tha  nmlciTcDUr  apali  of  a 
cMr. 

CoTonXtl,  (I-)  "  a  nans  of  tfaa  andeDt  clergy,  anp. 
poMd  to  haTa  been  givon  to  tham  In  caoMqucnce  of 
tbeir  ahavsD  crowns.  But  Bingham  and  othen  have 
■hown  that  the  tantiiTa,  as  nied  t^  the  Romanitti,  did 
notexMt  >t  thatlmeafthelntnidactiaD  of  thb  epithet. 
The  eaitom  wax  to  cut  tha  hsir  to  a  moderatB  degree 
■implj  for  the  aake  of  decant  appainnce,  and  eepe- 
daU;  to  avoid  canfonnltT  to  the  exiitiag  faahion  of 
naring  Ions  bair.  St.  Jerome  uya  that  none  but  tha 
ptiHts  of  Isit  and  Serapii  have  iharen  crowna.  The 
una  eoTomati  might  be  given  to  Iba  cteTgy  out  of  re- 
■pact  to  their  offlca  and  character,  which  were  held  in 
gnit  honor.  It  waa  cnatomuy,  in  addreaaing  biih. 
ope,  to  UM  coma  title  of  rerpect,  eucb  aa  per  coraiam, 
and  prr  eonmiBii  Teilrani!  and  the  alluaion  may  ba  to 
tbe  canma,  or  mitre,  which  the  bishops  wore  aa  a  part 
of  their  prieatlj  dreaa ;  or  it  maj  be  considered  aa  a 
metaphorical  expreieioa.  denoting  (he  honor  and  dlg- 
niiT  f^r  [he  epiaQ>|)aI  order." — Bingham,  Oiig-  ^<^  ^'' 

(II.)  A  tills  ttmditionally  givon  to  fonr  nartj-ra— 
ScrerBt,  Severianni,  Carpoptaorus,  and  TiclorinDi — h 
iBmeil  becaaae,  It  is  Baid,  they  were  killed,  in  S04,  by 
having  eroKiu  with  ehsrp  nails  pressed  ioto  their 
bfads.  A  church  erected  it  Rome  in  their  honor  la 
mationad  br  pope  Gregory  I.  and  (till  exiita.  They 
are  commeiDD rated  la  the  Chorch  of  Rome  on  Nov.  S; 
tiM  Acta  of  their  martyrdom  are  apnriaus.  See  Wot- 
acr  a.  Welle,  Kirck.-Lex.  il,  680. 

Corporal  (earporaie,  ac  nJaii),  tha  Uoan  cloth 
which  ia  apread  over  the  aymbola  after  comtnunJon. 
It  te  ao  called  from  being  originall;  Intended  to  rep- 
RatDt  the  sheet  in  which  our  Lord's  body  (corpiu)  wai 
>irag>|ied  aitei  death.  It  ia  of  linen  with  ref^nce  b 
Lake  xziii,  63.  Originally  it  was  to  large  aa  to  covei 
the  heat  and  the  wine,  hence  the  naniepiiIIa(iJXi)ri'i'). 
bat  in  tba  Middle  Agei  It  received  ita  preaant  smaller 
ii».  It  waa  retted  by  the  EngUah  Raforaiers — 
ntacf,  Btid.Emeslt.m,l&S;  Wetxer  O.  Welto,  JTin:*.- 
La.  U,  881. 

CORPORAL  IKFLICTIONS.  1.  In  all  ages, 
aasBg  the  laraelitea,  heatiitg  waa  the  commoneat  fonn 
of  bodily  chaattaeiBant  known  in  civil  oBancet  (DeuL 
UT,  !),  e.  g.  In  caaea  of  a  team  of  diOkrent  soita  of 
htaM  (L  a.  the  driver  aa  wall  aa  the  peraon  alttlng  In 
the  wagon),  forty  blowa  ware  inSicted  (Miahna,  CjW. 
vlii,  3).    Saa  UuTixADO.    Tha  delinquent  probably 


racdved  the  stroke!  tnaa  a  stick  (comp.  Pror.  x,  IS; 
a  tod  of  "scorpoos"  Is  named  b  1  Kings  ili,  11, 14; 
S  Chron.  xi,  14,  either  a  thorny,  knotty  iUff  [comp. 
teorpia  in  Isidor.  Origg.  v,  !7, 18 1  thongs  of  oxhide  are 
mentlonad  in  Lev.  ilx,  ZO,  ai  t^^JTS;  bnt  see  Qeaih 
ilos,  Tke:  p.  !S4],  or  one  set  with  pdnted  projecUona 
[Gesen.  Thii.  p.  1063],  probably  an  unuaual  severity), 
In  a  proatrata  altitude  (not  on  the  solas  of  the  feet,  aa 
In  the  modem  Eaat,  ArTieux,iii,198),  and  in  the  prea- 
tnce  of  the  Judge  (eomp.Wilkinaon,  ii,  41 ;  RoaelUnl, 
ii,  8,  p.  274) ;  bnt  not  over  forty  stripes  (Deut.  xjiv, 
3).  The  later  Jewish  inSictien  (sea  the  Uishns,  Mae- 
00(1)  iraa  eiecnted  by  means  of  a  twisted  leather 
thong  (whip),  and  the  blows,  not  exceeding  thlrly- 
ulne  In  number  (_Maecolh,  ill,  ID;  compare  Joaephni, 
^aciv,  8,21;  3  Cor.  xi,  24),  were  dealt  by  the  officer 
of  Justice  (*^n)  upon  the  culprit,  who  stood  lient  for- 
ward (JIaaxth,  '<i\.  Vi).  The  caaea  in  wliich  this  pno- 
isbment  was  apjJied  were  somatimes  sneh  as  were 
deemed  a  capital  offence  by  the  Mosjjc  law  ( JfocnMt, 
il,  esp.  IS),  Thst  scourging  was  also  in  vogue  in  tlie 
lyaagogue  appean  from  the  New  Test.  (Matt,  x,  17 1 
xxiii,  S4),  where  there  seems  to  ba  an  allusion  to  the 
threefbld  aentenee  that  prevailed  In  that  ecclesiastical 
court  (Lightfoot,  Hot.  Bibr.  p.  83!) ;  yet  the  Talmud- 
Ista  aro  not  agreed  whether  forty  blows  could  be  in- 
aicled  In  any  case  {SaaMr.  I,  2).  Sea  Straooodk. 
Scourging  Is  mentioned  (Acts  v,  40)  as  a  penalty  in 
the  power  of  tbe  Sanhedrim ;  an  increaae  of  aeverity 
being  employed  In  instances  of  repeated  ofllfence  (San- 
titdr.  Ix,  fi;  see  Wendt,  De  HMtit  rtddui;  Erlsngen, 
IBM).  See  Connciu  Under  tha  Sj-rian  rule  chaa- 
tisement  with  the  lash  occurs  as  a  form  of  torture  (2 
Uacc.rli,!;  comp.  Jnvenal,  xill,  199 ;  Cicero,  Clbfltf. 
S9).  See  Flaoeli^tiom.  The  Roman  scourging 
(fipayMovv,  /loffriyovv)  with  thongs  was  Inflicted  on 
Jeans  befora  cmciflxion  (Matt  xxix,  SO;  John  xix, 
1),  and  on  the  apostles  as  a  civil  penalty  (Acts  xvi, 
22,  87) ;  bnt  Roman  cltluns  could  only  be  beaten  with 
rods  {viryit  cadi,  Cicero,  Ven-.  v,  66 ;  comp.  Acts  xxll, 
26).  That  thia  punishment  might  be  carried  to  a  fa- 
tal  extent  Is  evident  (Cicero,  Vrrr.  v,  54 ;  Flnto,  O/p. 
ii,  628) ;  it  was  geneially  applied  with  fearttal  aeverity 
by  the  Roman  govemors  (Joaephue,  War,  vi,  fi,  8). 
See  Scon  ROE. 

3.  Physical  injuries  eommittad  upon  a  tno  Israelite 
were  la  be  avenged  by  retaliation  npon  the  antbot 
(Exod.  xxl,  !S  sq. ;  Lev.  xxlv,  19  aq.).    See  Daju- 

S.  Of  foreign  corporal  inflictiana  we  may  here  am- 
merate  the  following :  (1.)  Partial  dichotomy,  or  the 
cutting  off  of  the  nose  and  ears,  also  of  the  hands  or 
one  of  them,  which  species  of  punishment  was  often 
pradiaed  among  the  later  Jews,  but  chiefly  in  tnmnlt- 
uons  times  (Joaepbns,  Li/t,  80,  84,  86).  A  aimilar 
maiming  of  the  toes  occurs  among  the  Csnaanitish  In- 
cidents  (Judg.  I,  7).  In  Egj-pl  such  mutilationa  were 
sanctioned  by  law ;  and  It  waa  nsnally  the  member 
through  which  the  oIKince  had  been  committed  that 
was  cut  oflT  (Diod.  Sic.  i,  78);  tha  adultereH  most  ex- 
piate her  crime  by  the  loss  of  tha  nose  (so  as  to  spoil 
her  countenance),  a  petialty  to  which  Eiek,  xxiil,  26, 
is  aaoally  referred,  a  paaaage,  however,  that  rather  rs 
latea  to  Babjioniaii  usage.  (On  the  rerston  cnstom, 
ace  Xenophon,  Arnit.  i,  0, 18 ;  Cnrtlna,  v,  6,  C ;  vil,  6, 
40.  An  allusion  to  dichotomy  oocun  in  the  Belristun 
inscrlptian:  see  Rswlinson's  explanatloD,  p.  9,  17.) 
On  captives  In  war  such  disfigniadons  were  and  atill 
are  (Russegger,  Arise,  ii,  188)  most  recklessly  perpe- 
tnted.  (2.)  Blinding  C^t;)  was  a  Chaldssn  (Jer.  lii, 
11 ;  2  Rings  xxr,  7)  and  ancient  Persian  punishment 
(HeKdotna,  vii,  IB).  See  Ete.  It  still  prevails  in 
Persia  with  ngard  to  princes,  who  are  sometimes  thus 
deprived  of  all  prospect  to  tbe  snocession;  vision  is 
not  entirely  obliterated  by  the  process  employed  in 
soch  eaaas  (Chsrdin,  v,  248 ;  BnsenmOller,  MorsaU.  iii, 


CORPORATION 


5!S       CORPUS  TORIS  CANONia 


*M  M). ;  ■  dmnat  tnabneat  la  meotiooed  by  Prow- 
[diu,  In  Phot  Cod.  63,  p.  3^).  The  cxtinctloD  of  tb« 
«ye»  (D7:^5"P5  ^iJ!),  i  jnctics  freiinBDt  In  PanU 
(Cteiist,  Ptrt.  G),  ii  named  la  Jodg.  xvi,  31,  u  >  plan 
of  Pbilbtlne  Urbtritj^  in  1  Sun.  li,  13,  the  hidc 
atrucit;  sppeui  to  have  otiUined  with  the  AnnnoDltaa. 
Sse  PumamiuiT. 

Corpot^tion,  Eccluiastical  (Cobptis  Eccle- 
BUBTicm),  an  awociatlon  for  ecclcaiaiUca)  pnrpoiiw 
lanctioned  by  tha  itata  and  reco^iied  ai  a  civil  per- 
ton  (fiorput).  Among  die  nanal  righla  of  corporation! 
an  tiioM  to  acquire  property,  to  contncC  obligations 
and  dehta,  to  ane  and  ba  aued.  Their  legal  atatu  may 
be  regulated  either  by  general  lawa  applying  to  all 
(OTporatlou  of  a  cmt^n  cloaf ,  or  by  apacial  laws  given 
for  Iba  benefit  of  one  corporation  only. — Wetiar  n. 
WelU,  KirtAat-Ltx.  ii,  Sai. 

Coipu  (P*"!},  setrijKA',  Neb.  ill,  8,  ■  eareati,  ai 
rendered  in  Jndg.  liv,  8,  9,  elsewhere  ''body  ;"  ISO, 
pt'gtr,  3  Kings  lix,  8t;  Ia«.  ixxvii,  G,  ■  "corcnn" 
OT  "body"  [usually  dead],  aa  elsewhere  rendered; 
•TWfia,  Mark  vi,  19,  a  dead  "  body"  or  "  circaaa,"  aa 
elaewhere  rendered),  tbe  dead  body  of  a  human  being. 
SaaCABCASE. 

Coipo*  CathoUodntm  (imi^  ofUte  CaiMkt), 
fonnerly  tbe  collective  name  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Mataa  of  Germany,  aa  contiadlaUnguiabed  from  the 
Carjuu  EBcmstHcorvm  (q.  r.)  of  the  Protestant  atate*. 
It  was  not  nntil  after  the  tnaty  of  Westphalia,  where- 
in the  pope  had,  by  aeltllng,  so  to  say,  the  righta  of 
both  p«tieB,  offlcially  recognised  theii  existence,  that 
tbe  expreealon  Cifjmi  Catholiatnnri  came  into  general 
nae.  Yet  tbe  confederation  had  existed  before  the 
Catjm  BKmgiUeonm,  as  ii  proved  by  tbe  barmonlooa 
action  ofthe  Roman  Catholic  states  at  the  Diet  of  Nu- 
rembe^t  and  the  declilona  oftlie  CanfederaUon  of  Kat- 
labon  (16S4).  Tbe  elector  of  Hayence  waa  tbe  Preii- 
dent  of  the  Cerpm  CVtliofiODniiii,  which  generally  held 
iti  proceedinga  in  a  convent  of  that  ci^  in  which  tbe 
diet  happened  to  meet.  Tbe  abolition  of  tha  German 
Empin  In  I80G  led  to  tha  extinction  of  tbe  Corpui 
Evangtlicortm,  and,  as  a  coasoqnence,  of  that  of  the 
Corjiui  Callioiiconim. — See  Faber,  EiB'i^ditehe  Slaalt- 
Canitky,  who,  in  vol.  liii,  p.  237,  gives  a  complete  lis! 
of  the  alatea  constituting  tbe  Corpu  Calioticonm , 
Heaer,  r<eitf(ol<(  (Staata-AecAC,  etc. ;  ondCoBFDS  Evax- 


CotptU  ClulStl  (fiafy  DfChrltf).  a  festival  Inati- 
toted  in  tbe  Roman  Chnrch  in  honor  of  the  conaecrated 
boat  and  of  tratuubatantlatlon.  It  owea  its  origin  to 
a  nan  of  Liige  named  Juliana.  In  12B0,  while  look- 
ing at  tbe  full  moon,  she  said  the  aaw  a  gsp  In  ita  orb, 
and,  by  a  revelation  from  heaven,  learned  that  the 
moon  represented  the  Chriatlaa  Church,  abd  tbe  gap 
tbe  want  of  a  certain  tMivat — that  of  the  adoration 
of  tbe  body  of  Chriat  In  tbe  conaecrated  boat — which 
ahe  waa  to  begin  to  celebrate,  and  to  announce  to  the 
world,  Fnrtber,  in  1!64,  white  a  priest  at  Bolaana, 
wbo  did  not  believe  in  tiansnbatantlatkin,  wa*  going 
through  the  ceremony  of  benediction,  it  ia  said  drops 
of  blood  fell  an  hia  suiplice,  and,  when  be  endeavored 
to  conceal  them  in  tha  folds  of  hia  garment,  they  formed 
bloody  imagea  of  the  boat  I  A  bloody  anrplice  la  atill 
said  to  be  Bbown  at  Clvila  Veccbia.  Urban  IV  pub- 
lished In  the  same  year  a  bull,  in  which  be  appointed 
theTbuiedsyoftbe  week  after  Pentecost  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Feast  of  CoqiDiCbristitbrougbontCbrtS' 
tendom,  and  promised  abeolutian  for  a  period  of  firom 
forty  to  one  bnndred  daya  to  the  penitent  who  took 
Dart  In  It.  It  was  aftarwarda  neglected,  bnt  waa  re- 
eaUbliabed  by  Clement  V,  and  dnce  that  time  the  fee- 
tival  baa  been  observed  as  one  of  the  most  important 
In  tbe  BMniah  Church.  Splendid  processions  foim  a 
part  of  it.  Tbe  children  belonging  to  tbe  choir  with 
flaga,  and  tbe  prialts  with  lighted  tapers,  move  through 


tbe  streets  in  fkont  of  the  priest  who  eania  tbe 
boat  in  a  preeioua  box,  when  it  can  be  aeen  under  a 
canopy  held  by  four  Uymea  of  nnk.  A  crowd  of 
oommon  people  dosca  the  proccaaion. — ElUoit,  Dt- 
ImtaliiM  of  RommuwL,  hk.  ii,  ch.  vii;  Sieger,  llatA. 
iL  CkrinL  AllrrrA&mrr,  and  refereiicea  their,  and 
f.ir  the  Homiih  view,  Bullet,  Ftalti  trad  taHi,  trea- 

Corpns  Dootiliue,  the  n^me  given  to  eotaln 
collections  of  writinga  which  were  Intended  to  Imn 
aatbority  in  the  PToteatantcburebes  of  Germany.  Tbe 
mott  important  of  tfaase  collections  are  the  foUowfnf : 
I.  Corpiu  PMUiippUiim,  also  called  Scaomcn,  or  J^- 
ai'mm  (pobliibed  in  lli<60,rol.snd  often).  It  contnn- 
•d  the  tbiee  genenl  symbols  (the  Apoetolic,  Kimn, 
andAtbanafian),tbeConresaionDf  Ang«bnrg(tbe/Bni- 
riata)  and  tlie  Apoli^y,  and  Helancbthou'a  Led  Com- 
BUUKS,  £eiiiii«ii  OrtUBaudomm,  and  rt^.  ad  artie.  Ba- 
vaic.  It  was  considered  as  crypto-CalviniUic.  and 
violently  denounced  b]  be  rigorona  Lutheiana.  Ibe 
Elector  of  Saxony,  in  16C9,  threatened  with  depoutioa 
all  who  refused  to  teach  in  accordance  with  II,  bat 
aubaequenlly  thia  decree  was  repealed,  and  a  nnniber 
of  defenders  oftbenork  were  triedand  imprisoned,  i. 
The  CoTjKt  Doctriaa  Pomtramnm  had  the  came  ex- 
tents as  the  preceding  one.  8.  The  Corpu  Battvtm 
/Viifflucu«(Pra<si8n).  slao  called  Afpc'ttw  dortriiiMre- 
cittiattiar,  was  published  in  1567,  and  directed  agaiut 
the  Oiiandrian  ertors.  A  decree  oflbe  prince,  in  IKT, 
prescribed  it  as  a  rule  of  faith  for  all  times  to  ccoe, 
and  declared  that  Bone  who  refoaed  (n  accept  it  should 

Corpus  ETangellc&mm  (hM^  of  ik  EtatgA- 
coT),  formerly  the  collective  nonie  of  the  evangelical 
states  of  Germany.  The  flirt  league  was  made  be- 
tween Saxony  and  Huae  In  16S8.  Other  cTugtlieal 
states  followed,  and  si  the  Protestation  of  Spres  in 
li&,tbe  CorjiBt  StanfftUconm  was  organiied.  latlM 
Nuremberg  religious  peace  in  16S!,  it  Hitered  at  each 
In  relation  with  the  Oirpiii  Cadolianm  (q.  v.).  Tbe 
head-quarters  of  the  latter  were  in  tbe  electoiale  ef 
Mayencfl,  while  Saxony  stood  at  tbe  head  of  the  evan- 
gelical states.  At  the  ctote  of  the  siileenth  nntniy, 
Frederic  III,  elector  of  the  Pslatinate,  having  bccoBia 
Protestant,  became  bead  of  the  Carpal  ETargtSanm, 
but  after  he  had  lost  all  bis  BtatcB  in  the  Thinv  Tter^ 
War,  Sweden  took  the  lead,  which  waa,  however,  le- 
atoied  to  Saxnny  by  the  Diet  of  165B.  After  the  dec- 
toral  house  of  Saxony  had  become  Komanict.  tbe  lead 
of  the  Corpvt  EvangtHconBn  waa  claimed  by  Ktml 
other  Protestant  states  j  yet  it  remained  filially  with 
Saxony,  It  being,  however,  stipulated  that  tbe  envty 
of  Saxony  should  receive  hia  instmctiona,  not  ftum  till 
elector,  but  from  the  colleen  of  tbe  privy  conncii  it 
Dresden.  The  Carput  EvnwgtHconm  ended  with  the 
dissolution  of  tbe  Gorman  empire  in  1^06. — Hrnag, 
Bial-Eiicytlop.  ill,  166  j  BOlov,  UtUr  ffaci.  «.  I'e^. 
du  Corp.  Evang.  (1795). 

CorpoB  Juris  Canonlci,  a  collection  ef  lbs 
source*  of  the  Church  law  of  the  Soman  Calbolk 
Church,  consisting  of  old  canons,  resolutions  of  cvan- 
cilB,  decrees  of  popes,  and  writings  of  Church  falhen. 
The  collection  gradually  arose  from  tbe  deaire  to  liate 
for  the  derision  of  ecclesiastical  cases  a  law-book  ef 
equally  general  authority  as  the  Ciirpni  Jurii  (W6 
posseaaed  In  the  province  of  civil  IcgisUtioo.  Its 
component  pana  were  originally  comjnled  in  ttiict  im- 
itation of  the  Corpui  Jurii  CmUi. 

I.  CompenaU  Pnrtt Generally  recognised  as  pnU 

of  the  Carput  Jurit  Canotdci,  and  constituting  whit  U 
called  the  Corpm  Jvrit  0aimm,  are  the  itonM 
Gratiiim  (1151),  the  decretals  of  Gregory-  IX  (IttX 
the  Zilrr  Sixtai  of  Bonlfac*  VIII  (n98),  and  0" 
aemeaOm  (ISIS).  Disputed  is  the  aathoiitr  of  lb 
two  collectioTU  o(  Bjlravc^aitlta  of  pope  John  XXII 
(mO)  and  of  tbe  Extrategaila  CamnKi  (l«W> 


CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS         5: 

Gmanllj  T^]w!led  >n  nowtlM  i?  Oanontt  patiilailiaift 
takra  tram  the  Summa  de  Caiibiu  Coutdailia  of  car- 
dinal di  A(U  ("Amma  Aitaaiia"),  lad  th«  CmoMi 
Apotbitertim,  both  orwhich  wan,  in  the  oirlicr  aditiona 
at  tlui  Carpti  Jutit  Gmoaici,  giTea  u  ui  appendix  to 
tlM  Daerrbtm  Gratiam.  Tlu  aama  la  tbe  caae  with 
ths  Imttilatama  Jwii  Caiumei,  and  with  tba  libtr 
Stptimia  at  Peter  Mathews  of  L;ana. 

II.  Tkt  Farmalian  nf  At  C^leeHm.—^ii^  name  of 
Ctrput  Jiaii  Cammid  was  early  given  to  the  Decrttm 
.  Gratiam  in  dlatinctioa  fnm  tlie  Cmymt  JurU  CicUii. 
Bat  ftDm  the  fifteenth  centary  it  iHCame  cuMomiTy  to 
mpply  the  naine  to  the  collection  of  the  Uw-bonk" 
■have  uinnieratsd.  Printed  edltlona  of  the  collection 
with  the  titleof  CwpHtyuTHCanoiando  not  occui  be- 
f))t«  tha  sixteenth  centoij.  Among  thv»e  who  are 
noat  noted  toi  apending  critical  labor  on  the  editing 
of  the  Corfu  Jurii  Caaonci  are  Antliony  Demochares 
<ed.  Parii,  I6fi0-S!,  witbont  glo*v,  and  Faria,  1661,  3 
mil.  fot.,  with  gtiata),  who  completed  the  indefinite 
la  hi  the  heading!  of  the  Decntum  by  mote 
statement!;  Cliarlea  Dumonlin,  or  (aa  he 
called  bfnuelf  with  a  Latin  name)  Car.  HoUnaai  (Ly- 
ona,  1564, 4to,  and  1569,  fbl.),  who  designated  the  aev. 
aiml  pasaagea  of  the  IktrttHn  (with  the  exception  of 
tha  /■afar)  with  noteaj  Le  Conte,  or  Con  tins  (Antw. 
1609-1571.  4  Tols.  Bvo),  who  from  older  imprinted  col- 
lactiona  added,  in  particular  In  the  decretal*  of  Greg- 
ory IX,  tha  pailei  dteiit  which  had  been  enppreseed 
by  Baymnnd  of  Pennaforte;  the  (^irrectarra  Rontani 
(q.  T.),  whose  work  (Rome,  168!,  6  vola.  tut.)  la  a  tarn- 
toK-point  at  the  hiatory  of  the  Corptu/  the  brothers 
Franks  and  Pierre  Pithou,  whose  valnable  notes 
wore  nsed  by  Le  Pelletier  in  his  edition  (Paris,  1687; 
agun  Lpa.  1690  and  1706 ;  and  Tarin,  174S,2  vols,  fol.) ; 
Jostna  Banning  Buhmer  (Halle,  1747,  i  vola.  4(o); 
Aem.  Lnd.  Ricbtcr  ( Uipi.  1888-1889, 1  vol.  in  2  porta, 
4to),  who  left  out  all  the  appendixes  having  no  legal 
■athority.  For  faller  information  on  tbe  component 
parts  of  the  Corpus  Jvrit  Catuimei,  and  tbr  their  legal 
authority,  •«  article  CA!(on  Law  (p.  87  eq.).  Sea  aiao 
Wetici  n.Welto,  Kin*at-La.  ii,  886. 

COTptia  Jniia  CiTflls  (tmfjr  of  dot  law).  See 
Jmnaun. 

CorrectSras  RomSnl,  a  congrvKation  of  cardl- 
itala  and  Roman  tbeologlana  of  thiity-Hvo  memberi,  : 
appointwl  by  pope  Pins  V  to  revise  tha  dar^uia  Cra-  . 
tiaiti  (sea  CorjHiijuni  Cutmci).  Among  the  Ave  car-  I 
dlnali  irha  belonged  to  the  college  was  Ungo  Boncom- 
pagnDB(BUbseqaenlly  pope  Gregory  XII I).  The  work 
was  completed  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XIII, 
*lio  ordered  the  compilara  to  index  all  that  had  been 
toUected,  with  regard  to  tha  decretum,  hy  tha  COD- 
gregatioD  and  by  others,  to  Invito  all  Catholic  acad- 
■mies  to  eo-operata  In  tha  work  of  revision,  and  to 
bava  ail  the  former  editions  of  the  dtcrehm  compared. 
Gregory  aanctlontd  tbe  work  July  1,  1680.— Wetier 
D.  Welte,  Kirdim-Ltx.  0, 894. 

Corrodl,  HnitBiCH,  a  prominent  writer  of  the  Ra- 
tlotialiatlc  acbool,  wai  bom  at  Zurich,  July  SI,  1752. 
Be  was  admitted  to  tha  ministry  In  17TG;  continued 
hia  theological  atndiea  in  Leipsic  and  Halle,  where  ea- 
pecially  Scmler  (q.  v.)  had  great  Influence  apon  him, 
and  wBi  In  1786  appointed  professor  of  ethica  and  nat- 
ural law  at  the  gymnasiom  of  Zurich.  Tbla  poaition 
he  retained  until  bis  death,  Sept.  li,  1703.  Hia  princi- 
IMdworka  an  GacUciU  da  Oiiliaimv(i  voir.Fnakf. 
and  Leipa.  1781-8S,  fail,  but  very  dlffuae,  and  abound- 
ing In  worthleaa  matter):  Btleucitiaig  drr  Getrk. 
da  Jad.  u.  tkritll.  BOtkammM  (HaUa,  ITSt,  i  volt.)  ; 
PkUot.  AufiatMt  11,  Grtpraehe  (Winlerthur,  1786,  3 
nla.) ;  Vtnmch  fikr  Gott,  HeWdHt-d.  ntiurU.  Sale 
(Berlin,  1788),  and  the  periodical  Beilrdge  tur  Brjir- 
demgdu  ctmanfligm Dtninu init. Rrliginn  (18  nuoi- 
ben,  Winterthur,  1781-1794  ;  two  nnmbera  appeared 
afliT  Us  daatb  nnder  the  name  of  Ifau  BtUrOge).^ 


!8  CORVINUS 

[  Piarer,  Univirtal-Lexiien,  W,  464 ;  Barxog,  Btat-Ha. 
ejit^jddit.  Hi,  157. 

I  Corruption  (prop,  aome  form  of  TWTIJ,  riacJtoii' , 
.  liafiiit>J).  Thla  term  is  uied  in  Scripture  to  aigniiy 
I  the  putrefaction  of  dead  bodios  (Psalm  ivi,  10),  )ha 
lilemiidies  which  rendered  an  animal  unfit  fOr  aacrilica 
(Lev.  Xxii,  35),  sinful  indinationa.  habits,  and  prac- 
tlcea,  which  detile  and  ruin  mm  (Horn,  vlil,  21  j  2  Pe- 
ter U,  12,  IS),  everUeting  ruin  (Ualat.  ri,  8),  m-^n  in 
their  mortal  and  imperfect  aUte  (1  Cnr.  xv,  42, 60). 

MouBT  ov  CoBBnpno.s  (n'nian  in,  Sept.  ipoc 
rou  Muox'*  V,  r.  MDo5d3,  VulB.'moJU  offmlimU),  a 
bill  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  wliere  Solomon 
bud  eatabllfhed  the  worship  of  tbe  Ammonitiah  drity 
Mllcom,  which  Jo*i>h  overthrew  (2  Kings  xilil,  13). 
Tradition  aaalgna  the  locality  of  tbe  "  Stount  of  Of- 
fence" to  the  eminence  Immfdiately  Kinth  of  the  Sit. 
of  Olivee  (aeo  Barclay,  City  "f  Uie  Gnat  Emg,  p.  61 
aq.  j  Stanley,  i^l/ra(.  p.  185,  note).  See  jKBnsAi.EU. 
Corraptio&Ue,  a  aect  of  Manopby sites,  who  taught 
that  tbe  liody  of  Christ  before  tbe  reaurrection  waa 
corruptible.  See  MoNOFHtaiTsB;  gEvERtAHB. 
Coitex,  DoKOBo.  See  Donoeo  Cortex. 
CoithOlt,CHBISTIA<(,  an  eminent  Lutheran  Churcb 
historian,  waa  tiorn  at  Burg,  in  the  island  of  Femcrn, 
Denmark,  Jan.  Istb,  1G32.  Hia  aCudie^  commenced  at 
SchUawiij,  were  continued  in  tbe  nnlvenitiea  of  Roa- 
tock.Jona,  Leipsic,  and  Wittenberg.  In  1662  be  be- 
came profoaaor  of  Greek  at  Rottovk,  Hhera  he  waa 
made  D,D.  He  waa  afterwards  called  to  tba  profes- 
aorahip  of  theology  at  Kiel  by  the  duke  of  Holsl^in- 
Gottorp,  and  in  lliGO  became  vice-chancellor  of  that 
nniveraity.  He  died  March  31  (or  April  lat),  1(391. 
H  ia  principal  works  are,  De  peritaiiiimibiu  tcdaia 
primiliiia  ab  imperaleriiut  rlJmkU  (Jen.  1660,  4lo; 
Kilen.  1C89) ;  Pagtnui  oblrtelator  i.  de  calarmtit  pm- 
mium  (lib.  iii,  Kil.  1698;  Lubec,  ITOB,  4lo);  Di$guui- 
tiotKtAiiti-Batatiaoaim.  1700,  IT08,  etc.)  i  Hitl.  red. 
N.  T.  (Lips.  1G!)T),  etc.  See  Pip[dng,  Meamria  7Vo> 
ingonm  notira  alale  diriuimonim  (Lips.  1705,  p.  671 
aq.)i  Bayle.Oirtwmiry,  a.v,;  Iselin, /fiK.  IfaM*rhirf  j 
ScbrOckb  (i,  p.  ITS) ;  Heriog,  BeaUEnryldep.  vili,  82. 
CoTvey,  Abbev  of,  a  celebrated  monaster}'  near 
HOxler,  in  Germanr.  The  Benedicllnei  of  Corbie  (q. 
v.),  in  Ficardy  (France),  «nt  ont  in  816  a  colony  to 
found  a  convent  in  Ibe  foresU  of  Sollingen,  but  tha 
monks  removed  in  822  to  a  more  healthy  region,  where 
they  estabiiahed  CorUja  nora,  or  Corvey.  Idula  the 
Pions  endowed  tbem  with  nomerous  puasessiona  and 
privilegea,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  many 
other  princes  and  laymeu,  >o  that  Corver  soon  became 
the  richest  of  all  the  German  convents.  Tho  obhot 
obtained  a  voice  In  the  dieta,  and  waa  amenable  only 
to  the  papal  authority.  The  school  of  the  convent  waa 
highly  flourishing  during  the  9th  and  10th  centuries. 
Among  tbe  many  celebrated  man  who  procesded  from 
Corvey  waa  Ansgar  (q.  T.).  the  apoatle  of  the  Scandi- 
navians, with  hia  eminent  asaociatei  and  pupiK  St. 
Adalbert,  archbiabop  of  Magdeburg,  and  many  arcb- 
biabops  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg.  At  the  period  cf 
ita  greatest  prosperity  tbe  convent  had  twenty-four 
theological  professors,  and  its  library  was  celebrated 
for  Its  large  number  of  clBasical  munnscrlpla.  Thus 
the  first  five  books  of  Tadtus,  which  were  commonly 
isgarded  as  loaf,  were  found  in  Corvey.  Dnfoitunato- 
Iv,  tbia  eiquialte  library  was  destroyed  in  the  Thirty 
Teara'  War.  In  1794  Corvey  waa  erected  Into  a  bish. 
opric,  but  aeculariied  In  1804,  and  joined  in  1807  to 
Wealphalia,  and  in  1815  to  Prussia.  See  Wlgand, 
GtKh.d.  AblelKvnrs  (HCxter,  1819);  and  Korreiiehe 
GetchiriUqurOrtt  (Lpz.  1841);  Schumann,  UOer  dm 
Chrtmicon  Corvejenie  (G6tt  1839);  Wetzer  u.  Welte, 
Kircltm-La.  ii,  898. 

CorvlDIla,  ANTHoxina  (property  BABEHRR),ane  of 
the  Garman  KefoTmere,  waa  bom  at  WarbnrK  li(  (iOl, 


COS 

R*  tncanie  >  monk,  ud  u  sncfa  iMlded  tar  &  time  In 
Ibe  convent)  of  RiddagthsuwD  mS  Ixxxom,  but  ha 
ing  embraced  the  doctilns  or  Lutber,  WM  expelled 
1623.      Ha  tben  vtnt  to  WiCteabert;,  and  tbence 
Marburg  In  1&!6,  aod  laid  tbe  foundation  of  the  ni 
venitT  theie.     Ho  was  present  at  the  two  sj-noda  of 
Fattenien,  1644,  and  MQnden,  I&15,  and  made  Umaelf 
very  uaefol  (o  the  cause  bj  bia  praacbiags,  writings, 
and  tnvela;  but  tbe  duke  Erich  II  having  ntnraed 
to  the  Roman  Churcb,  Corrinui  wia  taken  and  ' 
prlHoner  at  Kalenberg  in  1549.     He  died  in  H> 
tn  1&&3.    His  principal  work  is  the  PouiUa  m  nmtgelia 
et  tpulolm.     See  Baring,  LAtn  Conm't  (Hann.  1749) ; 
Uhlhom,  Em  Stndbrvf  v.  AiOimiiu  Cnrvimu  m.  nmtr 
biograpltitehin  fSaieilung  (GOItiagen,  18A8) ;  Harzog, 
Beai-EmyUop.  iii,  166. 

Coa  (1  Hacc.  XT,  13).     See  Coo8. 

Co'aam  (Kwoafi,  prob.  tbr  Heb.  QBp,  a  diniter), 
son  of  Elmodam,  and  Citlier  of  Addi,  anceaton  of 
Chriat,  and  deicendinti  of  David  in  the  private  line, 
before  Salalhlel  (Luke  iii,  W),  B.C.  ante  688.  He  ia 
not  inentioiMd  in  the  Old  Testament.  See  Gbxrai.- 
OGT  (or  Cu sist). 

CcmId,  Joun,  a  learned  ptslate  of  tbs  Church  of 
England,  was  bom  at  Nonrloh  Nov.  30, 1694.  In  1634 
be  became  a  prebendary  of  Dnrbam,  in  1638  rector  of 
Brancepath,  In  I6S4  master  of  Peter-bouse,  and  In  ie40 
dean  of  Petorboroagfa.  The  Puritans  deprived  him  of 
his  prefermsntt  during  tbe  Commonwealtb,  and  oven 
went  tbe  length  of  impeaching  bim  on  a  charge  of  be- 
ing inclined  to  paper]'.  (For  the  ehargea,  see  Hook, 
Errltt.  Biogn^,  iv,  182.)  He  was  acquitted  of  all 
these  charges,  and  tben  retired  to  France,  where  he 
remained  until  the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  who  raised 
himtotheseeofDarham,  Dec.  !,  1660,  which  office  he 
fllled  with  eminent  cbarity  and  zeal.  He  died  in  1673. 
Among  his  writings  arc,  A  HUlorg  nf  Trxmubtlantia- 
lim,  and  A  StAulaMical  Hiilorf  of  the  Cawm  o/lJu  Holg 
Scriptariv.  put)ll5hcd,  with  bis  Life,  1978.  Hia  whole 
work*  are  collected  In  the  Libraiy  of  Anglo-Oatioiic 
TiMh^  (Oxford,  1843-^3, 5  vole,  8vo). 

Coama*,  St.,  and  hia  brother  St.  DAHIANUS,of 
Arabia,  livod  in  the  Sd  centuty,  and  practiced  medi- 
dne  at  £gea,  in  Cillcii.  The  governor  Lfsias  com- 
manded that  they,  with  their  three  other  brothers, 
should  sacrldee  to  the  heathen  deitlBs,  and  as  they  re. 
nuedao  to  do,  coicmanded  their  bead*  to  be  cotolTin 
803.  They  are  honored  aa  mariyrs,  and  a*  special 
patrons  of  physicians  and  diuggista.  They  are  com- 
memorated In  the  Roman  Church  on  the  STth  Sept 

WelzerD.Wel(e,K't>ciUi|.£&c.il,90ii  .4 ef a  Sanctorum 
(Sept^  lom.  xH. 

Coamaa  aod  Damlamu,  Obdbb  or,  an  <vder 
of  knighta  apiritual,  founded  In  the  Uth  centorj-,  who 
adopted  tbe  role  of  St.  Benedict.  They  devMod  Uiam- 
■elves  especially  to  the  care  of  the  pilgrims  gtdng  to 
Falestlae.  Tbey  were  dsatroyed  by  tba  Turk*  aaan 
after  their  oiganiiation. 

Cosmu  Iadloopl«iiBtea  (I.  e.  travening  In- 
dia}, an  Egyptian  monk,  living  probably  abont  the 
middle  of  the  6Ui  centary.  Re  visited  as  a  merchant 
Egypt,  India,  and  otber  Eastern  countrien, 
HTOypa^ia,  it 
e  pagan  geography 
the  ancients  a  new  Christian  system  of  geographv, 
based  upon  all  kinds  of  delusions.  His  work  Is  con- 
tained In  tbe  second  volume  of  Monl&ucon's  CoBeetic 
bo™  pamm  Gt.  (Paris,  1707). 

CoamogotlT  (from  roo/ioe,  the  \cortd.  and  ^6voQ, 
jjMKnWibn).  strictly  the  science  of  tbe  origin  of  the 
earth.  The  term  is  applied  also  to  the  ratinos  theo- 
ries ofthe  formation  of  tbe  material  universe.  If  we 
except  the  cosmOEony  of  the  Indiana  (which  is  tat  tbe 
moat  part  extravagant  and  even  monstrous,  althoagta 
the  "  Institutes  of  Mena"  speak  of  a  simpler  System ; 


4  COSMOGONY 

■ee  BirWDIiam  Hamilton'*  Jssofte  A(Mtrak*,voLv\ 
tba  earliest  profane  cosmogony  extant  la  Hut  of  Heaioil 
(in  tha  first  part  of  hi*  TlMgoits,  ver.  110-tU),  wbidi 
ia  delivered  In  verso,  and  which  served  a*  tbe  gnond- 
work  for  the  variotu  pliyalcil  apecnlatioas  of  moat  lata 
Greek  pbilosophen.  It  differs  widely  from  the  natiaa 
of  Homer  {lUad,  xlv,  900),  wMch  te  aUo  poedc,  Bfid 
represented  tbe  more  papular  view  of  the  Greek*  ob 
this  subject.  Tbe  firat  pRse  cosmogoniea  among  be^ 
then  writan  were  those  of  the  early  Ionic  phUoav- 
pher*,  of  whom  Tliales,  Anailmenes,  Anasimander, 
and  Anaxagoras  were  the  most  eelebntad.  Tbe  Ibo- 
orias  of  tbe  ancienta  on  tbl*  ■ntfject  may  Ik  redncad 
to  three]  forthose  of  moderns,  seeCnKATiox;  fortbe 
view  of  Ovid  (lu  hlj  MttamorphoKi),  res  Chaol 

"1.  That  which  npnsents  the  world  as  elamsl  in 
form  as  well  aa  substance.  Ocslln*  Lneanii*  I*  oa.-  of 
the  most  ancient  philoMpliera  who  suppmed  llie  world 
to  have  exiated  from  eternity.  Aristotle  aj^'.ra  M 
have  embraced  the  same  doctrine.  Hi*  theory  I>,  tluc 
not  only  tbe  heaven  and  oartli,  bnt  also  animate  and 
Inanimate  beings  In  geneial,  w«ro  without  begianiog. 
HI*  opinion  reeled  on  tbe  belief  that  the  univerac  wa* 
neceaaarily  the  eternal  eSbct  of  a  caDse  equally  eter- 
nal, such  as  the  Divino  Spirit,  which,  beint!  at  oaeo 


oaldn. 


n  Idle.     Yet  ho  » 


mltted  tliat  a  spiritual  substance  w 
universe,  of  ita  motion  and  Its  (brm.  He  says  posi- 
tively, in  his  ileta^oftia,  that  God  la  an  inldligant 
spirit  {vottt),  incorporeal,  immovable,  indivisible,  tbs 
mover  of  ail  things.  According  to  him,  tlie  nni%-erae 
is  less  a  creation  than  an  emanation  of  tbe  D«^. 
Plato  aaya  the  universe  ii  an  eternal  image  of  tha  im- 
mntabls  Idea  or  l^pe,  nnitad,  from  eternity,  widi 
changeable  matter.  The  followers  of  this  pbilosopber 
both  developed  and  distorted  this  idea.  Ammonins,  a 
disciple  of  Proclus,  Caught,  in  tha  6th  cmtnty,  at  Ai- 
oxandria,  the  co^temlly  of  God  and  the  anivetao- 
Several  ancient  philosophers  (as  also  modems)  hare 
Mone  further,  and  tan^t  that  the  universe  ia  one  with 
Dei^.  Of  tliia  opinion  were  Xenophanes,  Pannen- 
ides,  Helissns,  Zsno  of  Elea,  and  the  Uegaric  sect. 

"!.  The  theory  which  considers  the  maOa  of  tbe 
imivene  eternal,  but  not  Its  firm,  was  the  prevniliag 
one  among  tha  ancients,  who,  startmg  from  the  prin- 
ciple that  out  of  nothing  nothing  could  be  made, 
could  not  admit  the  creation  of  matter,  yet  did  Dc< 
believe  that  the  world  had  always  been  in  its  jwes- 
ent  stale.  The  prior  slate  of  the  worid,  subject 
(o  a  conltant  aiiccesMnn  of  imcenain  movcmenUi, 
which  chance  al^erwsrds  made  regular,  they  caOed 
ekao$.  The  Pbcenicians,  Babylonians,  and  also  the 
Egypliana,  seem  to  bare  adhered  to  this  theory.' 
"The  ChaldMin  cosowgooy,  according  to  Bcrosus, 
when  divested  of  aUegory,  seems  to  resolve  itself  into 
this;  that  darkness  and  water  existed  frtun  etcrailj; 
that  Bclus  divided  tbe  humid  mass,  and  gave  birtii  to 
creation  ;  that  tbe  human  mind  Is  an  emanatkin  from 
the  divine  nature.  The  cosmogony  of  tbe  andeM 
Persians  is  very  clumsy.  They  introduce  two  ettnal 
princlptos.  the'one  good,  called  Orommdn,  tbe  other 
evil,  culled  Arimaimiit  and  they  make  these  two  prin- 
ciples contend  with  each  other  in  tbe  ereatton  and  ger- 
emmenl  of  the  world.  Each  has  his  prDrince,  wbidi 
he  strives  to  enlarge,  and  MtUimt  Is  the  mediator  to 
moderate  tbtJr  contentions.  This  I*  th*  moat  inarti*- 
cial  plan  that  has  been  devised  to  account  (ai  the  ti- 
'  lence  of  si-il,  and  hss  the  loaat  pretensions  to  a  phD- 
lophical  basis.  The  Egyptian  cosmogony,  accordiag 
to  tbs  account  given  of  it  by  Plutsrch,  seems  to  l«sr 
ttrong  resemblance  to  the  Fhfenician.  as  detailed  by 
Saoeboniatho,  According  to  the  Egyptian  aonsDt, 
there  was  an  eternal  chawi.  and  an  elanul  spirit  ouilid 
with  It.  whose  agency  at  last  nrrangod  the  discordant 
materials,  and  produced  the  visible  system  ofthe  inl- 
vetae.  The  cosmogony  of  the  Northern  natlsns,  a* 
may  be  colleMed  fMm  the  Edda,  anppDssa  an  *l«taal 


COSMOGONY 


t  the  world.    Tba 


prindpic  prior  to  the  foimition 
Otpfaic  FngnnalB  Mate  everythi 
in  C«l,  uhI  to  proceed  from  him."  "Tbe  ancient 
poMa^  who  hava  handed  down  to  Bi  the  old  mjr- 
tboloftie^  tnditiona,  repreatnt  the  univena  aa  apring- 
ing  from  chaoa  vrithoDt  the  aaaiaUnce  of  the  Deity. 
BcMod  feigna  that  Chaoa  waa  the  parent  of  Erebtw 
and  Night,  frooi  whoee  onion  sprang  the  Ait  (Ai'diip) 
and  the  Day.  He  further  lelalea  how  the  akf  and 
tbc  ctaia  irere  acpataled  from  the  earth,  etc  The 
nratem  of  aloma  ia  much  mote  famoua.  Leucippna 
and  Dfmocritiia  of  Abdera  were  its  invenlon,  TUn 
atomat  or  indiviaihte  pattkka,  aaid  thej,  exiated 
from  Memitf,  monng  at  hazard,  and  prodnciiig, 
by  their  constant  meeting,  a  variety  of  aubttaoeea. 
After  luTing  given  riae  to  an  immenae  variety  of 
oombinatioDa,  they  produced  the  present  orgaaiutioD 
of  bodies  This  syalem  of  coaroogony  waa  that  of 
Epicurtn.  aa  deacribed  by  Lucretius.  Democritna 
aUribnted  to  iloma  form  and  aiie;  Epicunia  added 
weight.  Many  other  arueoia  have  cxialed,  whiih 
muBt  be  claaaed  under  thia  diriaion.  We  only  men- 
tion that  of  the  Btoica,  who  admitted  two  principlea, 
Gnd  and  matter— in  the  abstract,  both  corporeal,  for 
they  did  not  admit  apiritosl  bdogi.  The  first  was 
active,  the  aecoikd  passive. 

"3.  The  third  theory  of  coamogony  attributes  the 
origin  of  the  world  to  a  great  apiritual  caoaa  or  Crea- 
tor.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  Che  aacied  Scriptures,  in 
wbkh  it  ia  tanght  with  the  graatatt  simplicity  and 
beaaty.  From  its  being  more  or  leas  held  by  the 
Etnucans,  HagI,  Dmlda,  and  Brahmins,  It  would  seem 
to  ha-va  fimnd  Its  way  as  a  tradition  from  the  regions 
In  wbkh  it  was  poaauaed  as  a  divine  revelation.  An- 
as the  fint  who  tanght  it  among  the  Greeks, 
e  extent  adopted  by  the  Romaas, 
„  »  eObrts  of  LacietiDB  to  eatablish 
the  doctrine  of  Epicurus."  Dr.  Good,  however,  sbowa 
that  this  view  was  far  from  gcnenl  among  even  the 
moat  cultivated  nations  of  antiquity,  or,  indeed,  on. 
ijuealioned  by  early  Chiiatian  writers  iBeok  ofXatun, 
p.  27}.    See  Cosmoloot. 

COSUOGONT,  UosAic,  or  the  Biblical  account  of 
tho  origm  oflkt  toorid,  especially  aa  contained  Id  the 
Girt  chapter  of  the  book  of  Geneais.  The  following  is 
a  close  translation  of  the  first  (ElohWlc)  or  general 
account  of  the  creation  aa  given  t^  Mosea  (Gen.  1, 1- 
ii,  a).     See  Gshesib. 

At  llrM  God  (Tfated  lh>  hnveDS  and  Hie  earth;  but  the 


[i~]  U| 


"1*1  llhere)  be  llghil" 


ud  Ure  l(s  i 


la  of  mini],  sod  di 


I'^lhSwiJu 


il  ni  wu]  guDd :  «>  Ood  dWUed  beta 
he  called  ^'1Ul^^.    Thus  [then]  vat  eveo 


anew  II]  IB  to  [ih^-a 


the  InnuHDt  Huvris    Thus  [there]  vsi  evRiIng:,  snd 
Iihere]  wai  awniiiK— [lbs]  •econd  ilar. 

Then  God  aald,  "Lai  the  wKlen  undaniesth  IIsd  hestmi 
be  ^hend  tomril  one  place,  and  let  the  dT7  [Iftnil]  appear;" 
and  la  was  acoDtdinglf :  sad  Qod  called  thr  Arf  [Isod]  Ea*^, 
but  the  gatharhu  Zl  tlia  vatana  be  called  Skas  ;  to  God  h« 
that  [It  w.f)  Boc3.  Th.n  Cod  wld,  -  Let  the  earth  .prout 
the  aiirool  {[muv-'n,  the  plenl  [(innniJil)  leedlng  seed,  the 

which  [ii]  its  seed  upon  the  earth;"  %bA  It  vu  accordlnglf ; 

lU  klsd,  and  the  Ir»  Ixiarlng  fnill^ln  which  Hi-]  lu  leed 
snar  IB  kind;  h>  God  »■■  Ihat  [It  •».]  gmd.     Thin  [there] 
iraa  evaolDK,  and  llhere]  wu  mamliis^.ilkt)  tUid  dar. 
Then  God  isld.  "  Let  [there]  be  lltrBfa  !n  the  flmujnent  of 


the  beaTcna,  tc 

let  them  be  ba 

even  let  them  ba  for  llghu 

■e  bIvs  light  npoB  the  earth;"  and  II  wu  aceordlDglr: 

Ood  made  the  two  grtal  llghbi— the  greater  tight  [((un;.  ._ 

tnla  the  day,  and  the  imalltr  light  [(nunn)]  to  nil«  the  night 

—also  the  ataia !  and  Ood  app^ntBd  them  Ir  ••■-  * ■ 


COSMOGONY 

earth,  and  to  rule  m 


of  the  heanna,  to  gits  light  u| 

and  the  darkneu;  >o  ^  >> 
[there]  waa  manliig,  and  [iben] 

cf  the  living  crealan,  ud  let  tlia  bird 
Dpoa  IIiB  ttat  of  the  flnnamenl  of  the  he 

oeepa,  [vithl  which  the  waters  awsnoed 
orerj  winged  bird  after  Ite  kind ;  u  G 
good:  and  Ood  blsHed  them.  Hying.  " 
liply,  sod  mi  tbe^  watcn  In  tlie  leaa ;  si 

monilBg— [the]  fifth  d."      "*  "'  "* 


let  the  Uid  mnll 
lug,  and  [then]  wi 


tt1a[(itiort-tegBadDnliiiale)],BBd[(eTerTath«)]]lTlig  [thing] 
ct  the  earth,  iSlcr  lu  kind ;''  sod  il  wm  .ccordlngl j  ;  for  GiS 
living  [thing]  ofthe  eanh  sner  li>  1 


ill  [own]  Image,  In  the  tman  of  God  ha 
ule  and  fvmale  he  ci«ited  theo  :  and 
~    '  leld  to  them,  "Be  ftultfKI.  nad 

Id  over  the  bird  of  the  heavena, 


ET  tbe  llib 


wfoM~ 


■tT7  plant  trading 

shall  he  IW  fwil.  alao  lo  every  living  IlbiDg]  ol  Iha  earth,  and 
to  everv  bird  of  tbe  heavenv  and  to  every  [thinei  ct-  -' — 

upon  the  earlli  in  which  [eiUti]  a  "-' 

everygrecu  plant forfnod."    AndUa 

HW  every  [thing]  thai  ha  had  mad<,  .    .   .  .         ,      -, 

good  i  tliiu  Ithere]  waa  evening,  and  [there]  waa  mornliig — 


li;»QoJ 


thdayhU-ori 


*,  retlad)]  fr 


ocUSedIt;  bccaiue  on  II 


The  Btatemente  contained  in  this  passage  are  thought 
by  a  certidn  class  of  semt-infidel  philosophers  to  be  in 
conflict  with  tbe  conclusions  of  modem  science,  esjie- 
dally  astronomy  and  geology.  We  ar«  snre,  how- 
ever, Ihat  the  woriti  and  word  of  God  can  never  be 
otherwiae  than  in  harmony,  and  if  any  conflict  ap- 
pears, it  must  be  In  conaeqnence  of  the  nnthillfulness 
or  erroneons  system  of  the  exponndeni,  either  of  the 
boiA  of  nature  or  of  revelation.  The  difficulty  con- 
sists it)  the  alleged  contradiction  between  the  pkiia- 
logical  "Interpretation"  of  the  sacred  record  and  the 
$cieiitific  or  Uitorical  exposition  of  the  facts.  In  thii, 
as  in  all  similar  initanees  of  apparent  diaciepancy,  it 
Is  no  dlsparigemFnt  of  philology  that  It  i>  obliged  to 
modify  previona  interpretations  on  account  of  new 
light  (Toin  collateral  branches  of  knowledge ;  the  same 
course  has  always  been  pursued,  e.  g.  In  the  verifica- 
tion of  prophecy,  where  hialoiy  haa  necessarily  come 
in  aa  a  supplementary  aid  In  fixing  a  definite  ntean- 
what  beforo  wu  dark  and  general.     This,  it  is 


oaU  n 


■llowable  if  the  scriptural  state- 


question  were  explicit  and  i 
they  were  couched  In  the  precise  terms  of  modern  ici- 
ence ;  bnt  it  Is  a  legitimate  method  of  interpretation 
in  tbe  caae  of  auch  brief  and  popular  phraseology  as 
we  often  find  In  dm  Bible  on  subjects  adverted  to  for 
collateral  parpoaes.  It  ia  therefore  only  necessary  to 
show  that  the  essential  meaning  of  tbe  text,  when 
explained  according  to  the  analogies  of  the  anu  U>- 
qm£  of  an  unscientific  people,  should  not  confiict, 
at  to  Ae  ml  facU  itarolrrd,  with  the  conclusiooe  of 
late  scientific  Invesrigatora.  See  Ihterprgtatios. 
There  ore  thiws  principal  modes  in  which  thia  ad- 
justment haa  been  attempted  with  regard  lo  Mo- 
ses's account  of  the  cmatlon.  (1.)  Some  regard  chap- 
ter I  of  Oenesis  as  a  general  statement  of  the  origi- 
nal formatiDn  of  all  created  things,  including  Ihat  of 
man  as  a  race,  in  the  several  varietieB  scattated  over 


COSMOLOGICAL  AKGUMENT    526 


COSMOLOGY 


th«  earth'i  nir&cs ;  and  chap,  ti  u  ■  detailsd  unnnit 
oTii  A&MjuMt  civatioa  of  the  Adainlc  or  Hebrew  Unc- 
age in  piiticDlor.  It  unaot  be  denied  that  the  differ- 
encs  la  language  (rapecUIly  the  distinctiTe  dh  or  tbe 
titles " Jehovah"  and  "Elohim"),  and  the  reinmptive 
formortlielattercbapter,  somewhat  faror  this  Tiev; 
but,  on  the  other  band,  it  la  empbatieallj  forbidden  bj 
thedoctiiaeDflhe  unity  of  the  homan  race  (and  "man" 
I>  in  both  ate»  alike  called  O-^it);  and  after  all  it 
leaves  eaaeaUallj  untouched  tbe  principal  qneRlon  of 
the  reconcilement  of  tho  Mosaic  order  and  data  of  cre- 
ation with  those  inggested  by  adsnce.  See  Adah. 
(S.)  Othen  regard  the  several  "daj>"  of  the  serl|>- 
tnral  narrative  at  periods  of  Inde^ite  extent,  and 
BO  find  time  eaoogh  for  the  aatroaomical  and  geo- 
logical cycles  required.  See  Eakth.  But  this  in- 
terpretaUon  Is  met  by  two  objections :  (a)  Althongb 
the  term  On^,  day,  is  sometimes  used  In  a  vague  sense 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time,  eucb  a  sig- 
nification here  is  forbidden  bj  tbe  distinct  recur- 
rence of  the  divisions  "  night  and  morning"  stated  in 
connection  with  each  vu^^qiupav  or  space  of  twenty. 
four  hours;  and  tbo  Subbath  comes  in  as  a  aimilai 
apace  of  time  at  the  close  of  the  week,  in  a  seiiae 
probably  strict  and  literal,  since  it  is  made  the  basis 
of  the  hebdomadsl  cycle  religiously  observed  ever 
since.  See  Day.  (b)  The  euct  number  of  lix  such 
periods  cannot  be  made  out  satisfactorily  from  the  rec- 
onis  of  science:  e.g.  ths  astronomical  system  requires 
the  sun  at  the  outset  of  the  demiurgic  period,  whereas 
Moees  doea  not  introduce  It  till  the  fourth  dsy,  al- 
tiiongh  light  had  exinled  from  the  first;  and  tho  low- 
est geological  strata  exhibit  animal  life,  whereas  Mo- 
ses speaks  of  vegetables  as  created  flrat.  See  Geoia- 
or.  (a.)  Perhaps  tho  best  solution  of  the  diSlcuIty 
is  that  which  inserts  the  entire  geological  period  bo- 

i,  and  tbe  literal  account  of  the  last,  or,  properly.  Mo- 
saic creatioi)  of  tbe  present  races  of  living  things  de- 
tailed in  Teraei  11-81 ;  the  intermediate  verses  (2-10) 
descritdng  p/ummtHoUg,  i.  e.  just  as  the  Tacts  would 
have  appeued  to  a  spectator,  the  gradual  restoration 
of  mundane  order,  afUr  tbe  grand  cataclysm  that 
closed  the  geoioglcal  period,  and  swept  off  the  tarres- 
trial  tribes  then  existing;  and  chap,  li,  reiuniiag  the 
account  for  the  purpose  or  further  detail,  especially  with 
reference  to  the  formation  of  Eve.    See  Ckeation. 

For  a  aoi«  general  exposition  of  the  Hebrew  views 
on  tbts  snbjeet,  saa  Cosmoloot. 


CoMnology,  BiBLicai.  The  views  of  tbe  He- 
brews on  this  subject  Bra,  In  a  aclentiflc  point  of  view, 
oonfessedly  imperfect  and  obsenre.    Thia  arises  partly 

fmm  the  ulterior  objects  which  led  them  to  the  study 
of  natural  science,  and  still  more  from  the  poetical  col- 
oring with  which  they  expressed  their  opinioru.  Tbe 
books  of  Oeneals,  Job,  and  Paslms  supply  the  piost  nu- 
merous natlces ;  of  these,  the  two  latter  are  strictly  po- 
etical works,  and  their  tangnage  must  be  messoied  by 
the  laws  of  poetical  expression ;  In  the  tint  alone  have 
we  any  thing  approaching  to  a  historical  and  system- 
atic statement,  and  even  thia  ia  but  a  Bketi:h — an  out- 
line—which ought  to  be  regarded  at  the  same  dtetanee, 
ftom  the  same  point  of  view,  and  through  the  same  re- 
li^ous  medium  as  its  author  regarded  it.  The  act  of 
creation  itse]f,aB  recorded  in  the  first  chapter  ofGene- 
^,  is  a  subject  beyond  and  above  the  experience  of 
man  ;  human  language,  derived,  as  it  originally  was, 
from  the  aeniible  and  material  world,  falls  to  And  an 
adequate  term  to  describe  the  act  {  for  our  word  "era- 
ate"  and  the  Hebrew  bara,  though  most  appropriate  to 
express  the  idea  of  an  original  creation,  are  yet  appli- 
cable and  mutt  neeetsarily  be  applicable  to  other  modes 
of  creation ;  nor  does  the  addition  of  snch  expressions 


as  "  out  of  things  that  were  not"  (ii  oil*  vtrwv.S  Kaee 
vii,  38),  or"  not  from  things  which  appear"  0(4  *■  f"' 
vD/iii'wv,  Heb.  xi,  S)  contribute  much  to  the  force  ef 
the  declaration.  The  absence  of  a  term  which  shall 
deacribe  exclusively  an  original  creation  is  a  necessa- 
ry infirmity  of  language:  as  the  event  occorrcd  but 
once,  the  corruponding  term  must,  in  order  to  be  ade- 
quate, have  been  coined  for  the  occasion  and  reserved 
for  It  alone,  which  would  hove  been  impossible,  Tha 
same  obserntlon  applies,  though  In  a  modified  degree. 
to  the  description  of  the  various  procesaes  anbaeqoeat 
to  the  existence  of  orlgjual  matter.  Howis  viewed 
matter  and  all  tbe  fonns  of  matter  in  Umr  relationt 
primarily  to  God,  and  secondarily  to  man  —  as  maoi- 
festlng  the  glory  of  Qod,  and  as  designed  for  the  use 
of  man.  In  r^ation  to  the  farmer,  he  describes  cre- 
ation with  the  special  view  of  illoslnting  tlie  divine 
attributes  of  power,  goodness,  wisdom,  and  accordingly 
ho  throws  this  narrative  into  a  form  which  impresec* 
tho  reader  with  the  aeon  of  thesa  attributes.  In  nla- 
tion  to  the  latter,  he  selects  his  materials  with  tbe  spe- 
cial view  of  iUastrating  tbe  subordination  of  all  the  <r- 
'i  dcTB  of  material  things  to  the  necessities  and  comfofta 
.  of  man.  With  ^ese  objects  in  view.  It  ought  not  (o 
be  a  matter  of  surprise  if  the  simple  narrativa  of  crea- 
tion omits  much  that  scientific  research  has  since  (ap- 
plied, and  appears  in  a  gaise  adapted  to  thoaa  objects. 
The  subject  Itself  is  throughout  one  of  a  transceodeo- 
tal  character;  it  ataould  consequently  be  lul^Jected  to 
tlis  same  standard  of  iDterpretatlon  as  other  passages 
of  the  Bible,  descriptive  of  objects  which  are  enUrsly 
beyond  the  experience  ofman,  such  as  tha  day  of  Judg- 
ment, the  states  of  heaven  and  hell,  and  the  repreaenla- 
tions  of  the  dlvins  majesty.  Ths  style  of  critidtai  ap- 
plied to  Gen.  1  by  the  opponenln,  and  not  Bn&vqmutiy 
by  the  sopporters  of  revelation,  is  such  aa  woold  be 
subversive  of  many  of  the  most  noble  and  volnable 
portions  of  the  Bible.     See  below. 

1.  In  common  with  all  ancient  notions,  the  earth 
was  regarded  by  the  Hebrews  not  only  aa  the  cen- 
tral point  of  tbe  universe,  but  as  the  nnivene  itseU, 
every  other  body  —  tbe  heavens,  snn,  moon,  and  stan 
— being  subaldiory  to,  and,  as  it  were,  the  complemeDt 
of  the  earth.  The  Hebrew  language  has  no  nxpre*- 
sion  eqnivaleot  to  our  unUme ;  the  phrase  "  the  beav- 
ens  and  the  earth"  (Gan.  i,  1 ;  xlv,  19;  Exod.  zssL 
17)  has  been  ragarded  as  snch ;  but  it  Is  dear  that 
ths  heaveni  were  looked  upon  aa  a  necossaiy  adjonct 
of  ths  earth  —the  curtain  of  the  tent  in  which  man 
dwells  (Isa.  xl,  K),  tbe  sphere  above  which  tilted  tin 
sphere  below  (comp.  Job  xxil,  14,  and  Isa.  xl,  S!) — 
designed  solely  for  purposes  of  tieneilcence  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  euth.  This  appears  tnai  the  account  of 
ita  creation  and  offices:  the  existence  of  the  bearoi 
was  not  prior  to  or  conlamporaneoDS  with  that  of  the 
earth,  but  subsequent  to  it ;  It  was  created  on  the  sec- 
ond day  (Gen.  1,  6).  The  term  under  which  it  is  de- 
scribed, roitsa  (;^P7>i  is  significant  of  ita  aiemtim, 
that  It  was  itrrteitd'imt  as  a  curtain  (Psa.  civ,  S)  orn 
the  SBTfaca  of  tha  earth.  Moreover,  it  depended  upon 
the  earth;  Ithad  Its  "foundations" (! Sam. xxli,B)  ob 
tho  edges  of  the  earth's  cirde,  where  it  was  suppcnted 
bythe  mountains  as  by  rrnuuTe  idllats  (Job  xxvi,!!). 
Its  offices  were  (1)  to  support  the  waten  which  were 
above  It  (Gen.  I,  T ;  Psa.  cxiviil,  i\  and  thus  to  form  a 
mighty  reservoir  of  rain  and  snow,  which  were  to  pear 
forth  through  its  windows  (Gen.  vil,  II ;  Isa.  xiiv,  18) 
and  doors  (Psa.  Ixxviil,  93),  as  through  opened  slnice- 
gatas,  for  the  fnictiScation  of  the  euth ;  (3)  to  serve 
as  the  luistratn  (^iptufu  or  "jfrnusMiif")  in  which 
the  celestial  bodies  were  to  be  fixed.  As  with  Ih* 
heaven  itself,  so  also  with  the  heavenly  bodies ;  Ib^ 
were  regarded  solely  as  the  mintstan  of  the  earth. 
Their  offices  were  (l)to  give  light;  (t)  to  separate  be- 
tween day  and  night;  (8)  to  be  fo  s^h,  as  hi  the  case 
of  eclipses  or  other  extiaordlnai^phMumena;  forjao- 


COSMOLOGY 


627 


COSMOLOGY 


Km*,  u  reguUtlDK  wed-Ume  uid  barrcrt,  tnniiiwT  and 
■rmleT,  u  well  ■■  rsligloui  feitivala ;  sod  fur  Jayt  and 
ftoTM,  tho  len^^h  of  the  (brmer  being  dcpandant  on  tba 
ran,  the  Utter  being  eaCinuted  li;  tbe  motioiu  botli  of 
■Dn  and  moDn  (Uen.  i,  ll-lS)]  to  thit  wbllc  It  might 
cral;  be  uid  that  thej  held  "  dominian"  over  the  earth 
(Job  xxxvitl,  dS),  that  dominion  was  exercuwd  Mlely 
for  (be  convenience  ofthatenaiila  of  earth  (Pun.  civ,  10 
-2S).  So  entlrel;,  indeed,  wai  the  exittenceorbeeren 
bihI  the  heavenly  bodjca  designed  fbr  the  earth,  that 
with  the  eartb  thej-  shall  ahnultaneanaly  perith  (V  Pet. 
UI,ID):  the  curtain  of  the  tent  ihall  bo  rolled  up,  and 
this  atari  iball  of  neceuity  drop  off  (Isa.  xxxlv,  4  ; 
Uatt.  xxiv,  20) — Iheir  aymtiatby  with  sanb'a  deitruc- 
bon  boin)-  the  couDterpart  of  their  Joyous  aong  wben 
Its  fonndations  wtre  laid  (Job  xxxviii,  7). 

S.  The  earth  wis  regarded  in  a  twofold  afpecl:  in 
reUtion  In  God,  ai  the  manifeatatlon  of  fail  InUoite  at- 
triljatea ;  in  relation  to  pud,  as  the  acene  of  hia  abode. 
(1.)  1  he  Hebrew  cDtmology  is  baaed  upon  the  lead- 
ing principle  that  the  nniTCme  exiita,  not  independent- 
ly of  Gi-d,  by  any  necessity  or  any  inherent  power,  nor 
yet  conlemporaneontly  with  God,  as  being  coexistent 
with  bim,  nor  yet  in  opposition  to  God,  as  a  hostile  ele- 
nwDt,  but  dependently  upon  him,  subseqnently  to  him, 
and  in  iab)ection  to  him.  The  opening  words  of  Oen- 
eiilj  expresa  in  broad  terns  this  leading  principle ;  how- 
ever difficult  it  may  be,  aa  we  have  already  obaerved, 
to  express  this  truth  adeqaalely  in  human  language, 
ytt  there  can  ho  no  doubt  that  the  subord' 
nutter  to  God  in  every  respect  Is  implied  in  that  pas- 
•age.iMwell  asin  other  passages,  too  numcrooaloqnote, 
which  comment  upon  it.  The  same  great  principle 
rana  through  the  whole  hiatory  of  creation :  matter 
owed  all  its  forma  and  modiflcatkina  to  the  will  of  God; 
In  itself  dull  and  inert,  it  received  its  first  vivifying  ca- 
pacities ftom  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  brood- 
ing over  the  deep  (Gen,  i,  3);  the  progrestlvo  improve- 
tnenta  in  its  condition  were  the  direct  and  miiaculoos 
eActc  of  God'a  will;  no  interpoaitlon  of  aecondary 
caBKS  la  racognised — "He  spake,  and  it  was"  (Paa. 
xxxiii,  9);  and  the  pointed  terseness  and  shsrpness 
with  which  the  writer  soma  up  the  whole  transactlor 
In  the  throe  eipreasiona  "God  said,"  "it  was  ao,' 
"God  aaw  that  it  waa  good" — the  first  declaring  thi 
diTine  volition,  the  second  tbo  immediato  result,  thi 
third  the  perfactnesa  of  the  work— ha  rmon  lies  aptl) 
with  the  view  which  be  intended  to  express.  Thus 
the  earth  became  In  the  eyes  of  the  pious  Hebrew  the 
scene  on  which  the  divine  perfections  were  displayed 
(he  heavens  (rsa.  xix,  1),  the  earth  (Psa.  xxiv,  1 ;  civ. 
W),thescii(JobxxTi,10i  Paa. Ixxzii, 9 ;  Jer.T,22), 
"  mountaina  and  bills,  fruitful  trees  and  all  cedan, 
beasts  and  all  cattle,  cicepiog  things  and  flying  fowl" 
(Paa.  exlviii,  9, 10),  all  disphiyed  one  or  other  of  tha 
leading  attribulei  of  hia  ciiuracter.  So  also  with  t 
otdiniry  operations  of  nature— the  thunder  was  ) 
voice  (Job  xxxvii,  6),  tbo  lightnings  his  arrows  (Pi 
lixvii,  IT),  tha  wind  and  storm  his  messengers  (Pi 
cxlviii,  B),  the  eatthqoake,  the  eclipse,  and  the  comet 
the  slena  of  lila  presence  (Joel  ii,  10 ;  Hatt.  xxIt,  ~' 
Luke  xxi,  !5).     Sea  Aktrbofohorfhish. 

(i.)  The  earth  was  regarded  In  relation  to  man,  and 
accordingly  each  act  of  creation  is  ■  preparation  erf  thi 
earth  for  his  abode~-light,  as  the  primary  condition  of 
all  life;  the  heavens,  for  purpoaea  already  detailed; 
^e  dry  land,  for  his  heme  ;  "grass  for  the  cattle  and 
herb  for  the  service  of  man"  (Psa.  civ,  14) ;  the  allema- 
lioas  of  day  and  night,  the  one  for  his  work  and  the 
other  lor  his  rest  (Psa.  civ,!8) ;  fiah,  fbwl,  and  flesh  for 
hisfood;  thebeasIsofburden,t<iUgbtoBkialnil.  The 
work  of  each  day  of  creation  haa  lis  specific  appileathin 
to  the  nquirementa  and  the  comforta  of  man,  and  is 
recarded  with  diat  special  view. 

B.  CreaUon  was  regsrded  as  a  progressive  work— a 
gradual  derelopmpnt  ftvm  the  Inferior  to  tbo  superior 
orders  of  thiaga.   Thus  it  waa  with  the  earth's  surface, 


at  llrst  a  chaotic  masi,  mute  onf  ei»pl),  well  described 
in  the  paronomaatk  terms  lolm  Ea-6nlu,  oversiwod 
with  waters  and  enveloped  in  darkness  (Gen.  i,  2),  and 
tbenee  gradually  brought  into  a  state  of  order  and 
beauty  so  consplcuoiu  as  to  load  the  Latins  to  do- 
scribe  it  by  the  name  Mmdta.  Thus  also  with  the 
different  porUona  of  the  universe,  the  earth  before  the 
ight,  the  light  before  tha  flmament,  Ihe  finnamenl 
before  the  diy  land.  Thus  also  with  light  Ilaelf,  at 
mentary  principle,  aeparaled  from  the  daik- 
neas,  but  without  defined  boundaries  ;  afterwards  tba 
illuminating  bodies  with  their  distinct  powers  and  of- 
fices—a  progression  that  ia  well  expressed  In  the  He- 
brew language  by  the  terms  inn*  ma3r  (IIK,  ^IMC). 
Thus  alio  with  the  orden  of  living  beings ;  firstly, 
plants ;  secondly,  fish  and  birds ;  thirdly,  cattle ;  and, 
iaatly,  man.  From  "good"  in  the  several  parts  to 
"very  good"  as  a  whole  (Gen.  i,  SI),  such  waa  lla 
progress  In  the  jndgmeot  of  the  Omnipotent  workman. 
4.  Order  involvea  time ;  a  succeFsion  of  events  Im- 
plies a  succession  of  periods ;  and,  accordingly,  Hoses 
assigns  the  work  of  creation  to  fix  days,  each  having 
its  spcclllc  portion— light  to  the  Snt,  the  firmament  to 
the  second,  the  dry  land  and  pUnta  to  the  third,  the 
hcarcnlv  bodies  to  the  fourth,  flsh  and  fowl  to  the 
Rfth,  beasts  and  man  to  tho  Sixth.  The  manner  In 
which  these  acta  are  dercribed  aa  having  lern  done 
precludes  all  idea  of  time  in  relation  to  their  perform- 
ance; It  was  miraculons  and  inr(pntancous :  "God 
asid,"  and  then  "it  nsa,"  But  the  proRTcSflveneaa, 
and  consequently  the  individuality  of  the  acts,  does 
involve  an  idea  of  time  as  elapsing  I.etween  the  com- 
pletion of  one  and  tbe  commencement  of  another; 
otherwise  the  work  of  creation  wonld  have  reiolved 
Itself  into  a  single  contlnnons  act.  The  period  as- 
signed to  each  individual  act  is  a  day — the  only  period 
which  represents  tbe  entire  cessation  of  a  work  through 
the  interposition  of  night.  That  a  natural  day  is  rep.  , 
resented  under  the  expression  "evening  was  and  raom- 
Ing  was,"  admits,  we  think,  of  no  donlit;  tbe  term 
"day"  ahme  may  sometimes  leAr  to  an  indefinite  pe- 
riod contemporaneoua  with  a  single  event;  bnt  when 
the  individoal  parts  of  a  day,  "evening  and  morning," 
are  specified,  and  when  a  aeries  of  anch  days  are  no- 
ticed in  their  numerical  order,  no  analogy  of  our  lan- 
guage admits  of  our  undentanding  the  term  In  any- 
thing else  than  its  literal  rense.  The  Hebrews  had 
no  other  means  of  eiprearing  the  civil  day  of  twenly- 
fonr  boors  than  as  "evening,  morning"  (Ifis  ^^'i 
Dan.  viii,  14),  similar  to  the  Greek  wxEiit"P''' '<  '"^ 
although  the  alternation  of  light  and  darkness  lay  at 
the  root  of  tbe  expression,  yet  tbe  Hebrews  in  their 
use  of  it  no  more  thought  of  these  elements  than  do 
we  when  we  use  the  ttnaa /arlniffil  at  t'miisSli  in 
each  case  tbe  lapse  of  a  certain  time,  and  not  the  ele~ 
ments  by  which  that  time  is  calcnialed,  is  intended; 
ao  thst,  without  the  least  Inconsistency  either  of  lan- 
guage or  of  reality,  tho  expression  may  be  applied  to 
the  days  previous  to  the  crralion  of  the  sun.  'J  be  ap- 
plieatlon  of  the  aamo  eipivsiions  to  tbe  events  subco- 
qnent  to  tho  creation  of  the  sun,  aa  wcU  as  the  uee  of 
the  word  "  day"  in  the  fourth  commandment  without 
any  indication  that  it  is  used  in  a  diffoent  rense.  or 
in  any  other  than  tbe  literal  acceptation  of  Gen.  i,  5 
sq.,  confirm  the  view  above  staled.  The  interpreta- 
tion that  "evening  andmoming"  =  J^'niispjand(iiif, 
ia  opposed  not  only  to  the  order  in  which  the  worda 
stand,  but  lo  tbe  sense  of  the  words  elsewhere. 

B,  The  Hebrews,  though  regarding  creation  as  the 
immediate  act  of  God,  did  not  ignon  the  evident  fact 
that  existing  Materials  and  intomndlate  agendea  were 
employed  both  then  and  In  the  subaequent  operation* 
of  nature.  Thus  the  simple  fact,  "God  created  man" 
(Gen.  i,  27),  Is  smplifled  by  tbo  subsequent  notice  of 
the  material  substance  of  which  bis  body  waa  made 
(Oen.  ii,T);  and  so  also  of  the  animals  «3aD.  1, 14 ;  11, 


COSMOLOGY  BS 

19).  Tb<  wpantlon  of  Ma  and  land,  attribotsd  In  ' 
G«D.  i,  S,  ta  ths  dlTlne  Oat,  wu  Men  to  involve  tho 
pn>ccu  of  partial  elevatiooa  of  tho  earth's  anrbce 
(Psa.  dv,  8,  "  the  moantaiiu  aic«nd,  tbs  valley*  de- 
Mend;"  comp.  Pnv.  vUi,  S&-S8).  The  ronnation  of 
clondi  and  the  mppty  of  nioliturg  to  tho  earth,  which 
in  Oan.  i,  7,  wu  proThled  bj  the  creation  of  the  Grma- 
mcDt,  wai  afterwarda  attrlbuCad  to  ita  troe  canae  In  the 
coDtiaoal  return  of  the  vatara  tnm  the  earth 'a  earfaeo 
(Vix\.  i,  T).  The  exialence  of  the  element  of  light, 
distinct  ftom  the  ann  (Gen.  i,  3,  1« ;  Job  ixxtUI,  19), 
haa  likewlM  been  explained  aa  the  remit  or  a  philo- 
•OphicallfcoiTBctTiewaa  Id  the  nature  of  light;  more 
probably,  however,  It  waa  founded  upon  the  incorrect 
view  that  the  light  of  the  mcwn  waa  independent  of 
the  sun. 

6.  With  regard  to  the  earth's  bod}-,  the  Hebrewi 
conceived  ita  surbce  to  be  an  immonsa  diac,  soppDrtod 
like  the  Sut  roof  of  an  Eastern  houio  by  piltan  (Job 
ix,  0;  Pu.  Uxv,  S),  which  rested  on  aoLd  foundations 
(Job  xxjtvili,  4,  6;  Paa.  cir,  5;  Prov.  vlil,  29);  but 
where  thoM  fbundatlona  were  on  which  the  ''sockets" 
of  the  pillan  rested,  none  could  tell  (Job  xxzvUi,  G). 
The  more  philosophical  view  of  the  earth  being  sua- 
pended  in  free  space  aeema  to  b«  Implied  in  Job  xxvi, 
T ;  nor  is  there  any  absolute  contradiction  between  thii 
and  the  Ibnner  view,  aa  the  pillars  of  the  oarth'a  aur- 
face  may  be  conceived  to  have  been  foandcd  on  the 
deep  bases  of  the  mountaina,  which  bases  themaetve* 
were  unsupported.  Other  pasuj^ 
cxixvi,  6)  Mem  to  imply  the  existence  of  a  t-aat  anb- 
terraneoua  ocean ;  the  worda,  however,  are  anaceptJbli 
•f  the  oenM  that  the  earth  waa  elevated  above  thi 
level  of  the  aaa  (Hengslsnberg,  Comn.  in  loc.),  and 
that  thia  is  the  sense  in  which  they  are  to  be  accepted 
appears  from  the  converse  expression  "water  under 
the  earth"  (Exod.  xx,  4),  which,  ae  contraeted  with 
"  heaven  above"  and  "  earth  beneath,"  evidently  im- 
plies the  conipantive  eleTation  of  the  three  bodies. 
Beneath  the  earth's  snrfiKa  waa  lieal  (i\»'a),  the  kol- 
Idu  place,  "hell"  (Num.  xvi,  80;  Dent,  xxiii,  Si; 
Job  xi,  8),  the  "hauH  appointed  fur  the  iiviiiB" 
Job  XXX,  28),  a  "land  of  datknna"  (Job  x,  !1),  to 
which  were  ascribed  in  poetical  language  gam  (Isa. 
xxxviii,  10)  and  ban  (Job  xvii,  16),  and  which  had 
its  valleys  or  deep  places  (Prov.  ii,  18).  It  ex- 
tended beneath  the  sea  IJob  xxvi,  G,  6),  and  wsi. 
thna   supposed  to   be    conterminous  with   Ihe   upper 

7.  The  Mosaic  statement  of  the  world's  fonnatlan 
(Gen.  i)  has  boon  Tarionsl;  treatediby  ditftrenl  writ- 
era  on  the  connection  between  science  and  the  Bible. 
Skeptics  have  designated  the  Mosaic  hrptamtFOK  aa  a 
"myth."  or,  more  mildly,  the  apeculatlon  of  an  an- 
cient sage.  Most  Christians  speak  of  It  as  a  "  histo- 
ry" or  "narrative,"  or,  more  vaguely,  a  "record." 
Huxtable  calls  it  a  "  parable"  {Sairred  Rtarrd  of  Crt- 
a&n.  Land.  1861).  Others  (e.  «.  KnrU,  Hugh  Miller) 
suggest  that  It  ia  a  "vision;"  ooe  atyiea  It  a  "plan" 
(Cbailier,  Cre^iat,  Lond.  1661).  But  these  are  evj. 
dently  mere  glosses.  The  choice  still  lies  between 
the  Cbnlmerian  interpolatian  of  tho  geological  ages 
before  the  first  creative  dca/  begins  (so  Dockland,  Pye 
Smith,  Hitchcock,  Crufton,  Archd.  Pratt,  Gloag,  and 
others),  and  tho  Cuvierian  expansion  of  the  six  days 
into  geological  ages  (with  Miller,  Klacdonald,  Sllliman, 
Gaoaaen,  Sime,  tt'Caasiand,  M'Caul,  Dana,  and  oth- 
era).  Sep  Dai.  Mr.  Rorison  (rA*  Omi/wa  tt'cft,  in 
Beplittio  "£Mn>«(i»(ffieFinr«,"Lond.andN.y.l862, 


!85)( 


inks  be  I 


vereda 


difficulty  by  terming  the  lirst  chapter  of  Genesis  "the 
inspired  Pialm  of  creation,"  and  he  accordingly  sets 
his  ingenuity  to  work  to  draw  oot  the  demiurgic  pas- 
sage in  a  psnlleliied  or  bemistich  (Orm  like  Hebrew 
poetry.  Yet  this  is  but  a  modirication  of  the  "  myth- 
ical theory"  applied  in  a  leas  bold  tatm  to  the  sacred 


8  COSSETT 

text,  but  aa  really  dcstnetlira  of  the  historical  <rtrStf 
of  the  docnmant  aa  the  inon  palpable  ralioiialiatic 
views.  There  is  no  middle  ground  here  between ^a<< 
andj^nqi.  Tha  Ungoage  is  too  detailed  to  admit  the 
general  dismiasal  of  It  as  a  coamogonic^  poem.  Tha 
same  writer's  comparison  of  the  llKth  Psalm,  as  li«ii|{ 
"section  by  section  the  dangfater,  the  antipboue,  tike 
echo"  of  the  Mosaic  proem,  Is  nttcrly  preposteroaa,  as 
the  most  casual  oollMion  of  Ihe  two  will  show.  Bm 
a  liital  drcnnutanca  to  tbls  hypotiieais  i>  that  the  £nt 
chapter  of  Gennls  locks  nearly  every  element  of  ac- 
knowledged Hebrew  poetry.  In  form  it  has  neitfaai 
the  lyrical  prosody  of  the  Psalms,  nor  the  epic  stnc- 
tnre  of  Job;  neither  the  dithynunbic  march  of  tin 
Prophets,  nor  tho  idyllic  colloquies  of  the  Cantkln, 
nor  oven  the  didactic  colh>catiana  of  tho  Proverbaand 
Ecolesiostes.  There  ia  no  junmoiaana  (except  the 
accidewsl  one  in  the  stereotyped  phraM  Mns^  ^riTi  ^^ 
pell-mell),  no  tlSptu,  no  tHtraetrtiim,  no  pltimaim,  no 
climacUc  character;  in  short,  no  flgurative  element 
whatever  to  distinguiab  Its  pbtaseology  frrmi  the  veri- 
est prose.  There  la  no  proper  rAUALi-ELiBM  (ij-v.), 
based  upon  Intrinalc  antltheala  and  synonyms;  m 
rhythmic  measure.  (Compan  the  perfcctiDn  in  aD 
these  respects  of  llie  eai^est  real  ode  on  rscoid,  Geo. 
IT,  33,  S4.)  Again,  aa  to  aKtmuKnr,  it  lacks  that 
lof^  moral  tone,  that  fine  play  of  the  imaginatlDii, 
that  abrupt  change  of  subject  and  Beld,  which — even 
when  other  criteria  bll — serve  la  Indicate  the  iliapso- 
dies  of  the  Hebrew  barda.  The  only  thing  at  all  n- 
sembilng  poetry  in  ita  drsas  Is  the  strophlc  retsm  at 
the  claoM  "evening  and  morning,"  which  is  simply 
dne  to  the  neceaaary  regularity  of  the  hebdomadal  pe- 
riods ;  and  the  only  featnre  in  Its  snlwtwiCB  allying  it 
to  poetry  i*  a  certain  dignity  and  advance  of  thoagfal, 
which  is  inherent  in  the  incidenta  themselvea ;  all  that 
can  properly  be  said  of  tho  diction  Is  that  it  is  rheteri- 
cal  and  suited  to  the  subject.  Even  Mr.  Rotiaon  bila 
to  point  out  In  Its  body  the  requisite  artistic  copitrur- 
tlveneaa,  or  In  ita  spirit  tbe  fire  of  genius  uaential  to 
all  poetic  effusions.  Almost  any  descriptive  potim 
of  the  Old  Testament  would  be  fbund  to  exceed  it  in 
these  respects,  if  carefully  analyzed.  The  very  next 
chapter  of  Genesis  la  fully  aa  poetical,  whether  in  re- 
gard to  ita  topica.  Its  style,  or  its  compoedtJon ;  and 
thua,  by  the  same  loose,  unseisntiflc  process,  we  might 
(as  many  would  fain  do)reduc«  the  acoMints  of  Adam's 
ipecillc  formation,  of  a  local  Eden,  and  of  the  origin 
of  human  depravity,  to  poetic  leganda.  Jnst  oiticiiD 
forbids  such  a  dlstorUon  of  pniae  to  accommodate  spec- 
ulative  preconception.  Sea  Poetdt.  For  an  aUe 
treatise  on  the  bearings  of  tbe  Hebrew  rostnology 
upon  modem  astronomv  and  gaolog^-,  see  Karti,  IfuC 
of  lit  Old  Coamont  (Edinb.  1866,  vol.  i,  ch.  i;  alM 
separately,  Phlla.  18S7);  comp.  JohannMB,  i>tr  favsio. 
^OBwefcn  AnMuAtHH  drr  HthrUa-  (Alt  1888);  Brawne, 
Motaie  Catmogm^  (Lond.  1864).     See  Cobmoooxtj 

Conmoa.     See  Would. 

Comaett,  Francewat  ItAiraa,  D.D.,  a  prominent 
minister  of  the  Cumberland  I^reabyterian  Church, 
as  bom  in  Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  April  14, 
1790.  Hij  parents  were  Ejdscapalians,  his  grandfa- 
being  tbe  founder  and  for  many  years  the  pastor 
c  tint  Episcopal  church  of  Claremont.  He  stud- 
ied at  Middlebury  College,  Vermont,  and  gradoited 
in  181S.  From  the  aame  institution  he  received  in 
1B39  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  which  dagne 
was  also  conferred  upon  him  in  after  years  by  Cun> 
berland  CaUeflar  Kentucky.  Soon  after  leaving  col- 
lege he  engaged  in  teaehlng  a  classical  achonl  in  Hot- 
ristown.  K.  J.  After  two  yeaia  ha  accepted  a  call  al 
principalofTine  Hill  Aoademy,N.C.,wlMrc  he  taught 
several  yean,  when,  hia  health  being  poor,  he  retnmsd 
to  New  England,  where  soon  after  he  was  coutbRsL 
He  felt  deeply  impressed  with  tha  duty  of  pi 


COSTA,  DA 


t]ie  Gospel,  and  kioi)  attar  mitered  the  Epiuapal  Theo- 
kigical  SeminBry  U  Sew  Haven.  From  the  wminair 
be  went  to  TeDiiMMe,  with  the  commendatian  and 
■auction  of  the  biihop  u  a  *'laj  preacher."  Here 
be  bcome  acquainted  for  the  flnt  time  with  Cum- 
bsrland  PraaL*t«rittif ,  "  participated  in  their  extraoi^ 
dinaiy  revivali,  attended  tbeir  delightful  camp-meet- 
inxa."  He  was  especially  pleaud  with  their  success  in 
'  winning  souls  to  Ctirlst.  and,  after  a  long,  pnyerfat, 
and  hard  struggle,  he  felt  It  bis  duty  to  cult  bit  lot 
with  tbem.  Id  the  year  ISiS  be  was  ordained  liy  the 
Andcraan  presbytery  of  this  church.  He  tangbtrery 
■oeceseftilly  for  eome  time  in  a  claulcal  school  in  Elk- 
ton,  Kj.  He  was  the  flrat  president  of  Cumberland 
College  at  Princeton,  Ky.,  over  which  he  presided  for 
nan  with  great  honor  and  snccess.  When  Cumber- 
land University  was  started  some  yean  Uter  at  Leb- 
anon, Tennessee,  be  accepted  a  call  to  the  flrat  preai- 
dmcy  of  that  institution.  He  preaided  over  it  until 
It  had  arisen  to  tia  one  of  the  roremost  iostllutlona  in 
the  entire  South.  He  waa  for  years,  and  up  to  hia 
death,  president  of  the  Board  of  Foralgii  and  Domestic 
Hiauons  of  the  C.  P.  Church.  He  also  sUrted  and 
maintained  for  aeveral  years  sueeetafully  a  weekly  re- 
lisious  paper  called  the  "  Banner  of  Peace,"  which  is 
■till  (I8S7)  being  pablbbed  at  Naahville,  Tcnn.  Dr. 
Coaaett  pnblished  7^  Life  and  Tmei  afEtcituj,  which 
contain*  a  history  of  the  early  yean  of  tho  C.  P. 
Chnrch.  Mr.  Coasett  waa  a  man  of  great  learning 
and  ability,  and  iu  hi*  younger  daja  waa  a  very  suc- 
eeaafnl  preacher.  He  was  inde&tigabte  In  bis  eflbrts 
to  promote  educatioii  among  all  classes,  but  especially 
in  the  ministry.  In  ell  bii  Intercourse  with  men, 
either  peiaonslly,  by  letter,  or  as  a  controvcrtist,  be 
never  deviated  fmm  the  mica  of  honoiable  Christian 
diacosaion,  or  the  manners  of  the  Christian  gentleman. 
He  died  at  Lebanon,  TennesHte,  Jnlj  B,  1863. 

Coeta,  Da.    See  Da  Costa. 

CratobfllUB  (Koirro^par).  1.  An  Idumnsn  of 
honorable  connections,  married  by  Herod  to  bis  sister 
Salome,  and  appcduted  governor  of  Idnmaa,  but  aftei^ 
warda  renounced  by  her  on  pretext  of  his  favorinic  the 
•scape  of  tb«  sons  of  Bahas,  the  last  sckms  oftbeHyi- 
canian  dynaaty,  and  eventually  ibin  by  Herod  (Jo- 
•ephi>s,HiK.  XV,  7,8-10). 

3.  A  relative  ofAgrippa,  and  a  ringleader  of  the  91- 
earil  in  their  eiceases  at  Jorasalem  (Josephus,  ITor, 
XX,  9.0- 

Coatumv,  OaisirTAi.  The  aubjeel  of  tho  style 
of  dreaa  of  the  aaeient  Hebrews  U  involved  in  much 
Obecnrily  and  doubt.  Sculptand  monuments  and 
Cains  afford  as  all  needful  infonnatlon  respecting  the 
■pparel  of  the  ancient  Egyptlana,  Bahyloniana,  Per^ 
■Lana,  Greeks,  and  Romans  ;  and  even  the  garb  worn 
by  the  barbarant  nations  is  perpetuated  in  the  monu- 
menta  of  their  antagonists  and  conqueron.  But  the 
ancient  Hebrews  have  left  no  monuments,  no  figures 
of  themselves ;  and  tbe  few  Qgarcs  which  have  been 
supposed  to  represent  Jews  in  tbe  monamenta  of  Egypt 
and  Persia  are  so  uncertain  that  their  authority  re- 
mains to  be  eatahllthcd  before  we  can  rely  upon  the 
Information  which  they  convey.  There  are,  however, 
many  allusions  to  dress  in  the  Scriptures,  and  these 
B  of  our  positl^      ■  * 


ti  they 


W« 


Tbey  ore  often,  indeed,  ohacnre,  and  of 
larpretatian,  bnt  they  are  Invaluable  in 
enable  us  to  compue  and  •mnf^  tbe  '- 
Tirable  from  t«her  sources. 

1.  The  range  of  inqolrj'  into  niaisim 
very  limited.  It  Is  a  common  oMttMje  »  laia  ot 
"C^lental  costume"  as  If  it  were  a  anlform  tiling, 
whatMS,  in  Isct,  the  costumes  of  the  Asiatic  nations 
differ  fkr  more  from  one  another  than  do  the  costumes 
oftlie  different  natbins  of  Europe.  That  this  waa  also 
the  ease  anciently  is  shown  by  the  monnments,  in 
«hid  the  coatamea  of  Egyi^ns,  Aasyilani,  B^ylo- 


19  COSTUME 

nlaus,  Peralans,  Hedea,  Syrians,  and  Greeka  differ  m 

much  f^m  one  another  as  do  the  costumes  of  the  mod* 
em  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Peraiana. 
It  is  therefore  nearly  naeltis  to  examine  tbe  monu- 
mental costume  of  any  natian,  nmote  from  Palestine, 
for  the  pnrpoee  of  ascertaining  the  costume  of  tho  an- 
cient Hebrews.  Syria,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and,  to  aome 
extent,  Assyria,  Persia,  and  Babylonia,  are  the  only 
countries  where  monnments  would  be  likely  to  afford 
any  useful  infotuution  ;  but  Arabia  has  left  no  monu- 
mental figures,  and  Syria  none  of  sufficiently  ancient 
data,  wbile  thoee  of  Assyria,  Babylonia,  and  Persia 
depict  lew  Bcenes  of  Boclil  life ;  and  it  is  left  for  Egypt 
to  supply  nearly  all  the  Information  likely  to  be  of 
use.  But  tlie  Etiyplians  and  tho  Hebrews  were  an 
excoedingly  difilerent  people;  and  tbe  climates  which 
they  inhabited  were  also  so  different  as  to  acreHifate 
a  greater  difference  of  food  and  dna  than  might  bo 
prcEupposed  of  countries  so  near  to  each  other.  It  is 
true  that  tho  Jewiifa  nation  was  cradled  in  Egypt; 
and  this  circumstance  may  bare  had  lon^  iufiutnco 
on  ceremonial  dresses  and  tbe  omamenta  of  wnmen  -, 
but  we  do  not  find  that  nations  circumstanced  as  the 
Jews  were  readily  adopt  the  costumes  of  other  naticnr, 
especially  wfaen  their  residence  in  Egypt  was  always 
regarded  by  them  as  temporary,  end  when  their  rul- 
ment  was  of  home  manufacture — spun  end  woven  l<y 
the  women  from  the  produce  of  tbeir  flocks  (Eiud. 
HIV,  S6).  Wo  find  also  that,  immediately  after  leav- 
ing E^rypl,  the  principal  article  of  dress  among  the  Ho. 
btews  wsa  some  ample  woollen  garment,  fit  to  sleep  iu 
(Eiod.  xxil,  S7),  to  which  nolbiug  timiUr  u  to  be  steo 
among  the  costumes  of  Eg}'pt. 

3.  With  respect  to  the  supposed  reprcsentallon  of 
Joes  In  ancient  monuments,  if  any  authentic  exan;plea 
couM  be  found,  even  of  a  single  figure,  in  the  arcirnt 
costume,  It  would  afford  much  latisfactiDn,  as  tending 
ID  elucidate  many  passages  of  Scripture  which  cannot 
at  present  be  with  certainty  explained.  (See  aUo  nn< 
der  the  article  Brick.) 

(a.)  A  painting  at  Benl  Hassan  represents  tho  ar- 
rirsl  of  some  farei([ners  In  Egypt,  and  is  supposed  to 
figure  the  arrival  of  Joaeph's  brethren  in  that  country. 
The  accessaries  of  the  scene,  the  physioKnomirs  of  the 
persons,  and  the  time  to  which  the  picture  relates,  an 
certainly  iu  unison  with  that  event;  but  other  circum- 
stances are  against  the  notion.  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinion 
speaks  besilatiniily  on  the  snl^clj  and,  until  some 
greater  ecrtslnty  is  obtained,  wa  may  admit  the  poesi- 
ble  correctneai  of  the  conjecture.    The  annexed  cut 


Bajpeaed  Repro«nlolloa  ofjimipli'i  Brellirc 


niilie£ETP- 


showsthe  variety  of  costnmewhieh  Ibis  scene  displays. 
All  the  men  wear  sandals.  Some  of  tbem  are  clad 
only  in  a  abort  tunic  or  shirt,  with  close  sleeves  (fig. 
S) ;  others  wear  over  this  n  kind  of  eleeveless  plaid  or 
mantle,  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  passing  dd- 
der  tho  richt  arm  (Bg.  2).  It  is  of  a  striped  and  curi- 
ously figured  patten,  and  looks  exceedingly  like  tho 
Sna  grass  woven  cloth  of  tbe  South  Sea.  Others  have, 
instead  of  this,  a  fiingai  skirt  of  the  same  mateiul 
(flg.  1).  All  the  flgnres  ire  bere-hcidcd,  and  wear 
board^  which  are  circumstances  favurable  to  the  ident- 
Qcation.     Tbe  fHngod  skirt  of  flg.  1  is  certainly  a  re- 


COSTUME  5J 

mirkuble  circunutsncQ.  Mmm  directed  that  thi  pao- 
ple  abould  wear  a  fringe  sttha  hum  of  thcli  Ktroionb 
(Nuin.  XT,  38);  and  tbo  pral«LiIitf  i>  thaC  thii  com- 
nund  merely  perpetuutad  m  more  uicient  unge. 

(i.)  This  fringe  roapiieari,  much  enlargod,  in  tha 
other  Egyptian  aculpture  in  which  Jswi  an  (uppnaed 
to  be  represented.  'Ihe»  ore  ia  a  tomb  diieovered  by 
Belioni,  in  t)ia  Viilley  of  Bab  al-Uelnk,  near  Thebe*. 
Tbcre  are  captives  of  difTerent  nationa,  and  among 
them  four  flgures,  eupposod  to  repreuat  Jeol.    The 


BappowlKepi 


■cene  it  imagined  %a  commemoratB  the  triumphs  of 
Pbaraoh-Ncclio  in  that  war  in  vhich  the  Jewi  were 
defeated  at  Uegiddo,  and  theii  king  Joaiih  Blain  (S 
Chron.  isKv,  xxxvi). 

(fOOnthefjcDufarackat  BehiMnn(q.  T.),oa  the 
Median  border  of  the  ancient  Assyria,  there  is  a  re- 
markable sculpture  repreaentiag  a  number  of  captivei 
Strang  together  by  the  neck,  brought  before  the  king 
and  coni(ueror,  who  seems  to  be  pronouncing  sentence 
upon  them.  The  venerable  antiqoity  of  this  sculpture 
is  unquestionable;  and  Sir  B.  K.  Porter  wu  led  to 
fancy  that  the  sculpture  cammemoratoa  the  Guhjuga- 
tion  and  deportition  of  the  Im  tribes  by  Shalmaneser, 
king  ot  Assyria  (!  Kings  xvii,  6).  The  reaeoiu  which 
he  aasigna  {Traceli  m  Pri-iM,  il,  159  sq.)  for  thli  con- 
elusion  are  of  little  weight,  and  not  worth  examina- 
tion. But  the  single  fact  that  the  flguree  are  arrayed 
in  a  costume  eimilir  to  the  ancient  and  present  garb 
of  the  people  of  Syria  and  Lebanon  Inclinea  us  to  think 
that  the  flgnrea  really  do  represent  the  costume  of  na- 
tions west  of  the  Euphraleg,  including,  probably,  that 
of  the  Jovs  and  their  near  nelghbore.    The  dress  here 


UiePer- 


■bown  is  a  shirt  or  tunic  conSned  around  the  walM  by 
B  Strap  or  girdle;  while  others  have  a  longer  and  lar- 
ger robe,  furnbbed  with  a  spaciuua  cape  or  hood, 
probably,  irorn  over  the  other. 

There  Is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  dreu  of  the 
Jews  was  in  any  important  respect  different  from  that 
of  the  other  jnhabitanbi  of  the  same  and  immediately 
bordering  connlries.  It  would  therefore  be  satisfac- 
tory, and  would  ecaMe  as  to  Judge  batter  of  the  tig- 
nres  which  have  been  aoWcod,  if  we  hail  repnatenla- 
tions  of  CansaDltes,  Pbasnlcians,  Syrlana,  Moabitsa, 
etc.,  by  tbe  Egyptian  artists,  who  were  so  exact  In 
discriminating,  even  to  caricature,  the  pecnllarittas  of 
nations.  Under  the  article  Abhor  (p.  428)  there  is  s 
■upposed  figure  of  a  Canaanito  warrior  from  thif 
aonrce.     The  dross,  being  military,  doe*   not  afford 

bnt  we  at  once  fecogniso  in  It  most  of  the  ar  . 
which  formed  the  miliUry  dress  of  the  Hebrews.  The 
annexed  llgurei,  however,  conrey  more  information, 
as  they  appear  to  represont  inbatdtants  of  Samaria 


&ipp<jsed  RBprwentBllDa 


Ubanon.  The  evidence  for  the  last  (fig. !)  Is  aa 
conclasire  aa  an  be  obtained,  for  not  only  Is  then  the 
name  "Lemanun"  (at  being  constantly  Interchanged 
with  b),  but  the  persons  thus  attired  are  ie|a«se&Md 
as  inhabiting  a  mountainous  country,  and  felllngjfr- 
trees  to  impede  the  cbariote  of  tbe  EgjpCiin  inTadera, 
The  diBBses  are  similar  to  each  other,  and  this  stmi- 
larity  strengthens  the  probability  that  the  drees  of  the 
Jewi  was  not  very  diSarent ;  and  it  ia  also  obserrable 
that  it  is  simiUr  to  tiie  full  dress  of  some  of  the  figoiea 
In  the  scelpturo  at  Behistun :  the  (Igurca  arc  bearded, 
and  the  cap,  or  head-dress,  ia  bound  round  with  afilleL 
The  figures  are  arrayed  in  a  long  gown  reaching  to  the 
ankles,  and  conllned  around  the  waist  by  a  girdle; 
and  tha  shouldan  are  covered  by  a  cape,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  common  to  several  nationi  of  Alia. 
At  first  view  it  would  seem  that  this  dree*  is  dilbtot 
from  thoee  already  flgnred.  But,  in  all  probabili^, 
this  more  spacious  robo  is  merely  an  outer  garment, 
covcriu.;  tbe  inner  dresa  which  is  shown  in  tlM  figvtei 
that  seem  more  scantily  amyed.  (See  the  ingenioos 
papers  by  a  lady  on  the  costumes  of  the  ancient  Ca- 
naaniteain  tbeJinir.i-/Sac.  Jlif.,  Jan.  1658,  p.  291  sq.. 
audthocntBluthoNo.forApril,1864.)  See  Curus- 
ITR;  LebAKoH. 

S.  The  Information  on  this  snl^ect  to  be  obtiiBsd 
th>m  traJitiim  la  embodied — (1.)  In  the  drewis  of 
monks  and  pilgrims,  which  may  hatnced  to  anandtnt 
data,  and  which  are  an  intended  Imitation  of  the  dreie- 
ei  auppoaed  to  havo  been  worn  b}'  the  first  disciples 


Chrtatdan  CMtnntM  of  Oriental  Uoaki  and  PDgrtnii 
and  apostles  of  ChriiL  (!.)  The  garb  conventiooallr 
aasigned  by  painters  to  scriptural  character*,  wtdch 
were  equally  intended  to  embody  the  dross  of  tbe  spee- 
tolicol  period,  and  Is  corrected  In  some  degree  by  tbs 
notions  of  Oriental  costumo  which  wen  collected  itt- 
Ing  the  Crusades. 

To  judge  of  the  value  of  tbcae  coet^me^  we  tnirt 
compare  them,  first,  with  the  scanty  materials  alnsdy 
produoad,  and  then  with  the  modem  coetames  of  Sjiia 
andArabia.  The  remit  of  thiseiaminatioQ  willpieb- 
ably  be  tliat  these  ti»ditional  garbe  ere  by  no  dmsbi 
bad  reminiscences  of  Hebrew  costume;  and  HuIUh 
dresses  which  the  painters  have  Introduced  into  Kri|>- 
tnral  subjects  are  far  more  near  to  cotrectnen  llsan  it 
has  latterly  been  tha  fashion  to  suf^KNa.    It  ii  p«- 


Taaej  8keteba  of  OrlmUl  Catuna  br  Buly  Pilnten. 
haps  u  neirlj  u  pouilils  »  ju5t  mcdlnm  between  tbe 
cccleriuUol  tradition  and  tbe  prarticil  obserTalloii. 
No  drcM  more  iniuble  to  the  dignity  of  the  subjects 
ctHtld  possibly  be  devissd;  and,  eaactiaaed  la  It  bai 
t>c«ii  by  long  use,  and  rendared  venerable  by  Kriptaral 
■Hociations,  ne  ^ould  be  reluctant  to  see  It  excbaaged 
for  tbe  eniiling  Oriental  coetumee,  wblcb  the  French 
artiata  have  begun  to  prefer,  Bqt  this  js  only  vith 
regard  to  pictorial  assoclatJans  and  eSbcts ;  for,  In  in 
inqniiy  into  the  CMlniae  aduallji  Worn  by  tbe  Israel- 
Itea,  modern  ■ource*  of  information  most  be  by  no 
mains  OTorlooked. 

4.  The  value  of  the  noiferH  Orilnifal  coatames  for  the 
pnrpoaei  of  icriptnral  illunrntion  arises  ftom  the  fact 
that  the  dress,  like  the  usages,  of  the  people  Is  un- 
dentood  to  be  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  as  Ihst 
used  in  very  ancient  times.  But  this  Binst  be  under- 
stood with  some  limitations.  The  dress  of  the  Turks 
b  distinctive  nod  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  has  no 
connection  with  the  aboriginal  costumes  of  Western 
Ada.  The  dreas  of  the  Persians  has  also  been  changed 
almost  within  the  memory  of  man,  that  of  tbe  ruling 
Tartar  tribe  having  been  almost  invariably  ailoptrd; 
sotbat  the  present  eosttune  is  altogether  dlfierent  from 
that  which  ia  figured  by  Sir  ThDmsa  Herbert,  Cbanlin, 
La  Bruyn,  Niobuhr,  and  other  travellers  of  the  ITlh 
■nd  IStb  centnries.  But  with  the  exceptlnns  of  the 
foreign  Turkish  coitDme  and  its  modlHcaliona,  and 
with  certain  local  exceptions,  chiefly  in  mountsinoDS 
regions,  it  may  be  said  that  there  Is  one  prevailing  cos- 
tame  in  all  the  coontriea  of  Asia  between  the  Tlgrla 
■nd  Mndilerranean,  and  throngliaut  N'orthern  AWca, 
from  tbe  Nile  to  Morocco  and  tbe  baoke  of  tbe  Sene- 
gal. This  ooitiiDie  la  eassntlallr  Arabian,  and  owes 
its  ezteorion  to  the  wide  conqaests  under  the  flrst 
caliphs;  and  It  Is  thniDgh  the  Arabiana— tbe  least 
changed  of  ancient  nations,  and  almost  the  only  one 
whkb  has  remained  a*  a  nation  fhim  ancient  times — 
that  tho  antiquity  of  this  costume  may  be  proved. 
Thills  undoubtedly  the  most  ancient  costume  of  West- 
ern Asia :  und  while  one  set  of  proofs  would  cany  it 
Up  to  scriptoral  times,  another  set  of  strong  probabil- 
itfes  and  satisfactory  analagiea  will  take  it  baclc  to  tbe 
nrnet  remote  periods  of  scriptural  history,  and  will 
(Bggeat  that  the  dress  of  the  Jews  themselves  waa 
Tery  aimiUr,  without  being  strictly  Identical. 

We  may  here  remark.  (1.)  That  the  usages  of  the 
Anbians  in  Syria  and  Palestine  are  more  in  agiee- 
mant  with  those  of  Scripture  than  those  of  any  other 
InhabiEanta  of  tho«i  countries.  (3.)  That  their  cos- 
tnme  throws  more  tight  on  tbe  scriptoral  lutimationE 
than  any  oth^  now  existing,  whlM  It  agrees  more  than 
any  other  with  tbe  materials  aapplied  by  antiquity  and 
by  tiaditloa.  (8.)  That  the  dress  which  the  Anblan 
garb*  gradnaUy  superseded  in  Syria  and  Palestine  was 
not  the  same  as  that  of  scriptural  times,  excepting, 
perhaps,  among  tbe  paasantr}',  whose  dreaa  appears  to 
hare  then  dUhred  little  &om  that  of  the  Arabian  con- 


1  COSTUME 

qnarars.  The  Jews  bad  for  above  Ave  centnries  cenaed 
to  be  bihabttaDts  of  Palestine ;  and  it  is  certain  that  dur- 
ing tbe  Inten:  cdiate  period  the  dress  of  the  upper  cisia. 
as — the  military  and  tba^townspeople — had  bccotoe  aa- 
rimilated  to  thalofihe  Greeks  of  tbe  Eastern  empire. 
Arabia  had  meanwhile  been  subjected  to  no  such  inflo- 
eoces,  and  the  dress  which  it  brought  into  Sj'ria  may 
bo  regarded  as  a  reatoraUon  of  tbe  more  ancient  cos- 
tnme,  rather  than  (aa  it  was  in  many  coantries)  the 
lulrodaction  of  one  previously  unknown. 

It  is  to  be  obaerved,  however,  that  there  are  two 
very  different  sorts  of  diessoa  smung  the  Arabians. 
One  ia  that  of  the  Bedouin  tribes,  and  the  other  that 
of  the  lohaUCants  of  towns.  The  distinction  between 
these  is  leldom  ctesrly  undentood  or  correctly  stated, 
but  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  purpose  of  the 
present  nolica.  Instead,  therefore,  of  speaking  of  the 
Arabian  costume  as  one  thing,  we  mast  regard  it  aa 
two  tbiugs— tbe  desen  costume  and  the  town  costume. 
If,  then,  our  views  of  Hebrew  costume  were  based  on 
the  BCtnal  costume  of  the  ArabiaDs,we  should  be  led 
to  condade  that  the  desert  mstame  represented  that 
which  was  worn  during  the  patriarchal  period,  and 
unljl  tbe  Israelites  bad  been  some  time  settled  In  Ca- 

from  their  neigblKn-s  when  tbcy  became  a  settled  peo- 
ple. 

(a)  The  annexed  cut  reprearnta,  in  Ag.  2,  a  Bedonio, 


Uodeni  Arib  Diai  of  Ihe  Desert  TtHkb. 

or  deaert  Amb,  in  the  dress  uiually  worn  in  Asia ;  and 
flg.  1  represents  a  townsman  in  a  cloak  of  the  same 
kind,  adopted  IVom  the  Arabs,  and  worn  VC17  extens- 
ively as  an  outermost  covartDg  in  all  tho  conntriet 
from  the  Oxui  (for  even  tbe  Peniaea  nia  It)  to  the 
Mediterranean.  Tbe  distinctive  head.dreM  of  the 
Bedouin,  and  which  baa  not  been  adopted  by  any  oth- 
er nation,  or  even  by  the  Arabian  lownsmen,  is  a  kei- 
chief  fteffk)  folded  triaDguIariy,  and  thrown  over  the 
head  10  as  to  fall  down  ovor  the  neck  and  fhoutders, 
and  bound  to  the  bead  by  a  bend  of  twlatad  wcci  or 
camel's  hair.  The  cloak  is  called  an  abba.  It  Is  mads 
of  wool  and  hair,  and  of  various  degrees  of  fineness. 
It  is  sometimes  entirely  black,  or  entirely  white,  but 
is  more  usaslly  marked  with  broad  stripes,  the  color* 
ofwbich(nevermorelbsn  two,  one  of  nhich  is  always 
white)  am  distinclive  of  the  tribe  by  wlilcb  it  is  worn. 
The  cloak  is  altogether  shapeless,  being  like  a  square 
with  an  opening  in  ftrinl,  aad  with  slits  at  the 
to  let  out  Ihe  arms.  Tho  Arsb  who  wean  It  by 
day,  sleeps  in  It  by  night,  aa  does  often  tbe  peasant  by 
whom  it  has  been  adopted ;  and  in  all  probabill^  this 
waa  the  germent  similarly  used  by  the  ancient  He- 
*" — 'a,  and  which  a  benevolent  law,  dellveivd  while 
si  WIS  still  in  tbe  desert,  forbade  to  be  kept  In 
pledge  beyond  the  day,  that  the  poor  might  not  be 
iritbout  a  covering  at  night  (Exod.  xxti,  ST).  This 
irticle  of  dree*  appears  to  have  been  little  known  to 
Biblical  illustratora,  altbongh  it  Is  the  [sindpai  and 


COSTUME  Si 

moit  commoD  oatennost  garmsot  in  WtMUrn  AiU. 
This  ainguUr  neglect  hu  «riKn  from  their  infbniui- 
tion  being  cbieflj  derived  Tnm  8b*«  and  otben,  wbo 
deccribe  the  coBtnme  of  the  ^rmb  tribes  or  Mean  of 
Nortbern  Africa,  whare  tha  outer  garment  Is  more 
generally  tbe  baurTtoot  (fig,  9),  a  woollen  cloak,  not 
unlike  the  abba,  but  furnished  with  a  bood,  and  which 
is  BOmatlnies  strangelj  confounded,  even  by  well-in- 
formed penons,  with  a  totally  dlfFcrent  outer  Kannent 
worn  in  the  wme  regions,  usually  called  the  Ajrjb,  bnt 
which  is  also,  according  to  it*  nutteriaU,  qoality,  or 
color,  distingaiihad  by  various  other  names ;  and  writ- 
en  hare  produced  eome  confliaion  by  not  observing 
that  the»  name*  refer  to  an  article  of  nUroent  which 
under  all  these  names  is  essentially  the  same.  Re- 
gardless of  tbese  minute  distinctions,  this  part  of  dress 
may  be  described  as  a  large  woollen  blanket,  either 
white  or  brown,  and  In  snmmoT  a  cotton  sheet  (nsnal- 
ly  blue  or  white,  or  both  colors  together).  Potting 
one  comer  before  over  the  left  ihoulder,  the  wearer 
btings  it  behind,  and  then  under  tha  right  arm,  and 
•o  over  tbe  body,  throwing  it  behind  over  the  left 
ihoulder,  and  leaving  the  right  arm  fne  for  action. 
This  very  picturesque  mode  of  wearing  the  kgte  is 
ahowii  In  Bg.  S  of  the  aecompaDTing  cut.    Another 


mode  of  wearing  it  Is  shown  in  fig.  S.  It  is  eometlmes 
thrown  over  the  head  as  a  protection  fh>m  the  sun  A 
wind  (tig.  1),  and  calls  to  mind  the  various  passages 
of  Scriptnre  in  which  persons  are  described  ii  cover- 
ing their  besda  with  their  mantles  (2  Sam.  xv,  30 ;  1 
Kings  xix,  18;  EHher  vi,  IS).  This  article  of  dress, 
originally  boiTDwed  from  the  nomades,  is  known  In 
Arabia,  and  ezlende  wcatnard  to  the  ihoros  of  tbe 
Atlantic,  being  moat  exten*ivel3r  uaed  by  all  claasea 
«f  the  population.  The  seat  of  this  dress,  and  of  the 
abba  respectively,  Is  indicated  by  the  direction  of  their 
importation  into  Egypt,  The  l^/kei  are  Imported  from 
tbe  west  (i.  e.  fmm  North  Africa),  and  tbe  oUot  ftom 
Syria.  Tbe  dote  resemblance  of  tbe  above  gronp  of 
real  costnme  to  those  in  which  the  traditionary  eccki- 
siisticai  and  traditionary  artistleai  oostumes  are  dis- 
played, must  be  obvious  to  the  most  cnreory  obaorver. 
It  may  also  be  noticed  that  the  hgtt  is  not  without 
tome  resemblance,  u  to  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
worn,  to  the  aater  garment  of  one  of  the  Bgnres  in  the 
Egyptian  family,  supposed  to  repreaent  the  arrival  of 
Joseph's  brethren  In  Egypt  (above), 

(6)  We  now  torn  to  the  coetnmes  which  are  aeen  In 
the  town*  and  villages  of  sonth-westem  Aels- 

Ja  the  Serlpturea  dmvcrt  are  only  mentioned  In 
(be  injunction  that  the  high-priest  should  wear  them 
(Exod.  xxviil,  42),  which  seems  to  show  that  they 
were  not  generally  in  use ;  nor  have  we  any  evidence 
Uut  they  ever  became  common.  Drawers  descending 
to  the  middle  of  tbe  tiiighs  were  worn  by  the  ancient 
Egjrptlans,  and  workmen  often  laid  aside  all  the  rest 
ottbeii  dreea  when  occupied  in  their  labors.    Aa  br 


a*  this  l»rt  of  d.«.  wa 

■  ns«lata 

11  by  the  £ 

efarwwa. 

It  was  doubtless  either 

liko  this. 

or  Blmilu 

to  tboM 

which  are  now  worn  in  Western 

Asia  by  ai 

eiMSl 

some  among  the  poorer  peaaantry. 

andbvmanvofthe 

Bodonin  Araba,    They 

ire  of  linen 

or  cotton. 

famida 

breadth,  tied  around  tbe 

body  by  a  running  .tring,  or 

jand,  and  always  worn 

next  the 

skin,  not  over  the 

shirt,  as  In  Europe. 

It  will  be  asked,  when  the  poor 

Israelite  bad  pawn- 

ed  his  outer  garment  •' 

whtrvinh 

slept,"  what  drees 

was  left  to  him?     The 

probably 

supplied 

by  tbe  atmemd  engrav 

ing,  which 

alighd. 

dlBbnnt  garments  of  cotlon,  or  woollen  ftoeka  or 
shirts,  which  often,  in  warm  weather,  form  the  sds 
druss  of  the  Bedouin  peasants,  and  tbo  lower  dan  of 
townspoople.  To  this  the  abba  or  Ajifa  is  tbe  proper 
outer  robe  (as  in  fig.  1,  second  cut  preceding),  bn  it 
nsnally,  In  summer,  dispensed  with  in  the  daytime, 
and  in  tha  oidiuary  pursuits  and  occupations  of  life. 
It  Is  sometimes  (as  in  the  foregoing  cut,  fig.  S)  worn 
without,  but  more  usually  with  a  girdle ;  and  it  irill 
be  seen  that  the  shorter  ipecimens  are  not  unlike  the 
dress  of  one  uC  the  figures  (fig.  3)  in  the  earliest  of  [be 
Efcyptian  sutjects  which  have  been  produced,    lbs 


.  b,  0 


rior  classes  is  of  the  S4Une 
shape,  but  of  finer  mate- 
riab.  This  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  fig- 
ure, which  represents  a 
gentleman  as  juet  risen 
from  bed.  If  we  call 
this  a  ahirt,  the  Hebrews 
doubtless  hwl  it  — tha 
sole  dress  (excepting  tha 
doak)  of  the  poor,  and 
theiDnermbeofthericb.  . 

inch,  probably,  were  the 
sheets"      (translated 

shirts"   ■ 


ions),  c 


which  Sami 


Uodsm  Oriental  Coana 


despoiled  thirty  Philis- 
tines to  pay  the  fotfeit 
of  his  riddle  (Judg.  xiv,  IS,  19).  It  is  shown  ttom  lbs 
Talmud,  indeed,  that  the  Ilebrews  of  later  days  hsd  s 
shirt  called  p^bn.  chabJc',  which,  it  would  appear, 
was  often  of  woofcLighlfoot,  Hot.  BA.  do  Luke  ia, !), 
and  which  le  described  aa  tbe  erdinary  inner  garoMV 
the  outer  bdng  the  cloak  or  mantle.  Thii  tbowi  tW 
the  shirt  or  frock  was,  as  in  modera  usage,  the  onB- 
nary  dress  of  the  Jews,  to  which  a  mantle  (oUn,  ^/tt, 
or  hwnsSM)  was  the  outer  covering.       , 

The  Talmnd  enumerates  eighteen  sevmi  garmcaU 
which  formed  the  clothing  of  the  Jews  frusa  fatal  ■<> 
foot  (Taim.  Hieros.  8aib.  fol.  lb;  Talm.  Bsb.  BM. 
fol.  120),  mentioning,  however,  two  saDdalt,  tve  bas- 
kins,  etc.  This  shows,  at  least,  one  tUng,  tbst  IteX 
ware  not  more  sparingly  dad  than  the  nodan  Orint- 


COSTUMS  Si 

bIb.  Tbii  baing  the  eaae,  wa  may  b*  iun  that  >I- 
tboogb  per»iu  of  the  humblar  clauei  were  content 
with  the  shirt  «iid  the  nuntie,  the  wealthier  peopls 
had  otfaar  tobea  bstween  those  two,  and  forming  a 
complete  dresa  withoat  the  mantle,  which  with  them 
was  probably  conflnad  to  ont^f-door  wear,  or  ceremo- 
nial  OH).  It  ia,  of  caaraa,  iinpoMiljIe  to  discrimliute 
these  prccUelj,  bat  la  thia  matter  we  cannot  be  far 
wrong  in  truatin/j  to  the  analogy  of  eiiatlng  uaages. 
Id  all  the  anoeiad  flgnrea,  rapreaentlng  persona  of 


COSTUME 

tbaotliar.  Thef«»i>Ais,b3>raaaonof  itslongalnvea 
(with  which  the  handa  may  be  covered),  the  robe  of 
caremonv,  and  is  wont  in  the  presence  of  luperioia 
and  persona  of  rank.  Over  one  or  both  of  these  robes 
aity  be  worn  the  abba,  boarnooi,  or  kyhe,  in  anj'  of  the 
nwdea  already  Indicated.  Aged  persons  often  wnp 
up  the  bead  and  sbouldars  with  the  latter,  in  the  roan- 
uei  shown  In  fig.  4. 

Thia  aama  tgte  or  wrapper  ia  naually  taken  by  per- 
sona going  on  a  Joorney,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used 
in  the  aame  manner  as  a  protactkm  from  the  >an  o> 
wind.    This  is  shown  In  the  annexed  ci '  ~  ' 


the  snperlor  clasa,  we  ofaaerve  the  ablrt  covered  by  a 
■triped  (aometlmes  flgured)  gown  or  cafltm  of  mingled 
•ilk  and  cotton.  It  deseenda  to  the  ankles,  with  long 
aleeree,  extending  a  lew  Inchea  beyond  the  fingers' 
•nda,  bat  divided  from  a  point  a  little  above  the  wrist, 
•o  that  the  hand  is  genoiaUy  exposed,  though  it  may 
be  concealed  by  the  sleeve  when  necesaary;  for  "  '' 
cnatomary  to  cover  the  hands  in  the  presence  of  a 
son  of  high  rank.  It  is  very  common,  eepecially  In 
winter,  for  persona  to  sleep  withoat  removing  thia 
gown,  but  only  nnlDOaing  the  girdle  bj'  which  it  ia 
bound.  It  ia  not  unnsnal  wllhln  doora  lo  see  peraons 
without  any  artlcla  of  dress  ont^o  this ;  but  it  la  con- 
sidered deddedly  aa  an  undreaa,  and  no  respectable 
ptraon  is  beheld  ont  of  doers,  or  reccirea  or  pays  visits, 
withont  an  outer  covering.  Henca  persons  clad  In 
thia  alone  are  aaid  to  be  "  naked"  in  Scripture— that 
la,  not  in  the  nanal  complete  dreu ;  for  there  can  be  no 
manner  of  doabt  that  tbiii,  or  aomethbg  like  thia,  ia 
the  riSnS.leUta'Mrt,  of  Scripture  (Exod.  xxviii,  40 ; 
Job  xsx.'lS;  Isa.  xxii, !],  etc.).  A  similar  robe  ia 
worn  by  the  women,  aa  was  also  the  case  among  the 
Israelites  (S  Sam.  xiU.  IB,  19;  Cant,  v,  S).  It  Is  In 
the  boaom  of  thia  robe  that  varlons  articles  are  carried. 
See  Bosom. 

The  girdle  worn  over  thta,  around  the  waist.  Is  nsa- 
ally  B  colored  shawl,  or  long  piece  of  flgured  white 
muslin.  The  giidle  of  the  poorer  classes  is  of  coarse 
atnlf,  and  often  of  leather,  with  daapa.  This  leathern 
giinls  in  also  mncb  need  by  the  Arabs,  and  by  persona 
of  condition  when  equipped  for  a  jonmey.  It  la  some- 
times ornamented  with  woiklngs  in  colored  worsted, 
or  iilk,  or  with  metal  studs,  shells,  beads,  etc.  Both 
1  kindi  of  girdles  were  certainly  in  Dse  among  the  He- 
brews (2  Kings  i,  8;  Hatt  iii,  4;  Mark  i,  6)  comp. 
Jar.  liii,  1).  See  Gibdls.  It  Seems  from  2  Sam. 
XX,  8  (comp.  flg.  1  above),  that  it  was  nanal  lo  wear  a 
knife  or  poniard  in  ths  ^rdla.  This  cualom  Is  still 
general,  and  denotes  not  any  dsadlj  disposition,  but 
the  want  of  clasp-knives.  Hen  nfltteiarr  vocations 
replace  it  by  an  Ink^om,  aa  waa  alao  the  case  amoog 
the  laraalilea  (Eaek.  Ix,  !). 

Over  the  in>wn  is  worn  dther  the  short-aleeved  gib- 
bek  (flg.  S),  which  is  a  long  coat  of  woollen  cloth,  or 
the  laag^leaved  iflM-l  (flg.  S),  which  la  also  of  wool- 
len cloth,  and  may  be  worn  either  over  or  inatead  of 


Hodeni  nrieatal  Tnvdllng  Drcaa. 
Ing  a  group  of  peraons  equipped  for  travel.  The  rob« 
la  hare  more  aucdnct  and  compact,  and  the  firm  men* 
ner  in  which  the  whole  dreaa  la  girded  Dp  aboDt  the 
loins  calls  to  mind  the  pasaages  of  Scripture  in  which 
the  action  of  "girding  np  the  loins"  for  a  Journey  ia 
mentioned. 

From  this  it  is  also  seen  tliat  travellers  usually 
wear  a  aword,  and  the  manner  In  wbicb  it  is  «om  is 
correctly  ahovin.  It  would  also  appear  that  the  Jewt 
irds  for  such  Dccaiional  uses  (Halt,  xxvi,  CI : 


Luke: 


ii,  £6). 


The  necessity  of  baring  the  arm  for  any  kind  of  ex- 
ertion moat  be  evident  from  the  manner  In  which  It  la 
encumbered  in  sll  the  drefses  we  have  produced.  This 
action  is  often  mentioned  In  Scripture,  which  alone 
proves  that  the  arm  was  In  ordinary  circumstances 
similarly  encumliered  by  the  dress.  For  ordinary  pur- 
poaeaa  baity  tacking  np  of  the  sleeve  of  the  right  arm 
suffices;  bnt  for  a  continued  action  apeclal  contriv. 
anoea  are  necessary.  There  are  cnriour,  as  will  he 
seen  by  the  cat  adjoining.    The  fall  sleeves  of  the 


shirt  are  sometimaa  drawn  np  by  means  of  cords,  which 
pass  round  each  shoulder,  and  cross  behind,  where 
they  are  tied  in  a  knot  This  cnalom  is  particutarly 
affsdad  by  serranta  and  workmen,  who  have  constant 


COSTUME,  SACERDOTAi         51 

ecculon  for  baring  the  inn ;  bat  othen,  irhoM  ocea* 
liaDS  are  mora  IncidsnUl,  and  vho  are,  there(i>ra,  un- 
proTided  with  the  necexaiy  corda,  draw  op  the  alMrea 
and  tie  thsm  together  behind  between  the  iliaDlden 
(flK-  2)- 

For  the  dresa  of  females,  aee  the  article  Womak. 
Certain  parts  of  dresa,  also,  admit  ofaeparate  consider- 
ation, such  u  the  head-dresa  or  turban  (q.  v.),  and  the 
clr«s  of  the  feet  ot  aandala  (q.  v.).  See  "  The  Book  of 
Cfniumi.'"  ancient  and  modem,  by  a  Lady,  Lend.  1»47  j 
Priiae  and  Sc  Joitn'a  Orienlal  Album,  London,  IB47; 
Omuma  of  Tkrixg.  London,  1802;  Une,  Arabian 
ffighli,  cuta ;  Periiina,  SttiiiaKt  in  Potia,  ptales  j 
Rnrnbonx,  Erinntr,  an  d.  Pilfferfiikrt  naeh  Jtriiiatau, 
Colli,  18M].     Compare  the  article  Dhkbb. 

COSTUME,  Bacebdotal.     Se«  Pmiur. 


COSTUME,  Clbbical,  See  Vbstmbmts  (op  thb 
Clhboi). 

Cote  (oniy  in  the  plnr,  nillK,  avemth',  by  trani- 
poaiUon  for  D'il'^N,  mob  for  fodder),  properly  rnia; 
bence  pen*,  or  encioanrea  fbr  flocha  (3  Chron.  xxxii, 
S8,  where,  instead  of  "cotes  for  flocks,"  the  original 
bu  "flocks  for   [the]  cotes").      See   Shkef-cote; 

DOVE-OOTE. 

Coteleriua  (CofsJier),  JkaN  BAi-nns,  an  tminent 
French  ■cholai,  bom  at  Klsmea.  1637.  At  twelve 
years  of  age  lie  could  read  the  Hebrew  Bible  and  the 
Grc?k  Testament  with  ease.  In  1649  bo  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Sorbonne,  He  did  not  receive  the 
dogree  of  doctor,  because  he  refnsed  to  take  orders.  Id 
Vila  ha  waa  mide  Greek  lecturer  at  Paris,  and  ro- 
tsiued  tbis  poat.with  great  reputation,  till  bia  death, 
August  12,  less.  Uostofhialiterai7UboTwaaapent| 
upon  the  Greek  fathers;  and  in  1672  be  published  the  ' 
"  Apostolic  Fathera"  (^Patrt$  Aevi  ApoiMlid,  Paris),  of 
which  the  best  edltian  is  Patmm  qtd  lemporiiui  Apct- 
toSeii  Jlonunrnt  Optra,  receasnit  J.  Clericus  (Amat. 
]7»4,  a  vols.  fol.).  In  1G67  be  waa  commisaioned  by 
Colberttoieviae  and  catalogue  the  Greek  manuscripts 
of  the  Royal  Library.  He  was  engaged  in  thla  work, 
conjointly  with  the  celebrated  DuCange.forfive years. 
In  1670  be  obtained  through  Colbert  the  chair  of  Greek  ; 
at  the  Koyal  College  of  Paris.  In  1677  be  began  tho  ' 
publication  of  bia  Eedaia  Gnxa  Mimanmla,  e  MSS.  I 
c«dtciiiu,Gr.andLat.(3yols.ltoj  the  Bd  vol.  appear. 
ed  two  days  before  hia  death).  The  fourth  volumi 
this  work,  for  which  he  had  collected  much  matei 
waa  published  in  16D!  by  the  Manrines.— See  tYel 
n.  Welle,  Kirchai-Lisx.  ii,  906 ;  Dupln,  iVowrife  Si 
eMque,  xviil,  186. 

Cottage  is  employed  In  our  version  for  three  1 
brew  words.    See  Bocrrir. 


4  COTTAGE 

1.  nSB,  iM^',  aigniflss  a  jiiit  made  of  boD^u 
(Isa.  i,  8),  and  la  usually  elaewhere  translated  "booU." 
It  waa  anciently  the  castom  In  the  Esat,  is  it  atill  Ei, 
to  erect  little  temporaiy  ihcda,  covered  with  leaves, 
■trsw,  or  turf,  giving  shelter  tnm  the  heat  by  day  and 
the  cold  dewa  at  night  to  the  watchntan  that  kept  the 
garden  or  vineyard  while  tho  (toitwaa  ripening,  which 
otherwise  might  be  Holen,  or  destroyed  by  Jackals. 
These  erections,  being  intended  only  fbr  the  occasion, 
were  of  the  very  allghtesl  fabric,  and  when  the  frniu 
were  gathered  wete  either  taken  down,  or  left  to  bll 
la  i4ccea,  or  were  tilown  down  during  the  winter  (Job 
zivii,  18>     See  Lodoe. 


Modem  OrteoUI  Lodge  In  a  AJekm-pstcb. 
S.  n;aH,  meluBo*'  (fem.  of  ','^'a,  an  iiiii\  signifci 
properly  a  U'lging-plaa,  and  la  associated  with  the 
booth  ("cottage")  in  tha  above  paasaga  (laa.  i,  S^ 
where  It  is  translated  "  hdge,"  being  probably  a  aome- 
what  slighter  structure,  if  possible,  as  a  cucumber 
patch  ia  more  temporary  than  a  vinej^ard.  It  also  oo- 
cura  in  Isa.  xniv,  iO,  In  the  mistranriated  eEpression 
"and  shall  be  removed  [i.  e.  shaken  aboutj  like  a  cut- 
lags,"  where  It  denotes  a  hanging-bed  or  i^unmod;  >n»- 
pended  from  trees,  in  which  travellers,  and  especiilly 
tho  watchmen  in  gardens,  were  accostomed  to  aleep 
during  summer,  so  as  to  be  out  of  tha  reach  of  wild 
animala.  The  swin^g  of  these  aptly  coiresponda 
with  the  staggering  of  a  dmnken  man.  Or  it  may, 
perbapa,  more  appropriately  denote  here  Ukmo  fnll 
structures  of  boughs,  supported  by  ■  few  poles,  wUck 
the  Orientals  nae  for  the  ssme  purpose. 


8.  In  Zeph.  (1, 6,  the  orinina!  term  b  TIB,  fend' 
OilCTBlly  diggisgi),  i.  t.pitt  tot  holding  water,  and,  in- 
stead of  "  dwellings  [and]  cottagea  tor  shepherds,"  it 
I  should  be  rendered  "  fields  fall  of  abiptwrda'  ditena," 


COTTON 

tar  watering  tbclr  flockg ;  tbtt  la,  tha  ailei  of  tha  cltiu 
of  PhilUtia  ihould  b»  occupied  for  putorjl  puT; 
Thia  wuTd  doe*  not  occar  clH«here. 

Cotton  (ftam  the  Arab.  lume  hihM),  the  vell- 
kiwva  woul-liko  eubiUnoe  wblch  snvelop*  tha  aseda, 
and  ia  contained  within  tfaa  round lah.painted  ctpanle 
or  fruit  of  tba  cotton-chnib.  Evar}'  one  alio  knovi 
tbat  cotton  haa,  fknm  the  «arlie>t  age,  baan  durscter- 
btic  uf  India.  Indeed,  Ithaa  been  well  remarkad  that, 
■a  frrim  early  tlmei  iheep's  wool  has  been  principally 
smpkired  for  clottiing  in  FaleatiDa  and  Syria,  In  Asia 
liinoT,  (Ireece,  luly,  and  Spain,  hemp  in  the  northern 
countriea  of  Europe,  and  flax  In  Egypt,  to  cotton  haa 
■Iwaya  been  employed  for  tbs  ume  purpoaa  In  India, 
and  bUIc  in  China.  In  the  preaent  day,  cotton,  by  the 
■id  of  machinery,  haa  been  maourictared  in  thia  coon- 
try  on  so  extenaira  a  acale,  and  aold  M  lo  cheap  a 
rjt«.  u  to  drive  the  minnfactureg  of  India  almost  en- 
timly  out  of  the  markeL.  Bat  atUI,  until  a  very  recent 
period,  the  calicoei  and  cbintiea  of  India  formed  very 
extensive  articles  of  eommeice  trom  that  countiy  to 
Europe.  For  the  Inveatigation  of  the  early  biatory  of 
cotton,  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  tbe  earlieat  notice* 
of  thin  commerce  J  before  addoclngtheae,  however,  we 
may  briefly  notice  the  particular  plinta  ind  connlriet 
ftoni  wblcli  cotton  is  obtained.  India  poaaeaaea  two 
very  distinct  Fpecteii  I .  Coa^pom  Aer&ocnn  of  bota- 
nists, of  which  there  are  aevenU  varietiea,  tome  of 
wbich  have  spread  north,  and  also  into  the  lonth  of 
Europe,  and  into  Afkico.  !.  Gouifpnim  arbartum,  or 
cottou-tree,  which  i>  little  cultivated  on  acconnt  of  ib 
small  produce,  lint  which  yields  n  fine  kind  of  cotton. 
This  muit  not  be  confounded,  aa  it  often  ia,  with  the 
Bilk-cotton  tree,  or  Bondyi  Atpta/AglUm,  which  does 
not  yield  a  cotton  fit  Ibr  apinning.  Cotton  ftom  thete 
kinds  ii  now  chiefly  cultlvsled  in  Central  India,  from 
whence  it  is  carried  to  and  exported  from  Broach.  It 
la  alfO  Ur^^ely  cultivated  in  the  districta  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  as  also  in  that  of  Madras,  but  leaa  Id  Ben- 
gal, except  for  home  maniifactare,  which  of  couiaa  re- 
quires  a  large  snppiv,  where  so  large  a  population  are 
all  clothed  in  cotton.  American  cotton  la  obtained 
ttom  two  entirely  distinct  apeciea — Goagpiim  Surto- 
doaae,  of  which  diSbrent  varieties  yield  the  Sea  Island, 
Upland,  Georgian,  and  the  New  Orleana  cottons ; 
■bile  G.  renciaiuim  yields  the  Brazil,  Pemaoibuco, 
and  Mher  South  American  cotlnna.  These  spedet 
■re  original  nattvn  of  America.  Tha  Cniiffpium 
lirrbiieriiin,  a  figure  of  which  i*  annexeil,  ia  probably 


COTTON 


nclenb.    (Sea  ftuny  Cj^eb- 


the  ipedea  known  to  t 
ptdia,  a.  v.  Gctaypian  , 

Thia  snbatance  ia  no  doubt  denoted  by  the  tenn 
DB^S,  tarp3i'  (whence  Gr.  adpiraaot,  I^t  earbatia, 
from  Sanscr.  karpat),  of  Eath.  i,  6,  which  the  A.  V. 
tendera  "green"  (Se[rt.  intiiruiTH'Ot.Vulg,  earba^nui). 
There  is  considerable  doubt,  however,  whether  nnder 
dc,  nlul,  In  the  earlier,  and  ya,  butt,  in  the  later 
hooka  of  the  0.  T.  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  white  tines," 
"  Hne  linen,"  etc.,  cotton  may  not  have  been  included 
as  well.  Both  theie  latter  terms  are  said  by  Getenloa 
to  be  (torn  roots  signifying  originally  mere  whiteness; 
a  sense  said  also  to  Inhere  In  the  word  la,  bad,  naad 
aometimea  tnalead  of,  and  sometlmaa  together  with 
ailei*  to  mcam  tbe  fabric.  InEaek.  ixvil,7,  I6,(*Falla 
mentioned  aa  Imported  into  Tyre  from  E^vf.t,  and  butt 
as  from  Syria.  Each  is  found  in  turn  coupled  with 
^^I'^IK  laTyamn'),  In  the  sctise  of  "purple  and  flne 
linen,"  1.  •.  tbe  most  showy  and  costly  apparel  (comp. 
Prov.  xit,  22,  with  Eath.  viii,  la).  The  dresa  of  the 
Etryptian  prieats,  at  any  rate  in  their  ministrations, 
was  without  doubt  of  linen  (Herod,  ii,  ST),  in  spile  of 
Pliny's  aseertlon  (xlx,  1,  2)  that  they  preferred  cotton. 
Tet  cotton  garmenla  forthe  wonhip  of  the  temples  la 
aaid  to  be  mentioned  on  tbe  Boaetta  atone  (Wilkinaon, 
Ane.  Kg.  ill,  117).  The  aame  was  the  caae  witb  tbe 
Jewish  ephod  and  other  priestly  attire,  in  which  we 
cannot  suppose  any  carejetsnetis  lo  have  prevailed. 
If,  however,  a  Jew  happened  to  have  a  piece  of  cotton 
cloth,  he  probably  would  not  be  deterred  by  any  scru- 
ple slK>at  the  ielrroi/nea  of  Dent,  xxii,  II,  from  wear- 
ing that  and  linen  together.  There  la,  however,  no 
wonl  for  the  cotton  plant  (like  riEIDD  for  flax)  in  tbe 
Hebrew,  nor  any  reason  to  suppoae  that  there  was 
any  eariy  knowledge  of  the  fabric  In  Palealine.     See 

The  Egyptian  mummy  swathings  also,  nsny  of 
which  are  said  to  remain  as  good  as  when  freih  from 
tbe  loom,  are  decided,  after  much  controversy  and  mi- 
nute analytis,  to  have  been  of  linen,  and  not  cotton 
(Bjjpl.  .iarfj.intheLi'S.D/fn/ertoimiyffncio/.  ii.182). 
The  ver)-  difficulty  of  deciding,  however,  shone  how 
easily  even  sclentUlc  obseners  may  mistake,  and, 
much  more,  how  impossible  It  would  have  been  for  an- 
cient popnjar  writers  to  avoid  conrnsion.  Kven  Greek 
natanlista  aometimet  clearly  Include  '■cotton"  nndci 
\ivnv.  The  aame  appear*  to  be  tme  of  69ivr,,  ieiviov, 
and  the  whnle  class  of  words  signifyini;  white  textile 
vegetable  fabrics.  From  theptoper  Oriental  name  for 
the  article  bnjHU,  with  which  either  their  Alexandrian 
or  Partbian  intercourse  might  tkmiliatize  them,  tbo 
Latins  torrowed  fortnrtii,  completely  cuirent  In  poeU- 
cal  use  In  the  golden  and  silver  period  of  I^tinity,  for 
sails,  awnings,  etc.  Varro  knew  of  tree-wool  on  the 
■uthority  of  Ctesiaa  contemporary  with  Uerodotua. 
Tbe  Greeks,  through  the  commercial  consequences  of 
Alexaodor's  conquests,  must  have  known  of  cotton 
cloth,  and  more  or  less  of  the  plant.  Amssls  indeed 
(about  B.C.  640)  sent  as  aprcscnt  from  Egypt  a  corslet 
ornamented  with  gold  and  "tree-wool"  (ipjorsi  ari 
ioXav,  Hemd.  lii,  47),  which  Pliny  rays  was  atlll  exist- 
ing in  his  time  in  a  temple  In  Hhodes,  and  that  the 
minuteness  of  its  flbre  had  provulied  tbo  experiments 
of  tbe  curioua.  Cotton  was  manufactured  and  worn 
extenalvely  In  Egypt,  bnt  extant  monuments  give  no 
proofof  its  growth,  aa  In  the  case  of  flax,  in  that  coun- 
try (\VIlkinBon,  aJ  t¥p.  p.  116  18D,  and  plole  Xo,  BflC) ; 
indeed,  had  it  been  a  general  product,  neconld  scarce- 
ly have  missed  flnding  soma  trace  of  it  in  the  mono- 
menUl  details  of  ancient  Egyptisn  arts,  trades,  etc. ; 
but  especially  when  Pliny  (A.I).  115)  sssrrts  that  cot- 
ton was  then  grown  In  Egj-pt,  a  statpment  conlirmed 
by  Jnlloa  Pollni  (a  century  later),  we  can  hardly  re- 
sist the  Inference  that,  at  lesst  as  a  curiosity  and  as  an 
experiment,  some  plantatlona  eiiated  there.    Thia  la 


COTTON  83 

tba  moN  llkel)',  slntM  v«  find  ttw  eoUon-(re«  (Gougpi- 

MM  arboreum,  less  usual  than,  ud  diidtict  from,  the 
c(it(«D  picmt.  IJo4B/p.  ia-bac.)  Dutatloniid  ■till  by  Pliiif 
u  th:  mig  mairia!.U  tree  of  tba  adjacent  EtUap<*i 
■ad  911100  Arabia,  on  iu  otbcr  aide,  appeurs  to  havo 
known  cotton  from  tinw  immemarial,  lo  ktow  it  in 
abundanco,  and  in  pjita  lo  b«  bi|(1iB}'  favoruble  to  tbst 
prodiiO.  In  India,  howBTer,  we  bave  tlie  eurlleit  r«- 
urdioftheuM  of  cotton  for  dnn,  of  wblcb,  Including 
the  sLirching  of  it,  aumc  cuHoui  t»CP«  are  found  aa 
«irlj  as  800  B.C.,  in  the  InlituUit  o/Jfenu ;  alio  (it  ia 
Hud,  on  the  authority  of  Prof.  WiUon)  in  the  Rig-VtAi, 
10.1.  V.  B.  (For  IbeM  and  aomo  other  eurions  antlqul- 
tlei  of  the  auhject,  *ee  Rorte's  CuIOan  uitd  Commera 
t/CJtU*  I'n  Inrka,  p.  117-11!.) 

Cotton  ia  taie  both  grawii  and  mannfu^arsd  la  rari- 
oni  purta  of  S}-ri4  and  PaleMlne,  and,  owing  proliabl}' 
lo  its  l>ein;j  loss  coDductiTe  of  beat,  aeanit  pccterred  for 
turlumn  and  ihirta  to  linen;  but  thsn  i*  no  proof  that, 
(ill  thoy  cinie  in  contact  with  PergU,  tlie  Hebrews  gf"- 
erslly  knew  of  it  a>  a  diitlnct  fabric  fiMm  linen,  whilst 
the  negative  proof  of  language  and  the  prolNibilitiea  of 
ftct  offer  a  itrong  praaumption  that,  if  the;  obtained 
it  at  aU  in  comuierce,  they  confounded  It  with  linen 
under  the  terma  thnk  or  butt.  The  greater  cleanlineu 
and  durability'  of  linen  probably  eitaliliabcd  Iti  euperi- 
ority  over  cotton  for  aopulchral  purpoaea  in  the  N.-T. 
period,  by  which  time  the  latter  must  bare  been  com- 
monly known,  and  thua  there  ia  no  reason  for  asiign- 
Ing  cotton  as  the  material  of  the  "  lioaii  clothea"  (Mci- 
vm)  of  which  ire  read.  (For  tlie  whole  subject,  aee 
Tates'a  Texfrmum  Aatiqurmn,  pt.  i,  chap,  vi,  and  app. 
D.)     See  BoTA.VT. 

CottOD,  asorge  Bdward  Ljnoli,  Anglican 
liilbop  of  Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  the  Anglican 
dioceses  of  India  nnd  CejioD,  waa  bom  at  Chestor, 
England,  Oct.  29, 183:!.  AfUr  atudying  at  Weatmln- 
■ter  School  and  Trinity  Collage,  he  waa  appointed  to 
a  maalerahip  In  Ragbv  Schoot  ind  shortly  after  was 
olected  to  a  fellowahip  at  Trinity  College.  Aboat 
ISIl  he  succeeded  to  the  mastership  of  the  lifth  form, 
the  highest  but  one.  In  186!  he  was  elected  head 
Duater  of  Msrlborou^'h  College,  which  under  his  man- 
agement roie  to  a  high  position  among  loading  public 
achoob.  In  1B58  he  waa  appointed  to  the  metropoli- 
tan see  of  Calcutta,  where  he  rendered  himself  gener- 
ally beloved.  In  1SG3,  with  the  full  concurrence  of 
the  gOTemor  geneial,  be  offlclallj'  sanctioned  an  Inno- 
vation  in  the  use  ofconsecialed  churches,  which  had 
often  been  desired,  but  never  till  then  secured.  Since 
the  matiny,  several  Scotch  regiments  have  been  sta- 
tioned in  the  barracka  of  Upper  India,  and  In  many 
itatioDS  they  have  no  churches  of  their  own.  Bishop 
Ootton  ordered  (hat  at  a  conTenlent  hour  on  the  Sun- 
day the  Episcopal  churchea  should  be  available  for 
their  worship,  and  that  tbe  Presbyterian  clergyman 
■hould  have  full  liberty  to  oSciete  after  the  rules  of 
bis  own  Church,  to  (he  great  dliutisfaction  of  the 
Higb-Chnrch  party  in  the  Church  of  England.  In 
England  strong  measures  were  suggested  In  order  to 
compel  him  to  retracL  But  be  knew  that  the  meaanra 
was  right  In  itself  that  the  law  was  on  his  side,  and 
that  hia  conduct  was  heartily  approved  by  the  Indian 
government  and  by  all  right-thinking  men.  In  the 
same  spirit,  when  the  Maniage  Bill  was  brought  be- 
fore (be  Legislative  Council,  to  provide  increased  b- 
dlities  for  the  marriage  of  Presbyteriana  and  Non- 
confitrniiats,  and  give  to  Nonconformist  ministers  and 
registrars  power*  which  they  do  not  pDasessin  England 
Itlelf,  he  gave  the  act  bis  cordial  approval.  He  waa  sc- 
ddentally  drowned  while  disembarking  from  a  steam. 
er,  October  6,  VX&.—Am,.  Amur.  dcUgxrdia /or  1868, 
p.  S61 :  Aril.  Quarl.  Riviem,  Jan.  186T. 

Cotton,  John,  an  eminent  Congregational  minis, 
tar,  was  bom  at  Derby,  Eng.,  Dec.  4,  US6.  He  was 
a  student  in  Cambridge,  bacama  fellow  of  Bmnunnal 


College,  and  waa  eboaan  ancpssslvsly  head  leiXaiM 
and  dean.  In  1612  be  waa  settled  aa  miniater  at  Bdfc 
ton,  Lincoliuhire.  After  preaching  some  few  yeua, 
ha  waa  sUenced  for  aoncanfoTTolty  with  some  a«r*- 
moniea  which  he  held  to  be  miscriptural,  but  aftar  a 
abort  time  he  was  reinsUted.  About  163i,  to  ac*p* 
examination  before  the  High  Commission  Court,  ba 
sectetod  himself  In  London,  and  thence  aailed  for  Nnr 
England,  arriving  in  Boaton  SepL  S,  1683.  On  OcC 
10  he  was  appointed  preacher  in  the  First  ChurdL 
He  died  Dec.  28,  ISIS.  He  published  Ai,  Abitraet  rf 
IkiLaei  of  Ni»  Eii,^a»ii^^\):-~The  OeirdCi  Ba- 
•trrectibis  (lft<2) :— 7%  Pmimg  oat  of  (is  Siwtn  Viab 
(1612):— Tik«  H'ago/Lifi  (Lond.  1641, 4ta) i-^AratOM 
on  Mtng  (skI  /Mftos  D/'So(l(Lond.  1641,  4to) :— ij^ia- 
jU«  aftkt  Canada  (Land.  1612, 8vo) :— 7^  Cotrmatt 
nf  Grart  (Lond.  1662,  sm.  8vo) :— -4  praHKat  <7o*nw» 
tary  npm  the  lu  EputUe/Jain  (Lond,  16or>,  fol.),  wkk 
several  minor  writinga.— Spragne,  Aimait,  i,  9fi. 

Cotton  MBS.    See  Puart^BKog,  Codes. 

Conch  (7^X^,  jkVki'A,  something  ipread.  Gen. 
xllz,  4 ;  "  bed,"'  1  Chron.  t,  1 1  Job  xvii,  18 ;  Psa. 
lxiii,6;  Gzxzli,  8;  SSdp,  ■nsUoi',  something  to  £> 
npon,  Job  vli,  18,  elsewhere  "  bed ;"  b*^?,  e'ru,  scooe- 
tUng  erected;  Psa.  vi,  6 ;  Amos  ill,  1!;' vi,  4;  "bed," 
Job 711,18:  Psa.xll,8;  cixxIi,S;  Prov. vi'i, ]G ;  Cant. 
I,ie;  "  bedstead,  "Deut.  ill,  11;  (Xivi^ioF,  a  lioJe  M; 
Luke  V,  19,  24 ;  cp<i;)/3aroc,  ■  pdkl.  Acts  v,  15,  dso- 
where  "bod"),  Feather-beda,  as  among  ns,  are  un- 
known in  (he  East,  aa  indeed  genemlly  in  aouthou 
climates.  Tbe  poor  aleep  on  mats  or  wrapped  in  their 
ovardothes  (Exod.  xxll,  !7j  Dent,  xiiv,  13j  camp. 
Theocr.  ivili,  19 ;  S(obBi  Stm.  72,  p.  104 ;  a>  to  Bd^ 
Ui,  S  i  Ezek.  xvi,  S,  see  Biel  l^i  the  Mitacll.  l^  Sat. 
V,  209  sq.),  and.  In  the  open  air,  sometimes  have  only 
a  stone  for  a  idllow  (Arvleux,  iii,  2J6 ;  comp.  Gen.  ix, 
SI,  2S  j  xxtlli,  tl).  Tbe  wealthy  use  boUten  or  mat- 
tresses  (Bossel,  Aleppo,  i,  19&),  atuffed  with  wool  or 
cotton.  These  are  not  laid  npon  a  bodstoad,  but  on  a 
laised  portion  (dimn,  q.  v.)  along  the  aide  of  the  room, 
which  by  day  serves  for  a  seat  (Harmar,  1, 1»1;  ii,71i 
RosenmUlIer,  Morgad.  ill,  211;  vi,  14;  Lontnl,  ITim- 
der.  p.  89).  Whether  the  couches  of  the  ancient  He- 
brews for  the  sick  or  aleeping,  which  are  nsnallj 
termed  rrao,  nlUak'  (Gen.  ilvli,  81 ;  1  Sam.  xix,  13: 
2  Sam.  iv,  7;  2  Kinga  i,  4),  3329,  MuUui'  (Eied. 
xxl,18i  S  Sara,  xiii,  6;  Cant.Ui,'l),  b-IJ,  ('r»  (Job 
r!i,13;  Cant,  i,  IS;  Pn>v.vii,lli  properly  a  inlKs^ 
aee  Dent  iii,  11),  were  upon  auch  a  platform,  is  uncer- 
tain, BB  they  appear  to  have  been  movable  {1  Sua. 
lii,  IG),  and  were  probably  uasd  in  the  daytime,  like 
Bofas,  for  altting  down  and  repose  (1  Sam.  xiviii.  13; 
Eiek.  ixiii,  41;  Amos  Iii,  1!|  vi,  4 ;  yet  compan  t 
Kings  Iv,  10).     Costly  carpeta  graced  the  booses  of 


OrintalOafdaal 


'fe^i^^W'^lc 


COIJLON  53 

the  rich  (ProT.  vli.  16  aq. ;  Eiek.  xzili,  41 ;  Amos  iii, 
1!};  tbOH  wbo  ta?  apoQ  thani  covered  IheniBelves 
vHh  simtlar  tapcsti7,  and  pU«d  a  soft  fur  under  their 
lu«d(i  3am.  iii,l£^.  A  canopy,  or  bed  with  a  Uiter, 
ii  names  ia  the  Apocrypha  (Judith  xvi,  SB),  and  el>e- 
vhere  a  Hanging  bad  or  hammock  (n:Ol3,  laa.  xsIt, 
M).  BDcb  M  watchen  in  gardens  used  (Geunlui,  Thtt, 
Bii.  p.  7M;  csmp.  Niebabr,  Backr,  p.  liS).  tn  the 
Mithna  Tarioiu  kinds  of  beds  or  coaches  are  referred 
to;  e.  g.  the  On^,  dargath'  iNtdar.  vu,  5),  The 
coBchei  (cXr»),  <^^j!aroc)  for  the  ilck,  named  tn  the 
N.  T.  (Matt,  ix,  6;  Hark  ii,  4;  vi,  &S;  Luke  v,  18; 
Acta  v.  6,  etc.)  ware  movable  (Becker,  Charid.  ii,  72). 
See  Bkd. 

Coulon.     See  Ccuif. 

Coaltei  occnn  in  1  Sam.  zlii,  SO,  31,  as  tbe  trans- 
latioD  of  rK  (etA),  an  agricultnral  instrnment,  rendered 
elsewhere  ••pla^h-diare"  (laa.  il,  4;  Uic.  iv,  S;  Jnel 
iii,  10),  for  which,  however,  a  different  word  stands  in 
the  paasage  in  I  Sam.  The  Sept.  readen  it  by  the 
general  term  rmvoc,  implaitemt,  \a  1  Sam.,  hatplaigh- 
ikart  in  the  other  pusages.  The  Kabtuns  understand 
it  to  be  a  aiattock^  Tt  waa  probably  the  facing.point 
or  shoe  of  •  plongh,  saalogDaa  to  our  coulter,  as  It 
waa  of  iron,  with  an  edge  that  required  sborpening, 
and  was  easily  tran>romied  into  a  sword.  Such  an 
^■pcndage  to  the  plougli,  however,  is  not  now  in  use 
in  the  East  [aee  Aobicultube],  but  would  be  greatly 
needed  in  improved  cultivation,  considering  the  frail 
■tracCare  of  tbe  ploagh  itself,  the  point  iMing  usually 
only  of  wood  (see  Wilkinson's  A  »deU  Egj/piitiat,  ii, 
11,17).     SeePl«iTOB. 

CotmOll  li  tlie  rendering  given  by  our  translators 
chiefly  to  two  Greek  words. 

1.  ^iifhiXum  (a  mnliiig  of  amnieUort)  signifles  ■ 
axaabatiim  nf  persons  for  executing  any  enterprise 
(Uatt.  sii,  II),  a  sense  elsewhere  covered  by  the  usual 
trantlation  "coonsel;"  also  ■  comieil,  or  assembly  of 
perwrna  dnly  convened.  In  Acts  xxv,  12,  It  b  spoken 
of  coaMsaUon,  i.  e.  penoos  who  sat  In  public  trials  with 
the  governor  of  a  province ;  called  alsot»iKRfiari>(Sue- 
toDiua,  Tib.  B8)  or  aaeiterti  (Lamprid.  Vil.  Alex.  Srr. 
46),  la  the  regular  pTwoninlar  "conventua."  This 
last  was  a  stated  meeting  of  tbe  Roman  citiiena  of  a 
pmvince  In  the  chief  town,  for  the  purpose  of  trying 
causes,  tnaa  among  whom  tbe  proconsul  selected  a 
number  to  Wj  tbe  cases  in  dispute,  himself  presiding 
orer  their  action.  From  the  instance  in  question, 
something  sualogous  appears  to  have  obtained  under 
the  pTocuratorsbip  of  Judos  (see  Smith's  Dk/.o/Clau. 
Ami.  s.  V.  Conrentna).     See  AJiahcb  ;  PsocnRATOii. 

3.  SmiliHov  (a  tittiag  logrther)  signifles  a  formal 
aaaembly  or  smote,  and  In  the  N.  T.  is  spoken  only  of 
Jewish  "foaacib,"  by  which  word  It  la  Invariably 
rendered  in  tbe  common  version.  These  were;  (1.) 
The  Sajibbdbih  (q.  v.),  or  supreme  council  of  tbe 
nation.  (3.)  In  the  plufU,  the  smaller  (Himob  In 
the  cities  nf  Palestine  sDbordinate  to  the  Sanhedrim 
(Hatt.  1,17;  Hark  xill,  9).  See  Trial.  The  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  grades  of  coorta  seems 
clearly  alluded  to  in  Hatt.  v,  33.  See  Jddomknt. 
According  to  tbe  Rabbins,  these  lower  courts  consisted 
of  twenty-three  Judges,  and  the  two  In  Jerusalem  were 
held  in  the  rooma  over  the  Shushan  and  the  Beautiful 
gates;  hut  Joiephus  expressly  says  tbal  tbe  number 
of  Judges  was  seven  (.lal.  iv,  S,  14,  88  ;  War,  ii,  30, 
S) ;  and  there  are  iwtices  in  the  Talmud  of  arbitration 
eanrts  of  tbrea  Judges  (Jabn's  Anlta,^  ^  Uli).  Vtr- 
hspe  the  fbrmer  two  of  these  were  but  dilforent  Ibrms 
if  tbe  same  eonrt  in  difl^rent  places.  See  Cdcrt, 
JcDiclAU  lliey  sppear  to  have  been  originally  In- 
stilated  by  Hoses  (Deut.  xvl,  18;  3  Cbron.  xlx,  S), 
aodtohavehadjuriadlctlon  even overcapital offences; 
aKhongli,  under  lbs  civil  tupremfcj  of  the  Romans, 
tlieir  powers  were  doubtless  much  restricted.     See 


7  COXJNCIL 

PimiSBXEirrg.  In  tbe  times  of  CMA  and  his  apoa- 
ties  the  functions  of  this  court  were  probably  conRued 
chiefly  to  the  penalty  of  excommunication  [see  Ahath- 
■haJ  (John  xvi,  2),  although  there  are  not  wanting 
intimations  of  their  inflicting  corporal  chaatisement  (2 
Cor.  xi,  24).     See  Tbiuuhau 

8.  In  tbe  Old  Testament  ''conndl"  occnn  In  Psa. 
Izviii,  37,  as  the  rendering  of  H'OS^,  r^rmoA'  (literally 
a  Aeqp),  a  OtTimg  or  company  of  persona.     See  CouH- 

4.  In  the  Apocrypha,  "conndl,"  in  its  ordinary 
sense,  is  the  rendering  of  jSouX^  (lEstb.ii,17;  IMacc 
xiv,  33),  mJ/i/JotAo.  (I  Eath.  viil.  55),  and  ^ovXiiofiai 
(2  Uacc.  ii,  £8).     See  Coddbellob. 

COUNCIL,  Apostoucai.,  at  Jenaatan  (Acts  zr, 
6  sq.).  See  Apostoucai.  Codmcil.  Uany  wrhers, 
Prt^estants  as  well  as  Bomanists,  have  regarded  the 
assembly  of  the  apostles  and  elders  ot  Jerusalem,  of 
which  we  lead  in  Acts  xv,  as  tbe  flrst  eeclealaatical 
conndl,  and  the  model  on  which  olhen  were  formed, 
in  accordance,  as  they  suppose,  with  a  divine  com- 
mand or  apostolic  institutiou.  Bat  this  view  of  the 
matter  is  unsupported  by  the  testimony  of  antiquity, 
and  is  at  variance  witb  tbe  opinions  of  tbe  eariiesl 
writers  who  refer  to  tbe  councils  of  tbe  Church.  Ter- 
tullian  speaks  of  tbe  eeclealaatical  sssemlilics  of  tbe 
Asiatic  and  European  Greeks  a>  a  human  Inalitutlon ; 
and  In  a  tetter  written  by  Fimiilian,  biahop  of  Cesa- 
rea,  to  Cyprian,  about  the  middle  of  tbe  third  century, 
the  same  custom  is  referred  to  merely  as  a  convenient 
arrangement  existing  at  that  time  among  the  churcbei 
of  Asia  Minor  for  common  deliberation  on  matters  of 
extraordinary  Importance.  Betides  this,  it  will  b« 
found,  upon  eiumination,  that  the  councils  of  the 
Church  were  assemblages  of  altegether  a  difllerent  na- 
ture from  that  of  the  apostles  and  elders ;  the  only 
point  in  which  tbe  alleged  model  was  really  Imitated 
being,  perhaps,  the  form  of  preface  to  tbe  decree,  "  It 
hath  seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghopt  and  to  us"  (see 
the  Sludiai  u.  KritOm,  1843,  i,  102  sq.).     See  Dbcrbb 


EB). 


CousciLS  (Lat.  cmciSiai).  assemblies  of  pastors  or 
bishops  fbr  tbe  discussion  and  regulation  of  ecclesi- 
sstlcal  effsirs. 

1.  The  beginning  of  the  eyatetn  of  church  councils 
ia  traced  to  the  gathering  together  of  tbe  apoatlet  aiid 
elders  narrated  in  Acts  zv.  Tbia  la  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  the  flrst  council  (see  above) ;  but  It  differed 
fVom  all  others  In  this  circumstance,  th^  it  was  un- 
der the  special  Insidratlon  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Roman 
Catholic  writers  speak  of  four  Apostolical  Councils. 
vli.,  Acta  1,18,  for  the  election  of  an  apostle;  Acts  v], 
to  choose  deacons ;  Acts  zv,  tbe  one  above  named ; 
Acta  xxi,  18  sq.  But  none  of  theae  bed  a  public  and 
general  chsracler  except  that  in  Acts  xv  (Schaff.  But. 
of  Chrii^aa  Church,  ii,^  66).  Although  tbe  Gospel  wis 
soon  after  propagated  in  many  psrts  of  Europe,  Ada, 
and  Africa,  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in^ 
public  meeting  of  Christians  held  for  tbe  purpose  of 
discussing  sny  contested  point  until  tbe  middle  of  the 
second  century.  Prom  that  time  conncUa  becsme  fre- 
quent :  but  aa  they  consisted  only  of  those  wbo  be- 
longed to  particular  districts  or  countries,  they  are 
usually  termed  iJJEKesan,  pnwindal,  peiriaTchal,  or  na- 
limial  councils,  in  contrBdlstlnction  to  acameneat  or 
grmrcd  cooncils,  1.  e.  supposed  to  comprise  delegates 
or  commissioners  from  all  the  churches  in  tbe  Chris- 
tian world,  and  consequently  supposed  to  repieaent 
the  Church  universal. 

3.  O^tutntmeat  CmmrUt.— Tilt  nUM  aivoiot  ofni»- 
piyttii  (coacilium  i/mvernde  or  ^meruit)  occurs  flrst  Id 
the  6th  canon  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  681  (Scbsff, 
I.  c).  No  such  assembly  was  held,  or  could  be  held, 
before  the  eatabliafament  of  tbe  Cbristisn  religion  over 
the  ruins  of  paganism  in  tbe  Romsn  Empire.  Tbefr 
title  to  le^eent  tbe  whole  (Hiriatlsn  world  U  not 


COUNCILS  5: 

Tslid.  After  thfl  4lh  c«ntDT]>  the  lower  clergj-  and  tba 
laltj  van  entinly  iiclnded  fmm  the  councils,  and 
Ughop*  anl;  admitEed.  The  nnmber  of  biihop*  gath- 
ered  M  Ilie  greateit  of  tbe  coancila  conaCituUd  but  a 
small  portion  of  tbe  entire  episcopate  ot  the  world. 
Ths  mcuDienical  councils  which  are  generally  admit- 
ted to  boar  that  title  moatjaatly  were  rathar  Greek 
than  general  cooncHs.  In  tbe  strict  and  proper  sem* 
of  the  term,  tberefore,  no  (Ecumenical  council  has  ever 
l>een  held. 

Tbere  are  saTen  coancUs  admitted  by  iMth  tbe  Greek 
and  Latin  charches  as  oseumenicsl.  The  Komin  Catb. 
ollca  add  twelve  to  tbe  nnmber,  makinK  nineteen, 
named  In  the  following  list.  For  details  as  to  the  do- 
ings of  tbe  councils,  see  the  separate  articles  under 
each  title  in  this  Cjclopaidisu 

1.  Tbe  synod  of  apostles  in  Jenualem  (Act*  xt). 
S.  The  first  Council  of  Nice,  held  326  A.D.,  to  assert 
the  Catholic  doctrine  respecting  the  Son  of  God  in  op- 
posmon  to  tbe  opinions  of  Arius.  8.  The  Hrat  Council 
of  Constantinople,  convoked  under  tbe  emperor  Tbeo- 
doslus  tbe  Great  (381  A.D.},  to  determine  the  Catholic 
doctrine  ragaidmg  the  Holy  GbosL  *.  The  flrst  Conn- 
cil  of  Epbesos,  convened  under  Tbeodosina  the  Yonnget 
<4S1  A.D.),  to  condemn  the  Nestorian  heresy.  6.  The 
Council  of  Cbalcedon,  under  the  Emperor  Harcian 
(461  A.  D.),  which  asserted  tbe  doctrine  of  the  onion 
of  tlie  divine  with  tba  bumsD  nature  in  Christ,  and 
oondemnad  the  heresies  of  Eatychcs  and  the  Honopby- 
sites.  S.  Tbe  second  Conncll  of  Constantinople,  under 
Justinian  (563  A.D.),  which  condemned  the  doctrines 
of  Origan,  Arius,  Hacedooius,  and  otben.  7.  The 
tliird  Council  of  Constantinople,  convoked  under  the 
emperor  Constantloe  V,  Ponfonstus  (681  A.D.).  Ibrthe 
condemnation  of  tbe  Honothelite  heresy.  8.  Tbe  sec- 
ond Council  of  Mice,  held  in  tbe  nign  of  the  empress 
Irene  and  her  eon  Constanline  (787  A.D.),  to  establish 
tha  WDnhip  at  images.  Against  this  council  Charle- 
nufcne  convened  a  counter  synod  at  Frankfort  (794 
A.D.).  9.  The  fburtb  Council  of  Constantinople,  un- 
der BasiUus  and  Adrian  (8fi9  A.D.),  tbe  principal  busi- 
ness of  which  was  tha  deposition  of  Pbotius,  who  had 
introded  himself  into  the  see  of  Constantinople,  and 
the  restoration  of  IgnaUus,  who  bad  been  its  former 
ODcnpant.  10,  Tha  flrst  Lateran  Council  held  in  Rome 
under  the  emperor  Henry  V,  and  convoked  by  tbe 
pope  Calixtue  II  (1123  A.D.),  to  settle  tbe  dispute  on 
investiture  (q.  v.).  11.  The  second  Lateran  Council, 
under  the  emperor  Conrad  III  and  pope  Innocent  II 
(1139  A.D.),  condemned  the  errors  of  Arnold  of  Brescia 
and  otben.  'l2.  Tbe  third  I*teran  Council,  convened 
by  pope  Alexander  III  (1179  A.D.),  in  the  reign  of 
^ederick  I  of  Germany,  cendemned  the  "  errors  and 
imfueties"  of  tbe  Waldensasand  Albigenses.  13.  The 
fourth  Lateran  Council,  held  under  Innocent  III  (1S15 
A.D.),  among  other  matters  asserted  and  conlirmed 
tbe  dogma  of  transobstanUstlon  and  necessity  for  the 
refonnation  of  abuses  and  the  extirpation  of  heresy. 
U.  The  lirst  (ecumenical  svnod  of  Lyon,  held  during 
the  ponUHcate  at  Innocent  IV  (1S46  A.D.),  bad  for  its 
abject  tbe  promotion  of  the  Crusadea,  the  restoration 
of  ecclesiastical  disclpUne,  etc.  15.  The  second  (ecu- 
menical synod  of  Lyon  was  held  during  the  pontillcate 
orGregoryX(12T4A.D.)i  its  principal  abject  was  the 
Monion  of  tbe  Greek  and  Latin  charches.  16.  Tbe 
Synod  of  Vienne  in  Gaul,  ander  Clemens  T  (1311 
jCd.),  was  convoked  to  suppress  the  Knigbts  Tem- 
plars, etc  IT.  The  Council  of  Constance  ivas  con- 
voked at  the  request  of  the  emperor  Siglsmohd,  1414 
A.D.,  and  sat  for  four  yean.  It  asserted  the  author- 
ity of  an  {ecumenical  council  over  i)m  pope,  and  con- 
damned  the  doctrines  of  John  Huas  and  Jerome  of 
Prague.  IS.  The  Council  of  Basel  was  convoked  by 
pope  Martin  V,  1430  A.D.  It  sst  for  nesrly  ten  years, 
and  purposed  to  introduce  a  reformstion  in  the  disci- 
pline, and  even  the  constitution  of  tbe  Roman  Catholic 
Church.     All  acts  pused  in  this  council,  after  it  had  , 


COUNCILS 


been  formally  dissolved  by  the  pope,  ai 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  null  and  raid. 
celebrated  Council  of  Trent,  held  IS4a-lW9A.D.  It 
was  opened  by  Paul  III,  and  Urongbttoa  eloae  noder 
the  pontiflcate  of  Paal  IV. 

Tbe  Church  of  England  {Bowuig  apaiiut  It*  PtrS 
of /dalalTy,  lit,  ii)  spealu  of  "those  six  Gonnclls  wbk& 
were  allowed  and  received  of  all  men,"  via.,  Kiee, 
A.D.  3-iS  ;  ConatantiDople,  A.D.  881 ;  Ephesua,  A.D. 
481;  Cbalcedon,  A.D.  1S1;  Constantinople,  A.D.  5i3: 
CoQStsntlnople,  A.D.  680  (see  Atner.  Quart.  C*Krdi 
Rmete,  Oct.  1887,  art.  iv).  Tbe  Artickt  o/  B/Ugim 
(art  xxi)  declare  thut  "  general  councils  may  not  be 
gatheitd  together  without  the  commandment  and  will 
of  princes.  And  when  they  be  gathered  together  (fiv* 
asmuch  as  they  bean  assembly  of  men,  whereof  all  be 
not  governed  with  the  Spirit  and  Wori  at  God)  they 
may  err,  and  aometlmei  have  erred,  even  in  things 
pertaining  unto  God;  wherefore  things  ordained  by 
them  as  necessary  to  salvati(Hi  have  ncitber  strength 
nor  authority  unless  It  may  be  declared  that  tbey  b« 
taken  out  of  Boty  Scripture." 

The  Importance  of  the  so-called  tecamenical  c«ti- 
cils  has  been  often  greatly  over-estimated,  not  only  tiy 
tha  Greeks  and  Roman  Catholics,  but  also  by  many 
Protestantn.  Jortin  remarks,  with  his  usual  shaip- 
nesB,  that  "  tbey  were  a  collection  of  men  wbo  wo* 
frail  and  bliible.  Some  of  these  conncils  were  BM  as- 
semblies of  pious  and  teamed  divines,  but  cabals,  tbe 
majority  of  which  were  qnaneisome,  fanatical,  dimi- 
neering,  dishonest  prelates,  who  wanted  to  compel  n 
■■   ■  !ir  opinions,  of  which-        ' 


captions, 


I  anatben 


press  those  who  would  not  implicitly  submit  to  tb^ 
determinations"  (ITorii,  vol.  ill,  charge  2). 

The  value  of  tbe  decisions  of  the  conncils  depend^ 
not  upon  their  antbority,  as  drawn  together  at  the  cdl 
of  emperor  or  pope,  not  upon  tbe  number  of  the  Usb- 
ops  who  attended  them,  but  upon  the  truth  of  tbeii 
decisions,  and  their  conformi^  to  the  Word  of  God. 
Tbe  Conncils  of  Nice  and  Cbalcedon  rendered  gnat 
service  to  the  Church  and  totbeokigy;  but  their  Cluii- 
tolo/ical  statements  of  doctrine  have  lieen  received  by 
the  general  Church  down  to  the  latest  timea,  not  ie- 
caate  they  emanated  from  the  councils,  bnt  tiecauis 
llwy  satisfy  the  intellectoal  and  moral  needa  of  tbs 
Church,  and  are  held  to  be  tnie  statements,  thoogfa  tai 
more  scientific  form,  of  doctrines  explicitly  or  implicil- 
ly  contained  in  tbe  Word  of  God.  As  to  the  eariiac 
councils,  it  "  must  be  remembered  that  the  bishops  ct 
that  day  were  elected  by  the  popular  voice.  So  larai 
that  went,  tbey  truly  represented  the  Christiau  people, 
and  were  bnt  seldom  ciflled  to  account  by  tha  people 
for  their  acts.  Eusebius  felt  bound  to  justify  bis  vote 
at  Nice  Iwfore  bis  diocese  in  Cnsarea.  Fuitbermora. 
the  councils,  in  an  age  of  ecclesiastical  despotism,  sssc- 
led  tbe  principle  of  common  public  i 


tbe  Ir 


They  revived  tb«*specUcle  of  the  Konun 
senate  in  ecclesiastical  form,  and  were  tbe  foreninBNi 
of  representative  jntvernmentond  parliementarr  kgis- 
lution"  (Schaff,  Hiifcwj.ii,  §  65;  also  in  Nae-EagbuJa. 
Oct.  18^  art.  Iv,  and  in  Jairi./Hr  dtnUdke  Tkalajit, 
1863.  ii). 

The  Romanists  bold  that  tbe  pope  alone  can  con- 
vene and  conduct  (ecumenical  councils,  which  are  sip- 
posod,  on  their  theory,  to  represent  tbe  univeTvl 
Church  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In 
matters  of  faith,  conncils  prolbas  to  be  guided  by  tbe 
holy  Scriptun*  and  tbe  traditions  of  the  Church, 
while  in  lighter  matters  human  reason  and  expedicKy 
are  consulted.  In  matters  of  faith  ocnmenicsl  cou>- 
cils  are  beldtobe  infallible,  and  hence  il  is  mainlaiwd 
thatall  such  synod*  have  agreed  together;  bntia  mat- 
ters of  discipline,  etc.,  tbeautbori^oftbe  latest  tasD- 
cil  prevails.  The  Roman  claim  is  not  sutoaBad  by 
history.    Tba  emperon  called  tbe  first  sevoii  enmdli, 


COUNCILS  S 

and  citlMT  pmidcd  nvti  them  In  penon  or  bf  comnilB- 
•ioiwn  ;  and  ttw  Anil  ratiHcation  or  the  dcclainDa  wu 
■lao  left  Co  Che  emperor.  Bat  the  Greek  Chnrch 
igntm  wHh  tbe  L^tii)  in  uerlliing  absolute  autkoritj/ 
to  the  decision*  of  truly  cecumenical  connciis.  Gre^ 
err  of  NBiUnnu  (who  wu  president  for  s  time  of  the 
•Bcond  ocnmenieal  coancll)  speaks  stmnglj'  of  the 
•rill  to  which  sncb  assembliu  an  liable:  "I  am  In- 
dined  to  avoid  conventiona  of  biiibops ;  I  never  knew 
oae  that  did  not  come  to  a  bad  cad,  and  create  more 
diaordera  than  it  attempted  to  rectiT;-."  A  remarka- 
ble view  of  the  antborilj  of  coancila  was  that  of  Kloo- 
lu  of  Claniangls  (q.  v.),  "ix.  that  tbey,  in  his  opinion, 
could  claim  rejoird  fur  tbeir  resolutions  only  if  the 
BKmbors  were  reall;  believers,  and  if  they  were  mure 
caacerBod  Iot  the  salTation  of  toult  than  for  secular 
tntercsta.  Hia  riawa  on  gensral  cooncQa  were  fally 
sot  forth  in  a  little  work  entitled  Ditpiita6«  de  eoHciiio 
gmfrati,  which  consists  at  three  letters,  addressed,  in 
141&  or  l«t6,  to  a  tvofeMor  at  the  Paris  UniTanitr 
(printed  apparently  at  Vienna  in  1482).  He  not  only 
places  the  aothority  of  general  councils  over  the  au- 
tboritj  of  the  popea,  but  the  authority  of  the  Bible 
over  the  authority  of  the  councils.  He  dunbta  wheth- 
er at  all  the  former  ocamenical  councils  the  Holy 
Spirit  really  presided,  aa  the  Holy  Spirit  would  not 
aaaiat  men  ponaing  secular  aims.  Be  denies  that  a 
Gonocil  oomposed  of  such  men  represents  the  Churcb, 
and  aaaerta  that  God  alone  knowa  who  are  his  people 
and  when  the  Holy  Ghost  dwells,  and  that  there  may 
be  times  when  the  Church  can  only  be  found  In  one 
■ingle  womHn  («  tola  polat  mulieraila  ptr  gratltm 
mvattTe  eccfenan).  After  the  lapse  of  over  300  years, 
the  pope  In  1867  signifled  hia  purpose  to  sammon  an- 
other (ecumenical  counciL  Of  cuune  none  but  Ro- 
Manbt  bishops  will  attend  it. 

8.  pTxmmrial  coancils  have  been  too  nnmirous  to  be 
mentiuaed  here  in  detail.  The  most  important  of 
tfaem  are  mentioned  nnder  the  namee  of  the  places  at 
which  they  have  been  held  (e.  g.  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
ComiueiriM).  List*  are  given  in  most  of  Itao  books  on 
Chriitian  snliqultie*.  and  in  l^ndon,  Man.  o/CouKciit. 
4.  Th-t  moet  important  collections  of  the  acts  of  the 
eooDcila  aie  Biniua,  CotidSa  Gmtra'ia  (Cologne,  1606, 
4  vols.  fgl. :  leiH,  4  voU.  ful ;  Paris,  1638,  9  vols,  fol.) : 
the  same,  edited  by  Labbi  and  Cossart  (Paris,  1671 
mt;  IT  vob.,  with  supplement  by  Bsluie,  [G88, 1  vol. 
M.);  Hardontn,  CoUeclio  Maxima  Cimrilionint,  etc. 
(Pan^  i:i5  sq.,  1!  TOla.  ful.) ;  Culeti  (Venice,  ITM.  23 
Tola.  4to,  with  supplement  by  Mans!,  1748-52,  6  vols, 
gring  down  to  the  year  17'JT);  Mansi,  iS'ocr.  Condi. 
mom  H  amplif.  C'-lktiio  (Florence,  1769-98,  81  vola. 
M.).  The  abbi  Mlgne  proposes  a  complete  collection, 
Id  80  vols.  There  are  special  collections  of  the  acts 
cf  nstionsl  and  provincial  councils;  e.  g,  for  France, 
Hmond  (Paris,  1829),  La  Londe  (ParL*,  16G6);  for 
S[^n,AgnirTe  (Madrid,  1781);  for  Germany,  Binterim 
(Hainx,  13^^  7  voU.).  Of  manuals,  hktorica  of 
coancila,  etc.,  the  following  are  the  moot  important: 
Welch,  Kirtlifiivtrtanmlimgni  (Le)pa.  1759) ;  Grier, 
£pstosKa/GflimiJC(Wic>i:i(Dublln,ie28,8vo);  Idn- 
doD,  JVoMo/ i/CniKib  (Und.  1846,  12mo);  Bever- 
idgp,  .'jHoJiroA,  NH  Pimdrrla  CVmaKm  S.  S.  Apotleij- 
r«n'rCuvfi>nnnn(Oj(Dn.l672-^2vola.fol.):  Hefele, 
CMcifi-iyaciUeto  (Freiburg,  1866  sq.,  6  vola.  Svo— ret 
nnflniabed).  See  also  Gibbon,  Dttlint  and  Fall,  cbap. 
XX :  Lardner,  WorU.  iv,  S3i  Elliott,  DrUivatum  of, 
Auwani,  bk-lli,  ch.  lil;  Vtrmit.  Pr,mla  B:bli<,tlucii.  ' 
t.  V.  (^Ddliom ;  Schaff,  niHoryaflKt  ChrMan  Church,  I 
voL  11, 1  66;  James,  Comptinni  of  Scriptim,  Fulhtn,  I 
imd  Camab,  tf  Oe  OiardL  ofRomt  (I.ond.  1688,  8vo) ; ' 
Comber,  AsaMW  Ftrrgrriii  in  Ikt  CotmcUi,  etc.  (Lond, 
1839,  4lo)i  Bnnme,  On  Itu  Thirty  woe  Anida,  Art. 
XXI ;  Palmer,  (M  lit  Ckardi,  ii.  144 ;  Cramp,  Tert- 
hoot  of  Papery,  p.  474 ;  Slegel,  AUerlhnaer,  iv,  406. 
COtlKCILS,  EccLKSiAsncAi.     See  Co^iobboi- 


19  COURT 

Coniuel  (prop.  nX7,  eHak',  /3diiX^).  Beride  th« 
commno  signiScation  of  thia  word,  aa  denoting  tba 
conauitationa  of  men,  it  ia  used  in  Scripture  for  the  de- 
crees of  God,  the  orders  of  his  pravideace.  God  frus- 
trates the  counsels,  the  views,  the  designs  of  princes; 
but  "the  counsels  of  the  Lord  stand  for  ever"  (Psa. 
xxxiii,  II ;  evil,  II :  Luke  vU,  80).  See  Dbcske  (of 
God). 

COUNSELS,  EvANOEUCAi.   See  CoxsiLlJt  EvAli< 

ConnaellOT  (nsoally  yf^';  goiu',  oviifiovXoi), 
an  adviser  upon  any  matter  (Prov.  xl,  14 ;  xv,  22 ;  2 
Chron.  xxv,  16;  Ezra  iv,  5,  etc. ;  Bom.  xi,  34),  espe. 
cially  the  king's  state  counsellor  (!  Sam.  xv,  12 ;  Eira 
"  "« 1  1  Chron.  xxvii,  B3,  etc.) ;  hence  one  of  the 
menofagovemmeDt(JDbiii,U;  xii,17;  Isa.  i, 
96;  ill,  S,  e'^.),  and  once  of  the  Uesslah  (Isa.  li,  G; 
Sept.  aiiilSevkot,  Vulg.  contOianui).  The  Chaldee 
Blent  term  is  Ur^  (gait',  Ezra  vii,  1 4, 16).  Other 
Chaldee  terms  tbua  tendered  are  'pns  ttri  (haddiAenn), 
mintatera  of  atate  or  Vt'atit  (Dan.  li^  24,  27;  iv,  S6; 
i,  7),  and  "^ann  (drUoAar',  one  aUlied  In  law),  ■ 
judge  (Dan.  lii,  S,  8).  In  the  Apocrypha,  irv/i^ouXDC. 
In  the  ordinary  eeikae  of  odriitT,  la  tfana  rendered 
(Wisd.viil,  9;  Ecrlus.  vi,  6;  xxivii,7,  8;  xlii,  21); 
also  ai'iifiavXiUTrK  (t  Esdr.  viii,  11).  In  Mack  it, 
4S;  Lnke  ixiii,  60,  tba  Greek  term /iauXicr^c,  which 
la  translated,  pmbahly  deaignatea  a  member  at 
the  Jewish  Sanhedrim  (q.  v.)     See  CoovciL. 

Conntty.  Heaven  ia  called  a  nwairf  in  the  K- 
ble,  in  alluaioD  to  Canaan.  And  it  is  a  briler  eoimtry, 
BB  its  inhaiiitants,  privileges,  and  emplo}'ments  are  far 
■e  excellent  than  any  on  earth  (Heb,  xi.  U,  16). 
1  tf.ir  coanUy,  very  distant  f^m  and  unknown  in 
world  (Matt,  xxl,  37,  and  xxr,  14 ;  Luke  xix,  12). 
tatc  of  apostasy  from  God,  whether  of  men  in  gen- 
eral or  of  the  Gentile  world,  la  called  Afar  nmnlrjn 
it  ia  distant  from  that  in  which  we  oaght  to  be;  in  it 
we  arc  ignorant  of  God,  exposed  to  danxer,  and  have 
none  to  pity  or  help  ns  (l.uke  xv,  18).  A  I'tate  or 
place  of  gross  ignorance  and  wickedness  is  called  the 
region  and  ahadow  of  death  (Matt,  iv,  16). 

Coupling,  r^r*^!  chobt'rcth,  tjunclion,  of  cDttaina 
(Exod.  xxvi,  4,  io';  xxxvi,  17),  i.  q,  ri:ian^,  mai*- 
■(*  (Eiod.  xxvi,  4,  6,  etc.) ;  hut  nniniO,  audla- 
berotA',  means  wooden  bmern  (7  girders)  for  fastening 
a  building  (2  Cbron.  xxxiv,  II).  or  iron  cmiiiri*  fcr 
holding  stones  together  (''Joinings,"  1  Chron.  xiil,  3). 

Conrayer,  Piebbb  Fban^ nia  lk,  an  eminent  and 
liberal  Soman  Catholic  divine,  bom  at  Vernon,  in  Nor- 
mandy, in  1GSl,was  a  canon  and  librarian  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, and  a  profcasor  of  theolog}-  and  philosophy. 
Having  written  a  Dfftnet  af  lit  Validils  of  EtigSA 
O'd'-naiiotit  (Brux.  172^,  2  vuls.  8vo),  he  was  so  perse- 
catcd  tbiit  be  took  refuge  in  England  in  1728,  where 
lie  entered  the  English  Church,  obtained  a  penalon, 
ami  died  in  177G.  He  translated  Into  French  Sarpi's 
History-  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  Sleidan'a  Ilistoly 
of  the  lieformstion,  and  wrote  reveral  tracts.  Hta 
Ditpatnlioa  on  EngSA  Ordinatioui  was  republished  at 
Oxford,  1844,  Svo.  Hb  edition  of  Sarpi  is  better  than 
any  other  (Lond.  1738, 2  vola,  fol.). 

Conrlar.     See  Post. 

Couroa  (ipiiiiipia,  daUy  ordrr,  Loke  i,  G,  3).    See 

Cotirt,  an  open  encloaore,  applied  in  the  A.  T, 
mo»t  commonly  to  the  encloaurea  of  the  Tabernacle 
and  the  Temple.  1.  The  Hebrew  word  invariably 
ufed  for  tbe  former  Is  ^SH,  eialier',  from  IXIJ,  to 
surronnd  (Geaenins,  Tia.  M.  p.  GI2).  (See,  e.  g., 
Exod.  xxvii,  0  to  xl,  33;  Lev.  vl,  16;  Num.  ill,  26, 
etc.)  Tbe  lame  word  Is  also  most  frequently  uied  for 
tbe  "coDrta"ofthe  Temple,  aalEingsvi, 86;  vli,  8; 


COUSIN  6 

to  SttU  uid  Egjft,  Hohunmedans  and  CbiiMUns  I 
hATdlyddgnto  greet  Mch  other  (Hirmer.  11. 36).  Tbe 
pnblic:  aantiinetit  of  those  tlmei  tito  relesKd  holy  per- 
eons  (vintii)  from  tbe  obligation  of  ntuming  eomfJI- 
mentary  MlutUJoae  (Ughtibot,  p.  T8T),  which,  bow- 
ever,  they  eagerly  claimed  (Mark  xii.  88 ;  Luke  li,  48 ; 
XX,  46).  Tbe  right  side  wu  regsnjed  aa  tbe  pUce  of 
honor  in  standing;  or  sluing  by  tbe  Hebrewa  from  eu-ly 
times  (1  Kings  ii,  19;  Tta.  zlv,  IDj  Halt,  iiv,  88; 
comp.  Saelon.  Nir.  IS ,  lee  I>augtai  AuaL  i,  ]G9  xj. ; 
Wetstein,  i,  456,  613 ;  Eioigk,  De  mamH  datra  hoaora- 
tiert,  Lipi.  1707).  Public  nrtnace  and  homage  to- 
ward mooarclis,  generala,  etc,  coniiated  In  thoDta 
(among  otban,  the  cry  hniu,  ^^sn  *'n^,  "  Long  lira 
the  king!"  Barbebr.  CAmii.  p.  417)  oT  acciamation  (Jo- 
aephni,  Ant.  li,  8,  S  i  War,  vii,  (i,  S ;  Ammian.  Hare. 
xsi,  10;  Philo,  ii,  G22),  with  mnaic  (i  Sam.  xvi,  IS; 
1  Kinga  i,89,  40;  2  KiDgaix,IS;  Judith  ill,  8;  comp. 
Herodian,  iv,  8,  19);  alio  in  atrewing  csrpeta  or  gar- 
ments along  tbe  road  (comp.  ^achyL^l^am,  909;  Plu- 
tarch, CUoniii.e.]!;  Talmud,  CAetiftabt,tbLlxv<,S; 
aa  BtlU  is  practiaed  in  PaleatiDe,  KobiDBon,  il,  388),  with 
bianchei  (aee  UgoUni  7»e«nn-.  iii)  or  flowers  (2  Kings 
ix,  IS;  Matt,  xxi,  8;  comp.  Curtina,  v,  1,  20;  ix,  10, 
2fi;  Herod,  vil,  M;  fliao,  Var.  Hitl.  ix,  9;  Tacitus, 
.fTiK.  ii,  70 ;  Merodlan,  i,T,  11;  Iv,  8, 19;  lee  Dangtiei 
4ati^.iil.fi9;  fn\Ka,IUgier.dnMorgtitLf.-iiSm.'), 
and  in  torchlight  entrances  at  night  (2  Uacc.  iv,  22). 
Feetive  eecorta  in  procaaaion  (with  the  priests  at  tbe 
head)  wen  alio  not  annsnal  (Josephas,  A  M.  xi,  8, 1 ; 
zvi,  2, 1;  see  Schmleder,  De  lottmntatt.  vM.  nga  m- 
peralortMq.  rtc^nauU,  Brig.  1828),  See  also  Gift; 
Visit. 

Cotuln  la  given  (Luke  i,  S6, 58)  by  the  Aath.Vers. 
inlta  vague  acceptaUm  aathe  rendering  of  (Fiirrtvrir, 
>  blood-relative,  or  "Uiumtm,"  aa  elsewhetr  trans- 
lated. So  alao  in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Bsdi.  iil,  7;  iv. 
42;  Tob.vi,10;  S  Blacc.  xl,  I,  SS). 

CoiuiHiTlCTOfl,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  writ- 
er, was  bora  In  Paris  November  28, 1792,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  the  Lyc^  Cbarlemagne,  where,  at  sixteen, 
he  gained  the  grand  prii;  of  honor.  Soon  after  be 
was  admitted  loKi  the  Ecolt  .VDniH&,  where  be  be- 
came n^Kb'fnir,  or  private  teacher  of  Greek  literature, 
and  afterwards  professor  of  philosophy.  "In  1811  he 
attended  (he  lectures  of  Laromlguiire  (q.  v.),  whose 
theory  was  a  mixture  of  Condillac  and  Descartes,  of 
sensation  and  eplritualiam,  and  who  made  it  bis  mis- 
sion to  reconcile  the  two  systems.  Coosin  was  at  Rrst 
tlucinated  by  this  theory,  and  still  more  by  tbe  de- 
pot phraseology  and  lucid  exposition  of  the  lecturer. 
It  was  very  probably  at  the  same  period  that  bis  great 
Idea  first  presented  itself  to  bis  mind,  'that  each  sys- 
tem is  true,  but  incomplete,  and  thut  by  collecting  all 
the  systems  together  a  complete  philosophy  would  be 
obtained.'  In  1818  and  1811  be  attended  the  courses 
of  pbiiosophical  iectores  delivered  at  the  Faculty  des 
Lettres  by  Roy er-Collard,  whose  earoest  mhid  bad  long 
distrasted  that  school  of  sensation  which  Locke  and 
Condilbc  bad  esUbiished  in  the  18th  century,  and 
who  bad  sought  refuge  from  these  doubts  in  the  doc- ! 
trineg  of  the  Scotch  system.  This  doctrine,  which  in- 
sisted that  there  were  notions  in  tbe  mind  totally  in- 
dependent of  the  senses,  was  ardently  embraced  by 
Ccraain,  who  became  lecturer  at  the  Facult*  des  Let- 
tres, and  began  his  bmoua  course  of  tbe  Hlatory  of 
Philosophy  December  7,  181G.  Having  learned  to 
doubt  from  RoyeF-Cotlard,  be  resolved  to  examine  in 
turn  al)  (he  great  philosophers,  both  ancient  and  mod- 
em, before  he  formed  his  opinions.  He  became  a  uni- 
versal inquirer.  He  professed  to  judge  withouf  prpju- 
dice  each  philosopher,  and  in  each  he  believed  he  had 
found  a  system,  and  in  each  system  ■  frajtment  of 
trsth.  As  fust  as  he  proceeded  In  this  inquiry  he 
communicated  what  he  had  found  to  the  public,  some- 
times in  lectures,  at  other  times  in  hooka.    To  enable 


his  pupils  to  judge  for  Ihameeivea,  be  pabUalud  tb* 
works  of  Plato,  the  inediled  works  of  Procloa,  and  bd 
edition  of  Descartes,  though  the  whole  did  not  appear 
tiU  after  his  dismisdon.  His  tranalation  of  Plato  la 
IS  vols,  would  preserve  his  name  had  he  done  aotb- 
ing  else"  (£i^ut  (^/tlopcBUa).  Ttia  govemioent 
dismissed  him  from  the  Faculty  of  Letters  in  1831, 
and  In  1824  he  went  to  Oennany  as  tutor  to  tbs 
young  Duke  of  Moutebelio.  "During  his  progma 
tbe  fixnk  opinions  he  eipreased  excited  the  anspicion 
of  tbe  Prussiau  authoritiea,  who  caoaad  him  to  be  ar- 
rested and  conveyed  to  Beriin,  where  lie  waa  throwa 
into  priaoD  as  ao  agitator.  He  remained  in  cloee  eoo- 
flnement  for  six  months.  After  bis  return  he  pub- 
lished, in  1826,  bis  celebrated  Fragtau  PMOatopkifiitM, 
with  a  remarkable  prefica,  which  la  atill  cooudered 
Ibe  beat  summary  of  his  particular  doctiine."  In 
1898  he  recommenced  lectures  on  Pbiloea|Ay  at  the 
Fbcu1i4  des  Lettres.  His  former  lectures  had  oonsiat- 
ed  principally  of  the  history  of  ideal  truth,  aa  it  hud 
been  explained  liy  the  great  thinkers  who  had  pi*- 
ceded  bim.  Bnt  this  time  his  own  theory  waa  exliib- 
ited.  The  first  series  was  published  in  1828,  under 
the  title  ot  C«n  d'Hiihiin  dt  la  Pkiloirlm: ;  the  sec- 
ond in  1829,  aa  Omrt  dt  PhOoiopiU.  Soon  afler,  tbe 
accession  of  Louis  Philippe  iatroduced  bia  triends  Oul- 
xot  and  Da  BrogUe  to  power.  He  now  became  a  cooD- 
ciilor  of  sUte,  ■  member  of  the  Board  of  Public  Edu- 
cation, an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  a  peer 
of  France,  in  quick  auccession.  In  1891  he  iras  cooi- 
missioned  by  the  ministry  to  proceed  to  Germany  to 
examine  the  state  of  education  in  that  country.  Tba 
resolU  were  given  to  the  worid  in  18S2,  Sapptrt  mr 
titiil  de  tinttmetiim puUiqut  dimt  qialiiiia jug/t  di  FAl- 
Itmagtie  (translated  by  Mrs.  Austin,  and  puhliabed  in 
London  In  IS-tl).  He  succeeded  Fourier  in  the  AcMl- 
emy,  and  delivered  his  tlogr,  or  reception  addresu.  Hay 
fi,  1831.  He  seldom  spoke  in  the  Chamber  of  Peen, 
and  when  he  did  it  was  almost  invarisbly  on  the  sub- 
ject of  National  Instmctlun.  On  Harch  1,  IMO.  Coo- 
sin entered  tbe  liberal  cabinet  of  Thiers  aa  miniater 
of  Public  Instruction.  He  introduced  a  number  of 
reforma  during  his  administration,  which  lasted  eight 
months,  and  of  which  he  published  himself  a  review 
in  the  .Anm  dri  datx  Uonda  ia  1841.  In  1848  H. 
Cousin  seemed  cordially  to  accept  tbe  introductiaD  of 
the  republic,  and  when  General  Cavaignac  appealed 
to  the  Academy  of  Horal  and  Political  Scienoea  to  aid 
the  govemmrnt  in  the  enligblenment  of  tbe  peaf^ 
Cousin  published,  with  a  republican  preface,  a  popular 
edition  <AiiMProfi)Bimdef<ndatticaireiBB<^ard.  Ha 
subsequenlly  wrote,  under  tbe  title  olJiulice  ttdkar. 
M,  a  pumpUet  against  the  socialistic  tendencies.  But 
after  1349  Cousin  altogether  withdrew  from  public  life. 
He  published,  besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
among  others,  Procii  Optra,  B  vols.  8vo,  ie2»>-?7^  Dea- 
cartes,  O^mra  ColHpliitt,  11  vols.  8vo ;  Abilard,  Sic  tl 
non,  1836;  several  series  o( Fragmtut  Pkilotopla^ura, 
lM3S-40i  //ui,  i&  fa  ^AAuc^iAk  (1st  series.  5  vols.  8vo: 
2d,  3rolB.  8ro;  3d,  4  vols.  8vo);  Da  Vrai,  da  Beau,  dm 
Bm  (1853,  8ro,  a  republication  of  his  lectures  deliv- 
:red  between  1816  and  1821);  Cav,  de  AUbwrMe 
Morak,  b  vols.  1840-41.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
principal  works  (up  to  1846)  in  12  vols.  18mo,  was 
published  in  1816-47.  From  1853  to  1864  be  published 
a  uriea  of  works  on  celebrated  litemry  women  of  tba 
17th  century,  which  are  an  important  contribatiaB  to 
the  history  of  that  time,  and  found  a  Urge  drculatkoi. 
The  series  comprises  Jarqudiiie  Prucal  and  Had.  dt 
LongueviUt  (185»).  Mad.  de  SiAU  (IBM),  Mad.  dt  CV- 
Breate  rt  Mad.  de  HauifoH  (18G6);  La  Soaki  Framfmm 
(U  XVirSiiK:le  (1S58,2  vols.);  laJaatnt  dt  Mai.dt 
IjmguniUt  (1S64,  4th  edit.) ;  la  Jtme-f  dt  Maaarit 
^l»(&).  In  186.1  be  published  BiHoire  G^titnlr  dt  la 
PMinypkir  dfptnt  la  frmps  Iti  piti  rnvUt  jmfw'tm 
Xriir  liicU  (1863).  being  a  revised  edition  of  hii 
Court  dt  thiilairt  dt  lapSUotcphit,    Cousin  was  alao  • 


COUTHA  54 

me  of  th«  Inding  periodicals 
of  Fraacv,  inch  u  tha  Amic  dei  Dtax  JUtmdtt,  the  Jour- 
mat  df  Sopcmtt,  And  otbora.  A  kind  of  GiUlcao  ute- 
cUna,  pobliilwd  anaDymoiitlj'  in  18SI),  uodtr  the  titla 
Utra  irimitnictiim  mitrale  it  rtSgieate.  haa  abo  Iwen  aa- 
cribed  to  Coiuin.     Be  died  in  Jan.  14, 1867. 

Cooain  tuidiMibtadlj  reudBced  gnat  nrriee  to  rood- 
fth  tbooglit  by  hii  advocacy  of  "  cplritaaliBm"  (apir- 
itiuUat  phQoaopb]'}  ai  opposed  to  matarialiitic  doc- 
triaaa.  In  the  prabce  to  On  Vna,  dr  Btai,  da  Bim, 
he  tlioa  expreaaea  bimaelf  (IB6B) ;  "  Oar  trua  doctrine, 
oar  tnia  atandard,  ii  apiritaalitm  j  the  phUoaopby,  geo- 
erona  and  aoUd  at  the  uine  time,  that  commenna  with 
Socntea  and  PUl4s  that  tbe  Goapal  apreada  over  the 
world,  that  Deacartea  forced  into  tha  aetarar  fortaa  of 
the  gmioa  of  modern  timea.  The  name  of  apirltoatiam 
ia  pnipeily  given  to  thia  phlloaaphj,  far  ita  character  ia 
tlial  it  «utxirdinat«  tbe  lenaeB  to  the  spirit,  and  that, 
by  all  meani  which  reaaon  can  avow,  it  perpelaall}' 
teoda  to  elevate  man  and  make  him  greater.  Spirit- 
tuliam  leachea  Ihs  Immortalitj'  of  the  mal,  tile  tn»- 
dam  and  re«ponalliiiity  of  human  acllon,  tbe  obligation 
of  morality,  the  Tirtua  of  [HsintereMedueae,  tha  dignity 
(tf  juatica,  the  beauty  of  charity ;  and,  beyond  the  llm- 
ita  of  thi>  earth,  apiritnaliam  points  lo  God,  tbe  Crea- 
tor and  Ihe  Tjpe  at  hnmanlty,  xbo,  having  cteatad 
man  evidently  for  as  eicelleat  end,  will  not  abandon 
him  during  tbe  myatariona  development  of  bia  dea- 

Aa  to  aKEJknl,  Onirin  follow!  the  paycbological  rath- 
er than  the  a  priori  method.  Lot  be  avoida  careful- 
ly tbe  vlewi  erf  Locke  and  tbe  aensationaliata.  His 
psychology  ia  ideallatic,  hia  ontoli^  also.  What  he 
calla  "apontancona  reaaon"  acquaints  na  with  Iba 
"true  and  esaential  nature  of  tbinga."  In  place  of 
"  commencing,  aa  the  Gennans  do,  with  outoiogy,  he 
affirma  the  poaeibility  of  finding  a  paaaage  from  tbe 
world  of  pheaonwna  to  real  existence.  Since  reason 
rvceivea  truth  apontaneoualy,  by  direct  and  immedlala 
perception,  he  conaiden  that  we  may,  by  means  of  tbli 
faculty,  attain  to  the  knowledge  of  essential  and  abao- 
late  eiutence"  (Morell,  Hitt.  of  Mod.  Pkilot.  pt.  U, 
ch.  Tiii).  The  tendency  ofthia  view  to  pantbebm  has 
been  shown  by  many  writen,  eapeciallj  by  Gioberti 
{Comidiratioiu  lur  kt  dodrima  religiram  de  M.  VietO'- 
Owaw,  transl.  by  Toumour,  Paris,  1817,  Bvo).  Couain 
hinuelf  always  strenaoatly  repudiated  tbe  name  of 
pantheist.  It  la  certain  that  towards  tbe  end  of  his 
career  he  "songbt  more  and  more  tbe  support  of  the 
great  ChrtatlaD  masters,  and  drew  daily  neanr  to  Paa- 
cal,  Deacartea,  and  Leibniti"  {SorA  BrUiik  Retiao, 
March,  18S7,  art.  v).  Of  transUtlons  of  bia  works, 
we  have,  by  Daniel,  Tie  Pkiiotopiq  of  Dm  BemUiful 
(S.  T.  IMS,  8vo) ;  by  Wight.  BiMliny  of  Modem  Pki- 
10*7%  (K-'f-  !  '"■>'  ^vO'  l^i):  ■>}*  ^0  ""•'■  ^-^ 
Imrtt  OH  tke  Tne,  llu  Braulifkl,  and  tit  Good  (K.  T. 
18M,  Svo) :  by  Henrv,  Pigrkaiogf,  indad^  on  £xrim- 
mttfuii  oflorke'i  nSatopky  (N.  Y.  4th  ed.,  1858.  Svo). 
—Emglith  Cydopa^n,  i.  v, ;  Vapereau,  Die*,  dri  CoH- 
lemparamt,  lft65 ;  Lewes.  HUlory  if  PMbmjiij)  (I.ond. 
lvol«.18fiT>,il.M5:  ChritHmSprTlatar.vA,f^,.\'tfrA 
Amaieat  Rrriae.'im.l:  tiixv,19;  A'A'at.  Arc'ev,  I, 
IM  (art.  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton) ;  Rrii.  Cbiari.  Retitic,  v, 
W>:  lyeitaiiiaafrrfiBpiaig, Oct.  1863;  Ripley,  6)>e«aieiu 
•  if  Fortigm  IMtTOtnrt,  vol.  i ;  Alans,  La  Pkile*^Ut  dt 
ComtiK  (Parl^  1864). 

Gou'tba  (Kou^n.Tnlg.  Ptwa),  named  <I  Eadr.  v, 
S2)  as  one  of  the  beads  of  the  Temple-servanta  oboae 
"  aoos"  returned  from  Babylon  (  but  the  Hebrew  lists 
[Eira  ii,  68;   Neb.  vii,  66)  contsin  no  coirespanding 

Coral,  Junes,  Jr.,  a  Methodist  Epl<«)pal  minister. 
was  bora  at  Harblebead,  Maaa.,  Sept.  4, 179fi.  became 
a  traTallInK  preaeber  in  1816,  and  travelled  cbledy  in 
the  state  of  Mew  Yorlt  He  was  tbe  author  of  a  Die- 
tkmnj  ffUu  Bait  (ISno),  and  waa  a  man  of  sound 


jad)Cmen 


COVENANT 


cere  piety,  and  steady  industry.  From 
lauB  at  waa  appointed  principal  of  the  Troy  Confer- 
ence Academy,  and  Oiled  the  post  acceptably  until 
1841.  His  last  station  was  Slate  Street,  Troy,  where 
he  died.  May  15,  I8«.— Jfrnutat  of  Cmfmncrt,  ill, 
600;  Sprsgue,  Aimai;  vii,  664. 

Cawel,  John,  an  Englb<h  divine,  waa  bom  at 
Homingsheath,  Suffulk.ln  ICBS,  and  was  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  fel- 
low. In  1670  he  went  to  Constantinople  aa  chaplain 
to  tbe  British  embassy.  In  1687  be  was  made  chan- 
cellor of  York,  and  in  1668  master  of  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  died  in  ITU.  As  the  fruit  of  bis 
residence  in  Constantinople,  he  wrote  5ane  Anouni 
oftht  prtttnt  Greek  Clarch,  icilh  Hefitrtloiu  on  Ihtir 
prtnml  DuctrM  and  DudpBiie,  ric.  (Camb.  17J2,  fol.), 

Corenant,  a  mutual  contract  or  af(Teement  be- 
tween two  parties,  each  of  which  is  bound  to  fnlGI  cer- 
tain engagements  to  the  other.  In  Scripture  It  la 
used  mostly  in  an  analogical  seiiso,  to  denote  certain 
relations  between  God  and  man.  (See  DantUU  B»- 
ne»,  March,  166-2.) 

I.  rn-au— In  tbe  Old  Test.  T^'"}^  leriri' (nndered 
"league,"  Joah.  ii,  6,  7,  11,  16,16;  Judg.  ii,  2-,  S 
Sam.  iii,  12.  13.  H;  v,  3;  1  Kink's  v,  IS:  xv,  19, 
twice;  aChnm.  xvi,3,  twice;  Jobr,28;  Eiek.  XXX, 
S;  " confaderaei',"  Obad.  7;  "confederate,"  Gen. 
xir,  13;  Psa.  liiiiii,  b),  Is  the  word  invariably  thus 
translated  (Sept.  Jiiiei;ni ;  once.Wisd.  i,  Ifl,  oin^i^n) ; 
Vnlg.  fitdiu,  patttaK,  often  interchangeably.  Gen.  ix, 
xvli;  Kum.  xxt;  Id  the  Apocrypha  tntamtntuin,  but 
SEsdr.il,;;  ^HMUnu,  Wiad.  i.  16;  in 
rTmi  l^atiqme  fadtr*,  Rom.  1.  81 ;  Gt. 
uOBj'airoi.c]).  The  Hebnw  word  is  derived  by  Ge- 
scnius  (Jket.  Beb.  p.  2:i7,  !S8 ;  so  Forat,  Bebr.  Bmdr. 
p.  S17)  from  the  root  n^a,  L  q.  Efna,  "be  eat,"  and 
taken  to  mean  primarily  "a  cutting,"  with  reference 
to  the  custom  of  cutting  or  dividing  animals  In  two, 
and  passing  between  tbe  parts  in  ratifying  a  covenant 
(Gen.  XV ;  Jar.  xxxiv,  18, 19).  Hence  tbe  expreaaion 
"to  cut  a  coTanant"  (n^^a  r^|,  Gan.  xv,  18,  or 
simply  nn^,  with  n^^i^  understood,  1  Sam.  xi,  !)  ia 
of  frequent  occurrence.  (Comp.  Sptia  n/u-iiv,  rifi- 
vim  araviai,  icrre,ftrire,prTetUtTef<idai.  See  Sle- 
vogt,  De  more  Ebrator,  diitrdioiu  animaUian  ftrdera 
ineundi,  Jen.  1759.)  Professor  Lee  suggests  {Bet.  Lix. 
s.  v.  I'^''"'3)  that  tbe  proper  rigniflcation  of  the  word  is 
an  eating  logelier,  or  banguet,  fh>m  the  meaning  "  to 
eat,"  which  the  root  fT'jl  sometimes  bean;  because 
among  the  Orientals  (o  eat  together  amounts  almost 
to  a  covenant  of  friendship.  This  view  is  tnpportad 
by  Gen.  ixxi,  46,  wbere  Jacob  and  Laban  eat  together 
on  tbe  heap  of  slonas  which  they  have  set  up  in  rati- 
fylnii  the  covenant  between  them.  It  affords  also  a 
satisfactory  explanatloo  of  the  expression  "a  cove- 
nant of  salt"  {n)a  n^t"?'  ^m^"!  oXnr,  Num.  xvlii, 
ID;  aCbron.  xili,6),  when  the  EMStem  idea  of  eating 
rait  together  is  remembered.  If,  however,  the  other 
derivation  of  n^*^!)  be  adopted,  this  expreasion  may 
be  explained  by  supposing  salt  lo  have  been  eaten  or 
offered  with  accompanying  aacrifiees  on  occasion  of 
very  solemn  covenania,  or  it  may  be  regarded  aa  Hg. 
nraUve,  denoting,  either,  from  tbe  Dse  of  salt  in  sacri- 
flGe(Lev.  ii,  13;  Mark  l.'(,49),  tbe  Bacredness,or,  fyom 
the  preserving  qualities  of  salt,  tbe  perpetuity  of  Ihe 
covenant.     {See  below.) 

In  the  New  Test,  the  word  JiaSqn)  ia  ftwiuently. 
though  by  no  means  uniformly,  translated  labiment 
in  the  English  Anth.  Vers.,  whence  Ihe  two  divisions 
of  the  Bible  hsvo  received  their  common  English 
natnes.  This  translation  is  perhaps  due  to  tbe  Tal- 
gate,  which,  having  adopted  leilamrntmn  as  tbe  equiv- 
alent for  /latfqini  in  the  Apocrypha,  aaea  it  always  aa 
snch  In  tlie  N.  T.  (see  above).     Than  aeema,  bow- 


COVENANT  5. 

erer,  to  be  no  n«ccuit]'  for  the  iDtcoduction  of  a  new 
word  eoDTcjiiig  ■  utn  idea,  I'he  Sept.  having  ren- 
dered m-ia  (which  never  means  wia  or  Itiiaaunt,  but 
alwaya  aicauat  or  agmmaif)  bj  ('laS^o)  eonBiatently 
thivngbout  the  0.  T.,  tlie  N.  T,  writers,  In  adopting 
that  word,  mny  natuiallj  1m  euppoaed  to  intend  to 
convBy  to  their  raaden,  moat  of  them  familiar  with 
the  Greek  O.  T.,  tbe  aame  idea.  MoreoTer,  in  tbe 
majority  of  caiei,  tlie  aame  thing  which  baa  been  call- 
ad  a  "covenaat"  (r\-^-\1i)  In  the  0.  T.  !■  refiimd  to  in 
the  N.  T.  (e.  g.  2  Car.  iU,  14 1  Heb.  vil,  ix ;  Rev.  jci, 
19);  while  in  tbe  tame  conteit  the  aame  word  and 
thing  in  the  Greeli  are  in  the  English  sometimes  rep- 
resented bj  "cDienant,"  and  tometimea  by  "tesCj- 
menf  (Heb.  vii,  2!j  vui,  8-lB;  ii,  15),  In  the  con- 
fessedly diScait  paaaage,  Heb.  Ix,  IG,  17,  the  word 
itaQiiKti  has  been  tbooght  by  many  commentators  ab- 
aolalaly  to  require  tbe  meaning  of  vUl  or  latamral. 
On  tbe  other  side,  howeTer,  it  may  be  alleged  chat,  in 
addition  to  what  has  Jiist  been  said  a*  to  the  usual 
meaning  of  the  word  in  the  N.  T.,  the  word  occnra 
twice  in  the  context,  where  lt«  meaning  mnat  necessa- 
rily be  the  same  as  tbe  translation  of  ri'^3,  and  in  the 
nnqncstionabia  sen  as  of  ooneiiant  (comp.  Sia9i 
Heb.  ix,  15,  with  the  same  expression  in  vi 
tia&iiit],  Ix,  16, 17,  with  rer.  SO,  and  Exod. 
If  this  sense  of  (laBiiai  be  retained,  we  may  either 
render  ini  vinwic,  "  over,  or  in  the  case  of,  dead  sac 
rilices,"  and  u  iiaViiuvoi,  "the  mediating  aacriHce' 
(Scbolefleid's  HinUfor  on  impractd  TnuulatJon  oflht 
N.  T.y.  or  (with  El.rard  and  otl.ers)  restrict  tbe  state- 
ment of  ver.  16  to  the  O.-T.  idea  of  a  covenant  btfaetn 
man  nnd  God,  In  which  man,  as  guilty,  must  always  be 
represented  by  a  sacrilice  with  which  he  was  ao  com- 
pletely ideutifled  that  in  its  person  be  (li  liaBiiumt, 
the  human  covenanter)  actually  died  (comp.  Matt, 
xzvi,  3S).     See  Tbstauent. 

II.  Their  Application.— \a  ita  Biblical  meaning  of 
a  compact  or  agreement  between  two  pjrtie?-,  the  word 
"covenant"  is  used — 1.  Properig,  of  a  cortnaM  btluon 

either  between  tribes  or  nations  (1  Sam.  xi,  1 ;  Josh. 
lit,  8,  16),  or  between  individuals  (Gen.  xxi,  4J),  by 
which  each  party  bound  himself  to  fulfil  certain  con- 
ditions, and  was  assured  of  receiving  certain  advunts- 
gei.  In  making  snch  a  covenant  God  was  solemnly 
invoked  as  witness  (Gen.  xzxi,  60),  whence  the  ex- 
preasion  "a  covenant  of  Jehovah"  (rtin^  I^VS,  1 
8am.xx,8;  comp.  Jer,  xxxlv.lB,  19;  Ezek. xvii,  IB), 
and  ap  oath  was  sworn  (Gen.  xxi,  31);  and  accord- 
ingly a  breach  of  covenant  waa  regarded  as  a  very 
heinoos  sin  (Ezek.  xvii,  13-20).  A  sign  (T^X)  or  wit. 
neu  Ci;)  of  the  covenant  waa  sometimes  framed,  anch 
as  a  gin  (Gen.  xxi,  SO),  or  a  pillar,  or  heap  nf  stones 
erected  (Gen.  ixxi,  fi^).  Tbe  marriage  compact  is 
called  "the  covenant  of  God,"  Prov.ii.l7(Bee  Mai.  ii, 
14).  The  word  covenant  came  to  be  applied  to  a  sure 
uoh  as  that  of  the  ahew-bread  (Lev.  xxiv, 
IS  used  figurstively  in 


4  COVENANT 

tbe  Flood  that  a  like  Judgment  abDuld  not  ba  repeatad, 
and  that  the  recurrence  of  the  •aaaona,  and  of  day  and 
night,  should  not  cease,  is  cellad  a  oorcDant  (Geo.  ix  ; 
Jer.  xxxiii,  SO).  Generally,  boweirer,  the  form  of  > 
covenant  Is  maintained,  by  the  beoeflta  whkh  God  ea- 
gagea  to  bestow  being  mada  by  him  dependent  opoo 
tbe  fnlHIment  of  certain  conditions  which  ha  impose* 


estb  (Isa 


.1, 18),  0 


h  tbe  wild 


i,  18).  Tbe  phrases  n->-ia  "tsB,  ■'tilX 
n'ns,  "lords  or  men  of  one's  covenant,"  are  employed 
to  denote  confederacy  (Gen.  xiv,  13,  Ob.  7).    See  CoN- 

2.  Improperlg,  of  a  terenail  bnmen  God  and  man. 
Man  not  being  in  any  way  in  tbe  position  of  an  inde- 
pendent covenanting  party,  the  phrase  is  evidently 
used  by  way  of  accommodation.  See  Akturopo- 
HORPHiSH.  Strictly  speaking,  auch  a  covenant  Is 
quite  unconditional,  and  amounts  to  a  promise  (Gal. 
iii,  15  sq.,  where  iirayyiXia  and  !inSi)i:t)  are  used  al- 
most as  aynonyms)  or  act  of  mete  tavor  (Psa.  Ixixix. 
28,  where  ^p^l  stands  in  parallelism  with  T^^S)  on 
God's  part.     Thus  tbe  assnrance  given  by  God  after 


leal  for  God,  his  honor  and  service  (Kom.  ixv,  1!,  13  ; 

Deul.  xxxiii. 0;  Neh.iiii,29;  Ual.il.  4,  5);  tbe  cw 

meuts  (Exod.  xxxiv,  27,  28;  Lev.  xxvi.  IS),  whidi 
are  therefore  called  "Jehovah's  covenant"  (I>eut.  iv, 
18),  a  name  which  was  extended  to  all  the  books  of 
Moses,  if  not  to  the  whole  body  of  Jewish  cattonical 
Scriptures  (2  Cor.  iii,  18,  11).  This  laat-menliaoed 
covenant,  which  was  renewed  at  diOerent  pertoda  of 
Jewish  history  (Deut.  xxii ;  Josh,  xxiv ;  3  Cbnn.  x:*, 
xxiii,xxix,  xxxiv  j  Ezrax;  Neb.ix,  x),  is  one  oTtlM 

are  distinguished  as  old  and  new  (Jer.  iixi,  Sl-3i; 
Heb.  viii,  8-lB ;  x,  16),  with  leTennce  to  the  order,  not 
of  their  institution,  but  of  their  adoal  deTtlopment 
(Gal.  iii.  17);  and  also  aa  being  tbe  inatnmenta  re- 
spectively of  bondage  and  freedom  (Gal.  iv,  SI).  Ctm- 
slsteutly  with  this  representation  of  God's  dealings 
with  man  under  tbe  ttorm  of  a  covenant,  such  covenant 
is  said  to  be  confirmed  in  coofbrmity  with  hnman  co^ 
torn  by  an  oath  (Dent,  iv,  SI ;  Psa.  lixxix,  S),  to  be 
sanctioned  by  curses  to  taU  upon  tbe  nnbithfnl  (Ueot. 
xxix,  21),  and  to  ba  accompanied  by  a  dgn  (r'lOi 
such  as  tbe  rainbow  (Gen.  ix),  drcumcision  (Gen. 
xvii),  or  the  Sabbath  (Exod.  xxii,  16,  17).  Henec, 
in  Scripture,  tbe  covenant  of  Gnl  is  called  his  "  ooan- 
tel,"  bis  "oath,"  his  "promise"  (Psa.  Ixxxii,  S,  4; 
cv,  8-11;  Heb.  vi,  13-20;  Luke  i,  68-7B;  GaL  iii, 
15-18,  etc);  and  it  ia  deHiribed  aa  connsllCg  wholly 
in  the  gracious  bestows)  of  blerniig  on  men  (Isa. 
lix,  21 ;  Jer.  xxxi,  83.  34).  Hence  also  the  applica- 
tion of  the  term  covenant  to  deai|;nste  siich  6xrA 
arrangements  or  laws  of  nature  as  the  reKular  tncces- 
aion  of  day  and  night  (Jer.  xxxiii,  20),  and  snch  re- 
iigioaa  institutions  aa  the  Sabbath  (Exod.  xxxi.  16) ; 
cireomcision  (Gen.  xvii,  9, 10);  the  Levitical  Institute 
(Lev.  xxvi,  16);  and,  in  general,  any  precept  or  ordi- 
nance of  God  (Jer.  xxxiv,  IS.  14),  all  such  appoint- 
monta  forming  part  of  that  system  or  arrangement  in 

innection  with  which  the  blesringa  of  God's  gr»ea 

Ere  to  be  enjoyed. 

COVENANT  or  3ii.t  (nio  P'>"i3).    This  phraaa 

supposed  to  denote  a  perpeliiaf  cotniaaf,  in  tbe  aeal- 
Ing  or  ratification  of  which  salt  waa  need.  As  salt 
waa  added  to  dilTerent  kinds  of  viands,  not  only  to 
give  them  a  relish,  but  to  pmaerve  them  from  pnU^- 
faction  and  decay,  it  became  the  emblem  of  imvrmp- 
tibUilg  and  pemovim.  Hence  a  <>  covenant  of  Kilt" 
BigniAed  an  ererbuliiig  covenant  (Num.  xvtii,  19 ;  Lfv. 
ii,  IS;  2  Chron.  ziil,  6).    See  Salt. 

CoTeiut]]t,SolemnLe«Kne«iid.  There  were 

several  covenants  drawn  np  in  Scotland  having  regard 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  Reformed  or  PreehTttriaB 
religion  in  that  country.  Tbe  Firtt  Cmpemaml  waa 
subscribed  in  Edinburgh  Dec.  3, 1567,  tbe  mass  ofslKD- 
era  being  known  as  the  Congregation,  end  tbe  nobility 
and  leading  subscriben  aa  the  T.ordB  of  the  Congrega- 
tion (q.  v.).  They  petitioned  the  government  for  lib. 
eriy  of  worship.  Being  met  with  dissimulation  end 
trearher;-,  a  Senmd  Comuml  was  signed  at  Perth, 
May  31,  1659,  wherwn  the  snhacriben  bound  tbeio. 
selves  to  mutual  assistance  in  defense  of  their  reliewns 
rights.  The  appeal  was  made  to  arms,  and  tbe  aid  of 
queen  Etizabelh  of  England  waa  called  In  to  counto^ 
act  the  French  troc^  invited  by  tbe  Papal  patty.    Om 


COVENANTS  5 

tbe  death  of  the  queen-mother  in  1560,  the  French 
troops  Here  irithdmwn,  und  I'silbmsnC,  being  left  ut 
Utmrty,  ordained  the  PresbyterUn  u  tbe  Estiblishcil 
Cborch  of  Scotliod.  In  1688  tbe  Noli  mil  Cartnanl 
was  snlMCTilKd  over  all  Scotland  with  ((reat  enCbusi- 
B9ID.  This  wu  not  only  a  repetition  at  the  fomieT 
cavenanta,  but  contained,  moreover,  a  nolemn  protest 
againat  prelaty. 

Tic  Saienm  Leagae  aid  Covatant  waa  a  compact  en- 
tered into  ID  1*>43  Uitweea  England  and  Suitland, 
binding  Ihe  Dnited  klnttdorne  to  mutual  aid  in  the  ex- 
tirpation  of  popery  and  prelacy,  and  the  preierTatii 
of  trae  Teligton  and  lilierty  in  tbe  realm.  It  wi 
drami  np  by  Alexander  Henderaon,  appruTsd  by  tbe 
Genenil  AwemUy  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Ang,  17, 
milled  by  the  ConTentlon  of  Estates,  and  ic 
and  aubacriljed  Sept.  26  I.7  the  English  Tarliament 
■  Dd  the  Westminster  Assembly  (q.  v,).  In  1645  it 
iras  again  ratified  by  tbe  Scottish  Ueneral  Auembly, 
toi^her  with  the  Dlrvctory  for  Worship  framed  by 
(b«  Weatminstar  Assembly.  Atthoogh  Chtrlea  I 
wonld  Dot  approve  of  it,  CharlM  1 1  engaged  l>y  oath 


COVERDALE 


KaVBin,Bnd,ofcour. 


n  poml 


off.. 


elder 


B  Chur 


opportunity.  The  Scottish  Parliament  of  1661,  i 
interest  of  the  king,  eaUibliBhed  ttie  royal  snpreii 
annulled  the  Solemn  League  and  Cove 


d  the  li 


illKatiDT 


The  "Cov 


if  bcotlnnd  and  all  ita  sectsslona.  the  Coracninian  body 
lid  not  aaenme  a  regubir  form  till  after  tlie  Hevolution ; 
,nd  it  was  with  some  difficulty,  smidst  the  general  con- 

I  Mitb  ordained  ministers.  TbeeteadbstneasofmE'niberB 

I  liters,  and  for  a  Urac  the  people  wore  as  sheep  nitbout 
a  abepherd.  At  length,  afwr  theic  faith  and  patience 
,  had  been  tried  fbr  sixtetnyeara.  they  were  joined  1  y  Ibo 
i  Rev.  Jobn  M-MilUn,  from  the  Estatliahed  Church,  in 

Hev.  John  M'Neil,  a  iicenliate  of  the 
I  Estabih-hed  Church.  Aa  a  menni  of  confirming  the 
fdilh  of  members  of  the  imdy,  and  of  giving  a  pabVic 
testimony  of  their  prineiplep,  it  vtaa  resolved  to  renew 
the  Covenants ;  and  thie  solemnity  took  place  at  Au. 
chensach,  near  Doiiglaa,  hi  Lanarkshire,  in  1712.  The 
Buliaeqnent  accessiun  of  the  Kev.  Hr.  Kairne  enabled 
the  Covenanters  to  constitute  a  presliylcrj  at  Brae- 
head,  in  tbe  pari«faorCamwath,on  the  let  of  Angntt, 
the  1"*3,  under  the  appellation  of  the  Reformed  Preahy. 
icy, '  tery.  Other  preachenafterwarda  attached  Ibemeelvea 
j  to  the  sect,  which  continued  to  ftouriah  obscurely  in 


tbe  WtMtminiltr  Con/ettion  nf  Fiali,  (Si 
bat  for  what  reuaon  it  is  difficult  to  aay,  for  the  Church 
of  Scotland  does  not  make  adheionce  to  them  obliga- 
tory on  either  clerical  or  lay  members.  Certain  S^t- 
tiih  and  Irish  disaentara,  however,  still  prof^  attach- 
mmt  to  tbe  covenants,  and  on  particalar  occaainna 
renawthelranliscrjptiontothem. — Hetherington,  fii'M. 
afCkmekofSaJimd;  MeCrie,  S*<r(Af»  "fCk.BiH,: 
Kudloff.  GadudUe  der  Rrfirmatim  m  ScAallland  (Ber- 
lin, IftSB,  2  Tola.).  See  Cahkbomiaksi  Pbesbite- 
RiANB,  Rbpobiibd  ;  ScoTtjtnD,  Chdbch  op. 
Covanants,  Theology  oC    SeeFBDBRALTiiE- 


.   the  w 


Gowenanten,  the  nunc  given  primarily  to  that 
liody  of  Presbyterians  in  Scotland  who  objected  to  the 
llflvolntion  settlement  in  Church  and  State,  and  desired 
10  see  in  fall  fhrce  that  kind  of  civil  and  eccl  it^aftictl 
polity  that  prevailed  in  Scotland  from  1688  to  1649. 
■'  .According  to  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  mt- 
liled  by  the  Tarliaments  of  England  and  Scotland,  and 
also  by  the  Aasemlly  of  Divines  at  Westminster  in 

kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  pop- 
ery, prelacy,  auperstllion,  heresy,  schism,  etc.,  were  to 
I*  extirpated.  The  '  Covenantera"  In  Scotland  con- 
tended, as  Is  well  known,  nnder  much  suRcting,  for 
this  specie*  of  Prsabyterian  supremacy  throughout  tbe 
reigns  of  Charles  II  and  James  VII  (II).  As  a  mcas- 
arc  of  pacification  at  the  Revolution,  Presbytery  was  1 
raUhlished  in  Scolbnd  l>v  act  of  Pari  lament.  1690 ;  but ' 
it  was  of  a  modified  kind.  Substantially  the  Church  I 
VM  rendered  a  creature  of  the  State,  more  pnrticnlar- 
ly  as  regard*  the  calling  nf  General  Assemblies ;  and  ' 
prelacy  waa  not  only  cnnlirmed  in  England  and  Ire- 
land, bnl  thera  was  a  general  loleralion  of  here«y —  ■ 
i.  e.  dissent.  In  sentiment,  if  not  in  form,  therefore, 
this  party  repudiated  the  goremmrnt  of  William  III  1 
and  hie  soccessors,  and  still  maintained  the  pcrpctaally  ! 
binding  obligations  of  the  Covenants.  The  Covenant-  ' 
ere  acted  uiider  etrone  convictions,  and  only  desired 
10  carry  ont  to  a  IcitimaCe  is? uc  principles  which  have  [ 
always  been  found  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  nf  Scot- 
land ;  bat  which,  for  pmdenlial  considerations,  had  , 
been  long  practically  in  abeyance.  In  short,  it  is  in 
the  standards  of  the  CoTennnters  that  we  have  to  look 
for  ■  true  embodiment  of  the  tenets  held  hy  the  i^reit ' 
body  of  English  and  Scotch  Presbyterians  of  1643.  I 
Ottieti  gave  in  to  the  Revolution  settlement,  and  after- ! 
11.-18 


ihi-l 

formed  Prt^ytenaa  Church   (Glasgow,  John  Keil 
iUi).     Holding  strictly  to  the  Covenants,  and  in  thel 
ory  rejecting  the  Revolution  settlement,  the  political 
position  of  the  Covenanters  is  very  peculiar,  as  they 
refuse  to  recngnise  any  laws  or  instltutii  ns  which  they 

Christ"  (Chambers,  Encin.^opa&i,  s.  v.  CaroeronianB). 
The  Reformed  Presbyterians  regard  themselves  as  the 
modem  representatives  of  Ihe  Covenanters.  See  Bit- 
lory  of  lh%  CormatatTs  (?  vols.  IBmo,  Pbilad.  Prcsl.. 
Board);  also  the  articles  pHesBHERiAH  (Reformed) 

CHUBCII  ;   CitHEROH;    SCOTLATtp,  CtlCBCll  OF. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  one  of  Ihe  earliest  Englhh  re- 
former*, was  boni  in  Yorkshire  about  1487,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  monk  uf  tbe 
Auicustlne  order.  At  an  early  period  ha  perceived  the 
error*  of  Popery.  In  I6I4  he  waa  ordained  prieat. 
About  1525  he  laid  aside  hia  monk's  habit,  and  began 
(o  preach  against  papal  error?.  In  1628  he  Joined  Tvn- 
dale  at  Hsmliirgh,  and  in  16:^6  his  own  Iron  elation' of 
Che  Bible  appeared,  with  a  dedication  to  Henrv  VIII. 
It  formed  a  folio,  printed  at  Zurich.  "He  thus  had 
tha  honor  of  editing  the  first  English  Bible  allowed  by 
royal  authority,  and  the  first  translation  of  the  whole 
Bible  printed  In  our  language.  The  Psalms  in  It  are 
those  now  used  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  About 
the  end  of  the  year  IS-IS  Coverdale  went  abroad  again 
on  the  business  of  a  new  etiitlon  of  Ihe  Bible.  Graf- 
ton, the  English  printer,  had  permission  from  Francis 
I,  at  the  request  of  king  Henri-  VIII  himself,  to  print 
n  Bible  at  Parle,  on  account  of  Ihe  superior  skill  of  the 
workmen,  and  the  goodnei^s  and  cheapness  of  the  paper. 
Bot,  notnithstandlng  the  royal  license,  the  Inquisition 
interposed  by  an  instruii.ent  dated  Decemlwr  17, 153F. 
Tbe  Frenrb  printers,  their  English  emptoyerti,  and 
Coverdale,  who  was  the  corrector  of  the  pres.',  were 
aummoneii  before  the  inquLiitors,  and  the  imprefsion, 
consisting  of  !5n0  copies,  was  seized  and  condemned  to 
the  flames.  The  avarice  of  the  officer  who  superin- 
tended the  burning  of  the  copies,  however.  Induced 
him  10  sell  several  chesta  of  them  to  a  haberdasher  for 
the  purpose  of  wrappinu  his  ware*,  by  which  means  a 
few  copies  were  preserved.    The  En  l!*h  proprietors, 

subsided,  and  not  only  recovered  fome  of  the  copies 
which  had  escaped  the  fire,  but  brought  with  (hem  to 
London  the  pres^s,  types,  and  printera,  Thb  impor- 
tation enabled  Rraflon  and  Whitchorch  to  print,  in 
1539,  what  [s  called  Cranmer's,  or  'The  Great  Kble,' 


COVERING  5. 

in  which  Coverdale  compared  the  traoslation  •ith  the 
HebreR,  coiTect«d  it  in  maoy  plucci,  and  «u  the 
chief  OTeneet  of  the  wotIl  Coverdde  wu  almoner, 
ume  time  an«rWHrd>,  to  queen  CaUurine  Put,  the 
Uatwife  of  Htnry  Till,  at  vboM  funeral  he  officuted 
In  the  ch*pti  ofSudeiey  CtiBti«,  in  Gionccatershire,  In 
15]a  On  AogUBt  14,  I&6I,  he  ■ucceeded  Dr.  John 
Harnitn,  olherwim  Voyiey,  in  the  m«  of  Exeter" 
(A'ajrfiii  Ci/fiopadio').  On  the  acceuion  of  Queen 
Murj,  he  Hu  ejected  fkom  his  see  and  thrown  into 
prison.  On  bi>  release,  at  the  end  of  two  y^nn,  Cuv- 
eidiile  repaired  to  Denmark,  and  aflerwatds  to  Wesel, 
and  finally  to  Geneva,  where  he  Joined  seve™!  other 
exiles  in  prodacinK  that  venion  of  the  Ea^lith  BiUe 
which  is  luually  called  "The  Geneva  Trnislatlon," 
part  of  which,  the  Kew  Testament,  was  printed  at  Ge- 
aevB  in  1657  by  Conrad  Badius,  and  aKiin  in  1500. 
On  the  accession  of  qaeen  Elirabeth  Curerdale  re- 
turned tiom  exile ;  l)at  baring  imbilied  the  priaciplea 
of  the  Geneva  refonnen,  as  far  as  respected  the  eecle- 
liaslicat  hablta  and  ceremonies,  he  was  not  allowed  to 
iflsomo  his  bishopric,  nor  was  any  preferment  offered 
to  him  Tor  a  considerable  time.  In  IbSS  bishop  Grin- 
dal  recommended  him  to  the  bishopric  of  LlandalT; 
but  it  is  Buppoaed  that  Coverdale's  age  and  infirmities, 
and  the  remains  of  the  plague,  from  which  he  had  Just 
recovered,  made  liim  decline  so  great  a  charge.  In 
lieu  of  it,  however,  the  bishop  collated  him  to  the  rec- 
torv  of  St.  Magnus  London  Bridge.  He  resigned  this 
living  in  1566.  The  date  of  bis  death  has  been  vari- 
ously staled.  The  parish  register  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
behind  the  Roral  Exchange,  however,  proves  thst  he 
wasbnried  Feb.l9,I5G8.  His  princlpMl  writings  have 
been  recently  republished  in  England  )>y  the  I>arker 
Society,  under  the  titles  of  "  tVntii^^  and  TranitalUmt 
o/itUei  Cotm-dale,  edited  by  G.  Pearson"  (Camb.  1(M4, 
t)vo) ;  ' '  Reiaaini  0/  MUet  CmtrdaU,  edited  by  G.  Pear- 
son" (Cambridge,  1B46,  8vo).  See  Bagster,  Mrmorialt 
o/CnTti-dah;  Johnson,  Engliih  Tnmilitiom  o/tht  Bi- 
bU !  Hook,  Hctla.  Biographj/,  iv,  209. 

Covering  or  the  Etbb,  ■  phrase  of  mach 
disputed  signilication,  occurring  in  the  expression 
B:'r?  rwor  T^^'Kin,  it  (or  aU)  [shall  bej  (o  r/ier 
a  aavrmgi^lie  ei/tt(Gea.x.x,16;  Sept.  rovra  iirrni 
ooi  ii'c  niirpi  TOO  rpwnimv  aov;  Vulg.  jIoc  trit  libi 
m  oetinHii  ocutonm),  which  is  usnallj'  understood  to 
refer  to  a  nil  that  obght  to  have  been  worn  by  Sarah 
to  hide  her  dangerous  beanty,  sod  which  either  her 
husband  (if  K^n  be  mosc.)  or  the  present  (if  neuter) 
would  niroish.  See  Abrahak.  Against  this  inter- 
pretation, however,  there  lies  this  objection,  that  such 
■  piece  of  apparel,  in  modem  Oriental  usage,  covers 
rather  the  /u«  or  person,  and  leaves  the  eves  free. 
See  WoHA-t.  Hence  many  commenlaton '(but  sea 
RosenrnQller,  in  loc.)  explain  the  phrase  as  an  idio- 
matie  one  for  a  peace-offering  (see  Gesenlua,  Tin.  Hri. 
p.  TOO)  or  propitiatory  present  (comp.  Gen.  xxxll,  21 ; 
Exod.  xxiil.  8i  Job  ix,24;  in  none  of  which  passages, 
however,  does  this  expression  preeieelv  occur);  but 
this  does  not  so  well  suit  the  difficult  context,  "onto 
all  that  are  with  thee,"  since  her  companions  had  no 
cause  of  complaint,  and  a  reproof  would  then  liave 


We 


plauatlon  of  Kitto  {Pict.  Bible,  note  in  loc.) 
customary  for  all  the  women  iohsbiting  towns  to  go 
about  closet}'  veiled:  while  all  the  women  of  the  dif- 
ferent pastoral  people  who  live  in  tents  do  not  com- 
monly wear  veils,  or  st  most  only  so  far  as  to  cover 
their  foreheads  and  lower  parts  of  the  face,  leaving  the 
countenance  exposed  from  the  eyebrows  to  beh>w  the 
nose.  Ablmelcch,  according  to  Ihb  view,  intended  to 
giro  the  very  sensible  advice,  thut  while  Sarah  and 

conform  to  the  customs  of  towns,  and  wear  the  com- 


C  COVETOUSNESS 

his  Dial^  Blbie  Jlbalratiom,  In  hK.).  At  the  aaoH 
time,  them  tjrpem  to  be  a  retlDed  bUuuod  to  the  otb- 
er  meaning  of  the  phrase  in  qoeation,  by  one  of  thtrsr 
plays  npon  words  so  IVequent  in  these  early  rkamS' 
tlves.  llence  the  lerseneaa  of  the  whole  phtaacology. 
See  VxiL. 

COVERING  THE  HEAD  in  PRArsn  (1  Cor.  xl. 
i-e).  See  Veiu  (Buchner,  Oeridt  oipiitripAyrMf, 
VltBb.  ITOSj  Zeiblch,  Dt  noraUtale  ritiu  eaptt  aprri- 
endi,  lb.  17IM;  Betgier,  Dt  ribi  eapitii  vptrituji,  iU 
ITOS ;  Hallincrott,  id.  Ups.  1784).  See  Prates. 
I  Covart,  prop,  some  Ibrm  of  the  verb  *irB,  aoIikB'', 
to  ludt:  namely,  IPQi  tt'lker,  a  AtlUr  (I  Ssm.  xxv, 
SO;  Job  xl,ai;  Ps^txl,  1j  IsB.  xvl,  4;  xx,  S;  «!••■ 
when  osually  "secret  place");  *1'!t1p13,  nuttor' ,  fro- 
lection  (Isa.  It,  6)\  elsewhere  some  liiirm  of  the  Terh 
7|:S,  mJeak',  to  SMdre.'  namel}*,  ^19^^,  miuai'  (text 
-e'>a,  imysai'),  a  covered  walk  or  partieo  (Sept.  5)- 
fiiAtav,  apparently  reading  *1IJ^O,  Valg.  aasunei); 
Tlb,ml:,afaif-(Jer.  xxv,8i  "den,"  Paa.  x,9;  ela^ 
when  Bjhtt,  "  pavilion,"  Psa.  xxvU,  6;  "tabernacle," 
Psa.  Ixxvi,  8) ;  njD,  luiiah'  (Job  xxsviii,  40),  a 
booth  (as  elsewhere  usually  rendered).  This  term  b 
generally  applied  to  ■  titchet  for  wild  beasta,  bat  in 
2  Kings  xvl,  IB,  we  read  that  Abai,  when  spelling  tbe 
Temple,  "took  down  the  tortrt  (T)C?0,  miuak')  for  the 
Sabbath  that  they  had  built  in  the  biMue;"  which 
bishop  Patrick  Imagines  was  "a  covered  plB(:«,w1ien 
the  king  sat,  in  the  porch  of  the  Tsni|Je,  or  at  the  en- 
trance of  it,  npon  the  Sabbath,  or  other  great  sokmni- 
ties.  Ahai  took  this  away,  intending,  ptobolJy,  not 
to  tronble  himself  with  coming  to  tha  Temple  any 
more,  but  to  sacrlAce  elsewhere."  See  Cotiicr.  It 
rather  designates  a  cloister,  shaded  from  the  he«t  of 
the  sun  for  the  accommodation  of  the  conrtly  wor- 
shippers (Thenins,  In  loc.),  such  as  w«  know  nn 
around  the  interior  of  the  Temple  In  later  times.  See 
Temple. 

CovBtonBneaB  (S^a,  Ac'bo,  rapine,  lam;  rAf- 
OKilia,  a  gratptng  temper),  in  a  general  sense,  means 
all  inordinate  desire  of  worldly  p 


ed  sense,  it  is  the  desire  uf  increasing  one's  aobataitca 
by  appropriating  that  of  other*.  It  is  a  disorder  of  the 
heart,  and  closely  allied  to  selfishness.  We  bete  con- 
sider it  under  its  more  restricted  aspect. 

I.  (^vetousneBs(jrX«av'si'<,f<Anp)'i^ro)isaitTi>llg^ 
sometimes  irresistible  desire  of  poss^ng  or  of  i» 
creasing  one's  possessions.  It  is  evident  that  undo 
its  influence  the  heart,  instead  of  aspiring  to  noble, 
high,  and  divine  goods,  will  be  brought  to  the  almost 
exclusive  contemplatiDn  of  earthly,  material  thinga; 
and  thus,  instead  of  becoming  gradually  more  closely 
united  with  God,  will  become  more  and  more  estranged 
from  him.  Since  where  the  treasure  la  there  the  heart 
is  ^so.  the  heart  of  the  coretons  cannot  be  with  Got, 
but  with  summon  i  he  Is  not  a  servant  of  God,  but  of 
idols.  Theloveof  tied  and  the  love  of  Mammon  cannot 
find  place  in  the  same  heart ;  the  one  excl  udm  the  otb- 
er(Matt.vi,24i  Luke  xvl,  13 1  Col.iil,8,  J/ort.»<*«r(. 
fore  jiour  menitn  wiicA  ore  upon  tlu  eartk:  fanira- 
fwn,  UAc^eoMiKB,  inarimaie  a0rctio%,  eril  cottd^nsomoi, 
imd  towloumfu,  lolsrA  u  idatatry).  Bat  since  to  lovs 
God  is  our  highest  duty,  and  God  alone  Is  to  be  prayed 
to,  loved,  and  trusted,  the  covetous  man,  as  a  servant 
of  Mammon,  is  forever  e.icluded  from  the  kingdofn  of 
Christ  and  iifCod(l  Cor,  vl,  10,  Northiem,  noraml- 
oui,  thaO  Inhfrit  lie  iba^^  0/  God;  Eph.  v,  S,  For 
tUi  ge  taoa,  tkat  no  lehortmtnger,  nor  ludnBt  patoiL, 
nor  eotetoat  man,  kAo  ii  m  idolater,  hoik  aagr  Jwittit- 
anct  in  He  kingdom  of  CItrid  and  «f  God).  We  an 
farther  told  that  the  citizen  of  the  kingdom  of  God  is 
to  lay  up  riches  in  heaven  (Uattvi,  20);  be  mnstha 


cow  6' 

OBlcBt  witfa  filod  and  niment  (1  Tim.  t1,  T,  »};  but 
lb«  coTatoni  act  in  appoaitlou  to  ill  theie  rommaiul- 
uKDti  (Heb.  ziii,  G,  Zd  your  tomiertalion  be  mliiiut 
etmUmtmtMt  [d^Adfiyupot  6  rpoiror} ;  and  be  eofUail 
milk  tmei  Ikimgi  at  t/t  kate  :  f^r  Jtt  kalh  mid,  I  aill  mrttr 
taae  Um  norfmakt  tlUf).  Tliia  atate  of  the  beart  ia 
reiy  dungBroiu,  for  coveloDancH  i>  thi  aonrce  of  all 
evU,  BiHl  Lringi  forth  all  manner  uf  sin  (1  Tim.  vi,  B, 
13,  for  ikt  loMo/  money  it  Ike  nxit  ofoU  ait;  vluck 
^Uie  tome  caeeled  a/sftAfy  Aore  errtdfnm  Ihc/aitA, 
and  pirrerd  dtemarlru  Ikrougk  jeak  mimg  torrotDi). 
Here  tbtJU^  of  coveEanaDeiui  Is  also  sliown,  insamach 
u  it  ia  Mid  to  bring  "manf  BorrowB."  It  is  further 
prored  by  tbe  fjct  that  tarthly  gooila  are  peri^hablp, 
and  that  their  poneasiim  raiidera  none  hupp;.  But  it  j 
ia  camtptimy  aa  well  as  niiaatlefactory.  By  attentpt- 
ia^  to  icain  tbe  world  the  soni  is  wounded,  and  loses 
the  everUstini;  life  (Matl.  vi,  30,  Liq  up  for  guarnlcu 
tnatttret  m  heatr*,  ttthfrr  neithtr  moth  nor  ratt  doth  cor- 
Tfi,  <Btd  itkrre  iloeru  do  not  brtak  Uiratgh  nor  tieal; 
ivi,  2fi,  36,  for  vkoioner  latt  taut  hit  lift  liatt  lot  il, 
amdi*otoerrT  urn  loitk-t  tiff  for  my  tola,  dudljmdit; 
/or  wilt  it  a  man  projiUd  if  ht  ikiiU  gain  ihe  xhoU 
warU  and  leK  hit  mm  tuul,  or  irhal  ihall  a  man  girt  M 
txckangt/ir  kit  ni.lt}i  Luke  xii,  l^-SI,  And  kt  laid 
unto  Ikon,  Tale  ketd,  and  baoare  i-fcoerMan'tt ;  for  a 
mom't  life  eantitltth  not  in  Ike  abmdance  ofAe  Ihingt 
wkick  ka  pouateik). 

3.  Aoarioe  a  also  a  part  of  oovetonrneu.  It  con- 
data  1b  amaaiin)-  either  for  the  sika  of  poaaeasing  or 
ftnm  f<«r  of  fatura  want.  Thia  phaae  of  covetonsness 
ia  the  inreet  mark  of  a  co1d-h«artcdneM  and  worldll' 
nen,  rouking  pore,  high,  and  holy  aspirations  ioipoaai- 
Lle.  It  i<  alio  a  Bort  of  Idalitiy.  far  it  is  the  love  of 
nwniDon  (Mutt,  vl,  19-34).  It  is  eawntially  unchari- 
table, and  incupalile  of  affection  (James  ii,  16,  IG,  If  a 
brolktr  or  I'tter  be  noted,  and  deitilule  "f  da.'li)  fuod, 
<md  emt  "fy  toy  mfci  them.  Depart  n  peace,  be  yr 
loirmed  and  JUttd;  notHiOatasdlng  f/e  fwe  them  nit 
Oatr  Ihingi  tehiek  are  ntB'fal  to  the  body,  rhai  dotk  il 
pn^ry  CoTetoDSncaa  it  a«  painflil  as  it  Is  drceitfnl 
in  tbe  end ;  it  cripples  the  natural  povren,  renders  life 
nuienlile  and  death  terriLIe.  Tfao  pursuit!  to  irhicli 
it  leads  ale  painfully  laboriona,  and  tbe  care  of  tbe 
pilar  rninnn,  once  secured,  is  equally  BO.  Tbe  labor  it 
entails  bi  (infnl,  as  it  does  not  rpring  f^m  love,  but 
fToto  sellUhDers  and  worldlineM.  A  a  the  wealth 
amaned  by  Ihe  covetous  ia  B|>pli«l  to  tbe  benefit  nei- 
ther ofthemaelves  nor  of  other*,  they  undergo  the  ae- 
Tcrest  privatlona  in  the  niidrl  of  plenty  (Harace,  con- 
gtttit  aa^iptt  tacat  indormit  Inhiant.  Xricii  juo  voir- 
(tf  ■—■t|  ymem  pnrbeat  wun).  However  groat  the 
■urtnral  power  of  a  man,  it  is  paralyied  by  thia  sin. 
To  the  covetona  death  is  borriljle.  aa  It  deprivea  them 
(if  all  to  which  the  worldly  heart  most  clings. 

Considering  tbe  nature  of  covetousneri,  it  cannot 
tppeax  strange  that  the  apostle  particnlutly  recom- 
mends a  bitki-p  to  avoid  that  sin.  The  bi»hop.  or  spir- 
itnal  head  of  the  comDionlty,  is  to  be  spiritual  (ttviu- 
jMnnit),  the  centre  of  the  Christian  life  of  tbe  cora- 
mnnily  (1  Tim.  ill,  1,  S);  and  cnvetoasne<a  ia  a  murk 
■bcrehv  false  teachen  may  be  known  (SUm.iii.S).— 
Krafal,  JV.  T.  [landicSrIerbiKk. 

Coir  occnn  in  tbe  Auth.  Vera,  (aae  Knni)  as  the 
traiislatlon  of  rf^D  (^nroJC,  Job  xxi,  10;  Isa.  xi,  T ; 
elaewhne  Dimally '"  klae").  ^}^.  ('ff^a*'.  !**•  vii,  31. 
"nytang  cow"),  a  ktifer  (as  tisually  elsewhere),  '^'\>ii. 
ibakar',  "kine."  Dent,  iitxll,  M:  2  Sam.  xvii,  is; 
■' eow"rtlung.  Ewk.  iv,  15;  a  young  "cow,"  Iss.  vii, 
n),  any  animal  of  tbe  on  kind  (elsewhere  "  bullock," 
•herd."  etc.),  and  lid  (sAor,  Lev.  xxii,  !S;  Num. 
jTili.  IT),  any  beef  animal  (uiually  an  "»r").  See 
Bcnj,;  C*Tn.«;  Oi.  The  drat  of  Ibe  above  Heli. 
words  (generally  (hand  in  tbe  plur.  ri'f,  parolh', 
nndrnd"kine"  ia  Gca.  xli,  3,  [>,4,  and  "heifer"  in 


Num.  six,  3),  properly  slgniflei  a  heifer  or  young  cov 
in  milk  (1  Sam.  vi,T);  also  aa  bearing  the  yoke  (Hoa. 
IT,  16).  In  Amos  iv,  l,the  phrase  "klne  or  heifers  of 
Brnhan"  is  used  netaphorically  for  the  voluptuous  fe- 
males of  Samaria.     See  Basban. 

By  tbe  Moauc  law  (Ler.  xxii,  38),  a  cow  and  ber 
ealf  were  not  to  be  killed  on  tbe  same  day.  Similar 
precept*  are  found  in  Ezod.  xiiii,  19 ;  Deut.  xili,  6,  T. 
WbeUier  they  were  designed  to  prevent  inhumanity, 
or  referred  to  some  beatben  coslom.  Is  uncertafai. 
The  cow  is  esteemed  holy  by  the  Hindoo*.  In  the  re- 
markaUa  prophecy  (iix.  vii,  31-35),  tbe  event  foretold 
it.  that  the  face  of  the  land  of  Judsb  sbould  be  so  c«oi> 
plelely  changed,  and  the  inbaliitants  ao  greatly  re- 
duced in  number,  that,  with  only  a  single  young  cow, 
and  two  aheep.  a  Cimily  should  be  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  milk  and  butter ;  and  vintysrda,  whlcb 
before  comniauded  a  high  rent,  should  be  overgrown 
with  brierB  and  thorns.  It  nuy  be  observed  that  dried 
cow-dung  was,  in  Palestiue,  commonly  used  for  fuel, 
as  it  is  at  tbe  present  day  among  the  Aniba,  hut  it  is 
remarkably  slow  in  burning;  on  tbia  account  the  ■ 
Arabs  ft^oently  threaten  to  bum  a  pereon  with  cow- 
dung  as  a  lingering  death.  This  fuel  forms  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  sbort-lived  and  noisy  violence  of  thoms 
and  fune,  which  are  speedily  consumed  with  a  "  crack- 
ling" noise  (EceL  vii,  6).    Robert*,  0    -■■--■ 


swood  b. 


■  ""y  « 


the  people  gather  cow-dung,  make  it  into  cakes,  and 
dry  it  in  the  sun,  after  wbich  it  Is  ready  for  fuel. 
Those  who  are  accustomed  lo  have  their  food  prepared 
In  tbla  way  prefbr  it  to  any  other;  th«y  tell  you  It  is 
sweeter  and  mare  holy,  as  the  fuel  comes  from  their 
sacred  anioul. "    See  Dchq. 

Coward,  William,  H.D.,  was  bom  at  Winches- 
Irr,  16£7.aQd  became  fellow  ofWadbam  College, Ox- 
ford. HoKttledflrat  at  Northampton,  and  afterwards 
at  London,  where  be  died  In  1734.  In  1703  be  pub- 
lished .'•'cowif  Ihoughtt  conctrmny  Ihe  Human  Soal.  de- 
monttrating  ihnt  the  *iotion  rftht  human  tool,  at  believed 
to  be  a  ipiriiual  and  immntrrial  mbilanee  •  nited  to  a  hu- 
man.vat  an  invention  of  tht  healhent.  This  work  gave 
so  much  offence,  by  defending  the  doctrine  of  mate- 
rialism, that  tbe  Hanse  of  Commons  ordered  it  to  be 
Lamed  by  the  hangman.  It  was  answered  by  Dr. 
Nichols,  in  his  Conference  vtilh  a  Tkeitt;  by  Biiingh- 
ton,  in  hla  Prychalogia ;  and  by  Turner.  Dr.  Coward 
also  published,  in  1704,  Further  Thonykti  on  Serond 
Thimghtt ;  and  The  Grand  Ettay,  or  a  Vindication  <\f 
Ibaion  ntid  Deliffion  agdmit  Ihe  Impniturei  of  PltHom>- 
pky. — Darling,  Cyelopadia  BiHiograpkica,  i,  795. 

Cowl  (mcifZfui),  a  sort  of  hood  worn  by  certain 
clasBFi  of  mcinks.  Those  worn  by  tbe  Bemaidines 
and  Uenedictines  are  of  two  kinds:  the  one  white, 
very  larj^p,  worn  in  ceremony,  and  when  they  arsist 
at  the  office;  the  other  black,  «om  on  ordinary  occa- 
sions and  in  the  streets.     MaliUloti  meinuins  that  tbe 

Others  dbitmguiBh  two  sorts  of  cowl*  1  the  one  a  gown, 
reaching  to  the  feet,  having  sleeves,  and  a  capuchin, 
used  in  ceremonies;  the  other*  kind  of  hood  to  work 
in,  called  also  a  scapular,  becaure  it  covers  only  tbe 
head  and  shoulders.— Fnrrar,  Eccl.  Did.  a.  v. ;  Bing- 
ham, Or^.  £<^f.  vll,  3,  G, 

Cowles,  Giles  Hooker,  D.T).,  a  Congtagatioiul 
minister,  was  l<am  in  Purmlngton,  Conn.,  Aug.  3G, 
1766.  Ho  graduati^  ot  Vale  in  1780,  entered  the  min- 
iKry  In  Msv,  1791.  and  was  Installed  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  at  Hrlftol  in  1792.  He  was  appointed  In  1810, 
hytheConn.  11  Iss.  Sac.,  tn  travel  throngh  the  Northern 
part  nf  Ohio.  He  accepted  Ihe  position  of  pastor  aver 
the  chorehe*  of  Austinhurgh  and  Morgan,  Ohio,  and 
was  installed  in  1S11.  He  died  In  tbe  former  place 
.Inly  6, 1N30.  He  waa  made  D.D.  Iiy  Wllllanu  Cot 
lege,  llf33.~-^pngne,  Annalt,  ii,  SCO.  [  Q 


COWPER 


I  emiDent  Scotch  divine,  wi: 


Cowp«,  Willi 
boTD  >t  Edinburgh  in  luuo.  at  huqihi  si  ini  uni- 
versity  of  St.  Aadrevg,  anil  In  1585  »»  tppoiDtiid  min- 
uter dT  Bolhkanner,  Stfrllngghire.  In  1693  h«  re- 
moTcd  to  Perth,  where  he  contlnaed  nntil  1613,  tiler 
which  he  mu  eppolnted  blahop  rfGaJloway.  He  died 
Feb.  le,  1619.  Hii  works  braithe  a  epirit  of  cnrdisl 
piety,  and  the  aimplieil}-  and  atrength  of  hii  iiyle  are 
peculiarly  warthv  of  comTnendatinn.  Among  them  we 
remark  Heacfn  'Opated  (6th  ed.,  Lond.  1619,  4lu).  A 
cullection  or  his  worka  waa  publiahed  after  hi*  death 
(Lond.  1629,fol.).—fo.(i,EEcfei.afof.i,777;ii,616, 69a 

Cox,  Franols  Angnattu,  D.D.,  LUD.,  an  emi- 
nent English  Baplint  minister,  was  born  about  ITR3. 
He  was  pastor  at  Hackne)'.  London,  aod  waa  one  of  the 
leading  men  in  many  of  the  religioai  ecKietiea  of  the 
Dietropnlin.  Of  hia  works  the  roost  important  are  the 
Hittory  of  tit  Bapliii  Uutiont,  a  Tolame  on  Aiitigiii- 
titM,  reprinted  from  the  Eaafdepadia  Mttropnlilima ; 
Our  Young  Mtn,  a  priie  eaaa;  (1B47) ;  and  a  /,(/«  n/ 
Mtlanaktm.  He  waa  •  contribntor  lo  the  firac  eeriea 
of  the  Journal  o/Safred  IMenOurr.  Hia  name  ia  wor- 
thy of  being  usociated  with  thoae  of  Ryland,  Fuller, 
Catcy,  Marebman,  Ward,  Robert  Hall,  and  John  Fos- 

Baptist  denomina^on  by  their  literary  a*  well  as  their 
leligioua  labora.     He  died  Sept.  B,  ISfiS. 

Cox,  MalviUe  Bevsildge,  a  Meihodiat  Episco. 
pal  miaiionaiy  to  Africa,  was  bom  at  Hallowell,  Me., 
Nov.  9, 1799;  waa  conTertcd  in  ISIS;  entered  the  min- 

nua'ted  from  182S  lo  1831 ;  and  afterwards  served  some  < 
time  aa  agent  of  the  Wealeyan  DnlTeiaity.  In  18B1 
lie  was  sUtioned  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.  Soon  alUrwaida 
he  Tolualeercd  to  go  to  Africa  as  a  misalonary,  and 
aalled  from  NorTolk,  Ta.,  November  6,  1832,  arriving 
in  Lil>eTiB  March  8,  1S3S.  Here  at  once  he  set  to 
worit  Co  Xay  the  foundatlona  of  the  Chutch  in  AlHca. 
He  labored  tklthfolly,  organizing  the  mission,  collect- 
ing information,  and  preaching  and  teaching  incessant' 
1y.  In  ft  few  months  be  had  formed  a  school  of  70 
scholars;  hntthe  African  feverseiied  him,  and  on  the 
Sist  of  July,  183.'!,  after  four  months'  labor,  he  died  in 
triumph.  Mr.  Cox  was  a  man  of  great  piety  and  de- 
voted leal. — Mrih.  Mng.  and  <]iiart  Arnev,  Jan.  1834; 
Amtr.  Mia.  Memorial,  p.  4B1 ;  Cox,  G.  F.,  Lifi  md 
Xemainio/M.B.Cax(S.y.llimo);  Splague,  Jmob, 
Vli,  656. 

Cox,  Richard,  bishop  of  Ely,  waa  bom  abont 
1500,  at  Whaddon,  Buckinghamshire,  England.      He 
was  educated  at  Eton  School  and  at  Kind's  College, 
There  he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1SI9.      He  waa  in- 
vited by  cardinal  Wolsey  to  Oxford  to  All  up  hia  new 
fonndation.      For  speaking  his    mind    . 
too  freely  of  the  corruptions  of  pnpery, 
he  waa  depriveil  of  bis  preferment  and 
thrown   Into   prison.      When    he   had 
recovered  his  liberty  he  left  Oxford; 
eome  time  aft^r  he  was  chosen  mas- 
ter of  Eton  School,  which    flauriabed 
remarkably  under  him;    and  by   the 
Interest  of  archbishop  Crunmer  ha  ob- 
tained lereral  dignities  in  the  Church, 
via.,  the  archdeaconry  of  Ely,  n  prebend 
of  the  same  church  and  of  Ijncoln.and 
thadeanery  of  Christ  Church,    lie  waa    j 
appointed  totor  to  prince  Edward,  and    J 
'  prince's  accession  to  the  throne    i 
a  great  favorite  st  conrL     He  S 
waa  made  s  privy  councillor  and  the    i 
king's  almoner ;  wa.' elected  chimccltor 
of  the  Universilv  of  Oxford  in  1647  ; 
the  next  year  installed  canon  otWind- 
sor,  and  the  year  following  dean   of 
Westminster.     About  tbia  time  he  waa 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 


18  CRACKNEL 

vidt  the  Univer^ty  of  Oxford,  and  is  accnaed  bv  ("fB* 
of  abusing  his  authority  by  destroying  many  bouka  out 
of  his  leal  against  popery.  After  Mary's  acceHioat  ha 
was  stripped  of  hia  preferments  and  comoiitteil  to  Uu 
Marahalsea;  but  his  Gondnement  was  not  lone,  and 
on  his  release  be  want  to  Stnsburi.-,  and  tbencs  to 
Frankfurt,  where  he  formed  a  kind  of  univenit}',  and 
appointed  a  (ireek  and  a  Hebrew  lecturer,  ■  divinity 
professor,  and  a  treasurer  for  the  ccntrilntloiu  remia- 
tad  from  England.  On  the  death  of  Mai^'  he  rvtorii- 
ed,  and  was  the  chief  champion  on  the  Proteatant  ude 

plats  and  an  equal  number  of  the  Refomted  clerKi'. 
His  abilities  and  aeal  were  rewarded  by  the  bisfaopric 
of  Ely,  over  which  see  he  presided  above  21  ^euv. 
He  oppoeed  with  great  leal  the  qneen'a  retaintDK  the 
cmcifix  and  lights  in  her  chapel,  and  was  a  atreauons 
advocate  for  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  agaitt-^t  wbicb 
she  had  contracted  ft  strange  avendon.  He  waa  one 
of  the  compilers  of  tho  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Ei^- 
land;  and  when  a  new  translatioD  of  the  Bible  was 
made  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  now  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  '■  The  Bishop's  Bible,"  the  Fonr  Gofc 
pels,  the  Acts  of  the  ApivtlM,  and  tbe  Epiatle  to  the 
Romans  were  allotted  to  him  for  his  portion.  A  ntim- 
ber  of  his  tracts  on  tbe  Romish  controversy  are  to  be 
found  in  the  addenda  to  Burnet's  Hiitory  o/Ike  Rtfor- 
motion.  Several  letters  and  small  pieces  of  hir  have 
been  published  by  Strype  in  his  Amali  oftltr  Brfrrma^ 
(ioo.— Downe,  i/e  pfhUu^Cor;  Collier,  Atc'ea-uM. 
cat  Hiilory;  Kippis,  ^H^raptta  firiAnMUo,  iv,  B96*q. 
CoK  (Heb.  ^'ip,  Kaa,  the  same  name  ebwwhert 
Anglicized  Koz  [q.  v.],  Sept.  Kwt).  the  father  of 
Anub  and  others  of  the  posterity  of  Judah  (I  Chron. 
iv,  B,  where,  however,  his  own  parentage  ia  not  (tated, 
unless  he  be  a  son  orbrother  of  Aahnrln  ver.  6).     B.C. 

Cos'bi  fHeb.  ■'21B,  KoM',  faUe;  Sept.  Xmr^i ; 
Joseph.  Xoo/Jia,  Ant.  iv,  6, 10),  the  danghter  of  Zor, 
a  Mldianitish  prince.  Fhinebaf,  in  hia  holy  indigna 
tion,  slew  her,  while  in  the  act  of  committing  lewdness 
with  Zimri,  an  Israelitish  chief,  by  thrusting  a  jaralio 
through  the  middle  of  both  (S'um.  xxv,  lb,  18).  EC. 
1819. 

COBTl.     See  KozRL 

Crackling  (b-p,  twice,  i.  e.  noise)  of  thoma  (q.  *.) 
under  a  pot;  a  proverbial  expression  fur  a  roaring  IhiI 
quickly-extinguished  lire  (Ecclee.  vii,  G).      See  FtEU 

Cracknel  (only  in  the  plor.  C'7P3,  nUwUni', 
literally  cakes  markrd  leidt  poialt),  pvbalilr  ■  kin^ 
of  biscuit  or  other  cake  baked  bard  and  punctured 
with  holes,  BUch  aa  Jeroboam's  wife  took  In  disgnisa 


in  th:it  prino 


Uodam  Orienlal  Past 


CEADOCK,  SAMCEL  649  CKAMER 

(Ihar  being  of  a  wf  common  deacripCion)  u  a  pnc- 1  >p«eUl  (treetot  huaiu'(q.  v.)  in  th«  envlraiu  of  Jem* 

«■!  tD  tbe  pn>|)beC  Ahijdi  (I  Kingi  siv,  a,  Mbtra  the  I  ulem  (I  ChroD.  ir,  14,  when  it  ia  called  a  valley),  or 

Sipt.  haa   toXXi-pit,  VuIk-  cnuluii).       See    Bkiaii.  |  mther  in  tha  vicinitj'  of  Lod  (Neb.  xi,  86)t  regaidad 

Tba  ohtpoal  word  (in  nearly  Ihe  unie  Ibini)  occure  liy  Dr.  HoLiinnn  il'igt.  Gteyr.  oj'  Paleil.  p.  lia)  u  the 

in  Joab.  Iz,  5,  Ij,  wlieni  il  ia   improperly  rendered  plain  of  finljViiia.Drratbera  tide  vulley  opening  inlo 

"mooldy"  (t\.  r.).     See  Cake.  it.     See  Cuahabhim. 

Ctndock,  Samnal,  B.D.,  an  eminent  Noocom.        Craig,  John,  one  of  the  Scottish  RefonneTi,  was 

roRDiM,  waA  barn  in  1620,  and  wai  educated  at  Em-  I'orn  in  Scotland  about  ISIS.      "Having  ipent  eiime 

manuel  Collej,'e,  CanHiridgc.  of  wbkb  be  iKCame  fel-  time  a*  a  tutor  in  Englaod.  be  relum«I  to  Scotland 

low.     He  waa  preaented  to  the  college  IWinK  of  North  and  entered  the  Dominican  order,  of  whicb  be  bad  not 

Cadbory,  but  ejected  for  nuncmiromiity  in  1662,  and  lon^  been  ■  member  when  he  fell  onder  tbe  suipicion 

retimi  to  an  estate  at  Wickham  Uruok  which  bad  '  of  bereB>',  and  waa  cut  into  prison.     On  hi)  releaae 

bean  left  tu  him.     He  died  in  ITOS.      He  wai  a  man  he  tiaveUed  on  tbe  Continent;  and  after  eome  time 

nt  (crkias  and  truly  catholic  ti|iirit.  sulid  Judgment,  di.  vat,  tbmugb  cardinal  Pole'e  influence,  Intnutnl  with 

Kextnl  thought,  clear  method,  and  unaffected  etyle.  tbe  education  of  tbe  norlcea  in  connectiOD  with  tbe 

Hii   works   liBTB  been   greatly  commended  liy  arch-  UuminicAn  order  at  Bologna.     While  here,  CalTin'a 

biabop  Ttllotimn  and  bigbop  Ueynalde.     Dr.  Dodd-  Inttdvttt  fell  in  bia  way,  and  converted  him  to  Prot- 

ridjfe  laya  that  no  author  Hiabted  him  more  in  what  eatant  dactrinea.     Having  openly  avowed  the  change 

relates  to  the  Xew  TeatamenL     Hii  principal  works  in  bia  opinions,  he  was  brought  before  the  Inquiailion, 

an.  TV  Hitlorj  tsf  lAe  0.  T.  mrthodifd  (I^ind.  l&fS,  and  sentenced  to  be  Imrnt-^  fata  from     "  '    ' 

fol.) :  —  !'*■  "unutiy  n/ Ml  /uur  A'wi9ei<(U  (Lond.  ;  saved  by  the   Diob 

168H.  fol.):  — He  ApotColital  liitlory,  vith  on  Analyt-  breaking  open  the 

ical  Parai*ratt{U>aA.\61%to\.):  —  Kitoicbdge  and  prisoners  at  libertj'.      Craig  ei 

PraeUct  (-1th  ed.,  with  eight  new  chapters,  Lond.  i;OS,  obtained  some  favor  at  the  conn  of  Maximilian  II ; 

ttiL). — DarliDg,  Ct/tUji.  BibH-ig,  a.  v.  but  the  newa  of  bis  being  there  reached  Rome,  and  tbe 

CndoCk,  ■Walter,  an  eminent  English  divine,  P"I*  'Jemanded  his  aurrender  aa  one  condemned  for 

vu  bom  at  Tretda,  Monmouthshire,      He  waa  edu.  nereay.     The  emperor,  however,  mutead  of  complying 

ated  M  the  Univeraity  of  Oxford,  Joined  the  Puritans,  "'"■  "■•  '«!"*«'  of  t"  holineaa,  gave  Craig  a  aafe. 

and  tacame  curate  of  St.  Mury'a,  Cardiff.     Dnring  the  fonduct  out  of  Germany,     He  now  returned  to  Scol- 

d«a  ware  he  l>ecame  pastor  of  Allhillowa  the  Great,  """^'  ^"^  *"  •l-pomtert  tbe  colleague  of  John  Knox 

London,  and  ocuuionally  itinerated  Ibrough  Wales.  '"  'V  P"""''  "^^""^P  "^  Edinl>urgh.     Thinking  tha 

He  died  in  IGfiO.     He  was  an  Independent  in  Church  """"K"  "f  q"""  Mary  and  Botbwell  contmry  to  the 

gorerament— a  man  of  excellent  cbaracler  and  high  '""'^  "'  ^'^^  *'«■  ''*"^'  tioWlDg  "'»  positmn,  boldly 

repoutioni  in  doctrine,  be  was  lealona  in  preaching  "''"''  ".  P™,'"'™  'h"  '»''■»■  ,  '"  1^.*  Craig  wai 

j»atift«tim.bylmpntedriBbtsonsne».     Hbi  principal  ""*!"'"'"":"•"      a    **^f  P'"?'»,  *"  J'^'"'"" 

werks  are,  CoW  UbrrHi  in  Ih,  Exlfiui<Mt  -md  Limila-  ""^  Aberdeenah.re,  and  remained  in  the  North  until 

ttoM  »/  .r  {Lond.  1648,  41<.):-Z«n«  Drvp.  JUHltd  ??;?■  "'I™,''*  *"  appointed  mmi.ter  to  king  J.met 

frtm,  tAf  fo„,.l»:n  ofUolg  Smph.ra  (Lond.  1650,  4to) :  ^I  in  Edmlmrgh      He  now  took  a  leading  part  in  the 

Icov'f //«;;««  (Lond  IGiHto).     A  collection  of  *«""  "'  the  Church,  was  the  compiler  of  part  of 

hi*  works  has  been  pulilu^hed  (Cheater,  1800,  Bvo).-  ">«   ««»'"*    ^^  «'   "laciplme,  and   tbe  wnter  of 
Darling,  (WfoO'-fl^^-"-^-                                              I  "'*  National  a.venant  aigned  in  1580  by  the  king 
'^           ^^                                                        ,  and  bis  bouaehoUL     He  was  a  man  of  great  conacien- 

Ciaftaman  0=^11.  ehanui'.  Dent,  ixvii,  25;   2  [iouaneaa,  and  was  not  alow  to  oppoae   the   proceed- 

Eiag*  xijv,  16;  Hoa.  xiii,2i  elsewhere  "engraver,"  ing*  oF  the  court  when  he  decm«l  them  oppoaed  to 

'■worfeinan,"etc.;  c)*>n,  nir'rui,  Nah.xl,S5;  "cun.  Scripture,  and    to    apeak  whaleaome    but    unpleasant 

;  "secretly,"  Josh,  ii,  1 ;   "Charash-  t™'hs  to  bia  majetly  bimaelf.     He   died   December, 


Iv,  14  J    both  from  ti"nn,  f 


,    1600." 


earMin«tone,hem.-etobean"rrjrfceringeneral-  rt;C  CraluntllQtp,  BtCHABD,  D.D.,  waa  bom  at 
Hr>K,  Acta  six, -i4,  38;  Rev.  xviii,  23  j  '■builder."  StritkUiid,in  We*tmoreUnd,  in  1667.  He  was  admit- 
Hob.  xi,  10 ;  an  orrtsan),  a  workman  at  any  mrchan-  led  W  Queen  s  College,  Oxford,  in  168B,  and  became 
teal  employment  requiring  skill.  Sea  Mechanic,  i  feWow  l"  1598.  He  obtained  the  rectory  of  Ulack 
PowniB  of  this  class  professionally  (for  every  Jew  |  Notley,  Eaeex,  and  died  in  1624.  He  bad  tbe  repnta- 
w—  required  In  learn  some  manual  trade,  tn  fnll  hack  ,  '"on  of  l«ing  a  general  scholar,  was  quits  a  canon, 
■poa  in  cmae  of  want)  seem  li.  have  congregated  in  «  I  ist,  perfectly  acquainted  with  eccleaiastical  antiquity 

and  Bcholastic  divinity,  and  waa  a 

celeliratad  preacher.      Hia  principal 

worta  are,  Drfnao  KccUtia  Anj/li- 

CKWe  cnntra  il.  A  ttlonii  de  Domimt, 

D.  A  TChiepiiCOpi  Spaiaietuia,  iit/urvv 

(new  edit,  in  Tit  Ijbrary  of  Angbt. 

CaOuilic  TkciJo^,  Oxf.  1847,  8vo): 

■     —Home't  Setr  nrmfene  (Und,  1681, 

fol.);— rie  Df/tnn   of  CoatUmluit, 

/    ailh  a  Trtaliit  of  the  Popt't  Itmparal 

MonnreUt  (l.ond.  IWl,  4to).— Dar- 

!     ling,  (^{rfi«/i  I  fiiUiri^ri^iea,  a.  T. 

I       Cniin«T,  JoHANH    Ahiihkas,  a 

.   Qennan  theologian  and  poetical  writ- 

^    er,  iraa  bom  at  Juaeph'^tadt,  Saxony, 

'    Jan.ZS.ms.    He  studied  at  Ulpaic, 

was  invilad  to  Copenhagen  by  Fred> 

erick  V,  and,  with  the  exception  of 

three  vear*.  resided  in  Denmark  from 

1754  1^  1788,  in  which  Utter  year  he 

died.      At  the  time  of  bis  death  ha 

Msdam  Oriental  Toner.  "s  cbancellor  ot  tba  Unlrenitf  of 


CRANE  6! 

Kiel  He  translated  BoMoet'B  Univcnal  H'lBtnry,  the 
Homitiee  or  St.  ChryMalom,  anil  the  I'lilinB  nr  Oaviil 
inui  vene  (Leips.  1756),  and  wrote  the  Norlhem  Spteta- 
(Dr  (Pfr  DonliKhe  AuFwIier),  three  vol*.  (Copenhagen, 
IT&B);  Srrnioni.  twenty-two  voU;  and  Poaai,  three 
vols.  (IT82).     Germany  ranlu  him  BmoDg  her  beu  lyr- 

Ci-ane  oecura  in  our  venioD  u  Ihe  traiialation  uf 
C1B  (lui,  literally  ■  Itaper,  from   ila  awiftoen,  Isa. 


i,  li)  0 


=  («.  Jer.  viii,  7).  i 


with  mother  bird,  the  "^KS  {agar',  the  chaUertr,  or,  as 
ftesenius  renders  it  In  tudab.  the  dtaUeriag,  u  ui  ep- 
ithet ofthe  other),  whii^b  latter  la  rendered  "swallovi" 
in  out  veraion.  The  Rabbins  Bgrea  with  onr  version 
In  rendering  the  former  of  these  words  (n»  or  ni)  tiy 
"crane;"  Itut  Bochart  and  Geaeniaa  (in  accordance 
with  the  Sept.,  Theod.,  and  Vulg.),  more  correctly,  as 
«e  think,  decide  Id  favor  of  "awaUow;"  while  Luther, 
rejecting  both,  prefers  "beron."  Where  »o  much  di- 
versity of  opinioD  rei^n,  it  will  be  moat  safe  to  search 
for  the  true  ueaning  by  examining  the  iatemal  evi- 
dence furnished  by  the  texts  in  queetian,  the  two 
names  occurring  in  no  other  instance.  In  Isaiah,  al- 
lusion is  made  to  the  voice  of  both  tbe  species  (if  dis- 
tinct), which  is  described  by  the  verb  "to  chatter,"  in 
accordance,  or  nearlv  so,  with  all  critical  authorities. 
See  SwAi.u>w.  In'jercmiuh,  where  both  names  oc- 
cur in  tbe  same  order,  tbe  birds  are  represented  as 
"observing  the  time  of  their  coming."  Now,  If  the 
"crane"  of  Europe  had  been  meant  by  either  denomi- 
nation, the  clamorous  habits  of  the  species  would  not 
have  been  expressed  as  "  cbattcrintf  \"  and  It  is  most 
probable  that  the  striking  chsracteristics  of  that  bird, 
which  are  so  elegantly  and  forcibly  displayed  in  He- 
■iod  and  Aristophanes,  would  have  supplied  the  lofty 
diction  of  propheUcal  iosiHiatJon  with  asBodBtlons  of  a 


0  CRANMER 

Uediterransan  Into  Africa,  and  does  not  appear  to  Pai> 
estine,  unless  by  accident  ^driveu  thither  possi>ii>  \ty 
a  western  storm  of  wind) ;  and  wben  a  troop  oTcraiMa 
alight  under  these  circumstances,  it  is  only  for  ■  mo- 
ment ;  they  do  not  give  evidence  of  purposely  aaaena- 
bling  like  the  swallow.  Thus  the  few  characteriiticl 
indicated  might  seem  to  point  oat  the  stork,  which 
does  assemble  in  Syria  in  flock*  before  its  departore, 
and  i>  not  a  cUmomns  bird,  having  little  or  no  voioe 
But  as  the  Bt^jrk  is  clearly  designated  by  a  differut 
appellaUun  in  the  oii^ual  [see  Stobk],  we  moM 
search  for  another  species  ss  the  representative  of  tb« 
aw,  or  at  least  of  the  Utter  term ;  and  we  fortanatelr 
tlnd  one  which  completely  aoswera  to  the  conditums 
required;  for,  being  neither  a  geDuine  crane,  a  storic 
nor  a  heron,  having  a  feeble  voice,  and  striking,  bnt 
diBlincl  manners,  it  is  reoiarkable  for  t>eauty,  tiizbi- 
bers,  residence,  and  periodical  arrival  and  deportura. 
The  NumidiaD  crone  (dri/ea  virgo  of  Linn.,  the  Cm* 
virgo  of  later  writers,  and  AnlAri)poidf4  tiryo  at  tiatai) 


character  still  more  exalted.     Shi  or  nt  is  the  name 

of  a  fabulous  long-legged  birdin  Arabian  legends,  but 
It  also  indicates  the  expressive  sound  of  the  swallow's 
voice,  while  a^r  is  transferred  with  slight  alteration 
to  the  stork  in  several  northern  tnngues.  The  Teo- 
ticon  aihrr,  Dutch  {yeeaec,  Esthonian  aigr  and  aigro, 
therefore  support  the  view  that  the  latter  term  Is  a 
trilial  epithet  of  ens  of  the  Rreet  wading  birds;  but 
neither  the  Hebrew  text  nor  the  Teutonic  names  point 
to  the  crane  of  Europe  {Ardta  gnu,  Linn,,  Gnu  dar- 
Tta  of  later  ornitholo>d»li>).  mucb  tbat  species  has  a 
loud  trumpet  voice, and  therefore  does  not  "chatter;" 
but  especially  because  in  its  roigrations  it  crosses  the 


NumMLau  Urstic  {Gnu  Virgo}^ 
is  the  Intd,  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude,  intend- 
ed by  "  agur,"  though  not  coming  from  the  north,  but 
tram  Central  Africa,  down  the  Nile  (Ihe  very  circum- 
stance which  puzzled  Ussselquiil),  and  in  the  spring 
arriving  in  Palestine,  while  troops  of  them  proceed  to 
Asia  Minor,  and  some  as  far  north  as  tht^  Ca*]dBtI. 
They  are  frequently  found  portrayed  on  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  the  nstumlist  Just  qnoted,  who  taw 
them  on  the  Nile,  afterwsnts  shot  one  near  Smyma: 
they  visit  tbe  swamp  aliove  tbnt  city,  and  tbe  lake  of 
Tilierias.  and  depart  in  the  f«ll,  but  do  not  utter  tbe 
clon^r  of  the  crane,  nor  adopt  Its  flight  In  two  col- 
nmns,  fonning  an  acute  angle,  the  better  to  deava 
the  air.  This  bird  is  not  more  thaD  three  laet  in 
length ;  it  is  of  a  beautitbl  liluish  gray,  wUh  the 
cheeks,  throat,  bieast,  and  tips  of  the  long  hinder 
fcithers  and  quills  black,  and  a  tuft  of  delicate  white 
plumes  behind  each  eye.  It  has  a  peculiar  dsadng 
walk,  which  gave  rise  to  its  French  denominalkm  of 
"  demoiselle"  (see  the  Pbhm/  C</cUipa£a,  a.  y.  llcK 
ons).     See  BiKii. 

The  Hebrew  term  nt  occurs  frequently  elsewhere, 
but  only  in  the  sense  of  "  horse"  or  amatrj. 

Crane,  John,  D.t).,  a  Con^regstional  minlrter, 
was  bom  at  Korton,  lilass.,  March  26, 1TS6.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  ITSO,  and  was  installed  putor  u 
Northbridge.  Mass.,  June  35, 1783,  where  he  remoionl 
until  his  death,  Au^.  HI,  1636.  Be  published  SgU 
DiicoarttM  on  Baplim  (1806)  and  a  few  occaaioiial  aer- 
mons.—Sprogne,  AimaU,  ii,  314. 

Craiuuer,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  uid 
one  of  the  greataet  ofths  English  refonnera,  was  faOTD 
at  Aalaclon,  Kottingbamshire,  Julv  3,  1189.  He  en- 
tcred  Jesus  College  in  1.W3,  became  a  fellow  in  ISIO- 
11,  studied  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  theology  with  great 
diligence,  and  acquired  high  repute  for  scholanolp^ 
He  forfeiC«<t  his  fellowship  by  an  early  marriage,  Mt 
his  wifo  died  within  a  vear,  and  he  was  restored.  In 
I5SB  he  toolt  the  degree  of  D.D.  In  l.'iSS  he  was  at 
n'altham  Abbey,  the  scat  ofMr.Cressy,  edacatingUwt 
([entleman's  children.  Here  he  met  Raidiner  and 
Fox,  who  asked  his  oplDion  as  to  Henry  TIII's  di- 


CRANMER  6J 

Tore*.     HI*  reply  was  mads  knoirD  to  the  king,  and 
gave  him  ao  macb  utiafactlon  that  be  Bent  for  Ci>D' 
mer,  irho  n)uctantl7  ottrjed  tbe  lummona,  and  re- 
duced bii  opitiioD  to  writing.     "  It  aueried  llisC  tbe 
marri^gB  of  Henry  wltb  b[i  lirotber's  widuw  was  con- 
demned bj  Iha  Scri|itDRR,  tbe  councils,  and  the  fi- 
tlwiv ;  and  that  the  pii|ie  b>d  no  power  to  give  a  dit- 
penutioa  for  that  whii:h  wu  contrary  to  the  word  of 
God."      Puni   were  taken  to  make  tbia  Judgment 
known.     Cnnmer  himself  disputed  upim  it  Bt  Cam- 
bric!^, and  brought  aevenii  over  to  his  opinion.      He 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  liing,  presented  to  tbe 
archdeaconry  of  TanntDn.  and  joined  the  embatsy  to 
Rome  about  the  close  oflo^g.    Tbs  auibusfadora,  lind- 
ing   all   arguments   nnsvuiling  with    pope  (;ie!nent, 
quickly  returned,  leaving  Cranoicr  in  UAy,    Ibe  pope 
conferred  on  him  the  empty  title  uf  "  Supreme  Feni- 
tentiaij,"     Wearied  with  delays,  Cranmer  left  Italy 
in  ISdO,  and  went  aftnwaidn,  on  ttie  same  bnaineu,  to 
id  Germany — an  expedition  which,  although 
id  no  decisive  public  result,  led  to  an  event 
of  gnat  consequence  to  himself.      Regardless  o' 
Romish  injunction  for  clerical  celibacy,  be   ma 
(1532)  a  second  time,  the  object  of  bis  choice  being  the 
niece  of  Oaiander,  the  pastor  of  Nuremberg.     This  ; 
crctact  eipoaedbjm  to  many  unworthy  evasions.    1 
wu   soon  after  made  aichUshop  of  Canlerburi-,  a 
when  consecrated  (March  BO,  1S3S),  made  a  publ'ic  p 
teatation,  "  That  he  did  not  intend  by  this  oath  to 
strain  himself  ttoai  anything  that  he  was  bound 
either  iiy  bia  duty  to  God,  or  the  king,  or  the  coi 
try."    "By  this,"  sayi  Snmtt  {Hii'.  Wybrmafioa,  v 
i).  "If  Ira  did  not  wholly  save  his  integrity,  yet  it  « 
pl^n  he  intended  no  cheat,  but  to  act  fairly  and  abo^ 
bfiird."    On  tbe  9Sd  of  May,  loSS,  Crjnmer  declared 
th«  king's  marriatie  void.     Five  days  afterwards  he 
pnblicly  married  the  kin^  to  Anna  Boleyn,  a  private 
marriage  having  taken  place  in  the  January  previous. 
Tbe  business  of  bia  office  and  parliamentary  duty  now 
accnpied  hia  time.     With  bii  os^stanee  were  passed 
aerual  statutes,  by  which  tbe  power  of  the  pope  ' 
England  was  materially  diminished ;  the  Convocatii 

ing  that  "  the  bishop  of  Rome  has  not  any  greater  Ju- 
risdiction conferred  on  him  in  this  realm  of  Englanci 
than  any  other  foreign  bishop." 

In  1^,  with  the  consent  of  tbe  Convocation,  he  set 
on  ftwt  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  by  dividing  Tyn- 
dale'a  version  of  the  New  Testament  into  nine  or  ten 
parts,  which  he  required  tbe  meet  learned  bishops  to 
revise ;  the  translation  was  completed  ind  ultimately 
Iffinted  at  Paris.  In  153&  he  assisted  in  the  second 
edition  of  the  *' King's  Primer,"  a  book  containing  doc- 
trines bordering  upon  Protestantism.  In  1536  tlie  di- 
vorced queen  died,  and  Henry,  being  now  tired  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  determinol  to  get  rid  of  her,  and  Cranmer  a 
Mcond  thne  served  Ibe  bad  passions  of  the  king,  and, 
in  virtue  of  liis  office,  pmnounced  the  marriage  void 
<16S6).  The  pope  threatened  to  assemble  a  synod 
to  eenenre  Henry.  Cranmer  and  others  signed  a 
declaration  that  the  king  need  not  obey  the  deci- 
dona  of  such  an  assembly.  With  the  assistance  of 
many  eminent  divines,  Cranmer  arranged  the  "  Biti- 
apt'  Book,"  incnlcating  the  doctrines  of  tl»  Reform- 
er*. The  king,  to  whom  this  book  was  submitted, 
himself  inserted  some  corrections,  from  which  the 
archbishop  was  bold  enough  to  difsent.  The  deslmc- 
tlon  of  the  greater  abbeys  was  now  rapidly  proceed- 
ing, and  the  funds  which  arose  from  Ihem  were  lav. 
hhed  by  Henry  upon  nnwortby  favorites,  until  Cran- 
mer, who  had  hoped  to  apply  them  to  tile  promotion 
of  raligion  and  education,  remonstrated  against  their 
Improper  application.  A  sum  of  nwney  was  obbUned 
fur  the  foundation  of  some  new  bishoprics,  bnl  the 
king's  prodigality  conW  be  checked  no  forthcr.  From 
15SS  to  1544  tbe  mind  of  Henry  Till  was  against 
progrei*  in  tbe  Befonnation.     On  the  l^Ih  of  May, 


1  CRANMER 

1538,  Cranmer  and  others  were  appointed  commit 
sioners  "  to  inquire"  (Le  Bus,  vol  i,  204)  "  into  the  d^ 
bated  doctrines,  and  to  prepare  sucb  articles  as  Hould 
pacify  tbe  spirit  of  controversy."  At  tbe  end  of  elev- 
en days  the  labors  of  the  commissioners  coming  to  no 
result,  the  dnke  of  Norfolk  offered  six  articles  (Bur- 
net, vol.!)  fur  tbe  consideration  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
Cranmer's  opinion,  agreed  only  with  one  of  these  aril 
cles,  but  they  were  passed  (see  Akticles,  Six).  Lat- 
imer and  Sbaxton  resigned  tlieir  bishoprics,  an  exam- 
ple which  Cranmer  did  not  think  it  Ms  duly  to  ful- 
low.  In  Jnly,  1640,  he  presided  at  tbe  Convocation 
which  pronounced  the  unjustiflable  di»!oluttan  uf  the 
marriage  between  Henri'  and  Anne  ofCleves.  The 
misconduct  of  Catharine  Howard,  whom  Henry  had 
married,  coming  to  the  knowledge  of  the  arcbbiibop, 
he  reported  her  profligacy  to  tbe  king  (1541).  The 
proofs  of  lier  crimes  were  held  to  be  conclusive;  she 
was  condemned  and  executed.  The  Reformatiun  now 
(1W2)  became  tbe  sole  occupstion  of  Cranmer,  who 
had  tiinsferred  to  the  universities  the  task  of  revising 
a  new  edition  of  the  Bible  published  the  year  befure. 
In  a  minor  degree  Cranmer's  attention  was  occupied 
in  reproving  Ihe  luxury  in  nhich  tome  ecclesLislitaJ 
establishments,  as  welt  as  tbe  biehops,  had  indulged. 

In  Hay,  IMS,  appeared  the  ■>£%>  Bioi,"  which 
was,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  new  edition  of  the7Rs(i. 
tvtion  of  a  Ckriiluin  Man,  aJlered  in  some  points  by 
the  papal  party ;  it  received  its  nome  from  the  preface, 
which  was  written  ui  Henry's  nime.  The  clergv  be- 
ing hostile  to  this  look.  Cnnmer,  at  a  visitation  of  hie 
diocese,  in  submission  to  tbe  king's  supremacy,  forbade 
tbem  from  preaching  against  eny  portions  of  it.  how- 
ever they  or  he  himself  might  dissent  from  thim.  In 
1544  Cranmer  carried  through  Parliament  a  1  ill  to  mit- 
igate tbe  severity  of  tbe  "Six  Articles."  He  alto  as- 
sisted in  ccmfuling  tn  Improved  English  Litany,  Cfsen- 
tialiy  similar  to  diat  which  Is  now  in  use.  Difficnl. 
ties,  however,  were  increasing  around  him.  Tbe  duke 
of  Norfolk  and  other  memliers  of  tbe  priv}'  council  ac- 
cused him  of  spreading  heresies  through  die  land,  and 
Henry  caused  Sir  Anthony  Denny  to  carri-  a  message 
to  Cranmer,  who  rose  from  his  Led  la  attend  upon  tba 
king  Bt  Whitehall.  The  council  assembled  next  day, 
and  summoned  the  primate.  Sentence  of  imprisco- 
ment  was  passed  upon  him,  but,  to  their  confut  ion,  ha 
produced  the  signet  of  Ihe  king,  from  whose  hands  he 
had  received  It  the  night  before  The  council  did  not 
venture  to  proceed  further. 

King  Henry  died  £7th  January,  1547.  Cranmer  waa 
named  one  of  the  regents  of  the  kingdvm.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Edward,  all  diinge  indeed  betokened  a  fur- 
ther extension  of  tbe  Reformation.  A  visitation  was 
immediately  set  on  foot;  twelve  hi  mil  ies,  four  of  which 
are  ascribed  to  Cranmer,  wen  drswn  up,  and  ordered 
to  tie  placed  in  every  church,  with  the  translation  of 
ErasmDs's  paraphrase  of  tbe  N.  T.,  for  the  instmctiun 
of  the  people.  Gardiner  continued  to  oppose  the 
Reformation,  but  Cranmer's  influence  prevailed  j  and 
when  he  produced  in  convoculion  an  ordinance  that 
tbe  laity  as  well  as  tbe  clergj-  sbuuld  receive  the  sac- 
rament in  both  kinds,  the  proposilicn  passed  unani- 
mously, and  soon  after  oblained  tbe  sanction  of  the 
Legislature.  In  1548  be  revived  the  propoeal  for  Fut>* 
stituting  a  commuoion  office  for  the  mass,  and  a  ser- 
vice was  framed  in  time  to  be  chrculated  to  Ihe  clergy 
for  their  use  at  Ihe  following  Easter.  A  translation 
of  a  catechi>m,  written  In  German  and  Latin  by  Justui 
Jonas,  was  published  by  the  archbishop,  entitled  Crm. 
mrr'f  Cattclatm.  In  the  month  of  May  a  ccmmlh 
sion  of  twelve  divines,  with  Cranmer  at  their  head, 
was  appointed  for  the  compilation  of  an  English  lit- 
urgy. See  CoMMOK  Pratbe  ;  Litdrgv.  On  Ihe 
condemnation  of  Lord  Sej'mour  (1543).  CranmiT  r ipi- 
ed  the  wamnt  for  bis  execut'ion,  notwithstanding  tbe 
canon  law  that  no  churchman  rhotild  meddle  in  mat- 
ters of  blood.     Bonner,  bisbop  cf  I.ondcn,  was  now 


degnded  by  commissioaera,  of  whom  Cfbi 


of  a  formulnry  fur  unlinalioD,  uDd  other  eUpa 
taken  lijUie  primuta  In  order  tu  diffiue  ■  bctlfr  kno  m  1- 
ed^e  of  the  creed  of  the  rrotestanu.  At  Lamlieth  he 
received  the  most  eminent  foreign  divinea,  Martin  Bu- 
cer,  Fagius,  Peter  Martyr,  and  several  Diore.  Cranmer 
vaa  gnatl)'  trouliled  at  the  discuiaiuns  respecting  the 
subBtltutinn  of  tables  for  altars  in  the  cburcbes.  In 
July,  IbbO,  Hooper  was  mude  bishop  of  Gluuceeter, 
and  soon  after  Cranmer  received  frum  him  a  refusal 
to  wear  the  episcopal  habits.  Cranmcr,  upon  eonsid- 
eratiun,  determined  to  oppose  Hooper,  and,  in  case  he 
persi^tiid,  to  remove  hiin  from  hia  Inshopric.  Uoop^ 
er  adopted  sumo  of  the  usual  habita.  The  bishop  of 
Chichester  would  not  obey  the  order  reipectin);  the 
removal  of  altars,  and  the  primate  consequently  de. 
prived  him  of  hie  see.  Bishop  Gardiner,  who  h^d  now 
been  in  prison  nearly  two  rears,  was  deprived  of  his 
bishopric  and  sent  back  to  the'  Tower.  The  conduct 
ofCranmer  in  the  oases  of  Bonner  and  Gardiner  was  a 
great  esceptiun  to  his  usual  mnderjtion.  Gaidiner, 
during  his  imprisonment,  occupied  himself  in  answer- 
ing a  treatise  pablished  l>;  Orjnmer.  entitled  die  De- 
/rnoe  of  lie  Tnu  Doctrine  of  the  Sacramml.  This 
controversy  was  carried  on  by  the  arclibiehop  until  the 
end  of  bis  life.  A  revision  of  the  "  Service-book"  of 
I54S  was  commenced  by  Crannier,  with  the  aasistance 
of  Ridley  and  Cox,  Peter  Martyr  and  Bucer.  The  un- 
dertaking was  checked  in  ISfil  by  the  death  ot  Bucer. 
The  bishops  being  now  (15o1)  for  the  most  part  di- 
vines favorable  to  the  Keformution,  the  compilatioi) 
of  articles  for  the  greater  uniformity  of  faith  was  un- 
dertaken liy  them  at  the  suggestion  of  the  king.  This 
la'Mir  SD  tilled  the  bands  of  Crunmer,  that  hia  time  was 
nearly  always  occupied  by  one  or  other  of  the  great 
duties  that  he  had  imposed  upon  himself;  scarcely 
could  he  attend  tbe  trial  of  bishop  Toastal.  The 
bishop  was  deprived  of  hia  see,  a  sentence  which  waa 
so  cuatnir}'  to  Cranmer's  opinion,  that,  with  Lord 
Stourton,  a  Roman  Catholic,  be  protested  against  it. 
It  was  nut  till  1552  that  Cranmer  gave  up  all  hope  of 
an  agreeinesC  among  all  the  cburcbes  that  had  with- 
drawn bom  the  papal  supremacy,  and  for  which  he 
had  entered  into  corresponilcnce  with  Calvin,  Melano 
thon,  and  other  divines  of  tbe  Continent.  The  "Sei- 
vicc-liook"  was  completed,  and  the  Boot  ofCammon 
Prager  adopted  by  Parliament  In  tbe  spring  of  1662. 
In  May,  1553,  Edward  Issued  a  mandate  that  the  cler- 
gy should  sabscriliB  lo  tbe  Forty-two  Articles  upon 
which  the  divines  had  agreed,  but  be  died  soon  atter- 

A  letter  was  sent  to  tbe  princess  Mary  declaring 
queen  Jans  (Lady  Jane  Grey)  to  be  the  sovereijpi. 
This  letter  was  si,nied  by  many  persons,  and  among 
thciD  by  Cranmer,  whose  zeal  for  the  Proteslaat  cause 
must  have  blinded  bim  to  the  danger  of  the  enterprise. 
OntheSth  ofjuly,  155a,  the  chief  olBcers  of  the  state 
■wore  allegiance  to  Jane  ;  on  tbe  SOth  wc  find  many 
of  those  who  had  tieen  zealous  in  her  cause  ''impatient 
to  send  in  their  suimiissions  to  Mar;-."  On  tho  same 
dav  an  order  was  sent  by  Mary  to  Northumberland  to 
dis'jrm.  Tho  hopes  of  tho  Protestants  were  now  at  an 
pud  as  queen  Mary's  unshaken  attachment  to  the  Ro- 
mati  Catholic  creed  was  aniversally  known.  Gardiner 
was  released  and  made  chancellor,  and  a  commission 
was  formed  to  degrade  and  imprison  Protestant  prel- 
ates and  ministers  on  the  charges  of  treason,  heresy, 
an  1  matrimony.  In  the  beginnini;  of  August  Cranmer 
WHS  summoned  before  the  council ;  and  in  September, 
with  I.atimer  and  Ridley,  was  committed  to  tbe  Tower. 
In  liarcli,  I55j,  he  was  removed,  with  bishops  Latimer 
and  Ridley,  to  prison  at  Oxford,  where  was  renewed 
tht  controversy  respecting  the  I-ord's  Supper,  which, 
by  the  queen's  denire,  wna  named  (he  sub>ect  for  dis. 
cussmn.  On  the  13th  and  19th  of  April  the  discussion 
was  held;  and  on  tbe  28tb  tlio  accused  were  brought 


2  CRANMER 

to  SI.  Mary's,  where  it  was  declared  that,  nnless  tlM^ 
would  turn,  they  were  obstinate  bereCiot,  and  no  k>D> 
trwr  members  of  the  Church.  Cranmer  thru  replied, 
"  From  this  your  judgment  and  sentence  I  appeal  to 
the  just  Judgment  of  tbe  Almij(kty,  trusting  to  tie  prea~ 

altar  I  am  thus  condemned,"  and  he   was  removed 

again  to  prison.  It  was  soon  diacovereil  tbatthe  tri- 
bunal before  which  Cnnmer  bad  been  tried  wu  oat 
competent  to  decide  the  case.  Ttte  pope  issued  a  frasfa 
commisaion,  and  on  the  lith  ot  September,  1555.  the 
primate  was  examined  by  Brokes,  (be  bishop  of  UIoO' 
cester,  and  two  civilians,  Martin  and  Slory.  B«Air« 
these  proceedings,  Craumei  was  summoned  to  ipprai 
wilbtn  eighty  days  before  tbe  pope  at  Rome  :    thim 

impossible  for  Cranmer  to  o1>ey.  On  tbe  S9tb  of  No- 
vember the  eighty  days  bad  elaps«d,  and  on  the  4tli 
of  December  be  was  excommunicated  and  deprived 
of  his  bishopric.  A  letter  from  tbe  pope  (Paul  IV\ 
bearing  dale  the  I4[h  of  November,  afl^nning  him  to 
be  contnmacioua  because  "  ha  took  no  care  to  ap- 
pear" at  Rome  when  cited,  and  declaring  him  guD^ 
of  heresy  and  other  enormities,  finally  commanded  bis 
eicommonication.  On  the  141b  of  February  CrawiMir 
was  d^raded.  In  a  few  days  after  this  his  fortitada 
gave  way ;  he  forsook  his  principles  and  wrote  a  rs- 
cantatiou.  It  was  of  no  avail  towards  the  pt«serv»- 
Uon  of  his  lile.  On  the  20th  of  March,  the  eve  of 
Ids  execution,  be  was  visited  by  Dr.  Cole,  and  Crao- 
mar  slated  that  ha  remuined  firm  in  tbe  Cathalie  faith 
as  he  bad  recently  professed  it,  an  answer  that  bas 
been  considered  equivocal.  On  the  following  day  b« 
was  led  to  St.  Maqr's  church,  where,  after  an  exborts- 
tioQ  by  Dr.  Cole,  Cranmer  finished  his  private  devo- 
tions and  then  solemnly  addressed  tbe  people,  opeoly- 
proftssing  his  failh,  and  at  length  declaring,  "liow  I 
come  to  tbo  great  thing  that  troubletb  my  nmacience 
more  than  any  other  thing  that  I  ever  said  or  did  in 
my  life,  and  that  is  the  settin>;  abroad  of  writings  coD- 
trar}-  lo  the  truth  which  I  thought  in  my  hnut,  and 
writ  for  fear  of  death,  and  to  save  my  life,  if  it  might 
be ;  and  that  is  all  such  bills  which  1  have  written  or 
signed  with  miae  own  band  since  my  degradattoD, 
wherein  I  have  written  'many  things  untrue.  And 
forasmuch  as  my  hand  oOended  in  writing  contrary  In 
my  heart,  therefore  my  band  shall  flrst  be  punished, 
for,  if  I  may  come  to  tbe  fire,  it  shall  be  first  honied. 
And  as  for  tbe  pope,  I  refuse  him  as  Christ's  eucDiy 
and  Antichrist,  with  all  his  false  doctrine."  The  as- 
sembly was  astonished;  they  had  supposed  that  he 
would  have  conlirmed  and  not  relncted  hia  recanta- 
tion. He  was  hurried  away  to  the  stake,  where  be 
stood  motionless,  holding  np  bis  right  hand,  and  ex- 
claiming, until  his  utterance  was  stified,  "This  oa- 
wortbyband!  Lord  Jesos,receive  my  spirit!" 

Crenmer's  diligence  and  application  were  ddusubI  ; 
he  was  deeply  read  in  theology  and  canon  law,  and 
was  familiar  with  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  as  well 
as  French,  German,  and  Italian.  His  reservation  re- 
specting the  oaths  which  he  swore  when  appointed 
srchliisfaop,  his  subserviency  to  Henry  VIII  in  saaul- 
Ung  his  marriages,  bis  share  in  the  condemnation  of 
some  heretics,  his  conduct  at  the  disgracing  of  Banner 
and  Gardiner,  and  tbe  want  of  couiage  wbich  made 
him  ncant  after  his  condemnation,  are  great  biota  on 
his  character.  But,  though  his  conduct  on  these  acc»> 
sions  was  maiked  by  want  of  finnnesa,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  Cranmer  was  sincere,  mild,  and  moderate, 
and,  for  tbe  most  part,  a  firm  man ;  nor  is  it  to  be  fer- 
gotten  that  persecution  was  the  policy  of  all  religioaa 
parties  at  this  period.  ''Cranmer  was  neither  faoL 
knave,  nor  demigod.     He  livi  _        ' 

had  need  of  all  tbe  tact  they  could  muj 
proved  himself  prudent  and  learned.  He 
those  useful  persons  who  sometimes  acqui 
by  the  very  absence  of  striking  and  ordeol 


r,  and  he 


CRANTZ  6t 

the  Mcluicthon  oT  oar  Eugliih  RefannUlon.  Tin 
grasteBt  defect  of  hii  chancter,  waat  of  Urmaiia, 
which  hu  ruined  many  a  dud  o/  gpniui  and  IcarniDfr, 
by  ■  peculiar  mmbiDation  of  drcumBtancu,  uciired  hit 
■dTancement  and  guided  bim  to  fortune.  His  mind 
poaaeased  great  acotemu ;  be  could  ({cnenlly  perceive 
vbat  wai  best,  althougb,  bad  vigoteut  aclioD  been  !»• 
qoiml  of  him,  he  would  have  biled  to  do  Justice  to 
tbe  clearaeu  oFhia  views.  Such  n  mind  Is  common 
CDoagh.  Fortunatelv  for  tbe  usetulaeas  afCranmer, 
the  time  required  of  bim  litde  more  than  to  follow  bis 
bent  ond  be  modBrale.  He  was  lurronnded  hj  vehe- 
ment and  exdted  spirits,  who  required  all  tbe  reeb'siot 
of  his  tempente  and  quiet  character.  And  those  very 
traits  of  hlg  have  impressed  upon  tbe  Church  which 
Iw  tooolded,  and  upon  the  public  office  wbich  be,  as 
primate,  had  the  ohief  share  in  drawing  up,"  a  sort 
of  compromising  and  unccTtaia  character,  '^  which 
has  mver  been  lost.  It  Is  through  Cranmer'a  inlta- 
mce  that  the  Charch  of  England  at  the  preseDt  day 
Is  capable  of  shelteting  at  once  the  High  and  Low 
Charcfaman,  tbe  Universallst  and  the  Catrinist."  Bla 
cTa«]  death  was  one  of  the  moet  unpopular  measares 
of  Mary's  goFernment. — See  Strypc,  Uttmrriait  of 
Crtatrnter  (Oxford.  1B40,  S  vols.  Mvn;  also  1853,  by 
Banies.  2  voU.  12mo,  and  1864  [Ecd.  Hitt.  5«.],  4 
voU.  8vo)i  Todd.  L\fe  o/Crtmmer  (Lend.  18S1,  2  vols. 
Bvo)  ;  Le  Bat,  Lift  of  LVansMT  (Lond.  18SB.  S  vols. 
I&DO;  N.  T.  ISmo);  Bume^  Bitl.  Reformat'im  (pas- 
iim>i  Gilpin,£,-/i^Cy(na<er;fii?.CVe(l)>Rfti(which 
has  been  freely  used  in  tbe  prepamtion  of  this  article). 
CraDmer's  writings  are  still  of  value  for  theology  as 
well  as  fbr  Church  bistori-.  A  full  lift  of  them  is 
given  by  Jenkins,  Remauu  of  Abp.  Cranmer,  coStfttd 
aad  arnmgtd  (Oxf.  1833, 4  vols.  8to).  The  "  Parker 
Society"  has  republished  Cranmer*s  WrUingt  on  Ikr 
Lordt  Sapper  (Camb. ISU,  Imp. 8to),  and  his  .VtserJ- 
Jois^OBS  Wriciitg*  aad  LtUtrt  (Comb.  1846,  imp.  8vo). 
Croats.    See  Kbaktz. 

Craaana  (Gmdzed  1tpaaaov\  fdlly  M.  LiciNins 
Ckabscs.  lumamed  jOini  ("Ibo  Rich"),  ono  of  the 
members  of  the  llrst  Roman  triumvirate,  was  born 
aboat  D.C.  105,  and  after  various  civil  and  military 
engagements,  on  tbe  trinmviral  coalition  started,  B.C. 
Gfi,  as  governor  of  tbe  consnlar  province  of  Syria 
(where  he  succeeded  Gabinius,  Joscphns,  Ant.  xiv,  6, 
4),  on  a  campaign  againit  [be  I'anhlans.  On  his  way 
he  stnppeil  at  Jemsalem  (according  to  Joaephua.  War, 
I,  B,  8.  althoogh  tbe  statement  ii  eoDdiined  by  no 
other  bialorbn  of  tbe  times,  and  Cbia  ci^  lay  off  Lis 
ronte)  and  plundered  tbs  Temple,  as  be  did  likewise 
that  of  the  goddess  Derceto  at  Hierapolls,  in  Syria 
(Sttabo  xvi,  in  fln.).  Infiituated  by  this  sacrilege 
(Prideaux.Coiiiierrfwii,  pi.  ii),  be  proceeded  on  bis  cam- 
paign, wbicb  ended  in  bis  defeat,  captotv,  and  doath 
(Dio  Cass,  xl,  S;).  Plutarch  wrola  a  life  of  Ctasaus. 
— Smith,  Diet,  qf  Cltm.  Buy.  s.  r. 

Cra'tta  (ItpATiic;  Vulg.  translates  prabhiM  nt), 
goTCmor  of  the  Cyprians  (u  Jri  riv  K.),  who  waa 
left  in  charw  of  the  "castle"  (r^f  Aicpoir6\iit)  nf 
Jtmsalem  (T)  during  the  absence  of  Soairatus,  in' 
the    reign    of    Antlochua    Epiphanca    (2    Hacc    iv, ' 

»). 

Crato  von  CiaSthelm  (KraJT),  Jobaioieb,  a  \ 
prominent  representative  cif  Protestantism  in  Aus- 
tria, was  l-om  at  Breslau  Nov,  ',%  1610.  At  the  Uni- 
VBielty  of  Wittenberg,  to  wbich  be  went  in  1GS4.  he 
lived  for  six  years  In  the  house  of  Lather,  and  while 
there  collected  the  material  for  tbe  Tabtbtaik  cf  Lh. 
IktT.  which  was  subsequently  published  b;  his  friend 
Anrrfaber.  He  became  alto  intimate  with  Uelanc- 
thoo,  whose  theological  views  he,  on  tbe  whole,  adopt- 
ed. Upon  tbe  advice  of  Lather,  be  left  the  study  of 
theolof^,  on  sccount  of  his  feeble  hejUb,  for  that  of 
HM^ine.  In  1560  he  was  appointed  city  physician 
In  hi*  native  city,  Breslau.  His  succesanil  practice. 
II.- 18- 


CREAGH 

espedally  during  the  prevalence  of  tbe  plagoa  In  I6(iS, 
and  a  number  of  able  works,  procured  him  a  great 
reputation  and  an  appointment  as  Imperial  private 
physician  {liiBa).  which  position  he  retained  during 
the  reign  of  the  emperors  Ferdinand,  Mtximllian  IL 
and  Budolph  II.  Ha  lived  at  tbs  imperial  court  of 
Austria  tnm  1663  to  1681,  was  made  an  imperial  coun- 
cillor, and  a  nobleman  ander  tbe  name  of  Crato  of 
Crafftheim,  and  received  from  the  emperor  Maximilian 
II,  who  was  favorable  to  ProteataDtiim,  the  privileges 
of  a  Cones  PatatiiHii,  and  many  other  proufit  of  favur. 
At  the  court  of  Austria  he  was  one  of  the  most  zealous 
and  inSuential  representatives  of  ProtcrtantlEm,  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  regulation  of  the  atTalrs  of 
the  Protestant  Church.  Being  at  flrtt  a  moderate 
Lutheran  of  tbe  Melaucthonlan  school,  and  an  eamtst 
opponent  of  the  exclusive  system  of  i  laclus,  be  grad- 
ually embraced  tbe  views  of  the  "  Reformed"  Church, 
with  many  prominent  men  of  which  he  was  intlmstaly 
acquainted.  After  the  desth  of  Maximilian  (1676), 
the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  for  a  short  time  occasioned 
bis  dismissal  from  tbe  court,  but  in  li^B  he  was  re- 
Called.  In  1581,  tired  of  court  lifc,  he  withdrew  of  hii 
own  accord.  In  15P8  ho  retnraed  to  Ureilau,  where 
he  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  courts  of  Licg- 
nitz,  Brieg,  and  ObUu.  He  died  Oct.  19.  1d85.  See 
Giliet,  CraU)  vomCrnffVitim  undtime  Frt»ndt  (FrankC 
1S60,  i  vols.)!  Heno^,  Eeal-Ejiegllop.  xlx,  SAB. 

Ctavans.  Wil.lia>(,  a  celebrated  and  eccentric 
Uethodlst  Episcopal  minister,  was  born  in  Rocking- 
ham County,  Va.,  July  SI,  1776.  Converted  In  1794, 
he  began  to  preach  abunt  1800,  and  for  many  years,  as 
a  local  preacher,  ha  served  tbe  Church  In  his  native 
state.  He  travelled  extensively  without  fee  or  reward, 
everywhere  producing  gnat  effects  by  his  courageous 
denunclstlonB  of  sin.  He  was  a  strennoua  opponent 
of  slavery,  and,  having  emancipated  bis  own  slaves, 
removed  to  the  West  in  1819,  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
(heir  advantsgr.  In  ISfO  be  v  -  ■  ..dmitted  on  trial  in 
the  Misiouri  Conference,  nhich  then  embraced  Illi- 
nois, Indiana,  and  part  of  Tennessee.  He  continned 
to  travel  end  preach  on  tbe  frontier  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  which  took  place  St  his  house,  Wssbington 
Coonty,  Ind.,  Oct.  10, 1(^26.  He  wss  a  man  of  great 
physical  power,  a  vast  fund  of  wit  and  humor,  snd  in- 
domitable energy.  Virginia  and  the  Weft  abound  in 
stories  of  hi*  sdventures,  which,  If  collected,  would 
make  a  bii^raphy  of  romantic  Interest. — Mimtri  of 
ConftTOKn,  i,  &:Sj  Stevens,  Bitory  of  Mttkniimn 
Wakely,  Btroa  of  MeUadirm. 

Ciawfotd,  Elijah,  a  Vethodhit  Episcopal  mini*, 
ter,  was  bom  In  Xew  York  in  1812.  Tnloed  in  a 
pious  bousebold.  his  yoQth  was  virtuous,  and  at  seven- 
teen he  united  with  the  Church.  His  early  manhood 
was  spent  in  trade,  but  in  18Sfi  be  entered  the  itiner- 
ant ministry  in  the  New  York  Conference.  His  stead- 
fast piety,  manlineu  or  character,  and  diligence,  both 
in  stndy  and  labor,  Id  a  few  years  gained  him  the  ceo- 
fidenco'ofthe  Charch.  and  be  llltrd  with  great  accept- 
ance a  number  of  important  j-astorsl  charges.  Hi* 
last  station  was  HsTtford.  Conn.,  where  be  died  of  dye- 
eatery  SepUmbet,  1849.— J/i'a.  nf  CmfirttKit,  iv,  454. 

Crawford.  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  Westchester  County,  K.Y.,  In  1761,  wss 
converted  in  1787,  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in 
tbe  New  York  Conference  In  1789,  became  supetannn- 
nted  in  1819,  and  died  in  3851,  aged  over  ninety  years. 
He  was  "a  sound  and  earnest  preacher,  eminently 
fsithful  snd  pnnctnsl,  always  cheerful,  and  living  the 
religion  he  preached."— Jf is.  ofComftremat,  iv,  579. 

Craagh,  BAKrariLoiiBw.  a  Uethodlst  Episcopal 
minister,  was  bom  in  Dublin  Aug.  23.  1804,  and  wa* 
converted  at  sixteen.  Hi*  studies  in  Greek  and  Latin 
were  pursne.1  it  Dublin.  In  1822  he  came  to  Ameri- 
ca, and  Rooo,  by  his  admirable  quilitiea  of  intellect  and 
heart,  gained  many  friends.    He  cntend  the  itinerant 


OREATIANISM  «l 

niniatty  In  tiia  Nov  Turk  Conhnuc*  in  ISIT,  uid  fur 
fifteen  yeun  wis  In  great  repuU  a>  an  oarnert,  elo- 
qnent,  and  niceenful  mlniater.  For  fonr  jean  bs  vu 
presiding  eider,  and  wi«  a  delegaU  to  tba  Geaeral 
Conference  In  1848  and  1B5!.  Tbe  recoid  in  the  JfiW- 
ata  atitei  that  "  be  vras  among  the  very  belt  modela 
of  ministerial  aicellence,  a  holy  man,  a  bithfbl  paatar, 
a  gcneroDi  friend."  He  died  at  WilliuaabiiTgh,  Aag. 
10,  1833.— J/iiiH/M  0/  Om/erauxt,  r,  211;  Spraguo, 
AHna'4,y]\,7Sl. 

Creatianlsm.    See  Creatioxisx. 

Creation.  Creation  ia  tlie  abaoluta  brinnlnit  into 
existence  ottlie  Trorld  I17  Qod.  It  U  that  act  of  God 
b}-  which  he,  itandln);  before  and  al«re  all  mundane 
nnd  nataml  thingi,  made  and  arranged  tlie  univene. 
It  umbricei  everything  which  is  not  Ood. 

I.  The  Idta  ff  Cna>iv*. — In  order  (o  form  ■  proper 
conception  of  what  creation  If,  we  must  concede  tbe 
Bbsolulfl  dependence  of  the  world  Qpon  God.  We  err 
In  limiting  it  to  the  mere  beginning  of  the  world.  It 
la  true  that  It  waa  that  divine  act  by  vrblcb  all  ab- 
Jecta  were  bronght  intu  being.  It  thersfbre  aUnda  aa 
the  beginning  of  all  divine  opention  tn  the  world, 
and  of  the  anivaraal  develi^ment  of  the  world.  Bnt 
that  God  created  the  unlrerie  Impliea  not  only  that  be 
gar*  a  beginning  to  Ita  eiialence,  but  that  ha  contln- 
nea  that  eziatence,  and  (hat  be  ia  the  only  fountain  of 
ib  piwent  being.  The  world  ia  not  salMerlved  noi 
aelf.euatalned  \  It  la  only  from  and  by  God  that  it  now 
exiata.  But  creation  ia  not  a  mere  accident  of  the  di- 
vine characler,  nor  a  temporary  moment  in  the  divine 
life,  nor  an  impartation  and  raanifeitation  of  God,  noi 
a  blind,  piailve,  and  pathological  evolution  or  emana- 
tion of  the  divine  eaaencs.  Yet  it  is  God's  work  alone, 
and  waa  as  unconatrained  aa  any  other  deed  perfomed 
by  divine  power.  Whan  we  say  that  God  created  tbe 
irorld,  we  not  only  do  not  affirm,  bnt  actually  deny 
that  God  baa  imparted  himself,  and  passed  Into  hia 
own  work.  God  ia  the  absolute  founder  of  tbe  world, 
and  be  haa  not  paued  into  ita  nature,  bnt  standa  hi|(h 
above  all  tlie  condltiona  of  created  being.  Nor,  while 
the  world  la  not  God  himself,  can  it  be  said  to  partake 
of  any  other  divine  nature.  It  la  limply  God's  work 
■nd  manifeatstion  i  It  it  a  creation  which  la  from,  by, 
and  for  God.  Thus  the  full  idea  of  creation  Impliei 
that  God  is  the  absolute,  impartial,  and  pcisunal  Spirit 
who,  of  bis  own  ftee  will,  gave  eiislence  to  tbe  nni- 

Id  tbe  Mosaic  account  of  tbe  creation,  wo  And  that 
magnilii-'ent  testimony  of  the  &ith  which  recognises 
God'a  creation  In  the  anirounding  world  (compare 
Heb.  li,  8,  Tkraagk  /aiik  we  undtntand  thai  Iht 
vortdi  mre  framtd  bg  Oit  leord  of  God,  »  lial  Oingi 
ickich  ura  wetn  atre  noi  made  i^lhingt  ickick  do  op. 
ptar).  This  testimony  poaaesaes  a  strong  religioue 
and  nnonical  worth,  apart  from  our  viewa  of  tbe  pe- 
coUar  character  of  the  cosmogony  of  Hesea,  whether 
we  ahape  tbem  Bccardinjt  to  the  opinions  of  tbe  old 
Church  theologiana,  who  held  that  the  Mosaic  account 
waa  actual  history ;  or  whether  we  harmonize  with 
the  modem  alleggrists,  who  claim  that  it  is  proph- 
ecy reversed,  or  propheUc  vision ;  or  whether  we  take 
the  low  view  of  attributing  to  it  a  mythical  character. 
The  most  important  portion  of  this,  as  of  other  scrip- 
tural etatemenU  concerning  the  creation,  ia  contained 
In  the  propoaition  that  God,  In  his  eternal,  Infinite 
love,  la  the  only  highest  cause  ;  that  he  ia  limited  by 
no  principle  beyond  himself;  that  he  is  the  Independ. 
ant  Founder  of  the  world.  By  vorjil  we  mean  kiWiio^, 
aiuivtt,  Heb.  j,  !,  11,  or  the  tadnrte,  which  is  always 
described  in  tha  OM  Testament,  and  uinslly  In  the 
New,  aa  "heaven  and  earth,"  "heaven,  eutb,  sea. 
and  all  which  Is  therein."  It  la  God  alone  who  has 
brought  all  things  Into  being  (Heb.  iil,  4 ;  Acts  xrii, 
Mi  «iv,  16;  Rev.  iv,  11 ;  Heb.  xi,  8;  Psa.  xnxiil,  Sj 
di,  SS ;  Isa.  xlv,  18 ;  Jer.  x,  IS).    Kolhing  has  had  a 


i4  CREATION 

being  witbant  tba  Logoa  of  God  (John  I,  B).  Etw?^ 
thing  owes  ita  existence  and  ita  life  to  tbe  word  of 
God.  It  IS  because  God  endowed  it  with  entity ;  be- 
cause he  ao  willed  it ;  ^id  rd  OiXi,^  am  (Rev.  iv,  11) ; 
by  his  word,  p^/ui,  "'Z'^  (Heb.  xi,  3;  Psa.  xxxiii,  6); 
by  his  speaking  (Gen.  1,3;  2Cor.  iv,  6);  by  his  kbao. 
lute  power,  TravroSivaiiin:  X"P  (WimL  Sol.  xl.  18); 
and  by  bla  personal  power  (Jer.  x,  li),  In  which  ba 
needed  no  assistance  whatever,  but  by  which  be  n* 
able  to  create  whatever  he  desired  (Psa.  cxv,  3; 
cxxiv,  G).  By  tills  power  he,  in  bis  own  supnoM 
msjeaty,  evoked  into  existence  that  which  waa  iKiii- 
exiateut  (Rom.  tv,  IT ;  Psa.  xxxiii,  9),  and  by  virtue 
of  tbe  same  omnipotence  is  able  (o  annihilate  what  he 
has  railed  Into  being  (Paa.  civ,  S9;  cii,  20.  etc. ;  lea. 
li,  6)  Luke  xxi,  S3j  Uev.  xxi,  1,  4).  The  Spirit  ef 
God,  or  "tbe  breath  of  his  month,"  which  (Paa. 
xxxiii,  6)  stands  parallel  with  the  creative  won] 
that  "moved  upon  the  tkce  of  the  waters,"  ia  noth- 
ing less  than  tlio  active,  forming,  animating,  divine 
power.  The  stren^b  by  which  God  createe  takea  its 
place  beside  hla  wisdom  and  knowledge  (Jer.  i,  1!; 
Rom.  xi,  83);  and  the  divine  wisdom  or  Intelligence 
appears  to  have  been  (Prov.  viii,  22,  etc.)  tbe  GtM 
ground  and  adjusting  principle  of  cnation.  Instead, 
however,  of  reading  in  John  i,S,of  this  world-<Teative 
"  wisdom,"  we  find  a  description  of  tlie  same  eternal 
Logoa  of  God  who  became  ficsh  in  Christ.  Thus  tbe 
creative  principle  is  Identified  with  that  of  redemptioii ; 
and  while  the  creation  is  diatiogniafacd  as  an  act  ot 
love,  tho  highest  revelation  of  that  love  is  to  be  foond 
in  the  Incama^on  of  God  in  tbe  worid.  In  both  etc*. 
tion  and  redemption  we  perceive  the  thon^bt  that  God, 
without  the  intervention  and  aid  of  any  Ibrelgn  power, 
gave  existence  (o  that  which  had  previously  no  being; 
and  tliat  be  did  this  by  virtue  of  no  blind  necessity, 
but  by  his  own  volition  alone. 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  treat  briefly  of  the  mean- 
In;  oftt^f  (ko^',  "cre(ife"),in  Gencais,  cbap.  i.  Go- 
senins  and  FOrat  agree  In  giving  to  thia  wmi  bora,  ic 
Gcne^  1,  the  aenae  of  pmper  creating,  although  they 
seem  to  give  that  of  cuttmg  as  tbe  primitive  (not  usn- 
al)  idea  Inherent  in  the  root,  comparing  aa  cognate 
n^^,  to  ciooM,  "yz,  a  tm  (which  Flint,  on  tbe  other 
hand,  derives  from  ^3).  and  the  Arab,  bora,  etc  Ge- 
senlus  refiuv  to  the  Plel  form  of  the  Heb.  root  (X^a, 
to^ution),  aa  the  most  characteristic  (7)  conJngalloB. 
Ho  concludes,  however,  with  the  following  Jndidoos 
nolo  (JkaaUT.  Heb.  p.  330):  "In  the  trite  dbpola  of 
iuterpretera  and  theolo^ns  concerning  crealioDont  of 
nothing,  some  sppral  likewtsa  to  the  word  ander  cen- 
sideration,  aa  if  it  might  be  gathered  from  Ita  very  ety- 
mology and  proper  aignificatlon  that  the  Srat  cbap.  of 
Gonesia  teaches  not  a  creation  from  nothing,  but  a  coo- 
itlon  of  matter  eternally  existing.  On  tbe  con- 
Iniry,  from  the  Instances  we  Lave  given,  It  will  abun- 
dantly appear  that  the  actual  use  of  thia  wtsd  In  Kal 
la  altogether  diSbreot  from  its  primary  slgniflralioD, 
and  that  It  ia  rather  employed  with  respect  to  tbe  new 
production  of  a  thing  (see  Gen.  ii,S)  than  to  tbe  con- 
formation and  eUlioratinn  of  material.  That  the  open- 
ing clause  of  Geneels  seta  forth  the  world  aa  first  cre- 
sted out  of  nothing,  and  this  in  a  mde  and  undigeeted 
state,  while  tbe  remainder  of  the  first  chapter  exbibHs 
lUboration  of  the  recently  created  mav,  tbe  con- 
nection of  the  whole  parograi^  renders  entirely  plain. 
the  Rabbins  (Aben-Exra  ad  Gen.  i,  I :  '  Mnrt 

hold  x^v.-a  10^  ttinri^  riif^ane,  that  cnation  ii 
tbe  production  of  a  thing  hcaa  nothing*)  and  ibr  !(.■ 
T.  writers  (Heb.  xl,  S;  Rom.  iv.  17:  comp.  S  Hscc 
vll.  20)  teach,  atthongh  the  writer  of  tbe  Book  of  Vm- 
(xl,  17),  following  tbe  Grecian  dogmas,  boldi  mat- 
o  be  eternal.  Sea  on  tbia  questinn  Moa.  Maimon. 
in  Jfore  Stbeehiti,  111,  13  j  Hoahelm,  Dt  ermtmaa  ami- 
mialii,  appended  to  Cndworth's  lakUeetrnd  Bg^ 


CREATION 


s,  Bitl.  it  MamMt  tt  dn  MaiUMitiiif, 
TO».li,lik.v,ch»p.lv." 

The  c:utnpteB  to  which  GneniuB  rvfen  ma  SDStaliH 
ing  thli  poiltion  *Te  (In  *dditlon  to  the  aqnivilent 
Ar>b.  Unyn,  crtaior,  Kono,  Sur.  ii,  51 ;  bangalv*, 
crcodire,  Abu\T,  Ana.  i,  18;  Jauhir.  Spec.  «J.  Seintid. 
p.  14 ;  iDil  nil  the  other  Sbamitic  tonguee,  which  have 
the  Hanie  nugc),  the  following :  "  Spoken  of  the  crea- 
tioii  at  (he  baiven  and  aaith,  Gen.  i,  1 ;  lu.  xl,  !6 ) 
xlv,  18 1  oftheboiiDdioftheeuth,  Iiia.  xl,S6;  of  the 
wind,  Amoa  iv,I8;  of  men,  Gen.  I,  « ;  v,l,S;  vi,?; 
Dent.  W,3i;  In.  xlv,  1!;  Puu  Ixxxix,  IS;  Mtl.U, 
10;  opeci*ll7,oflsnel,lM.x]lii,l,lS:  of  beuta,  Gen. 
1,  21 ;  of  U|;bt  and  darknea^  laa.  iIt,  7,  etc.  Add 
tli«9e  ezamplaa :  Psa.  Ii.  12  Ccnitte  In  ine  >  cleaii 
hurt,  O  God')  ;  lu.  xlv,  7  (■  I  mike  peace,  and  enate 
evil') ;  Jer.  x.\xi,  22  (>  the  Lord  hath  cnaltd  ft  new 
thins;'  comp.  Nam.xvi.aO).  It  la  n»d  wHh  adobble 
■ccaaative,  lu.  Ixv,  18  ('  I  ertalt  Jeruulem  ■  rejoic- 
ing,'  I.  e.  Joroni);  ir,  6;  xlvill,  T.  The  participle 
(TJ^St^ia,  the  plur,  ofmajalg,  hut  according  to  many 
USS.'in  the  aing,  ^M^IS)  atauda  for  the  CrriUor  (Eccl. 
xil,  1).  sr^Z  i>  joined  niUi  the  words  -^:l^  [saliar', 
to/on],  Inlu.  xliii,7;  xlv,  18;  and  nb;  [ofoi',  to 
■ui:;], in  lao. sli,  SO ;  xiv,T,12;  genoraUy  oe  »ynony- 
moiu:  with  the  latter  it  la  not  Mldom  InterGhaagod, 
GeD.i,26(cDmp.ver.2T);  ii,4;  but  that  there  la  nev- 
aitbelFM  a  diSbrence  at  leiat  between  these  two  ia  evk- 
itent  from  Gen.  ii,  B  ('  wbkh  God  ertaUd  and  madt," 
n-ib;^  K^f  [where  the  V  of  onion  la  generally  n- 
g*.t6tAa»rp<x*gtiietir\).  Theaa  worda,  which  bava  per- 
plexed many,  even  Uebrsw  Interprelera,  L.  de  Dien 
(ad  loc.)  baa  rightly  explained  liy  addncing  parallel 
phraaea  (T.itrb  S^n,  rib5^  ^''''^Sn,  etc.),  ai  mean- 
ing jmxfucrd  bg  maUiis,  i.  r.  made  by  producing  aomo- 
UUng  new ;  comp.  Jcr.  xxxi,  S2,  and  htf^B''  {it.  p. 
33I>).  The  word  occun  (In  tbe  Kal  or  aimple  form) 
Ukewiae  In  Faa.  Ixxxlx,  11;  lea.  xUi,5j  xlv,  8,  18 
Uv,  Jfi;  Itii,  19;  Ixv,  17  (In  the  Nlphal  or  paaeive' 
Oea.ii,4;  v,2;  Psa.cii.18;  dv,  BO;  cxlvijl.fi;  Kick. 
xx£,eO;  xxviii,I3,la("doas")j  Eiod.  xxxlv,  10. 

Fnm  this  examination,  it  ia  evident  that  altbonjih 
Ifaa  word  in  qnettion  is  otymtdogi tally  connected  with 
nota  (like  tbe  Engl. pore,  LtUparo,  olc.)  that  have  n 
less  decided  import,  yet  lla  current  ami  legitimato  alg- 
nificatlon  la  that  of  creation  In  the  modern  and  proper 
acceptation.  A»  the  Hebrewa  were  not  given  to  phil- 
Otopbicaldiaqnltition,  their  language  U  peculiarly  Lu- 
nn  in  terma  eiprc^slve  of  roeUphyBlcal  or  dialectical 
Blcetlea.nnd  hence  tbcy  frequently  employed  this  word 
la  IcM  exact  appUcatlonii.  Honover,  aa  the  act  of 
tnation  was  in  the  nature  of  the  case  hut  tmce  per- 
formed, the  Ifrm  could  only  be  used  InOequently  with 
reference  to  that  event,  just  aa  "  create'*  ulth  modeme 
■tyniologically  and  even  practically  refers  rath 
prodnction  in  a  anborduiate  iienss  than  to  abaolute 
origination.  In  both  words,  however,  the  higher  ai 
Dill  sense  ia  never  lost  si ^ht  ol^  and  thus  they  sppe 
■s  nearly  synonymous  In  actual  unge  aa  any  two 
dlHerent  and  widely  remote  laoguagea  coold  well  be. 
The  tnnslatora  of  the  Auth.Vera.  have  therefore  done 
well  hy  Invariably  (except  In  the  single  paaaage  above 
Doad)  rendering  K^a  (In  Kal  and  Nlphal  at  ieaat), 
and  no  other  Keb.  term,  by  ereaTe. 

The  N.-T.  writers  cmpl"y  in  tbe  same  aense  ittiIm 
(Witta  the  noons  jcri'mc.  rrfal'im,  jcrioyio.  creaftire,  and 
tnariK,  rrrotor)  aa  the  nearest  equivalent  In  Greek, 
after  tbe  example  of  the  Sept.,  in  mnat  parsagea  (In 
Geo.  It  has  TOiiu).  See  Macdonald,  CVeohoa  owl /*(  " 
(Edinb.l8M\p.61  -1. 

That  this  n)<!>otati?  sense  is  the  true  one  hi  Gen.  i, 
at  least,  Is  demoiyilnble  from  tbe  aasoclatlon  the 
with  the  term  "  hjnnrpnii?."  For  Ifmstti-r  bsd  eiif 
(d  Menully,  then  wenld  have  beon  no  proper  >>b 


CREATION 


ginning"  at  all  of  lis  exlst«nee;  and 
tbe  mere  arrangenient  of  chaotic  elements  by  tbe 
[ihraaenlDgy  in  queaijon  would  be  to  confound  some- 
thing that  is  said  to  have  taken  place  "  in  the  bq^ 
nlng"  with  what  is  arterwanls  detailed  under  auc- 
cesaire  days.  On  the  other  haitd,  if  matlet  b«  not 
riemal,  It  must  at  some  time  have  been  brought  into 
bring,  and  precisely  thai  act  would  be  the  real  "be- 
ginning" of  all  material  iblngs.  This  ia  obviooaly 
what  the  ucred  writer  intended  to  state :  in  oppoaition 
to  the  general  bel'tef  of  antiquity,  be  affirms  that  nat- 
ter was  originally  the  direct  product  ol  divine  power, 
and  from  tbia  event  be  datea  the  bistofy  of  the  physi- 
cal universe. 

II.  GaTi  ttolitt  in  A«ttf>nt— Thia  molive  has  been 
ascribed  by  dneirinal  writers  to  tbe  free  operation  of 
God's  love,  bis  baiita*  tnmmvnicativit.  He  was  not 
affected  by  any  compulsion  or  selliih  desire.  In  tbe 
ce  and  volition  of  divine  love,  all  Ibe  much-dis- 
cussed antagonism  Lctwern  tt'eedom  and  necepsity  is 
cancelled.  To  suppose  that  the  erection  could  have 
been  otherwise  than  It  was  is  on  aUtractJon  of  no  util- 
ity whatever.  We  only  'peak  rtlolUelji  when  we  de- 
clare that  God  could  not  have  created  otherwise  than 
he  did.  But  if  we  make  the  rame  sffiimallon  abmlnliis, 
we  degrade  God'a  freedom  lo  abstract  aulfaorlty,  and 
creation  to  accident  or  a  mere  esperimcnt,  The  nocos- 
altyln  which  God  created  the  universe  ia  the  delinitlve- 
nesa  of  hia  own  will,hia  self-determination  Hhich  ha 
posaesscs  by  virtue  of  his  own  divine  character.  It  ia 
not  an  external  compnlalon,  but  an  interior  impulse 
of  the  divine  nature  to  n^anifest  itself;  a  necessity 
of  God's  love  lo  communicate  itself.  The  question 
whether  God  could  have  created  any  other  world  than 
he  has  was  dlFcureed  earnestly  by  the  Scholastics,  and 
later  by  Leibuiti  in  his  Theodicy.  If  wo  imagine  that 
God  bad  a  number  of  world-plans,  out  of  u  bicb  he 
selected  the  one  which  he  conaumrasted,  we  concede 
too  much  to  the  Optimists.  That  creation  which  he 
biou|fht  into  being  was  the  only  one  lo  which  he  waa 
moved  by  the  deep  inner  love  of  hia  Inflnlte  dirbf 
character.  The  aim  which  God  had  in  view  was  not 
his  own  glory  exclnsivety  ;  he  was  not  impelled  by  a 
purely  egotistical  power,  but  by  eternal  love;  be  d»- 
aired  the  good  of  his  creatures;  and  it  was  only  as  be 
wbhedhb  creation  lobe  pure  that  be  desired  to  be  glo- 
rif  ed  b?  that  purity.  All  created  beings  are  not  solely 
means  fur  an  end;  but  tbsy  have  been  created  for  th^ 
own  sake,  thnt  they  might  receive  tbe  communications 
of  God  and  be  permeated  L^  hia  gondnrss ;  not  that 
they  might  subsequently  be  absorbed  in  him,  but  rest 
clcnially  bappy  in  and  with  him.  Creation  reached 
its  aim  relatively  in  personal  creatures  and  absolutely 
in  Christ  tho  God-man.  The  kingdom  of  the  natural 
creation  attains  It*  perfection  in  tbe  kingdom  of  grace 
and  glory  ;  tbe  effulgence  of  tbe  glory  of  God  appears 
In,  and  concurs  with,  the  bspplness  of  his  creatuna; 
and  the  perfection  of  the  Church  takes  pisce,  not  by 
the  overthmw,  but  by  the  renewal  and  illDmlnstion 
ofthewotldinGod(2  ret.  111,18;  Iaa.lxv,17;  Uvi, 
22;  Rev.  xxi,  1;  comp.  Rom.  Till,  19,  etc.;  comp. 
Twesten,rDrf«.  fit.  d.  DBgmtia,  U,  99). 

[II.  TVme  occufitd  tn  CrrnltDfl.— La  Place's  theory 
of  tbe  formation  of  tbe  whole  solar  syatem  la  that  it 
was  nrigiuslly  a  mass  of  vapory  or  nebulous  matter, 
which,  according  to  the  laws  of  gravitation,  assumed 
the  form  of  an  immense  sphere.  This  sphere  received 
from  without  an  impulse  which  caused  it  to  revolve  on 
Its  axis  fhnn  west  to  east.  In  consequence  of  the 
rerolntion,  the  mass  became  flattened  at  the  poles  Ind 
swollen  in  the  eqnatorial  region.  In  consequence  of 
the  greatneaa  of  the  centrifugal  force  at  the  equator, 
and  the  contemporaneous  condensation  and  contrao. 
tlon  of  the  nebulous  mass,  a  free  revolving  ring,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Satom,  detaclied  Itself  in  the  region  of 
the  eqostnr.  This  ring,  not  behig  of  tuifbnn  dens- 
lly,  and  in  consequence  cf  contnction,  broke  In  ona 


CREATION  6! 

nr  man  placM ;  and  tbew  fngmtnta,  fa  obedienM  to 
the  tsw»  of  gnTllMlon,  bccama  (iibeni  or  jiUudU,  lU 
revolving  from  weiC  l<i  wut  ■rooiid  tho  pucnt  duu. 
Another  ring  wu  formrd  in  like  manner,  *ad  inoUiBr 
pUuetcsmointoeiutencci  ind  »  on,  uotiltbo  whole 
lolir  lystem  wu  comi>UU.  According  to  thla  tho- 
oiy,  not  onl/  the  euth,  bat  ell  ths  [rimBtf,  exiited  be- 
fbre  the  *an  in  iU  piBiant  mnilitioa ;  and  tliiu  Mmic  ot 
the  BDppo^ed  diffieultJoi  of  tho  Uaeule  c«aK>,^nv  >re 
moovcd  (M'CjoI,  Aidilo  FaM,  p.  242, 143),  for  it  u 
iuifdieil  in  tbii  theory  that  Ebe  eirth  eiiMad  batore  the 
tim  beciiaa  the  lumfasry  of  tbe  ryetem. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  some  conclueion  hannoniniu 
at  once  with  ths  raaulti  of  modem  ecieikce  and  the 
acoonnt  of  Hoeea,  w«  moat  determine  tbe  moaning 
of  tbe  tenoa  "in  tbe  beginning"  and  "d*]'."  Tlie 
Hebrew  word  for  "beginning,"  n'^SK'?  (rrtSM'y,  h 
In  tbe  original  without  tho  deanlte  article ;  >o  that 
Hoses  really  wyi,  "  In  rri/vik  (not  in  l>K  raihilh)  Elo- 
bim  created  the  heavens  and  (he  earth."  Tho  Scptu. 
■gtnt,  Cbaldce,  and  Syriac  venlona  corrobnrdte  the 
(Qtlquily  and  cDtTectncaaof  this  reading.  Thus  thero 
la  an  indefinlteness  of  the  time  ot  creation.  It  miiy 
have  lieen  milliona  of  yean  ago  Just  aa  eatily  a*  thoa- 
sands,  for  tho  Hebrew  word  is  indellnite,  and  the  verso 
reads  in  snbitancB  tbns:  "  Of  old.  In  former  damtion, 
God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth."  Arguing 
from  analogy,  many  contend  that  the  term  "day" 
does  not  mean  literally  twenty-fbor  boars.  That 
word  often  sigDiflea  In  the  Bible  undefined  periods 
of  time,  as  the  "day  of  the  Lord,"  "the  day  of  ven- 
goanco."  "  that  djy,"  "  the  nijjht  is  tar  spent,  the 
day  la  at  band."  The  first  dny  cnntistMl  of  an  al- 
ternation of  li^t  and  darkness ;  but  how  long  tbe 
night  lasted,  and  how  long  the  darkness  until  the  next 
dawn,  is  not  stated,  Tbe  wbole  time  of  light  in  which 
Qod'a  creative  work  prcKoedod  he  called  "day,"  and 
tbe  whole  time  of  darkness  he  culled  "ni^bt."  It 
was  not  a  day  measured  by  the  presence  of  the  inn's 
light,  nor  a  night  measared  by  the  absence  o(  that 
light,  (Compare  M'Caul,  Ailt  la  FaiiA,  p.  !S1,  316, 
347.)  The  name  "day"  is  therefore  ni^rardcd  as 
given,  not  as  a  measure  of  exfemt — which  is  a  later 
and  a  aubordinate  idea — but  as  denoting  a  wondrons 
phenomenon,  marking  the  first  great  transition,  and 
calling  up  the  dual  contrast  which  has  entered  Into 
thi  corresponding  name  ever  dnce,  "  God  called  the 
light  dny,  and  the  darkness  be  called  night"  He 
called  it  You,  and  (him  that  has  come  the  leisar  nam- 
ing. Wo  now  indicate  the  gradual,  deveiopinif  cbnr- 
■cter  at  tbe  creation.  It  was  not  the  work  of  six  or- 
dinjry  days,  measured  by  twenty-four  hoor^  but  a 
series  of  supemstural  growths  extending  over  vast 
periods  of  time.  (Camp.  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis,  Ifdh. 
(btirl.  Reviac,  April,  18GS,) 

Others  maintain  that,  while  It  is  true  that  tbe  word 
"d^iy"  (q.  *.)  is  sometimes  used  (e.  g.  in  relation  to 
the  whole  cosmogonol  period,  Gen.  11,  J)  in  a  vainio 
sense  for  an  indefinl(e  period,  or  for  some  set  occasion 
without  regard  to  its  length,  such  a  signification  in 
the  lirst  cliapter  of  Genesis  ia  emphatically  forbidden 
hy  the  following  explicit  circumstances  snhjoined  in 
the  context  itself;  (1)  Tbe  several  demiurgic  dayt  are 
regularly  numbered — "lirst,"  "second,"  etc.,  till  the 
last— making  an  exact  and  obviouslv  literal  week. 
(3)  Each  is  divided,  in  the  usual  Hebrew  alvle,  into 
"night"  and  "morning,"  constituting  undaabtedly  a 
Jewish  vux^iupov,  or  nigld-atid-'Lis,  like  tbe  modem 
phrase  "  twenty-four  hours,"  (3)  To  prevent  all  mis- 
Ctinccption,  these  attematlona  of  light  end  darkness 
■re  di.'tinctly  called  in  the  same  connection  "night" 
and  "day."  (4)  Tbe  institution  of  the  Sabbath  is 
based  upon  the  corre-'pondence  between  this  and  each 
ottbe  six  preceding  days  in  point  of  len^.  To  these 
pblioln  •leal  and  exeselical  considerations,  requiring 
the  word  Ci^  to  be  hero  taken  in  its  strictly  literal 


sense  as  an  actual  dag,  might  be  added  otben  derlwed 
from  acieutific  Investigations.  (See  Hitchcock's  i.'U- 
nnsforyCeoi^,  Sded.,  p.  tSSaq.,  andtbaartlclsCo*- 

IV,  £ra*  ef  Crratiim. — Tbe  Mosaic  account  recog- 
nlses  In  creation  two  great  ems  of  thm  dava  each— 
an  Jmrgamc  and  an  OrgoKC.  Each  of  the««  opeoa 
with  tlieappoarance  of  light:  tbo  first,  light  diSbMd; 
tbe  second,  light  from  tbe  sun  for  tbe  special  naea  «/ 
tlie  earth.  Each  era  endslnad.iy  of  two  great  wDrkai 
the  two  shown  to  be  distinct  l>y  being  secerally  pro- 
nouncod  "good,"  On  the  third  *'day" — that  closins 
tbe  Inorganic  era — there  was,  first,  the  dividing  of  tb* 
land  from  the  watera,  and  afterwards  tbe  creation  of 
vegetation,  or  tho  institution  of  a  kingdom  of  life — ■ 
work  widely  diverse  from  all  preceding  it  in  tbe  «rs. 
So,  on  the  sixth  day,  termioating  the  Organic  rra, 
there  waa,  Urst,  the  creation  of  mammals,  and  tb«a  a 
second  tu  greater  work,  totally  new  in  its  B^aDtleat 
element—the  creaUoc  of  Man.  We  have,  then,  tba 
following  orrangepiont ; 

L  Thi  Ineryenle  Bra. 
litDay.— Light,  general. 
Sd  Dsv.— Tbe  earth  divided  &nn  Ilia  fluid  annnd  It,  er  iB- 

divUnollsad. 
MDaj— {J;^[: " 

n.  TU  Orgartlt  Era. 
4(h  Day.— Ufht,  direct 

BibUar.— l.'natlQUofUieleiTtrcrdeisorBnlniala 
i.i.  ¥>..      ( 1.  i;ra«tloB  of  mammals. 
«UiDay.-|,  timllouofllaa 

In  addition,  tho  iatt  dayof  eacbera  included  one  wuk 
tytdcal  of  the  era,  and  another  related  to  it  in  eesen- 
tisi  points,  hot  alio  prophetic.  Vegetation,  while  for 
physical  reasons  a  part  of  the  creation  of  tbe  third  dsj, 
was  also  prophetic  of  the  future  Organic  em,  in  which 
the  progress  of  life  was  tbe  grand  characteristic  Tbt 
record  of  Moses  thus  accords  with  the  fundamental 
principle  In  history,  that  tlie  characteristic  of  as  aga 
baa  its  banning!  within  the  age  pmeduig.  So, 
again,  man,  while  like  other  mammals  in  stmcture, 
even  to  the  homologies  of  every  bono  and  moacle,  waa 
endowed  with  a  spiritual  nature,  which  looked  fiirwaid 
to  another  era — (hat  of  spiritual  existence.  The  "mr- 
enlh"  "  day" — the  dsy  of  rest  from  the  work  of  crea- 
tion— is  man's  period  of  preparation  fdr  that  new  ex< 
istencei  ami  it  is  to  promote  this  special  end  that,  In 
strict  porailelbm,  the  Sabbath  follow*  man'e  alx  dara 
of  work. 

Some  "  Intorprelen  contend  th£t  the  wbole  ao- 
coant  is  to  bo  taken  together;  thst  tbe  day*  are  to  ba 
underatood  as  literal  daTsj  bat  that  the  whole,  bow- 
ever,  is  to  bo  interpreted  as  referring  to  a  more  re- 
mote period  than  is  commonly  imagined,  and  as  not 
intended  to  describe  the  exidimff  species  of  plants  and 
animals,  but  various  other  rpedes,  now  extinctt  wfaick 
have  been,  by  su&tcgHflU  convulsions  of  nature,  da 
stroyed,  while  otben  have  been  soccessively,  by  fres) 
acts  of  creation.  Introduced  in  their  place," 

"  Another  interpreUtion,  that  of  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith 
in  bis  Tolnmc  on  tho  R/lalioiu  of  Scripture  ta  Cr- 
oiogy,  etc.,  is  briefly  this:  tho  aepantioD  of  tbe  fiiM 
verso  ho  adopts  as  above:  tfals  refers  to  tbe  original 
nnivarsal  creation ;  and  in  the  vast  undefined  inter- 
val an  aknest  nnlioiited  serica  of  changes  Id  tho  struc- 
ture and  products  of  tho  earth  may  hare  taken  place. 
After  thir,  at  a  compantively  recent  epoch,  a  cbi/> 
portion  nf  tho  earth's  snrfiica  was  brought  into  a  state 
of  dixnrder,  rain,  and  obscaration,  out  of  which  the 
creation  of  the  existing  speclee  of  things,  with  the  m- 
call  of  light,  and  the  restored  presence  of  tbe  bearoily 
bodies,  took  place  literally,  aceotdiDg  to  the  Uoaak 
narrative,  in  six  natural  days," 

"Lastly,  othen  have  tbeogbt  that  tbe  whole  ds. 
scriptinn  must  I'o  taken  literally  aa  it  stands;  but 
yet,  t/*  fmud  contradicted  by  tia<^  may,  witbotit  vio* 


CREATIONISM  SI 

liM«  to  tti  abrtoDs  dedgn  ind  conitnictlon,  be  ra- 
ginkd  M  nthar  inlcndad  for  ■  mythic  poetical  com- 
poiHioii,  OT  Teligioiu  ipologur,  thin  hr  a  mitter-of- 
bct  hiitorv."  (S«e  KitM'*  Jour,  iil,  IM;  t,  ISG; 
lit.  «;  limi.  Sn>.  Iv,  5!St  JV,w  f.>^«lcr,  iz,  GIO; 
Jftli-  flr».  Ti,  292  ;  Iil,  487  j  De  Bow's  Set.  Iv,  177 ; 
Hiubeock'i  StUgiem  a»d  Gaaloga,  §  2 ;  Bitlialk.  Sacra, 
iil,8S,B'J3i  xiii,74B:  Jour.  3ac.  Lil.  I85i ;  Amer. 
30.1.  Rrpot.  yl,  236.)     Sm  OsoLOor. 

To  kam  b\i,  there  uro  tbna  th»ori«  of  cnation  :  1. 
Tit  old  orAodia  nae.  1  bit  hj>  been  mott  recently 
dcfcDiled  by  Keil.  It  cUlnn  that  tlio  world  wai  cre- 
ated ia  *tx  ordinal}-,  literal  dayi.  2.  The  StUiUitwn 
Bjf^ittit.  Accordinif  to  It,  tbe  tbeowpbic  declara- 
tkn  of  tl»  Tula  w  AMU  ia  accepted.  The  geological 
epocha  which  extend  ttoat  the  firit  earth-formations 
dowD  to  the  diluvium  hmn  an  incalculalily  long  pe- 
riod before  the  cnation  of  iijibt,  and  before  tbs  oth- 
er creMive  acta  recorded  in  Geneaia  i,  3.  etc.  Thera- 
fcn  the  Hsaalc  aii  dayi'  woil  ia  bat  the  ratitutiaD 
of  a  preceding  organic  craitlon  which  had  been  pttvi- 
eaU  maay  time*  dieoripiniied  and  overwbaliaed. 
Chalmen  ud  Docklaitd  ware  the  flnt  to  advocate  thii 
!iTpothMia.  They  have  been  fallowed  by  Hengaten- 
beig.Knrli.Andr.  Wagner,  and  partially  by  Delitucb. 
»,  The  n«e  o/lie  BanmmitU  or  Cmmnliib.  tnch  aa 
Cnrier,  De  Serres,  Hugh  Miller,  Ebrard,  and  others. 
Tbiy  bold  that  the  alx  days  are  periods  of  great  in- 
deflnita  length,  and  are  thenfon  reconcilable  with  the 
enatira  epochs  of  geology.  Parallel  with  tbeae  daya 
an  the  Imig  geologic  forinatioDa.  Schultz  has  ]iut 
written  In  adracic;  of  this  theory.  Hia  work  ia  one 
of  the  moet  aadifadoryandexbaaatlve  of  all  the  writ- 
ing on  this  imporlant  branch  of  acienllflc  theology. 

See,  in  addition  to  the  works  already  cUed,  Hugh 
UiOeT,  Tettimang  o/lhe  Hoeii;  Dta;  itauual  ef  Crol- 
egf:  RWben,  Die  SdiSrfiagtgticluc&le  (Leipiiii,i8di, 
Bro);  Keerl,  die  Schipf'mgtgrnlurhic  a.  d.  Ijda*  nm 
Paradltt  (reviewed  by  Warren,  HiiUmluca  Saara.Ott. 
IMS,  art  iii) :  Nstb,  Buhner,  A'tKar/jracdoij  «,  OdMr- 
U«,2dsd.l%1j  Gm\-.'Piaiicit.ti\.CQtm03amwaaraU 
f>Jr^:avH(itoma,I86!);  P.Laurent.flui/ni 
«r  U  Cutnuigom*  de  Moue  (Paris,  IBILt) ;  F, 
H.  Renach,  Bilfl  md  Xo/kt  (Preiburg.  1862) :  F.  MI- 
chelij,  the  chiefadvocale  of  the  ReBlitolion  theory,  in 
hi*  joHmol,  .Vo(ar  and  OJeabanmgi  F.  W.  Schulti,  /He 
Bdic^/mifftifnehicUt  Hack  ycUurviHtntckt/t  imd  Bibtl 
(Colhi,  ISSa);  Boltier,  Die  UiUirkr  Sckdjtfiagngr- 
KUtite  (Leipr.  lWi7,  vol.  i) ;  WdIIT,  Bed-  utmg  dtr  WeU- 
i^mg  H<4  KatiiT  md  Sckr^fl  (Franhfort.  V^A: 
ZicUer,  in  Der  Beaeit  dei  Glaubem,  Ho.  1,  translated 
In  Mak.  Qtarl.  Sai.  April,  1866,  art.  2 ;  Tjylcr  Lewie, 
Six  Daft  of  Crealicm.  See  GRNEais;  Man;  Spkciu. 
Creationlm,  or  On  the  Gennan  mode  of  ppelling 
bnn  a  aappoeed  adjective)  CieaUaniam,  ia  a  tech- 
aicalterm  (verj- common  amonj;  German  philosophers 
aod  diTinea,  bnt  not  yet  fully  nataralized  In  English) 
f»r  one  of  the  thna  or  four  theories  conccminK  the  or- 
igin oTtba  human  soul.  It  derives  not  only  the  soul 
of  Adam,  but  erpry  ratiotul  lonl,  directly  from  G»i, 
thaBgli  not  by  nay  of  an  ivianalioti  In  a  Gnostic  or 
paatheiitic  sense,  but  by  an  act  of  creation ;  and  rap- 
l«t*  that  the  soul  ia  united  to  the  body  at  tbo  moment 
cflu  i^nn-atinn  or  aflcrwarda.  It  dilTcn  (imn  Ira- 
di$ci^ii:H  or  fjeaerationier\  to  called,  which  teaches 
that  iho  Mul  is  propagated,  together  with  tbs  body, 
through  the  pmceaii  of  generation  fmm  a^o  to  age,  and 
fnm  the  theory  o(  prt-eiiitrnee,  which  nasumca  that 
a>ch  aoul  descends  from  another  world,  and  a  previona 
nodeofsxIstencD,  lntothabady,toIeaTeitagainattho 
dose  of  Its  earthly  pilgrimage.  CreaUonltm  Is  traced 
back  to  Aristotle,  who  made  an  rosoMiil  distinction 
betwcea  the  animal  roul  (•Ivx'i)  Bt>d  '''■'  rational  prin- 
ciple (,nrr),  and  dcilveil  Ihe  former,  together  with  tlie 
hody,  friim  generation,  tbo  latter  fmm  without  or 
above,  ai  a  part  or  reflex  of  tbo  general  reaaen  of  God. 
n«o,  on  the  oUwr  hood,  taogbt  11m  Uieoiy  of  pf«-az- 


i?  CREATURE 

Utenc«,  which  was  intiodnced  Into  CbriilisD  thedogy 
by  Origen.  Tertullian  was  the  founder  of  trsduclao. 
iam.  The  whole  quaation  of  the  origin  of  the  soul  was 
flmt  serloualy  diacnascd  during  tbe  Pelagian  contio. 
versy,  in  connection  with  the  problem  of  hercditarr 
sin  and  guilt.  (See  Scbatf,  Ckareh  HiOery,  ili,  880 
sq.)  Pelagiua,  and  aeverul  Oriental  fHtherr,  held  the 
creation  theory,  which  fell  In  with  his  view  of  the 
complete  Innocency  of  every  child  that  Is  bom.  Je. 
rnme  was  also  a  cnationist,  altbongb  be  wrote  against 
Pelagiua.  "  Quotldie,"  ho  says,  "Dens  (abricalar 
animaa,  cnjus  Telle  fecisae  eat,  et  condltor  easa  Don 
cessat"  lie  appeal*  for  this  view  to  the  nnceaaing 
creative  activity  of  God,  and  to  anch  paieoges  as  John 
V,  17;  Zeeh.  xU;  Paa.  iixlU,  IG.  Augustine  1^ 
quently  d^usscd  the  question,  but  never  arrived  at  • 
Bitlafsctoty  aolution.  He  vavaitd  between  ereation- 
ism  and  tradndanlam  ;  bat,  on  the  whole,  he  was  in. 
clined  to  the  litter,  which  bett  agreed  with  bis  doo- 
trlne  of  hcreditai7  sin.  "  Where  the  Scripture,"  he 
says,  "  rendera  no  certain  testimony,  human  inquiry 
mnat  liovare  of  deciding  one  way  or  the  other.  If  It 
were  neceseary  to  aalvatioo  to  know  soytbing  con- 
cerniDK  it,  SeHplure  would  have  said  more."  Among 
Angustinisn  divines  tradudanlsm  has  found  more  ac- 
ceptance. But  creationitm  boa  never  been  without 
Bopporteni,  among  whom  Leibnlti  (in  his  Theodjy) 
oocupiea  a  prominent  position.  The  great  argument 
in  Ihror  of  creationiam  ia  thai  It  guards  the  dignity 
and  aplrituslily  of  the  rational  soul,  which  differs  In 
kind  trtsm  the  animal  soul,  and  ia  the  proper  aeat  of 
the  imaL:e  of  God.  Tradndanlam  is  liable  to  the 
ohjnction  of  matailaliilng  the  aoiil.  Bnt  creationiam 
makes  the  union  of  body  and  sonl  accidental  ind  me- 
chanical, and  does  not  account  for  the  trantmifsion 
of  pin  from  generation  to  generation.  It  must  either 
conflna  sin  to  the  sensual  sphere,  which  ia  not  tmo 
(for  unbelief,  pride,  profknity,  blasphemy,  are  apiril- 
oal  sins),  or  assume  that  encb  soul  becomes  sinful  by 
contact  with  the  naturally  generated  body;  since, 
from  the  creatlio  hands  of  God,  it  can  onlj"  proceed 
free  from  ain  and  defcct,  like  the  eoul  of  our  Srtl  par- 
ents. Tbeso  didlculties  on  both  sides  point  to  a  theory 
which  combiueathfl  truths  of  creatiooitm  andof  trada- 
cianiam,  and  avoids  tbeli  erron.  Every  human  being, 
both  as  to  bodv  and  seal,  Is  a  child  of  lis  parenlf,  and 
at  the  same  lime  a  crcntura  of  Almighty  God. 

Crentnre  (prop.  d^.>,  ue'jAtA,  ammaied  or  ipfrit- 
hailing  thln^;  criirfia  [lees  dlatiDCtlvely  crime;  (■» 
Rom.  vlil,  19,  ace  the  BaplitI  Qaarterly,  Apr.  1667,  art. 
S]:  but  also  yyo,  ate'reti, "  moving  creature,"  alre- 
wherc  "creeping  thing," I.e. not  merely r(ji(i&[q.T.], 
but  any  glidini;  or  short-logged  quadruped),  a  general 
term  In  the  Scriptures  for  any  animal  (q,  v.).  Sea 
also  DOLEFTL  CitE.tTcnB. 

In  the  New  Test,  this  word  deslgiuter,  1.  Tit  alult 
creation,  any  or  all  created  olijccta  or  belngi ;  fo  Eom. 
liii,  TO,  "Nor  hclsht,  nor  deptli,  not  cny  other  crta. 
tare,"  ete.  j  Col.  1,16, "  Xb<s  iirstJjom  (Master)  of  every 
creatttre;"  Rev.  iii,  1^,"  the  beginning  (source)  of  tbo 
malum  of  Cod;  comp.  nlao  liov,  v,  13;  Heb.  iv,  18. 
3.  JJummi/f,  or  Ihe  whole  human  race,  in  tbo  universal 
rcnso;  so  Hark  x,  C,  "But  from  the  beginning  of  tho 
rreiKfcn  (cnViuE)  God  mwlo  them  male  and  female." 
The  uord  here  cannot  mean  tho  creoli'oii  In  general, 
sinco  wo  find  airoi^  to  explain  the  word  n-i'orr,  or  to 
bring  Iho  meaning  back  to  It.  Mark  xtI,  1G,  "  Preach 
tho  Gospel  to  every  freaiiire,-"  Col.  I,  S3," tho  Gospel 
which  was  preached  to  ever?-  erealnre  which  is  under 
beiven."  Tliat  mankind  alone  li  here  alluded  to  la 
rclf-svldent,  and  the  expression  "under  heaven"  ahom 
that  all  reasonable  Iwlngs  on  earth  are  to  be  inrlnded 
in  the  meaning.  Particularly  remarkable,  Ihoaifh  di<^ 
fsrent  In  sense.  Is  the  passage  Rom.  vili,  19-!?.  "  Fut 
the  eamcFt  c^tpectatlon  of  the  erramrt  waHelh  f  r  the 
maniftataUuD  of  tlia  soiu  of  God.    For  the  cnuftira 


CREDENCE-TABLE  6, 

wM  mid*  Bnbject to  vuilt.r,  Dot  wUllnglr, bntby  m- 
saa  of  bim  who  baCb  aubjected  the  Masao  ia  bope;  bo- 
raiue  tbe  cmUure  iUelf  alw  ihmll  be  deliverad  trom 
tbe  bond«go  of  comiptioii,  Into  tha  gloriom  liber^r 
tba  children  of  God.  For  wa  know  that  tbe  wbt 
enoHon  gr^mih,  and  tnvailetb  in  pftiu  togetber  nnUl 
now,"  in  which  also  the  oxprewlon  crutuie  ia  nied  to 
daaiKDits  the  totnliCy  of  tnankind.  Tbii  ii  first  indi- 
cated liy  ths  yap  In  vcrae  18,  sbicb  brings  forward  la 
btbalt  of  Iba  XoiiZapai  which  raiti  on  it,  tbat  "nil 
mankind  takei  part  in  this  uplratjon  and  in  tbe  bope 
of  future  gloriflcatkHi."  In  ver.S3,Cbri'Etiant,U]K>n 
oihum8nity,«re»etovoragainat  thoicAifeof  it.  V/t 
euinot  bore  place  ChriitlaTia  in  contraat  nlth  tbe  Man- 
inale  creation,  and  ovorlook  entirely  tbe  nan-Chria- 
tian  part  of  mankind,  to  whom  a  vague  longing  attei 
the  glorious  freedom  of  tbo  children  of  God  could  bo 
belter  attribnted  than  to  inanimate  nature.  PanI 
where  apaaka  of  a  "change"  or  glorification  of  the 
eaitbl;  abode  of  men;  thii  j<l£n  ia  eicluiirely  re- 
served for  man  (1  Cor.  xi,  S&-»).— Krehl,  N.  T.  Hmd- 
Kirttrbiak!  aae  bIh  ElKcott,  Tht  Dtttinji  effhe  Crta- 
lure,  !d.  ed.  1861 ;  Jmrwd  of  Sacnd  Uterabm,  Oct. 
106^,  p.  !7. 
The  LiviNa  CitEaTDBXs  apoken  of  in  Ezeklet  z, 

15, 17, 20  cr?,  =W. 

o/itw,-  thD^uovofBe*- 
elatlana  r,  vi,  tq.,  im- 
pro[ieriy>beut"),are 
ima^nary  or  compo- 
site beinfja,  symbolical 
of  the  divine  attribntm 


II  in  tbo 


■upnttta  HlBnad  Ftptnat  1  EgypUu: 


mythological  repretentation*  of  all  antiquity.     See 


Credeooe-tabl*,  or  CiiEDE:fCE,  a  table  beside 
tlie  altar,  on  wbicb  tbe  cop,  etc.,  are  placed  in  tbe  cel- 
ebration of  tbe  mass.  Dn  Cange  uya  that  tbo  word 
c^-tdentiariua  means  prvTWtolor,  one  tbat  ratten  tiefore- 


ifely  of 


lerfonned  by  eup-bourers 
were  required  tn  taste  tbe  wines  ani 
presenlcil  (leciiWtafu  grutia),  ti  in 
tbe  monarcb.  Tbe  Itilijn  ward  < 
Mme  meaning.  Hence  ulso  the  crtdtnli-trUir,  cre- 
dence-plate, on  iKblcb  cup-ljearers  trtileiciet  tbo  wine, 
and  which  means  generally  a  plato  on  nhicb  a  person 
offers  anything  to  another ;  creJeat-luche.  credence- 
table,  B  Bidel>u.inl,  a  cupboard  with  a  tabic  tor  the  pur- 
pose of  arranging  in  order  and  keeping  the  drinking- 
apparatu^  Ihrrein.  Credences  were  common  in  an- 
cient churches.  In  the  Liturgies  under  the  names  of 
Cbr\-s<Ktom  and  St.  James  we  meet  with  tbo  words 
»poW«tic  nnil  iraparpuTi^uv.  In  tbe  Onto  llommi' 
tbe  nances  oblatiiiKtTlum  and  prothrtU  cecur,  and  oni- 
ts  made  tbe  explanation  of  tbe  other.  ^Ve  meet  nlso 
with  Ibe  woni  parattirium,  leomJe  when  the  offerines 
were  received,  preparal ton  was  made  out  nftbeni  fur 
tbe  Lord's  Supper.  In  many  inatan»i  the  place  of 
the  crcdenre-tablc  was  supplied  by  a  shelf  across  the  | 

to  bo  (ound  in  many  old  charcbcs.    The  use  of  cru  I 


;  Coleman,  A»- 


wbicb  bavo  marke 

in  England.— Farrar,  liettet.  Diet.  s. 

ciettl  CAriituBsiff. 

Cr«ditOt  (nd-i;,  wniih',  a  laidrr,  3  Klngi  iv,  1 ; 
lUi  1,  1;  elsewhere  "extortioner,"  "usurer,"  eti. ; 
ma,  KMUrbki',  ddt.  Dent,  ic,  i ;  lamariK,  a  Irmd- 
tr,  Lnka  tH,  41).     See  Debt  ;  Loah. 

Ciedner,  Kabi.  Auoun'.  was  bom  Jan.  10,  1797, 
at  Waltersbausen,  near  Gotha.  Ho  studied  at  Jea^ 
Breslan,  and  GOttingen.  In  1830  he  became  pnfeaaor 
Inary  of  theology  at  Jena,  and  In  1831  ob- 
e  appointment  of  ordinary  professor  at  Giea- 
•en.  ae  died  in  1857.  Among  his  namemns  writ- 
ings are,  Drr  Propktt  Jotl  vUrictzt  a.  rrtidrl  (Hidle, 
1831)  -.—BHtragt  i.  tV«Zn"(.  in  die  titliKim  Sckr.  i  :— 
i)i>  EBompdim  Jrr  Ptirwr  odtr  JadrneAiittrn  (Halle, 
1832,11):— ft«  alKal.  UrttimgeUm  (Halle,  1888): 
— Awfetf.  in  daa  y.  T.  (Balle,  1S3C)  -.—Ztr  Gnek.  Ja 
Kimom*  (tfalle,  IMI ;  naw  edition  by  Volckmar,  with 
addition.'.  Bcrl.  ISGO)  -.—Dot  \.  T.fia-  d/tirmie  Leter 
(Gless.  1841-43,  2  vols.).  Credner  was  ODe  of  the 
chief  representatives  of  the  Rationatiitk  acbool  in 
Germany.  In  many  of  bis  works  his  thedogka] 
bat  little  apparent,  and  these,  especially  hli 
_,  arc  generally  valued  by  tbeologiana  of  all 
for  tbeir  vast  amount  of  inrcrmation.  tn  some 
of  his  late-  works,  bowovcr,  he  shows  himself  a  Ten- 
determined  Kalionalist.  Credner  took  also  an  active 
part  in  the  retlgioua  controverries  of  bis  time,  pablisb- 
ing  a  number  of  books  In  defense  of  tbe  rights  of  tbe 

to  enjoy  libcrti-  of  ptraching  and  teaching  (Die  Be- 
rrchli^ang  drr  protftbmt.  Kirclu  Dtvbddaitd;  IMS ; 
AHer:$iim.  IR47 ;  />it  rilllichn  Vtnmntgm,  etc.,  185S), 
Credner  al«o  contributed  ninny  articles  to  German  p»- 
riodical^  and  to  Kitlo's  CgrlopiTdia  of  BMical  liter- 
ufHTt.— lleriog,  RNJ-EnqUop.  xJi,  SOG. 

Creed  (ptdtrt,  to  believe),  a  form  of  wonls  b 
which  articles  oS  belief  *.n  comprehended;  not  neo- 
essarlly  a  complrto  summaiy  of  tbe  faith,  but  a 
statement  respecting  some  points  which  are  fanda- 
mcntat,  and  have  been  disputed.  See  Co^fbssiox. 
Kor  instance,  while  tbe  doctrine  of  the  atommHit  tnuit 
))e  reckoned  a  fundamental  part  of  the  apostle's  doc- 
trine, it  is  yet  not  in  tbe  Apostles'  Crcod  at  a  doctrine. 
Hence  some  Infer  tbat  it  was  not  brlieeed,  though  tbe 
more  obvious  infarencc  would  lie  that  it  waa  not  da- 

L  In  the  carlv  Eastern  Church  a  snmmary  of  thIi 
sort  was  called  fia^jin.  lie  Iraon,  because  the  nte- 
chumens  were  required  to  Itam  it.  Sometime*.  fToM 
the  nature  of  Its  contents,  or  the  uses  to  which  it  wn 
applied,  it  was  called  <r/ip^\ov,  jyiaMan,  >  mark, 
token,  or  badi;e,  as  a  seal-ring— the  proof  of  ortbo- 
doiy ;  sometimes  eovwv,  rtgula  Jidei,  the  rule,  or  te 


CREED  S{ 

raledf  Uth;  «ivnf,  tt</ailA;  Epoc  or  Momc  *'■'■ 
OTtmf,tktdtltrwMatiimotexpoAianoftkt/ailk.  Tbe 
word  ffu/i^J«Xi>v  {inatciKOTd,  loiai),  "  vbether  borrow- 
■d,  afl  Mnn«  of  the  bthen  iMflrt,  ^vm  mllitAry  lui- 
goBge,  or,  ■■  otbera  uaert,  from  the  ligiu  of  recogni- 
tion  in  OM  among  the  heathcD  Id  their  mj'itaTiei,  lie- 
Dotca  ■  toflt  uid  A  Bhibbolcth  whereby  each  church  | 
may  know  it*  own,  and  is  circulftl«d  tbrougb  its  mem-  | 
ban  0*  a  warning  agaiiut  the  aDarea  of  eDemlei  or 
GiIm  bretfaraa"  (Uio^,  Sarlg  CAntfioMCy,  pt.  iii,  cb. 
vi). 

' '  Hany  confeaaloni  of  faith  an  to  be  found,  nearly 
ctnToaponding  with  ths  creeds  which  we  now  poueas, 
in  tl»  writioipi  of  tba  oarlktt  f.tben.  For  Example, 
In  Juatin  Martyr,  IreniauB,  TertuUiao,  Orlgen,  Cyp- 
rian, tbe  Apoattdic  ConMitalions  (cited  in  Wall,  on  /•- 
JhtU  HaplUm,  tl,  pL  ii,  ch.  Ii,  $  10,  p.  ISS,  and  In 
Bingham,  bk.  x,  cb-  iv).  We  have  alao  creeds  of 
■•versl  diSfereot  charches' preserved  to  us,  agreeing  in 
sntiatBncr,  Int  alightly  TU^^ng  In  fbrm ;  aa,  tho  creeds 
of  Jerusalem,  Cvsarea,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  AquUcia, 
Bic.  (see  tbem  In  Bingham,  I.  c).  But  until  tbe  time 
of  the  Conndl  of  Nice  there  dou  not  appear  to  have 
bevD  any  one  particnlar  creed  whicb  prevailed  unirer- 
•ally.  In  exactly  tbe  same  wnrds,  and  comnicmlcd  liy 
the'aune  univeisal  anthorl^"  (Browne,  On  lie  Thirty. 

Ai  tor  the  anlMorilf  of  creeds,  the  I>n>t«ctant  doc- 
trine is  that  the  cnied  nuy  ha  norma  doctrina  (stand- 
ard of  doctrine),  but  that  tbe  DIble  alone  k  norma  fidei 
(nilB  of  faith).  So  Dr.  U.  B.  Smith  (DiicaurK  'on 
drutiam  Union},  speaking  of  the  Westiuinsler  Con- 
fession, saya,  "  We  receire  the  Confbtaion,  not  as  a 
rale  of  bltb  and  lift,  for  this  only  the  Scriptures  can 
be,  hut  as  containing  our  system  of  fliith,  in  contrast 
with  ArminiaDlam  and  Pelaglanlsm,  as  well  as  Socin- 
laniam  and  Bomanism.  We  accept  it  in  its  legitimate 
historical  sense,  at  anderUood  and  interpreted  through 
the  hiatory  of  onr  chnrch  ....  and  as  '  containing  tho 
qntam  of  doctrine  taogbt  in  tbe  Unly  Scrlptaru.' 
lly  liberty  here  b  not  tii  be  Judged  of  another  man's 
CDDScifnce.  Any  other  view  not  only  puts,  for  all 
|iractlcal  parpoaee,  tbe  Confesaion  above  tlie  Scrip- 
ture*, hut  also  puts  somebody's  tbeoloiiical  sj'stem 
above  the  Confesaion."  The  experience  of  theChurcb 
has  attested  ths  value  of  creeds  as  Uandards  of  dcK- 
trine.  Chunhes  withoat  rresda  (e.  g.  tbe  Society  of 
Friends)  have  been  tcm  by  doctrinal  diiaensfon*  quite 
aa  tboroDghiy  aa  those  whicb  have  adopted  confea^ona 
of  faith.     S«  CoKfRaainiia. 

S.  Hie  flrst  ol>]ect  of  creeds  was  to  distinguish  the 
Church  from  the  world,  fhini  Jews  and  pagans.  In 
thb  view,  the  earliest  formularies  of  this  kind  con- 
tained simply  the  leadin.^  doctrines  and  facts  of  tho 
ChHstinn  religion;  and  It  was  only  necessary  that 
they  should  be  generally  and  bricily  expressed!  tbe 
dilfrrence  lying  not  in  the  cxpceitinn,  but  in  tho  en- 
drvfu,  the  "things  to  be  believed"  themselves.  Tbe 
■eoond  oliject  was  to  distinguish  betveen  persons  pro- 
feaalng  the  Cbriatian  faitb;  between  thoMi  wbo  re- 
taineil  tbe  apoatolic  doctrine,  and  those  who,  Ihtough 
Dnoutboriied  speculations,  had  departed  from  it,  nnd 
bllen  intfl  diflbrent  errors  on  important  pointa. 
Creeds  of  this  kind,  thererorr,  contained  the  funda- 
mental mtba,  with  brief  expoaitinns.  declarstor;-  of 
the  sense  in  which  thev  were  to  be  nnderntood,  In  or- 
der to  Uie  taM  reception  of  tbe  doctrine  of  Scripture 
respecting  tbem.  The  Apmilri'  Cretd  is  of  the  fint 
class,  the  yictne  and  A  f&tnanan  of  the  second ;  tbe 
Klcene,  capecially,  having  the  most  solemn  sanction 
of  tbe  congrcRBled  churche*  of  Cbrbt.  Other  creeds 
and  confessions  have  been  at  later  periods  adopted  by 
different  charcbes,  orthndo^c  In  fundamentals,  lint  dif- 
fering greatly  on  rome  questions  of  comparatively  i 
lighter  moment.  See  ConrBssiona.  These  were  so 
extended.  In  conieqDence,  as  to  embraeo  not  only  tbe 
ptinclpisl  doctrinca  of  tbe  fiiilh,  but  the  p»cnliar  viawa  . 


B  CREED 

of  the  ohnttbea  which  agreed  upon  them,  on  tltoee 
sab}ecta  of  controversy  by  which  the  age  was  diitin- 
galshed.  All  theM  are  naqneitionably  testa,  and 
were  designed  as  such,  snd  all  were  necessary;  the 
fint  dais  to  secure  tbe  renunciatioD  of  Judaum  and 
paganism  ;  the  second  class  lo  exclude  those  from  the 
Church  who  had  made  shipwrqck  of  the  faith;  tbe 
third  ciasa  to  promote  peace,  by  obliging  Ctiriatiana 
differing  considenbly  in  non-essentials  to  form  them- 
selvea  into  dbtlnct  religioua  Kicietiei  (B.  Watson, 
W«rit,  vii,  198).  Aa  to  tbe  use  of  creeds  u  confes- 
aion* of  failb  in  the  Christian  Church,  »ee  Sartorl- 
ns,  Xo/hnnd'gial  der  UrcAlicAn  Claubenibetninlmui 
(Stuttg.  imb)  ;  Miller,  On  Oerfi  (I^esb.  Board);  Bo- 
nar,5ca<lMra(i!cAwau(lB6fi). Preface;  CoNFEmioNa. 

For  the  three  ancient  creeds,  the  Apostles',  the 
Athanasian,  and  the  Nlcene,  see  below ;  and  also  Har- 
vey, HittOTf  tmd  Tkeotogs  of  ikt  Tkm  CrttdMi  Gue- 
ricke,  Ckrinl.  BfmboSt.  %  IS ;  Coleman,  Ancient  Ctrit. 
tianitt,  cb.  viv,  S  4 ;  Welch,  Biitiiillt.  Synb.  Velia. ; 
JVno  £iifJin({rr,  July,  1866,  art.  xii  Aner.  Cknrek  Brv. 
July,  1866,  art.  iv ;  Hare,  fontrif  aith  Ront,  p.  S18 ; 
Burnet,  On  lie  Arliiia  (Introduction)  ;  Shedd,  Hitl. 
tf  Doctrina,  bk.  vii ;  Bicgham,  Or'>.  Ectirt.  bk.  I, 
ch.  iii ;  Vosalus,  Da  Tribiu  Sfmbvlu,  Opem,  t.  vl ;  tbe 
anthorllie*  died  under  each  head  below ;  and  the  ar- 
tide  SvMBOLica. 

CREED,  AroaTLsa',  an  early  summary  of  the 
Cbriatian  fkith,  in  which  all  Cbriatian  cburchea,  Greek. 
Roman,  and  Proteatant,  Bgi«e.  Augustine  calls  it  rrg~ 
Ilia  Jidei  brttia  ft  ffrandit;  braii  flanuro  wrboiiim, 
gnrndU pondtre  imlrntianiai.  "Tbe  antiquity  of  (bla 
compendium  of  Christian  doctrine,  and  the  venenlion 


it  has  I 


held  in 


le  Church  of  CI 


deservedly  entitle  it  to  be  public- 
ly pronounced  from  time  tu  time  in  our  aaaemblles  aa 
containing  the  great  outline  of  tbe  faith  we  prof^, 
and  to  be  committed  to  the  memory  of  our  children, 
for  the  parpetoaUon  of  that  blth  lh>m  age  to  age"  (B. 
Watson,  ITorb,  vii,  498).  It  ta  a*  foUowa,  Utio  and 
Engllah: 

Si/tniebim  ApottMatnn. 


LaUn. 


a,Pi<trei 


rta  vlrstne;  mifus  sab  Pontls 
PUsto;  emenxas,  mc  ~ 


and  earth,  and  In  Jaus  Chriit 

was  ooooalved  by  the  Holy 

ah«l;  bom  of  tbe  Virgin  Ms- 
ry :  mSma  under  Fnmlus  Pi- 
late, ma  erwdled,  dead,  sod 


doinSpLriliin 


third  dsjr  he  njce  fktdn  the 
4;  he  sJcended  Intohenve d. 

__J  sHtMh  OB  the  right  hud 
nf  Ofd  Iba  Faltasr  Almighty; 
' thence  he  ihall  come  lo 

grelo  Ihe  HolyOInt; 


iloo  of  tbe  bod; ;  sod  Uk  I1f« 


I.  It  b  held  by  nuny  writers  of  the  Church  of  Borne 
that  this  creed  was  ctonpoaed  )iy  tbe  apoattea  tbem- 
selves,  wbo,  during  tbdr  stay  at  Jerusalem  soon  after 
our  Lord's  asoenalon,  under  tbe  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  agreed  upon  itaaa  ruleofftithandasBmBTkof 
distbictlon,  by  which  tbey  were  to  know  friends  from 
foes.  Rnflaut  says  (about  A.D.  100,  In  hb  Exporit. 
SfmM'):  "There  wss  an  andent  tradition  that  the 
apoatlas,  being  about  to  depart  fhim  Jerusalem,  flnt 
settled  a  mie  for  their  fotnre  preaching,  leet,  after  they 
were  separated  flwn  each  other,  they  should  expound 
diffcront  doctrines  to  those  whom  tbey  invited  to  the 
Chrietbn  faith.  Wherefore,  being  all  assemblsd  to- 
gether and  filled  with  the  Holy  GboK,  tbey  compoted 
thbaboTt  rule  of  their  pleaching,  each  one  contributing 
his  sentence,  and  left  It  aa  a  mle  to  be  given  to  all  be- 
Ikveia"  (Harvey,  EeO.  Angl.  Vindtx,  i,  666;  Blng- 
hwn,  Oriff.  Bed.  bk.  x,  ch.  ill)- 


CREED 

!.  A  writer  andn  the  nude  of  AogutlDg  pretenda 
to  t«U  na  what  articla  wu  contrilinted  by  each  apo»- 
tle.  Peter  uid,  "  I  believe  in  Qod,  the  Father  A' 
mighty."  John,  "  Maker  of  heavon  and  earth. 
Jaraei,  "And  in  Jeans  Chrlat,  bli  only  Soil  onr 
Lord."  Andrew,  "  Who  wai  eoncalved  bj  the  Holy 
Gboat,  bora  of  the  Virgin  Marj-."  I^ip,  "  SnSbied 
nnder  Pontine  Pilate  i  wae  cnicifled,  dsjid,  and  bur- 
lad."  Thomaa,  "  He  deacanded  into  bell ;  the  third 
day  be  roae  again  from  tbe  deail."  Birtholotnew, 
"He  ascended  into  heaven,  and  litteth  at  tbe  right 
hand  of  God  the  Father  Almighty."  HaUbew,  "From 
thence  ha  shall  come  to  Judge  the  quick  and  tbe  d 
James,  the  son  of  Alpbains,  added,  "I  believe  in  the 
Holy  Ghoat ;  the  holy  Catholic  Church."  Simon  Za- 
lotcr,  "The  commnnlon  of  taints,  Ihe  forgivene 
■ina."  Jade,  the  lirotherof  Jamas,  "The  raanrrection 
ofthebody,"  Matthias,  "Tbe  life  everUsting." 
accordingly  tbe  creed  wu  called  Sjmiahnn  ApoitoS- 
mm,  asbeiiig  made  up  ofaenlences  Jointly  contributed 
after  the  manner  of  persona  paying  each  their  shot  or 
■hare  of  tbe  reckoning.  Bat  this  derivation  obviously 
confounds  the  word  ou/i/3oAov  with  mriiffoXii. 

S.  It  is  now  generally  admitteil  that  tbe  creed,  in  its 
present  form  nt  least,  ia  not  of  later  data  than  the 
fourth  canCury.  a.  Neither  Lnke  in  the  Acta  of  the 
Apostles,  nor  any  ecclesiealicitl  writer  befbrs  the  fifth 
century,  makes  mention  of  an  assembly  of  the  apos- 
tles for  Ihe  purpose  of  farming  a  creed,  h.  The  fathei 
of  the  flnt  three  centuriee,  in  disputing  against  hen 
tics,  endeavor  to  prove  that  the  doclrinea  contained  in 
this  creed  were  taught  by  the  apostlea,  but  they  i 
pretend  that  the  apostles  composed  it.  e.  Had  the 
apostles  composed  it,  it  would  have  been  the  same  In 
all  churches  and  ages.  But  It  is  quits  otherwise. 
Nany  creeds  were  extant  in  the  fourth  oentnry,  which 
differed  not  only  in  the  tenns,  but  also  in  the  articles : 
soipe  omitted  in  one  were  inserted  in  others,  snch  ai 
the  "descent  Into  belt,"  Che  "communion  of  asinls," 
and  "tbe  life  everlaatliig." 

4.  It  is  almost  imposaible  now  to  aacertaln  tbe  a>t- 
thoTshlp  of  thia  creed ;  Its  antiquity  may,  however,  be 
inferred  Ih>m  the  fact  that  the  whole,  us  it  now  stands, 
with  the  exception  of  "he  descended  into  hell,"  may 
be  fuund  in  the  works  of  Ambrose  and  Ruftnas,  the 
former  of  whom  Souriahed  In  the  third  centarj'  and 
tbe  latter  In  the  fourth. 

5.  In  early  age*  it  was  not  admitted  into  the  lit- 
urgy, though  catechumens  were  required  to  subacrlbe 
it  before  they  were  admitted  to  baptiun.  The  use  of 
It  In  public  worship  was  first  instituted  in  the  Greek 
Church  at  Antioch,  and  introduced  into  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  eleventh  centur}-,  whence  It  passed  into 
the  service  of  the  Church  of  Enj^tand  at  tbe  Reforma- 
tion. "  The  Westminster  divines  subjoined  it,  along 
wi:h  Che  Ten  Commandments  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
to  their  catechisms,  accompanied  with  thia  explana- 
tory statement :  '  It  is  here  annexed,  not  aa  though  Ic 
wera  composed  by  the  apostles,  or  ought  to  be  esteem- 
ed as  canonical  Scriptures,  as  the  Ten  Commandments 
and  Lord's  Prayer,  but  because  it  Is  abrief  aum  of  the 
Christbin  faith,  agreeable  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  an- 
ciendy  received  In  (he  churches  of  Christ'  "  (Cunning- 
ham, Buloricai  Theology,  1,  chap,  ili,  80).  It  flnda  its 
place,  with  the  Decalogue  and  the  Lord'a  Prayer,  In 
thecatechismaortha  Methodist  Episcopal  and  Preahy- 
tsrian  ehurchea.  It  ia  need  in  the  baptismal  confes- 
sion in  the  Greek,  Roman,  English,  Reformed.  Luther- 
an, Methodist  Episcopal,  and  ProCestant  Episcopal 
churches.  The  pbrase  "  he  doKcended  into  hell"  is 
omiCled  In  some  forms  of  the  creed  used  in  Protestant 
churches;  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  it  is  op- 1 
tional  to  use  it  or  "  he  went  Into  the  place  of  depirted 
spirits."  It  is  to  be  noted  that  no  other  creed  than 
the  Apostles'  Is  used  in  baptism  1>y  any  Cbarch. 

6.  Many  histories  and  expoelthins  of  tbe  Apostles' 
Creed  have  been  written;  the  most  valusbleare,  King, 


10  CREED 

BiMorg  d/  Us  ApeMlrt  Cnrd  (Land.  ITOt,  Svo) ;  I 
row,  ExpontuKi  of  tite  Crrtd,  Worka,  vol.  ti  j  ~ 
Eupmlion  of  Ihe  Crad  (many  editions;  the  u 
Dobson's,  Land.  1S4D,  8vo,  with  an  appendix  ci 
ing  tbe  principal  Greek  and  Latin  creeda;  and  DBF- 
ton's,  Oifoni,  1847,  3  vols.  8va) ;  Wltsina,  Da  fyssAa.'D 
ApeOoliea  (Basil.  17E9,  4to :  tranabled  by  Frucr, 
Glasgow,  IHi'8,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Lcighton,  Worit,  vol.  IL 
A  thorough  investigation  on  the  Roman  Catholic  nda 
nuv  be  found  in  Mevrra,  De  Sfibeli  AfoilolUi  litmlo, 
orpine,  etc.  (Trevlr.  1849,  8vo).  Dr.  Nevin  fumlshtt 
an  able  diacaaaion  in  the  ifercatbtayk  Arvuae,  1849^ 
three  articles ;  also  1868,  p.  SBb  sq.  'lliere  fa  an  elsb- 
oraU  article  by  Prooddt,  /Vincrtoa  Rtaem,  Ootobv, 
1862,  whii:h  opposes  not  only  tbe  Tridentioc  the- 
ory of  the  origin  of  tbe  creed,  but  also  the  niodezn 
mystico-phiiosophical  theory  of  MOhlcr  and  Newntui. 
Apart  trim  these  qneatlona,  nearly  all  tbe  chorclwa  of 
Christendom  agree  In  reverence  for  this  ancient  Cor- 
mula  aa  a  beautiful,  tme,  and  comprehenrive  ctate- 
menC  of  tha  great  nindimenUl  facta  of  Chriatiui^  ; 
admitting,  with  Dr.  ScbafT,  that,  though  it  ia  "not  in 
fonn  the  favdnction  ofthe  aposties,  it  is  afhltfafut  coni- 
pend  of  their  docCrinea,  and  comprehends  tbe  leading 
articles  of  the  lailli  in  the  triune  God  and  his  revclk- 
tion,  trom  the  creation  to  tho  life  everlasting,  in  sub. 
lime  simplicity,  in  unsDrpaaaaLle  brevity,  in  tho  nMHt 
beautiful  order,  and  with  liturgical  scdemnily ;  and  to 
this  day  It  is  tbe  common  bond  of  Gniek,  Roman,  and 
evangelical  Christendom"  (Sch^ft, Hi^riiBf  ike Api»- 
lolie  Oatrdt,  %  143,  p.  6G8).  See  also  Hind*,  Ear^ 
Chritliaaity,  ft.  lii,  ch.  vi ;  ProcMr,  On  Commam  Pn^ 
er,  p.  227 !  Harvey,  The  lliil.  fir.,  of  Ihe  Tkrtt  Crtedt; 
Queticke,  A  Ug.  dritU.  SymMit,  $  12 ;  Bingham,  Ori^ 
Etxlet.  bk.  3,  ch.  iii ;  Gocde,  Ditine  Rule  rfFaUi  and 
Pracliet,  ch.  iv  ;  Cunningham,  lliitoncal  IhaJotgi,  eb. 
iii ;  Peck,  Dicitie  Rale  of  Fiiiih  tad  Pracliet,  207  aq. ; 
PnneaiM  RtvUu,  Oct,  1852,  art.  iv;  Shedd,  Hutary 
of  Dotiriua,  hk.  vii,  ch.  1,  §  3;  Hartenaon,  Zkgitntii» 
(Clark's  Library),  §  28. 

CKEED,  Athak  ASIAH,  one  of  tbe  Urns  gnat  creeds. 
It  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  have  been  drawn  np  bj 
Atbanasins  in  the  fonrth  century.  It  is  also  nllad, 
from  ite  opening  words,  the  rymbol  Qfuamjiit  vnA. 
It  Is  aa  foUoirs  ■. 

BumMum  AlhtmiaH. 


slbirtlcsnTadsm.    I 


Deura  In  TiinlU 


us  Pater,  iDCrealns  FIIIib, 


.Sleraut  Psler,  i 


Jibe  uirod,bfr 


::rs'; 


ttieOuUieadiifthFFailwT, 
of  Ihe  8oo,  ud  of  the  Ut*j 


_  fan  •.laiffiitj.  ud  tlv 
Hoi;  Ghou  slmljili'y.  And 
ret  tktn  an  bm  ihm  afr- 


B  DOB  Im  Domlai,  ti  an 


UHfiaafl  pnjhLbfmar. 
B«    grnltnm.     KUln 


Trinlwlc  Dlhil 


Ic  nihil  iirlDi  ml  1 


dkMun  nil  al  I'nIUu  In  Trli 


lu'nilchlyr,  bnl  OM   lUniliiblT. 

n.  k  Odd,  ud  tba  Holj  Oh»l  1> 
D-^GoL  And  Jtrl  IbBtl  &rv  ool 
D-;iht«  OodF,  but  DIH  God.  Bo 
utillktirlM  Ihg  Filher  li  Urd, 
t-|lhe  S..n  Lm^  tod  Ui*  Hair 
■  GboM    Uird.     And   jct   nol 

kDDvlsdga  rTtfy    p«rii»   by 

'-'mHlf  la  be  Goil  ■iid  Lord. 

■n   wa  forUddcn   by  tha 

UiuUc  rellgloii  w  uy  Uien 

Ihnie  Cod.  lod  Ihrao  t^rd^ 

ia  Sua  i>  of  Ihe  Piiliar  nlDoa ; 

gtuai.  Tlia  Hidj  Qluutl"' 
Ihe  Puhar  ind  nf  Iha  Hon; 
Ddtber  midc.  dot  cwWd,  nor 
bflgijilaD,  but  pnneadlng.    So 


I  ddellur  cndal. 


•DbiMaui.    Ajwlla  lUrl  > 


inneDdlL  nd  Infaiw,  tank  dli 
411  ■'I  ras'rw,  KdM  >d  dcitar 
Inda  TPntiiniA  «at  judlcAra  rl 


JcDl  rrmt  In  pmdivks  el 


.  Ona.  no.  ^  oonTtr- 
rihgliodlHHdlDtonah. 
bat  bv  tkUiiK  of  Iha  mohnod 
iDtoGed.    On-altogalher.noi 


ID  the  Titbt  hand  of  U 
ha-,   OnJ  AlmlBtll)'. 


aTUlDla<<raiiutlni 


1.  Thit  Ihii  creed  una  not  roinpotrd  b7  AtfaansalDa 
te  dur  on  tfao  rollowing,  aniontf  otiwr  gmanda:  (a) 
AtbaTuwiiu  himteirdoes  not  mention  it,  nor  da  any  of 
bli  contempoririM,  or  of  tba  writer*  of  the  following 
c«Dtui7,ucribaittohim.  (ft)Tliocont>ntaFhnwlliatlt 
otnid  not  bare  bmn  writlan  bj  him.   The  nonl  ufioau- 


.     B  UnlLji  In  Trt  . 
a  Trinllr  Id  L'nll)'  la 


la  ChrM,  Iha  pi 

'    vlmxn.   0< 

of  Ihe  Fall 


CKEED 


which,  in  the  time  ol 
waa  tha  token  of  diatincthtn  between  IheCathoUca  » 
the  Ariaiu,  doe*  not  occor  in  the  creed,  an  nmlulon 
which  would  lie  Inenplicalila  in  any  confeiBion  couh 
poeed  by  thli  father.  Itfoplainly  rcJecU  the  crronof 
the  Ntstorlana,  Eutychlani,  end  MunotbeUtci,  that  It 
mnathave  beeo  written  after  the  prom ulga lion  ofthow 
bereiler.  The  doctrine  concemiDg  the  procmlrn  ef  the 
Holy  Spirit  from  tba  Son  aa  well  ag  rrom  tlie  Father, 
dlatincUy  asurted  in  thla  creed,  li  one  «Iiich,  however 
Bcriptarnl  und  true,  wsi  not  hold  I  y  the  DiftCTU  Chutcb 
in  tba  time  or  Athauarlu''.  (c)  The  tl<^  ia  that  of  m 
Latin,  not  of  a  Greek  wpler. 

£.  Vuseiaa,  Quetnel,  sod  otbcn  aacribe  thia  creed  to 
Vigijina,  l>iihop  of  Thapaoa,  in  AfHca ;  otbcra  to  Viji. 
cenUua  of  Lerini  (Sth  centor}').  and  apsin  olhrra  to 
Venantiui  Fortunstm,  a  French  blib<  p  of  the  Gth  cen- 
tury. WalCTlatid  aacribei  it  lo  Hilary,  Li«ho[>orAriea, 
fbr  the  foUowinK  reaaonn ;  (I.)  BecaUBe  Uonoratua  of 
Haraelllaa,  tbo  writer  of  bia  life,  telle  ni  that  bo  com- 
porcd  an  "  Exposition  of  the  Creed,"  a  more  proper 
title  for  the  Athsnuian  than  that  of"  Creed"  rimply, 
which  It  now  beura.  (i.)  Hilary  wts  a  great  admirer 
and  fullower  of  AuKurline,  and  the  uhole  compoaitioa 
of  thia  creed  ia  In  a  manner  on  AnguMine'e  plan,  both 
with  rerpcct  to  the  Trinity  and  incarnation.  (3.)  It 
la  agreeable  to  the  atyle  of  Hilar]-,  aa  far  aa  we  can 
Judge  from  the  liule  that  [a  left  of  his  woika.  The 
proofi  in  aupport  of  hli  opinion  are  (kr  from  clear  and 
■atiafactory, 

t.  About  A.D.GTOtbl*  creed  became  ao  faini)uaa*t« 
be  the  aniiject  of  comment ;  but,  for  teveral  year*  af- 
ter. It  bad  not  acquirwl  the  title  of  Athanasian,  but 
was  aimply  atyfcd  "  the  Catholic  faitli."  The  title  of 
Athanaaian  probably  became  attctbcd  to  it  during  the 
Arian  controver*;  in  Gaul,  ua  being  an  exporition  of 
the  eyatem  of  doctrine  which  wca  ori>oaed  to  the  Arian 
ayitem,  and  which  woald  naturally  Lo  called  Athana- 
^n  from  ila  cbkf  propounder.  Har.y  expoaiton  of 
this  creed,  and  evcnMthopa  oflbe  Church  of  Encland, 
while  holding  the  doctrine  of  the  Athanaaian  Creed 
and  approving  ila  lenna,  atrongly  object  to  Ihe  damna- 
tory claueee.  Arcbbithop  TllloCion,  blabop  Taylor, 
and  biahop  Tomllno,  all  concur  in  regret  that  trm- 
tiona  of  ao  pcroraplory  a  nature  (referring  lo  the  dam- 
natory clauurs),  uncxpUiDtd  and  unqualified,  abouM 
have  been  uaed  In  any  haman  compoaition.  On  the 
other  hand,  "  AVatcrland  (Crilic'I  tlittorg  o/lUt  Alia- 
muiaHOerd;  llVlt,  Oxfnrd.lMn,  vol.  iii)  caya:  'Th» 
uac  of  It  will  hardly  1«  tbonght  :uperlluous  ao  long  u 
thiro  ani  any  Ariunr,  Photinianp,  Sabelliana,  Hice- 
dunionp,  Apotlinnriana,  Ncsturiaiia,  or  Eulycbiana  In 
thefoportr.'  (See  artlcica  underlbcsc  beadg.)  With 
reapoct  to  what  are  called  the  '  damnatory  clausva'  (the 
clauaea,  namely,  'Which  fsilb  except  ever}'  one  do 
keep  wbole  and  undofilcd.  without  dou1:t  bo  shall  per- 
ish everlastingly;'  and, 'This  is  the  C..thulic  fiitb, 
which  except  a  man  lielicvo  faithfully,  be  c:mDOt  be 
Kavcd),  the  rhuTchea  wblch  adopt  tbc  erred  do  not 
iniprccata  curFcs,  but  to  declare,  c* 


logici 


I  »cqu( 


e  of  a 


i,thatthiira  wbodonot  boliltbc  true  faith  are 
in  danger  of  pcristiin); ;  aa  it  is  aold,  Mark  xvl,  10,  'He 
that  helievcth  not  (hall  be  damned.'  Thoao  claoael 
ara  atao  held  to  apply  to  those  who  deny  the  i-ulittanca 
of  the  Christian  religion,  and  not  infallibly  to  every 
person  who  may  lie  in  error  as  to  any  one  psriiciilar 
article.  A  rubric  lo  thia  effect  waa  drawn  up  by  iba 
commissioners  appointed  In  ICNO  for  the  review  of  Ihe 
English  .Common  IVayi^lnok,  I  ut  none  of  Ibeir  *ug- 
geationa  took  cffecL  Compare  nUo  the  18tb  Article  of 
the  Chureh  of  Fjiul  :oA  with  tbca^  clauses"  (Chambers, 
a.  v.).  The  creed  is  reeeiveil  In  the  Greek,  Koman,  and 
English  ehurcho*,  l.ut  ia  left  out  of  the  aen-ice  of  the 
Protestant  Epiacopsl  Chanh  in  America.  The  Cun- 
vcntlon  of  1TH5  parsed  an  act  expun^ng  both  the  Atb> 
and  Micene  crecda  from  the  proposed  Doob  of 


CREED 

Common  Prater ;  bnt  whMi  tht  haA  wu  pUc«d  bo- 
fora  tbe  Enjjlitb  Mshopa  tbdy  nqoired  tbe  rettontioa 
of  both  creed]  before  they  would  coDMBt  (o  cODUcnte 
the  AmericoD  biHhopH.  Tba  mrchtiiihopi  of  CftnMr- 
bory  and  York,  in  tbe  spring  ot  178G,  wrote  lo  tb 
Church  committee  to  that  effect,  whereupon  inothe 
Convention  w«  held  in  Wilmington,  Deljiwiro,  Octo- 
ber, 1786.  Blihop  White  reUtea  thst  "tbe  Niceoe 
Creed  was  restored  without  debate  or  difficulty,  bat 
iSe  Conirra/ion  vAoUy  reflaed  Co  miort  Iht  Atluuiatiim 
Crttd,"  ftad  thit  tbe  memben  rn>m  New  Ea,(land  and 
bishop  Swbniy  ]-ielded  th^r  i-ouMot  to  luvo  it 
wilb  great  reluctance.  Had  it  been  retained,  bishop 
White  declared  bis  intention  never  to  resd  it  In  hi> 
church  {Ckritli'm  Tina,  March,  1866).  Many  : 
Chnrch  of  England  desire  its  omission  from  their  bouli ; 
tboa  the  CAumA  of  EngUmi  Qtuu^eilf  (k^\,W 
ID);  "TbaAthamisUn  Creed  Ands  fsw  real  lovers  as 
a  portion  of  a  public  aervlce.  No  one  supposes  that  ii 
waa  the  work  of  Athaoasluii  no  one  Is  now,  at  leasl 
Huang  as,  in  *jiv  danger  ftom  tba  arton  it  denounce* : 
no  one  believes  in  bis  heart  tbe  damnatory  clauses; 
for  no  one  believes  thatal!  the  memlierB  of  the  Greek 
Church  aie  nicossarily  consigned  to  evetlastlDg 
nation :  and  thus,  every  time  tbe  creed  is  read,  tbe  of- 
ficiatinij  minister  baa  solemnlv  to  enunchite  what  nei- 
ther be  nor  any  of  his  hearers' believe.  It  if  true  Uiat, 
\<y  distinguishing  between  the  creed  itself  and  the 
damnilory  clauses  be  may  save  himself,  mentally, 
tto.n  declaring  a  falsehood ;  hut  surely  lliis  Is  reason 
mougb  for  tbe  removal  of  tbe  creed  Oom  oar  Litorgy. 
We  have  had  too  much  in  our  Church  of  mental  reser- 
vations.  So  far  as  tba  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  k  con- 
corned,  it  is  abandantly  insisted  on  in  the  Apostlea' 
and  Nicene  Creods." 

See,  besides  tbe  eutboritiea  already  cited,  Bhigium, 
Orig.  Eftkt.  bk.  t,  ch.  Iv,  §  18 ;  Mosbeim,  Ck.  HiH. 
i,  HO ;  VoHlUB,  Diu.  de  SyvAola  AOtamuiano  (0pp. 
vi,61G);  Palmer,  Oriff.  iiftirj.  1.  234 :  Radcliffi.-irto- 
vmoA  Crttd  iUutlntUd  (Land.  18M.  Svo);  Schaff.  in 
Aner.  Pntb.  Ren.  1866,  Sftl  sq, ;  also  in  bis  IM.  "flht 
Ckritl.  C*iire*,  §  IBS;  Fletcher,  Workt  (N.  Y.  od.),  iii, 
SIO ;  Browne,  On  Uu  Tkirtf^iiM  Artitia,  art.  viil,  j  t. 

CREED,  NiCEME  A!tl)  CoiraTAnnHOFOLiTAX,  a 
creed  adapted  at  tbe  Council  of  Nlco  A.D.  826,  and 
enlarged  at  the  second  Coo ncil  ufConstuntinople  A.D. 
S61,  liy  which  the  fUth  of  the  Charcb  with  regud  lo 
the  pi^rson  of  Christ  was  set  forth  in  opposition  to  cer- 
tabi  errors,  especially  Arianism.  3ea  Aridb;  CaRiK- 
roLooT;  Nick,  Couscii,  or. 

1.  The  tiicnt  Crttd  "is  found,  together  with  tbe 
elmilar  Euseblan  (Palestinian)  confession,  in  the  well- 
known  E^HBtle  of  Eusebius  of  Cassrea  to  Us  diocese 
(Epiti.  ad  ma  panxUa  kominti},  which  is  ifina  by 
Atbonasiaa  at  the  close  of  his  KpM.  dt  decrrtit  Ifim- 
m  Syoodi  (Opera,  i,  283,  and  In  Thilo's  Bibl.  i,  84  »q.); 
■bo,  though  with  some  variations,  by  Tbeodoiet,  H.  K. 
i,  12,  and  Socrates,  B.  E.  i,  8.  Sozomen  omitted  it 
(//.  E.  i,  10)  from  respect  to  the  dudplina  areani.  The 
Symbolum  Nicienum  la  given  also,  with  uneatendal 

Jovian,  c.'s,  and  by  Gelaalus  Cyiic,  Lib.  Sgnod.  de 
Gmeil.  ffiemo,  ii,  85.  On  the  unimportant  variationa 
in  tbe  text,  comp.  Welch,  BiH  SgiAol.  p.  75  sq.,  and 
A.  Hahn.  Bibliolitt  der  Sgmiolt  a^!)-  Comp.  oiao 
the  parallel  creeds  of  the  Nicene  age  in  tbe  Appendix 
to  Pearson's  Erpoiilion  of  lie  Crred."  (Schaff,  Bit. 
ofHtChHitinnCkirci,ili9t  see  also  Domer,  itnoi* 
ifChriH  [Edinb.  Iraoal.],  ii,  247,  497.) 

We  give  the  Nicene  Creed,  Greek  and  English,  in 
parallel  columns,  plie  parts  omitted  at  CoostantinO' 
pie  are  pot  in  brackets  in  the  Greek  text.] 

flmrt  I  f^liaK 

mmiw   '■;    I'-    e<i>.)    We  believe  In  me  God  Ibe 

opa.S.  „  .«i  ^d|Kiw>«n-IMa|n  vlalMo  snd  IntMble; 
ie>'  iiu  a.t  'va  ■ip.oir  'Incur.,  and  in  gee  tord  Join  rhri«t, 
X*KiivTi>  bUi  Ti>«e<o*,Tti-'the  Son  of  God  lHf«WD  otibe 


!S;I,S.) 


It  was  established  by  this  creed  that  the  Son  ia  €f 
tba  same  essence  Otioovaiot)  with  the  Father. 

2,  Tie  Niamo-Cotulan/imopoS/an  Crred.— Tbr  doo. 
trine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  as  settled  at  Nice  (A.D. 
3So).  was  disputed,  especially  as  to  tbe  Dae  of  tiie  I(tto 
ijfiaavirioc  by  tbe  Semi-Arian*  and  Eniebians  (sea 
Glassier,  Ch.  Biitary,  i,  %  81,  82).  Morwver,  not  only 
the  Seml.Arian>,  but  even  many  of  the  Nlcenians  ((tA- 
lowers  of  the  Nicene  Creed),  held,  with  tbe  Ariana, 
and  especiallr  the  Uacedonians  (q.  v.),  that  the  Holy 
SidrltwascraatedhytheFather(Giese1er,l.c.>.    After 

tfTectual  attempts,  at  acverai  synods,  to  agree  upon 

iirmula,  the  Niceae  symbol,  witii  certain  odditiana, 

is  adopted  at  tba  second  (Ecumenical  Conadl  of  Coo. 

ntinople  A.D.  381.  The  creed  thus  adopted  if.  giT- 
lielow,  in  Greek  and  English  <tba  form  ia  the  Eng. 

ta  Piayer-book  differing  somewhat  fmn  the  Gruk). 
The  ports  added  at  Constantinople  are  put  In  bracket*. 


Aj^mbohnn  .Vi 


VtUUSK 


,  tto  eal]r.teoUaB  Bm 
of  Ood,  bsgtttan  ef  kis  Father 
CbeKn  all  voHd^;  |1>ad  gf 
r™(),  l.lflit  of  DkIk,  very 
God  ofreryGAt,  tii9JtleD.iHt 


-llolr   Gho>l    of  the    Vlnta 
u — ,     ...,   ,^   ,,,J,  ,„„^ 

nclAed  al»  for  ■• 
lai  POale,]  he  eaf^ 
ubori^;  ■n'ltlia 

amiti'lth  ^rvtojadgoboah 


CREED  6( 

The  words  "ind  tnm  Dm  Bon"  (Lnt  "Blioqna") 
vcre  Dot  added  till  tba  fifth  cantuT^.  Tbc  lint  cap- 
ita of  Ihia  crud,  in  ths  CouDcU  ot  ConatanUdoplr,  ind 
Uw  coDDcil*  of  Epbesoa  and  Ctulcedon,  luvB  onlf  Ibe 
«oidi  "  prooeediog  from  ttae  Fstber,"  nithout  any 
aMDlion  of  the  Son.  Tbii  tdditioa  to  tbs  cread  ofthe 
Weatem  Chnrch  Snt  appaan  Id  (Iw  Beta  oT  an  auem- 
hl;'  of  liiihop*  at  Bntga  (412) — "  prDcedontem  a  Patce 
et  Verbo"  (Concil.  Bracar.  I;  Hanai,  It,  SOT)— and  in 
'  tbe  tbird  Council  of  Toledo  (fISSX  accoiding  to  (oma 
copies  (Uui»i,  ix.  981).  Habillon  {Da  Ul.  Gaiik.  i,  8) 
■aji  of  it,  "quod  aCaroll  M.  tempore  exordium  dadC' 
It  wu  tfaen  (circ.  800)  of  old  itandlng.  V«n-  proba- 
bly it  is  dne  to  the  Spanlah  Church  in  the  ni'iddte  of 
the  filUi  century  (Harrej,  Hal.  af  iht  Crttdt,  p.  4GS 
•q. ;  HaTdwick,  Middle  Agt,  p.  61,  n.  4;  Browne,  Ei- 
poiilvta  of  tilt  Arlklri,  p.  lUsq.). — Procter,  Oi  Cam- 
mom  Praytr,  p.  234.     Sm  FlI.KNiCB. 

AmoDjf  tbfl  SjTiac  USS-  dUcoy«red  Bome  yean  ago, 
now  ill  tlie  Britleb  Mu«eum,  Is  a  veraioo  of  iha  origiu- 
al  Nlcene  Creed,  and  also  ths  NIcieuo-ConxtiialiDOpol- 
itin,  of  which  Mr.  B.  Harris  Cowper  has  printed  trails 
lations.  The  diSbrences  between  this  Syrian  version 
•od  the  tecelTsd  text  of  both  creeds  are  veiy  slight. 

Tbo  14icene  Creed  is  beld  to  be  of  authority  in  the 
Gteek  and  Roman  churches,  and  is  admitted  by  moat 
Proteetaut  churchce.  It  was  adopted,  with  Ihe  Apos- 
tles' and  Athanaaian  creeds,  by  the  Frotestanls  after 
the  ReformatloD,  and  waa  Introduced  into  the  t'ormtiia 
Camcor^a  (q.  v.)  of  the  Lathemna  and  into  the  Ens- 
liah  Prayer-booh.  On  its  valoe  In  theology,  see  Shedd, 
/J^itor?  n//>oc(riiKa,  bk.  til,  ch.  ilii  Scha  ff,  Airtoij  o/ 
tie  CkriMliim  Ctua-ck,  $  I37-1S1 ;  Cnunlnghain,  Ilittor^ 
kol  Tieologg,  cb.  U ;  Dorner,  Dodrmt  ofikt  Pimm  t.f 
Gb%«,  div.  i,  vol.  ii :  T!ltt:aitT,  Hulory  if  Dogmai  Qlj- 
land's  tranii.),  i,  291-3M;  ijlanlay,  EaUtrn  Ckitnk 
(Lect.  ir.);  Browne,  0«  (jI<  SO  .^r^ic/et.  228  sq. :  Wa- 
terUnd,  Worlu,  vol.  Ilh  Bull,  Drfniio  Fidri  Nicrvt 
(transL  in  Lib.  of  Angto-Catbolic  Theology,  Oxford. 
1S5],  2  vdIk.).  See  also  Forbes,  Slurl  ErjtlaKntioK  <•/ 
(ie  Xiane  Creed  (Und.  1«M) ;  Palmer,  OiigiatM  Lilur- 
fiea,a,6S;  Procter,  (M  Omnwn /Voyrr,  p.  2S4 ;  Har- 
▼ay.Oa  rjl<  tiree  Crrrdit  Harrej-,  Eccla.  Anglie.  Vm- 
dec,  i,  668  sq.i  Bingham,  Orig.  Ecettt.  hk.  X,  ch.  It; 
^■Bir.  QmtH.  CmtA  Bttnem,  April,  1868,  art.  T. 

CREED    or   Cbalceimx.       Sea    CHAt.cKi>on  ; 

CHBIBTOLOOr. 

CREED  or  Popm  Pim  17,  ■  aninniBry  of  the  doc- 
trines  of  the  Boman  Church  as  contained  in  the  canons 
and  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  It  was  lasaed  In 
the  form  of  n  buU  in  December,  1604,  by  pope  Plna 
IV,  and  naually  bean  hia  name.  All  blsbopa,  eccle- 
siastics, and  teacben  In  tbe  Romiah  Chureh,  as  well 
Bi  all  converts  tmm  Protastantlsm.  publicly  profiaa 
•saant  to  it.  The  original  may  l^s  fbond  In  Rlcbter, 
Couaet  tl  decrtla  C<mnl.  Tndenl.  p.  674,  hi  Cramp, 
Tat-ioBt  ofPoptry.  p.  641;  and  in  KUiolt,  Delm.  «/ 
ttomomnt,  ch.  1.  We  aubjirin  an  English  veraion.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  fonner  part  is  the  Nicene  Craad, 
(lightly  altered. 

I,  A  B, ,  bclhre  and  pnfku  with  a 

In  OOP  God  Ihe  F.lher  Almlghtf,  Ma] 
•B<1'f>llllilnE>  Tibbie  ipdliiTlilblr^  .Dui 
<.'hrl.ll.  tba  mlj-brnDtlai  Bun  cif  Gnd,  Imrn  i 
II  woTldi,  0«]  of  Uod,  Ughl  of  l.lghl. 


CREIGHTON 


orraitii 


0«d.  brc^un,  Dol  m 


bcly  prwh- 


nuu  \i  oOtorad  to  Uod  a  tjne,  pr 
fur  tlie  living  ud  tba  dead ;  ana 
ment  oT  the  eudiafffft  theie  la  Eni 
the  bods'  "ud  blwd,  tc«Mherwilh 
Lord  jHuii-hiia;  ■    - 


defined  and  drdnredtn  the  holy  L „ 

'  JnatUcalkm.    I  pnAiia  IlkewtH  that  In  tba 

.ri^.. --'proplHaloiyaacrM™ 

lhem'<lh»lrieara- 
I7,  and  fntafUotUlly 

UillialleL'hurEhall-lraiiiubi'tuiUclmi.  1  tonJw,  aba,  that 
under  eltbsr  kind  ahoa.  •hole  and  rnllre.  uhrlil  and  a  true 
MCnDiFUt  la  recelTed.  I  cooaUDtlr  liuld  ttaat  l^an  li  a  pnr- 
gniory,  and  tiial  Die  anila  drialned  therein  an  liplpnl  bf  Ibe 


Ilher  of  God  ev-ar  Vlrvln,  and  *1u  of  Ibe  other 
be  bad  and  reulHd,  aud  Ihal  due  Ih'Dot  and 
e  to  be  glvrn  lo  Ihem.    I  »J«  r.fflriB  Ihal  lbs 

o(rcatlKilkatida|»laUc  Knman  ChuiA, 
.  .nr%  of  all  chuTch'a ;  and  I  pronil*e  aad 
rlrue  obr^lenee  to  the  Honan  blahop.  (be  anavaaer  ofBI. 
r.  prl:  ea  rf  the  apoattta  and  Tlear  of  Jeaua  <  bilit.  t  atao 
»  and  nndonbledlr  ncalva  all  olher  Ihlnia  dellrend, 

and  paitliniUrly  br  >be  holy  Coiinel]  o( Trent:  and  llkt- 


ndemned.  lejeet- 


an,  bj  Tlrtue  of  my  oOoe.    Bo  help  ma  God,  ud  >h«*  bcdj 

(iD-pel-o(Ool,      ADHD. 

This  creed  is  also  hnown  ander  the  name  of  the 
Pnfiiie  Fidti  rWdairini,  or  Forma  Pnfrm<m.u  fidei 
CalMica.  See  Cramp,  Teitiaot  '•/Pepijy,  p.  480; 
Buckley,  OuUiy  <■/  ComicU  of  Tnm.  p.  BIB;  Elliott, 
ZWi'Mofua  e/Jtomamtw,  bk.  i,  ch.  i;  Streilwolf  ond 
Kloner,  Lib.  Sfmi.  ttxietia  Calh.  (06t«.  1846,  t.  Ii> 

Craak  (loXmir.  botem,  as  elsewhere  rendered)^  a 
bof  or  inlet  from  the  sea  (to  Joaephua,  Am.  iij,  ],  6), 
e.  g.  St.  Paul's  Bay,  on  the  island  of  Ualta  (q.  v.), 
where  tbe  apoetle  was  irrecked  (Acta  xxvii,  £9), 

Crmplog  Tin:to  (^^1^,  tit'rtU,  any  luarmmg 
creature!  <"  ^"^i  t'lrut,  any  hnc^dinff  anlma); 
jpwinhr)  is  used  in  ScHptutii  to  deMgnale  not  only 
itjitilrM,  properly  so  railed,  bnt  also  insects,  aquatia 
creatures,  and  even   tbe  imallcr  mammalia.     See 

Crsishtoti,  William,  D.D.,  was  bom  In  New 
York.  FeU  2!d,  17SB.  Ha  was  edncated  in  ColumbU 
College,  gradoating  In  the  claas  of  1812,  and  received 
his  doctor's  degree  In  1830.  Be  was  ordained  deacon 
in  181G,  and  aeon  after  was  employed  in  Grace  Church, 
N.Y.,asBnaBalBtanttotbeReT.  Dr.Bowen.  In  1616 
he  was  called  to  the  rectorship  of  St.  Mark's  Church, 
in  tbe  Bowery,  of  which  he  remained  rector  until  1886, 
when  he  became  rector  of  Zton  Church,  Greenborgh, 
and  reugned  the  same  in  1846.  In  Hie  year  1886  the 
Pariah  of  Christ  Church,  Tarrytown,  was  organjied, 
of  which  he  waa  choMn  factor,  and  remained  ro  up  In 
tbe  time  of  Us  death,  a  period  of  twenty-nine  yeant 


aveiy  bi 


,mg  JOB 


tion  of  the  Rev.  DT.WRinwTigbt  in  IS&S.  At  tha  Bn 
election  of  ■  provisional  blabop  of  Sett  York  b«  wi 
cboaen  to  IhtX  h%b  office,  but,  from  viLrioai  couiden 
thou,  dccl'iDed  its  acceptance.  He  vai  >1»  chm 
ptwident  of  the  House  of  Cleiicil  and  Lty  DepBtiea 
of  the  General  CoDToatiiins  of  llUe,  leSG,  sad  I^GS 
respectlTely.  He  had  previooslj  aerred  the  Church 
in  different  stations  oftrust,  as  tnemlwi  of  the  B'  ' 
ing  Committee,  chainnnn  of  the  Missionary  Con 
tse,etc.  In  18^0-60  the  Church  of  St.  Muy'e,  Beech- 
wood,  was  founded  by  him  and  his  um-in-laWi  the  Bev. 
Edward  N.  Mead.  D.D.  i  the  princijul  part  of  Iho  cost 
for  the  erection  and  groaud  beinK  contributed  by  them, 
and  divine  service  being  maintained  by  them  in  It,  a> 
a  tree  church,  to  the  pri^siint  time.  Dr.  Creighton 
cUed  at  Tarr3'town,  April  SSd,  186S — Chunk  Sttitw, 
July,  1865. 

Crell  (CHELUca),  JohaimeB.  a  Soclnian  diTtne, 
whose  works  form  pjrt  of  the  Bibliotheci  i'ratrum 
Polonorum,  wu  bom  in  Franconia  in  1590,  and  stud- 
ied at  KaremherK  and  olfaer  German  univenities. 
Originallf  a  Lutheran,  lie  afterwards  adopted  the 
prindplei  of  Socinus,  and  went  to  Ctjcow,  in  Poland, 
in  1611,  where  he  became  a  preacher;  he  then  waa  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek,  and  afterwards  rector  of 
the  ODlTenit;  at  that  pbce-  Ha  died  in  1638.  His 
works  are  collected  Id  Optra  omnia  eagrlita,  didadiea, 
tt  poletaicaj  magnafn  pariem  haeUtmt  inrdiia  (Irenopo- 
II,  165C,  1  vols,  in  8) ;  Touchinfr  one  God  (trans.  Lend. 
1665,  4to) Darling,  Ci/rlop.  Bibliograpkiea,  \,  812. 

Crell  (or  KnEi-t.),  Hloholaa,  a  distlnguishod 
Oarman  Jurist,  was  bom  at  Leipsic  between  thu  jiars 
1660-68 ;  graduated  at  Lelpsic  1B7&,  and  was  called  to 
the  court  of  the  elector  Anjuatiii.  Christian  I,  who 
lucceedod  his  father  Id  15Sb',  mode  him  privy  council- 
lor and  chancellor.  Augustus  had  been  cealoa*  <d 
opposing  Crypto-Calviniim,  bnt  Christian  I  did  not 
ahare  hia  partiulity  for  the  formiila  Coimorjia,  and 
Crell,  by  his  order,  superintended  the  preparation  of  a 
German  Bible,  with  practical  notes,  for  popular  use. 
Christian  dyhig  before  its  completion  (Sept.  26, 1691), 
the  work  was  diacootiDued.  The  electress  Sophia, 
who  govemud  during  the  mlDoritj  of  ber  son  Chrla- 
Uan  II,  favored  the  extreme  Lntbetan  party,  and  Crell 
waa  thrown  into  prison.  In  Sept.,  1597,  be  had  a 
{tearing  in  prison,  and  in  1699  he  was  condemned  as 
nnUtbful  to  the  elector  and  to  hk  trust.  His  appeal 
to  the  Imperial  court  at  Spires  was  rejected,  and  he 
vas  executed  OcL  9. 1601,  commending  blmaelf  to 
God.  See  Niedner,  ZUcA./  klU.  Tieol.  (1848,  p.  815)  j 
Huttenin,  Concordia  Concori,  c.  49;  Arnold,  Kirth^ 
II.  KtUtrhiilorir,  ii,  16,  32 ;  Herzog,  Biai-E-Ksklnp.  iii, 
183;  and  Cbtpto^alvinistic  CoNTitoVEKar, 

Gr«ll,  Samuel,  gisndsan  of  Johannes  Cretl,  bom 
in  1660.  After  being  fur  same  time  a  preacher  at  K6- 
nlipwalde,  he  lived  successive!}'  In  Berlin,  in  the  Keth- 
eiUnda,  and  in  Englund,  where  tie  became  acquainted 
with  Sir  Isaac  Kewton,  Dr.  Gralie,  and  other  eminent 
men,  by  whom  he  was  highly  esleemeil.  He  died  at 
a  very  advanced  a^  at  Amsterdam  In  1747.  He  wrote 
Hveral  historical  treatises  on  the  ante-N'icene  fkthers, 
and  one  OD  the  Introduction  la  St.  John's  Gospel. 
He  was  a  discijile  of  Socinus,  but  it  is  aaid  that  to- 
wards the  end  of  his  life  he  received  the  orthodox 
view  of  the  atonement.  Sea  Fock,  Si-dniaaimHi, 
etc,  p.  aO;  Nichols,  Calinrntia  aad  AmiJntUKWBi,  ii, 
842. 

Craaoena  (Kpqonic.  (br  Latin  Crfcm,  groaing), 
an  assistaat  of  the  apostle  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  10,  nbere 
he  Is  suiod  to  have  left  Kome  for  Gahitia),  A.D.  64. 
He  is  irenerslly  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the  sev- 
enty ai-cipl>-B  of  Chrtrt.  II  is  alleged  in  the  ApnttoBeal 
Canil'la!vmt  (vii,40).  and  by  the  fhthcrs  of  the  Church, 


4  CRETE 

that  he  preached  the  Gospel  tn  Galatta,  a  fjrt  prob*- 
bly  deduced  conjectnrally  from  the  only  t.-xt  (:!  'Ilm. 
iv,  10)  in  which  his  iiame  occurs.  Then  is  a  leu  ao- 
dent  tracUlion  (in  Sophronlas),  according  to  which 
Cresceni  preached,  went  into  Gaul  (Galatla;  aee  Tb*- 
odoret  on  3  Tim.  1.  c),  and  bwMme  the  founder  of  the 
Church  In  Visnae ;  but  It  deserves  no  notice,  having 
probably  do  uther  foondatian  than  the  resemblance  at 
the  names  Galatla  and  G^lia.  Fjpm  the  &ct  of  ble 
having  a  Latin  name,  loany  have  inferred  that  bs  waa 
a  ChriatUn  of  Uonw.  (See  Becbler,  Di  Crwcute,  VU 
tab.  1689.) 

Craacena,  a  Cynic  philosophEr  who  acquired  ereat 
inflnence  over  the  iniud  of  the  cmpciur  Aurellns- 
Wtiile  the  other  achoola  of  philotophen  looked  down 
with  contempt  on  the  Chriatians,  the  Cynics  had  tieeo 
more  favorably  inclined  towards  them;  but  Jiiat:<3 
Martyr  hjvinj  oT^ndad  Crescens  by  some  remaiLa 
ho  mjda  ajfainat  him  in  an  apology  addressed  to  tbe 
emperor,  CrescoDS  swore  lo  be  revenged,  end,  to  ac- 
complish his  purpose,  incited  tlio  emperor  to  pcrsemta 
the  Cbriatians.  Justin  Martyr  was  one  of  the  vidiiDa 
of  this  persecution.     See  Jtrari:!  Mabtts. 

Creaoent,  tho  emblem  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

See  COHSTAHTIHOFLK  (1,  1). 

Creapln,  Ju.is,  a  Franeh  Reformer,  bom  at  Ar. 
ras,  studied  law  at  LOwen  and  Paris,  bat,  being  perse- 
cated  for  bis  religious  oj^nioDarhe  fled  lo  Geneva  in 
1648.  Here  he  established  a  printing-office,  waa  made 
a  citizen  in  Ibii.  and  died  in  1672.  The  books  iaaoed 
from  his  press,  which  can  be  recognisod  by  the  sign  of 
an  anchor,  ara  remarkable  for  beauty  of  typography 
and  for  corTsctneas.  Among  bis  own  writings  are, 
nittoirt  da  martyri  jiertenUt  tt  mit  i>  nxorl  pomr  ta 
viriU  dt  Ciixaigilii  (Gen.  1670,  fol. ;  1019) ;  Lkai  Ja 
CrgliMt  da  kmi  dit  <^ra  jnffa'ai  1660  (15G4,  and  a 
Iransl.,  7%e  Eilals  ofiht  Charek  [Lond.  1602.  itaj); 
BibUoAeca  ttudii  UUoUmci  a  patn/mi  aMrda  (15H1, 
tul.). 

Crate  (Kpijnr),  one  of  the  laigest  Islands  in  the 
MedltefTsnean,  now  called  Cauiia,  and  by  the  Turka 
KiriJ.  It  is  160  mitea  long,  but  of  very  unequal 
vldtb,  varyinif  ftom  B6  to  6  miles.  It  la  aitnated  at 
Archipelago,  luving  the  coast  of 


lo  tlie  at 


t,  that 


north-eaat,  and  that  of  Libya  I 
tlquity  waa  affected  by  the  inbaUtants,  and  It  baa  been 
auppoaed  by  some  that  the  Island  was  originally  peo- 
pled from  Egypt;  hut  this  ia  founded  on  the  condii- 
sion  that  Crete  was  the  Capbtor  of  Dent,  ii,  29,  tCc, 
and  tbe  country  of  the  Philisdnoa,  which  seema  mora 
than  donlitftal.  See  Caphtor.  Surrounded  on  aD 
sides  by  the  aea,  the  Cretans  were  eteellent  mIIots, 
and  their  vessela  vlsilsd  all  tbe  neit;hboriDg  coast*. 
Though  extremely  bob!  and  mountainous,  this  island 
has  very  fruitful  valleys  (Virgil,  .En.  iii,  106),  and 
was  highly  pmaperoas  and  full  of  people  in  reij  an- 
cient times :  this  Is  indicated  by  its  "  hundred  citiea" 
alluded  to  in  the  epithet  JiairiifiiroXif,  applied  to  it  bj 
Homer  (//.  ii,  OJB).  It  w»  remariiable  tor  ita  patri- 
otL^in,  although  it  kept  aloof  from  the  intestine  wan 
of  Grescc  One  of  Its  peaks  waa  the  famona  Hl  Ida, 
and  in  one  of  Ibi  remarkable  caverns  was  tbe  renowned 
Labyrinth  of  antiquity.  This  island  was  also  the 
scene  of  many  of  the  fablea  of  mythology,  and  wu 
even  reputed  db  the  alude  of  "the  fstlier  of  gods  and 
men."  The  chieruiory  of  the  Island,  however,  lay  in 
its  havini;  produced  tbe  le^lator  Minos,  whD«  insiL 
tutions  had  so  important  an  influence  in  softening  tba 
mannen  of  a  barlarous  age,  not  In  Crete  only,  but 
also  in  Greece,  where  these  InstitDtioiis  were  imitated. 
The  natives  were  celebrated  aa  anhers.  Their  chap- 
acter  was  not  of  the  most  favorable  deacriptioa  (Me 
Polyb.  vl,  46,  8;  47,  6;  Diod.  Sic.  Em.  Fat.  p.  ISl- 
Livy,  zllv.  46;  Ovid,  Art  ApkO.  I,  297;  Plutanji, 
Pkilfom.  13) ;  the  Cretans,  or  ErMani^  being,  in  1^ 


CRETE  61 

4NM  of  Ihe  thnio  JCi  agiiuit  whou  aafaithfulneii  tbe 
Grack  proverb  wu  lnC(ind«<l  M  »  caution — KB[quclo- 
kia,  Knl«,  and  RilikU.  la  ihort,  the  ancieot  Doticfs 
of  their  chancter  full)'  agree  witb  the  quotation  which 
Pkul  produces  from  "one  of  their  own  poeta"  (irpo- 
f^TtK)  io  hii  Kpiitle  to  Titoi  (),  12),  who  had  lieen 
lefl  in  charge  of  the  Chriatiaa  churcli  in  the  iiLand: 
■*Tbe  Cntani  are  always  lian  (aii  ^ivarai,  eternal 
liAT*],  evil  beasta  (liaiu  Hi|pio,  Angl,  'Irutei'),  ilow 
bellied"  iyaaripitapya',  gorbelliea,  bellleg  which  take 
lull);  to  hll).  'Ihe  quotation  ia  uauallj'  ruppused  (o 
bkve  been  rrom  Cillinuichni'a  Il^n  on  Joit,  8 ;  but 
C^liniacbna  was  not  a  Cratan,  and  he  kii  only  the 
Srrt  words  of  the  verse,  which  Jerome  iiajs  he  bor- 
rowed r>am  Epiuienidei  (q.  v.),  who  was  of  Crete,  and 
frtim  whou  work  (Ilipi  xp^'f^"!  ^ee  Cleniena  Alex. 
Strom,  i,  I!9)  (he  citation  appean  to  have  been  mode 
(•ee  GottKhuIk,  De  Kpauaudc  pT'jihtta,  Altilorp,  1TI4 ; 
Moffmann,  De  Faido  leriptkrai  pri'/an.  icr  alUga^lt, 
Tub,  1770,  p.  17  J  Helnrich,  t'pitnmidti  a.  Srtia,  Lpi. 
1801).  Ample  corroboration  of  the  deaciiption  which 
U  g1*ea  of  the  ancient  InhaUtants  maj  be  seen  in  tho 
oommentaton  (uo  Wolfii  Car.  It,  &U  aq.).  See  Cbe- 
TIAir.  Mr.  Hartley,  In  his  Stjrarchet  n  Gnece,  Fayi, 
"The  Cretans  of  tbs  preaent  day  are  prtclKly  wbut 
they  were  In  tho  doye  of  the  apostle  Pan) ;  they  are 
notoriously,  whether  Turki  or  Creelu,  Iho  worst  .har- 
accen  in  the  Levant."  (Sea  the  Ptnug  Csct jyrdii:,  a. 
V.  Candia.) 


i6  CRETE 

yean  1866  and  1867  the  whole  force  of  tbs  Ottoman 
empire,  and  thereby  enlisted  the  sympathy  of  all  the 
Cbristiaa  powers  of  Europe,  most  of  which  urged  the 
Turkish  government  to  consent  to  the  annexation  of 
the  Island  lo  Greece,  (In  November,  I£67,  the  fate  of 
Crete  was  not  yet  decided.)  (See  Paulin,  Daeriptioo 
jiAjttfiK  dt  riit  de  Crilr,  Paria,  lRfi9.) 

it  scenu  likely  that  a  verj-  early  acquaint-nco  took 
place  between  the  Cretans  and  the  Jews.     The  itcrj 

of  Cretan  ori/jic,  may  be  accounted  for  l.y  sup[09ing  ■ 
confusion  between  the  Pbilisliiiee  end  the  Jewi-,  and 
by  identifying  the  Chorelbitcs  of  1  Sum.  xxx,  14 ;  S 
Sam.  vlii,  le ;  Ezek.  xiy,  16 ;  Zeph.  ii.  [;  witli  CreUii 
emigtunU.  In  the  last  two  of  tbere  paruHCS  thejr 
ate  exprcFsly  called  Kpqric  by  the  Sept.,  and  in  Zepb. 
li,  6,  we  have  the  word  Kf.^rn.  Whatever  conclution 
we  may  arrive  at  on  this  point,  there  Is  do  doubt  that 
Jews  were  settled  In  the  ifland  in  cinsideraLle  num> 
bcrs  during  tlio  period  between  the  deutb  of  Alexan- 
der the  Gruut  and  tho  final  destruction  of  JeniMtem. 
Gortyna  (q.  v.)  seems  to  liave  been  Ihcir  chief  resl. 
deocc,  for  it  is  specially  mentioned  (1  Mace,  iv,  33)  In 
the  letters  written  ly  the  Bamons  on  behalf  of  tba 
Jews,  when  Simon  Msccsbstus  renewed  the  treaty 
which  his  brother  Judas  bad  made  with  Borne  (leo  1 
Mace.  X,  G7).  At  a  later  period  Joaephus  says  (jlnf. 
ivii,  1?,  I ;  War,  li,  7, 1),  that  the  pspuiitvAlrxDnder, 
Herod's  supposed  son,  imposed  n[on  Ihe  Jews  of  Cnt* 


Crete  was  an  Independent  state,  with  some  varia- 
tions of  government,  ontll  It  was  conquered  by  the 
Bomana,  B.C.  CT,  under  Hetellna,  hence  called  Creti- 
CD*,  and  united  In  one  province  with  Cyrenaica,  which 
was  at  no  great  diatanct  (Strati,  x,  Hi)  on  the  oppo- 
dta  cnast  of  Africa.  SeeCrREXE.  It  la  pwiible  that 
In  Tit.  liJ,1,  there  mar  be  an  Implinl  reference  to  a 
torlKilent  condition  of  the  Cretan  part  of  the  province, 
capedally  as  regarded  (he  Jewbh  mldcnt*.  It  (brmed 
put  of  tba  Eastern  empire  until  taken  by  the  Saracens 
hi  8Sa,  and  was  recovered  from  them  by  the  emperor 
NieephoniB  Phncai  in  081.  On  the  eatabli^hment  of 
the  Latin  empire  of  Conttantinaple  In  1204.  It  came 
by  purchase  into  the  baniM  of  the  Tenet]an^  and  was 
retained  by  them  unUI  the  year  1669.  when,  after  a 
twenty-four  years'  siege  of  the  ca^dtal,  the  conquest 
at  tbe  whole  island  was  elTected  by  the  Tnrke,  to 
wboae  dnninions  it  rtlll  nominally  l^longi.  In  Au- 
gust, 1866.  the  Christians  of  Crete  mse  in  Infurrrcthin 
afcainit  the  Turkish  rule,  and  demanded  annexadnn  to 
tb*  kingdom  of  Oreece,    They  resisted  tliroughout  tho 


when  on  bla  way  to  I(aly.  And  ln(er  atill,  Phllo  (Lrg, 
adCai.  §  86)  makes  the  Jewish  envoys  sey  t«  CallRuU 
that  all  the  more  noted  islands  of  the  Blediterrancan. 
including  Crete,  were  full  of  Jews.  Thne  the  spechil 
mention  of  Cretans  (Acts  ii,  11)  among  Ibose  who  were 
in  Jeraaalem  at  the  great  Pentecoat  is  Just  what  we 
should  expect.  No  notice  is  given  In  tbe  Acts  of  an/ 
more  direct  evangelization  of  Crete,  and  no  absolute 
proof  csn  be  adduced  that  Piul  was  ever  there  before 
his  Toyatte  from  Cnsaroa  to  Puteoli.  though  it  is  bsre- 
ly  possible  that  he  may  have  visited  the  island  In  the 
course  of  hia  residences  at  Corinth  and  Ephesna.  See 
TiicB.  The  clrcumstaneea  of  Paul's  recorded  visit 
were  brisfty  as  follows.  The  vessel  in  which  he  failed 
to  Italy,  lieing  forced  oot  of  her  couree  by  contrary 
wind',  was  driven  round  the  island,  instead  of  keeping 
tbe  direct  conrselo  the  north  of  It.  In  doing  tbla.  the 
ship  first  mado  the  pmntnntory  of  Salmone,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Island,  which  they  paiaed  with  dlt- 
liculty,  and  took  abeller  at  a  place  called  Fai^-Haven^ 
near  to  which  waa  tbe  city  Lcsca.     But  alUr  spend- 


CRETE  6( 

tng  K>m«  tims  nt  thia  place,  and  not  flndiog  It,  as  they 
luppOMd,  Bufficiently  secure  to  winler  in.  they  rMnlv. 
ed,  contrary  to  tbs  advice  of  Paul  (the  waaun  beioy 
far  advanced),  to  make  for  Phciralce,  a  more  commo- 
dioiu  hirlwr  on  the  Htstera  part  of  the  island;  In  at- 
tempting which  they  were  driven  far  oat  of  their  course 
by  B  furioui  eait  wind  called  Euroclydoo,  and  wretked 
on  the  islanil  of  MoUU  <Acls  xxrii;.'  See  Shipwreck 
(or  P.iDt).  It  It  etidenc  fi^ni  Tit.  1.  5,  that  the  apoa- 
tlfl  himself  w«»  hero  at  no  long  interval  of  time  bofori^ 
be  wrote  the  letter.  We  believe  thia  to  have  been 
I)etweL>n  the  first  and  aecond  Impriionmenta.  See  Ti- 
tos, Epistlb  to.  Tltua  was  much  honored  here  dor- 
lni(  the  Middle  Agea.  The  cathedral  of  Hegalo-Cas- 
tron  W[X<  dedicated  to  him ;  uid  hia  name  waa  the 
watchword  of  the  Cretans  when  thsy  fonght  afcaintt 
the  Venetians,  who  themsctvea  aeem  to  hare  placed 
Mm  above  St  Mark  in  Candia,  when  they  became 
mulers  of  the  island  (Pashiey's  TrartU  m  Citle,  1.  6, 
176,  Lend.  1837).  See  Uock'a  Knta  (GOtt.  1829).  and 
some  papera  ftom  Uie  Itjilan  In  the  Muieiim  of  Clan. 
Antiq.  (vol.  ii.  Lond.  1856).  Also  Menraina,  De  Rkodo, 
Crtla,  etc.  (Anatol.  1675);  Nsuoiann,  Itrr.  CrSicar. 
iptc.  (G6lt.  1820) !  Smith,  Did.  of  Clan.  Gtogr.  a.  v. 
CreU;  SpraU's  Rarardie*  in  CnU  (London,  1866,! 
Toll.  8vo).     Sea  Gbeece. 

Crete  (Acta  ii,  11)  or  Cr«'tlan  (Tit.  r,  12  and 
inlMcr.),  a  Cratao  (KpqO.  of  InhiOltant  of  the  Island 
of  Crete  (q.  v.).  Treatisei  on  the  notorionaly  bad 
character  of  this  people  (referred  Co  in  the  latter  pa«- 
■ag^  have  been  vritlon  In  Latin  by  Hollebeck  (Luizd. 
B.  179.'<),  Peffinger  (Ardent.  1701),  Schmidt  (Up-. 
1678),  and  Sieger  (Lips.  16M). 

Crib  (S^3M,  fiiia'\  a  iMlI  or  bam  where  fiiddarls 
MoT«d  (Prav.  liv,  4)  and  where  cattle  are  fed  (Jab 
zzzix,  9;  Isa.  1,  8);  periiapa  simply  B  manger  for 
them  to  eat  out  of,  as  the  Sept.  and  Vnlg.  render  in 
tba  lasUcitod  paraage.     See  Hakobb. 

Crims  (SQ'^'a,  ><'9>"<<"'.  E»k.  vil,  !S ;  nST,  tin- 
nah',  nateM^,  "  heinous  crime,"  Job  XXXi,  11 ;  airia. 
Acta  sxv,  27  ;  iyKXit/Aa,  Acta  ziT,  16).  Sea  Law  ; 
JuixiEi  Pdnisbkbst. 

CrimBOD,  ^3t},  thoHf  (Jer.  ir,  SO  ;  elsewhere 
"aearlel;"   folly  ^31^    PS^'n,  erinant-wonn,  £xod. 

almply  ^Vr,  (he  worm  itself,  lu.  i,  IS,  alt  rendered, 
except  in  this  lut  pawage,  likewise  -'scarlet"),  later 
S^O^a,  karmil'  (invariahly  "crimson,"  B  Chron.  li,  7, 
14;  iii,  U;  on  thia  Ileb.  term,  see  Lorsbach,  Archtv 
fir  morgaUiad.  IMtrabir,  Ii,  805 ;  Geaenlus,  Tkuaar. 
p.  714),  a  well-kaowii  red  color  (Hiny,  xzi.  23),  of  a 
desp  hue  Iwrdering  on  purple  (q.  v.),  and  In  this  re- 
spect diStorinn  from  ths  brighter  scarint  (q.  v.),  j'at  of 
a  hrllliiint  color  (Isa.  i,  18;  camp.  Pliny,  zxiiii,  40; 
hence  xpiBo  iii ;  so  in  Matt,  xivii,  28,  ;(Xo»ii^  icojc- 
ii»tf  =  io^rK  \n/iirpa  in  Lnke  xxiii,ll),  highly  prized 
among  the  ancients  for  garments  and  tapeatry  (Hor- 
ace, Sat.  ii,  4,  102X  aa  articles  of  laxary  with  the  na- 
Lility  (Jer.  iv,  30;  8  Sam.  I,  24;  Prav.  xxxi,  21; 
Lam.  iv,  6;  comp.  Martial,  iii,  2,  II;  ii,  BB,  ]  ;  48,8; 
Petron.  ScU.  62),  and  with  the  Ramani  for  the  roLies 
of  generals  and  princes  (Pliny,  xiii,  S;  comp.  Matt. 
Jtitvli,  28,  where  tti«/i^  =  )ri'piri'pn  in  Hark  XT,  17, 
SO,  and  John  xix,  4),  especially  the  emperors  (Sneton. 
Onrit.  4).  Many  of  the  fabrics  of  the  tabernacle  and 
•acstdotal  paraphernalia  were  also  woven  (F.xod. 
xxxviii;  Nam.  iv,  8)  of  tbrwda  of  thia  dvs  (Gen. 
xxxvUi.  28 ;  Josh,  ii,  18).  which  was  likewise  em- 
ployed for  the  curtain  of  Solomon's  Temple  (2  Chmn. 
Ili,  14 ;  comp.  Sueton.  Nrm,  BO),  The  color  ag.iin  nc- 
cnra  in  the  Mosaic  ritnal  (Lev.  xiv.  6;  Num.  xlx,  6). 
A*  to  its  symbolical  slgniflcance,  Philo  (JOpfi.  1,  &Be ; 
mmp.  Ii,  148)  and  Jotephns  (Jnf.  iij,  7,  T)  think  that 


6  Citl^ 

it,  like  the  two  saend  colora  (acerlrt  and  purple).  r«p- 
resents  the  element  of  fire ;  according  to  Blhr  (^sa- 
bii.  I,  BBS  sq.),  it  denotes  life  (i.  e.  flni  and  bloud, 
which  are  both  red);  while  others  find  in  tt  otbM 
typical  allusions.     See  DrE. 

Crimson  la  obtained  tram  the  pnlTBriisd  cochiniMl 
berries,  i.e.  the  dead  bodies  and  Urn-nasts  (see  Br_ndl 
and  Rattaburg's  ifsifttu.  Zeo^ogie,  Berl.  1831  hi.,  U, 
pi.  26,  fig.  IS)  of  a  small  panaitia  ^oaect,  the  female 
cochineal-worm  (T^vVn,  tola'atk),  or  brrmu  (tho  Cee- 
au  UiciM  of  Linn.,  ci.  4.  Tetrai^vnia),  which  towards 
the  end  of  April  fastens  itself,  lilio  little  raisins,  in  the 
form  of  round  reddish  or  violet-broHn  betriea  npon 
the  twigs,  less  freqnently  on  the  leaves,  of  the  palm- 
iiak  (irj>c™£  or  ^  rikrot,  Ittx  a^fiHi  or  racci/rra  ; 
comp.  Theophrutas,  i%wf.  Hi,  16;  Pliny,  xvi,  12; 
PausanUe,  x,  SG,  1 ;  Me  Klrliy,  Enlomol.  i,  SSI ;  Co- 
vior,  Amm.  Kuif.  ill.  CM,  COS).  This  ahrnbbr  tree, 
some  two  or  three  feet  high,  grows  abnndautly  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Hither  Aaia  (certainly  also  In  I^lestine; 
see  Delan.  O&Krr.  ii,  88),  as  well  as  in  Soulhem  Eu- 
rope, has  oval,  pniated,  evergreen,  thorny  leases,  a 
grayish  smooth  bark,  and  Iwan  round  scarlet  btr- 
ries  tn  tluslered  tufu  (Dioscor.  iv,  48).  Among  the 
ancients,  the  Pliesnicians  genemlly  supplied  tbe  rest 
of  the  world  with  crimson  materials,  and  beat  ander. 
stnod  the  art  of  dyeing  this  color  (i  Chron.  ii.  7; 
comp.  Pliny,  li,  GS).  (See  Beckmaun,  Bair.  I II,  i,  1 
sq. ;  Bochart,  HierOM.  iii,  524  sq. ;  Brann,  De  vatilm 
saeerd,  1.  i,  c.  IS,  p.  21G  sq. ;  Hartmann,  Hthr.  t,  388 
sq. ;  iii,  186  >q. ;  iVrnqp  dftjupadia,  a.  v.  CociiinaaL} 
.HceCoLOB. 

Clippie  (yaiXui:,  Inie,  as  elsewhere  nsnally  ren- 
dered, or  "hilt"),  a  person  depriTed  of  tho  nse  of  the 
lower  limbs  (Acts  xiv,  8). 

Crlap,  ToBiaa,  D.D.,  a  divine  of  the  I7th  centnrr, 
bom  16U0,  died  rector  of  Brinkworth  1642.  HU  li'ft 
waa  diatlnguished  >>y  charity,  luety,  hamility,  bdH  pa- 
rity, but  he  waa  nevertheleas  charged  with  aimony  in 
obtaining  the  living  of  Newington  Bntia  in  1627.  He 
followad  the  Puritan  side  in  the  ecdesUsticol  troul)lc<^ 
and  was  an  extreme  Calvinist,  rannin^  into  Antino. 
mianiin.  The  Westminster  Assembly  propoeed  to 
have  his  sermODa  burnt.  Tbe  laat  edition  of  them, 
edited  by  Gill,  appeared  in  London  I79I  (!  vohi.  Bra), 
lo  which  the  life  of  Crisp  Is  preHied.  I>r.  Crisp  ac- 
knowledges that,  "  in  respect  of  the  rules  of  rlghteons- 
nes*,  or  the  mstter  of  obedience,  we  are  nnder  tbe  law 
still,  or  else,"  as  he  adds,  "weare  lawless,  to  liveeTei7 
man  as  seems  good  In  his  own  eyes,  which  no  tms 
Christian  dares  so  much  as  think  of."  The  foliowing 
senUments,  however,  among  others,  are  tangfat  in  his 
setmona:  "The  law  is  cruel  and  tyranDical.  requiring 
what  U  naturally  ImpoasiUe."  "  The  sins  of  (he  elM 
were  so  Imputed  to  Christ  as  that,  though  be  diil  not 
commit  them,  yet  they  liecame  Bctnally  bis  transgres- 
sions, and  ceased  to  bo  theirs."  "The  feelings  of 
conscience,  which  tell  them  that  sin  is  thein.  atin 
from  B  want  of  knowing  the  truth."  "  It  is  bnt  the 
voice  of  a  lying  spirit  in  the  hearts  of  believers  tlut 
saitb  they  have  yet  sId  waatlng  tbeir  consciences,  and 
lying  aa  a  borden  too  heavy  for  them  to  bear." 
-■Christ's  rightenasness  is  so  imputed  to  the  elect  tint 
they,  ceasing  to  be  sinners,  are  as  righteoas  as  he  was, 
and  all  tliat  he  waa."  "An  elect  person  la  not  tn  ■ 
condemnod  state  while  an  unbdlevar ;  and  shoold  ha 
happen  to  die  before  God  call  him  to  beltere,  he  would 
not  be  lost."  "  Repentance  and  eonfesalon  of  sin  are 
not  necessary  to  forgiveness.  A  believer  may  cer> 
talnly  conclude  before  (oufBasloo,  3*ea,  as  soon  as  be 
hath  committed  sia,tlie  Interest  be  batb  In  Christ,  and 
the  love  of  Christ  embracing  bim."  These  dangmw 
sentiments,  and  otheraof  a  similar  bearing,  have  bcea 
fnlly  snawtrad  bj-  many  wtltera,  bnt  by  none  mete 
ablytbanby  the  Bsv.  John  Fletcher,  ia  his  "Checks 
to  Aotinamianism."— Bock,  TteoL  Dift,  a.  v. ;  Orma, 


CRISPIN  AND  CRISPINIAN     JS67 


CRITICISM 


Cirl>pui  inil  Crlmpluian,  two  brothm 
lii|[  the  rai^  of  DiorletUin,  went  u  miuiar 
Bome  to  Gaal.  and  iitllnl  at  Solswins.  In  ordor  to 
■npport  tbcmselves  >nd  to  havo  ■««■  to  the  peo- 
ple, tbej  became  ahiMDUiktn.  Tbnt  tbey  worked  fur 
■ootc  time  for  tha  propagation  of  ChrlstlanlCv,  aotil 
IB7,  when,  by  order  uf  the  emperor  Maximinianua,  ther 
ware  beheaded.  They  ara  commemorated  in  the 
Charcb  of  Homo  on  Oct,  8S,  and  atv  commonly  venor- 
•ted  aa  the  special  pMiona  of  the  Bboemaken.  There 
b  a  legend  (for  wbkh,  however,  thsre  neemi  to  b«  no 
fcanilBtion}  about  thoM  uinta  to  the  cffert  that  they 
■tale  from  rich  pononi  the  leather  to  make  gratul- 
tootlv  »bae*  for  the  poor— Wetier  n.Welte,  KircAa- 
Ltx.  ii,  91S. 

Crisplag-plD  (>:^^n.  ckarit',  tomething  cMi^ltd; 
tfca  Sept.  tranilalei  undialinguishaMy,  Isa.  ill,  i2). 
Tbia  word  pr>jperiy  ai^itlai  a  coMtet  or  poacA,  and  Is 
elaeobera  Tendered  a  "  Log"  for  money  (V  Kings  v,  23, 
where  tbe  Arabic  give*  a  l:a!her  nOHrif^ag);  but  in 


Idnd  of  female  < 

bag,  which  tbe 
dlea.  They  are  nenally  daKTiI>ed  u  made  of  >11k,snd 
WTDDgbt  with  gold  and  iUver;  but  Jahn  thinka  that 
tllis  pnrae  waa  made  of  aolid  metal,  BOnndmea  of  pore 
gold,  and  bahiomd  like  a  cone,  with  a  bordor  of  rich 
doth  at  the  top.    See  Obnamekt. 

CriSpua  (Hpiawog,  H"  l^t.Cn^iii$,Ctirhd;  found 
alio  in  tbe  Talmadiita  nnder  tha  forms  KBB^lp  and 
*<BB''^P),  chief  of  tbe  Jewbih  synagogne  at  Corinth 
(Acta  ivili,  B),  converted  and  baptiied  by  tbo  apostle 
Paul  fl  Cor.  i,  14)  A.D.  50.  According  to  tradition 
{Cbm^Hlnl.  Apott.  Til.  46)  be  was  afterwards  libhop  of 
Agina.  The  Greek  Church  obaetre  bii  festival  on 
the  4th  of  October. 

CxltiFoi  Saori,  a  very  nsefiil  work  in  Biblical  lit- 
■tatim,  undertaken  and  pubU*hed  bv  Cornelius  Bee, 
boekteUer  (London,  1660,  9  vols.  fo).').  as  an  append- 
age to  Walton's  Polyglot,  under  tha  direction  of  lisb- 
op  Peanon,  John  Pearson,  Anthony  Scatt«rgood,  and 
Francis  Goaldman.  It  was  reprinted  at  Fnnkfort, 
OBder  the  cara  of  Guitlsr,  in  ieS6,  in  T  vols.  In  1G88 
it  reappeared  at  Amsterdam  in  9  vola. ;  and  a  supple- 
mast  of  3  vols,  more  was  published  In  1700  and  ITOl; 
and  a  second  supplement  appeared  in  S  vols,  fol.,  AmsL 
ITil.  This  collectioncontalni  all,  or  most  of  the  books 
of  the  O.T.,the  entire  annotations  of  Munsler.VaU- 
bliu,Caatalia,  Clarius,  Druslui,  and  Gn>tina;  brief  sn- 
DOtations  of  Fagiui  on  the  Chaldaic  paraphrase  of  the 
Pentatench,  snd  his  larger  exjosition  of  the  flrft  (bur 
diapten  of  Genesis  i  the  eommentsrtes  of  Uo^ns  on 
Joahoa ;  the  annotations  of  Codureus  on  Job ;  of  Pri- 
eana  on  tbe  Psalma,  and  of  Bayne  on  the  Proverbs ; 
tbe  commentary  of  Forerio*  on  Isaiah,  that  of  Lively 
on  IfoMia,  Joel,  Amo^  Obadiah,  and  Jonah ;  of  Ilad- 
w«U  OR  the  Apocrypha,  and  Hceschel  on  Ecclcslanof, 
etc.  On  the  N.  T.  it  conUins  the  collations  nf  Valla, 
with  tbe  animadrersiana  of  Ravins;  the  annotationi' 
of  Eraamoi,  Votablus,  Castalio,  Clailns,  Zegerus,  and 
Orotiua ;  on  puticular  places  and  subjects  of  the  N. 
T.,  Kuniter,  Drusios,  Scaliger,  Casaubon.  Cameron, 
Lod.  Capetlns,  Gnallperiat,  Sehultetus.  and  Prions. 
Tbm  are  alio  a  number  of  philolojrleal  tracts  and  dis- 
•aitations,  mch  aa  John  Oregory'a  Notes  and  Obeerva- 
tkma ;  Faglns'a  Comparison  of  the  prindpal  Tranila- 
tkos  of  t£  O.  T. ;  Cartwlight's  MeUyMtm  t'braitum ; 
Diuaius  on  the  Ifandiakes ;  Jos.  ScUiger  and  Amana 
onTythes;  Lnd.CBpellaaon  the  Vow  of  Jephtba  and 
Corban ;  Pttbuiit  Dt  Letvai  Biiliemm  lattrjtrHatioitt- 
im  I  Unrtins  De  fabrita  A  rem  JV«s ;  Bittarshnsins  0a 
Jwt  Aiflanemi  AUatlnt  D*  giiyfliB|witfip  j  llonta- 


nn*  on  Jewish  Antlqnitiet:  Bertram  and  CnnnnB  m 
the  Hebrew  Bepubllcj  Waset  on  the  Ancient  Coiiu 
und  Measures  of  the  Hebrews,  Cbaldaians,  and  Syr> 
ians  1  and  many  others  of  a  similar  deacriplion  (Onno, 
BiUiatk.  Bibl.  p.  ISB).  TheAnuterdam  edition  (169^ 
17SS,  18  vols,  rol.)  it  tbe  best,  being  well  printed,  witli 
additions,  and  including  four  volDroes  of  ^Awnrw 
not  contained  In  the  original  edition.  Poole's  8ynep' 
lit  forma  an  excellent  abrldgmeiit  of  this  great  work. 
See  CoxxEHTiRr. 

Ciltlclam,  BmuicAi..  This  phraae  is  employed 
in  two  senses.  Some  take  it  to  algiufy  not  only  tb« 
restoration  of  the  text  of  Scripture  to  Its  cTlginil  rtste, 
but  the  principles  of  interpretation.  This  is  en  ei  ten- 
sive and  improper  application.  The  science  la  strictly 
occupied  with  tbe  Irxl  of  the  Bible.  It  ia  limited  to 
those  principles  and  operations  which  coat  U  the  read* 
er  to  delect  and  remove  comiptionr,  to  decide  Dpon  the 
genulaeDeaa  of  dispoted  readings,  and  to  obtain  aa 
nearly  as  possible  the  original  words  of  intplrstion. 

I.  There  ara  only  three  or  four  source*  of  malsrlcl 
fur  the  work  of  Biblical  criticism,  both  in  detecting 
the  changes  made  upon  the  original  tc.tt.  end  in  re- 
storing gcnulno  readings:  1.  tISS.  or  written  copies 
of  the  Bible.  2.  Ancient  trsnalutiaDB  into  vsrions  lan- 
guages. 8.  The  writings  and  remains  of  those  early 
I  ecclesiaalicol  writers  who  havo  quoted  tho  Scriplom, 
4.  Critical  cemjtclwr;  but  this  must  bo  used  with  ex- 
treme caution.     Sec  Old  Test.  ;  New  Test. 

Criticism  adploys  tho  ample  materials  furnished  b^ 
these  sources.  Tu  attain  its  end.  It  must  work  upon 
them  with  skill  and  discrimination.  They  afford  wide 
scope  for  acutcncss,  sobriety,  and  learning ;  and  long 
experience  Is  necessary  In  ordsr  that  they  may  l«  used 
with  efficiency  and  success.  (See  Jour.  Sac,  IJl.,  Jan. 
1864;  Heinfctter,  The  Tne  Ttxt  •■/Uie  [Heb.]  Serip- 
(vet,  M  ed.  Lend.  18G1.)     See  Hahl-scbifts  ;  Vu- 


MSa,  ina-niuch  u  thgf  oil  sreni  In  bi'luw 
I  lyps-and  hrUili  reuon  Ihelr  provinclst 
Isms  In  onliOKniph]'  ought  eipKliiIlT  lo  be  re)Kted. 
a.  Wadimjt  J,^«d  In  (A«  uriirtiiai  Irxl  arinollebt  ilgUla 


llm-*  from  pwmcprj).  Id  doubtfut  earn  unlj  1fUh«r  f ri  m 
coDilicrt,  fkilurp  or  iDiprabelillliy  In  the  ojiEJnm]  mdinn), 
Iberalbra,  esn  Ibese  be  n,My  rtHrtsd  ia.  )lenc.<  li  eTl&nt 
e<|uallr  the  sbiuNliy  of  cislllnit  the  5eplui|iliil  u  a  wlmle 


le  Hcbi 


id  irhe|r  sufllcleDl If  exact  1o  Iv  verbally  sppre. 

Utot^  Kftemeau  at  to  partlcuLtr  reniUniii.  sra  entitled  to 
■HldenlkiB  la  propunkia  to  thtir  uUqutlr  and  eiecUoMS 

'  DpfWftUBlty. 

n  Iumwti  on  CnuicTiTs, 
N.  R— Thia  whole  kind  of  erldeia  [>  only  (o  bo  nnd.  and 

HnBd  bf  ame  palpahls  luaiuUeiicy  In  fobit  ot  eiegMls 


•o,.JKlmal  n 


■a  It  li  pnwlble  Ihsl 


CKITICISM  s; 

(8.)  Ill  1703,  DfiderleiD  and  Meisner  puUIsbed  at 
Leipzig  an  edition  inUnded  in  some  measure  to  supplr 
tbe  want  uf  tha  eKlcnsire  colUtionB  of  Kennicott  and 
De  HoHi  It  containa  the  Toott  important  readitigi. 
The  edition  of  Jahn,  published  at  Vieuoa  in  ISDG,  is 
ver7  Taloable  and  convenient. 

(9.)  The  most  accurate  editions  of  the  Mawretic 
text  are  those  of  Van  der  Huo^jht,  at  latciy  edited  by 
Hahn  and  tj-  Theile,  at  I.eipiig,  and  stereolyped. 
The  text  of  Vsn  der  Hooght  uiaj-  now  be  reckoned 
as  the  f»ftu  rtctpba.  (For  TuU  lista  or  tha  printed 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  BiWe,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Le  Ixin^'s  mbUnli'ca,  edited  b}'  Maich,  and  tii  Koaen- 
DiQller'n  /tiialbacAfur  dit  Littratar  dtr  bib/ixitn  Kri- 
(U  laid  Eirgat,  i.  1M9-277,  See  also  Darling's  Cgdo- 
jiaJia  BSiCogTaphica,  vol.  on  the  "Holy  Scriptures," 
col.  46  Bq.) 

Motwithstandins  all  these  editions,  something  is 
Btill  wanted.  In  the  best  of  them  there  arc  paaaages 
nqniring  emcDdaCion.  It  is  curioue  to  obserre  hoir 
contradictions  are  allowed  to  remain  un  the  face  of  the 
Old-Testament  history.  It  may  be  that  the  Masora 
haa  produced  so  great  a  unifonuily  tb.it  extant  MSS. 
do  not  aanctinn  aay  departure  from  the  present  text, 
but,  where  passages  are  manifestly  corrupt,  it  ia  proper 
that  they  should  be  rectified.  The  criticism  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  is  still  behind  that  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment The  latter  waa  earlier  begun,  and  has  been 
more  vigorously  prosecated.  We  remain  nearly  in 
the  same  state  with  regard  to  the  Old-Tesument  text 
as  that  in  wh'u:h  KenuicoU  and  De  Rossi  left  us,  and  it 
la  tjme  that  some  advance  should  be  made  in  this  de- 
partment. The  onlv  important  recent  work  in  this 
direcUon  «  Dr.  S.  Uivid.ion's  Hrriiiono/ai  lleb.  Text 
of  the  0.  T.  (London,  1855,  8vg).      See  ScmrxcBES, 

UOLT. 

B.  We  shall  now  gireabriefhlatoryofTHe  New. 
Testahkni  text  in  its  lapriiiltd  and  prinlrd  furta. 
The  criticism  of  the  Sew  Testament  is  rich  in  materi- 
als, espeduUj  in  ancient  MSS.  But,  although  the 
history  of  Mew-Testament  criticism  rpcords  the  indus- 
trious collection  of  a  Xirge  amount  of  materiils,it  is 
not  equal)}'  abundant  in  ireU-occrtdiiiifcKlt,  such  as 
might  be  of  essential  beneflt  in  enabling  us  to  judge 
of  the  changes  made  Id  the  text.  History  is  silent 
respectiDg  the  period  when  the  two  parts  of  the  New 
Testament,  vii,,  the  laayyiXiav  and  riir-iin-oXoc,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  Pauline  and  re- 
mainlni;  e[astlBs,  were  put  together,  so  as  to  form  oat 
tcioU.  AlKiut  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  jt  Is 
certain  that  all  tba  booka  at  the  New  Testament  which 
we  now  posaess  were  acknowledged  to  lie  divine  and 
regarded  aa  canonical.     See  Ca.vov. 

1,  In  the  middle  of  the  same  century  Hesychius 
and  Locian  andertook  to  am^nd  the  MSS.  of  the  New 

to  have  entertained  a  high  opinl-n.  The  MSS.  they 
reviaed  did  not  meet  with  general  approval,  aud  pope 
Gelasius  Issued  a  decree  against  tbem.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  they  were  not  the  authors  of  recensions 
which  were  widely  circulated  or  generally  adopted. 
Origen  did  not  revise  the  text  of  the  New  Testament. 
At  a  comparatively  recent  period  certain  internal 
■narks  were  observed  to  belong  to  documents  contain- 
ing the  same  text.  A  similarity  In  characteristic 
readings  was  noticed.  Bengel  appears  to  have  lieen 
the  first  to  whom  the  idea  suggested  itself  of  dividing 
tbe  materials  according  to  the  peculiarities  which  he 
faintly  perceived.  It  was  afterwards  taken  up  by 
Semler,  aad  highly  elaborated  by  Griesbach.  Later 
editors  and  critics  have  endeavored  to  improve  upon 
Grieabach'a  system.  The  diGTerent  Ibrms  of  text  ob- 
served by  Semler  and  Griesbach  they  called  ruviutOM, 
although  the  appellation  ofjhmiki  is  more  appropriate. 
Perhaps  the  data  that  have  been  so  much  reganled  in 
classifying  the  documents  containinu  the  New-Tesu- 
ment  text  are  insufficient  to  establish  any  system. 


CRITICISM 

The  subject  of  recensions,  though  frequently  disrasted, 
is  not  settled.  In  the  history  of  the  impriiittd  text  it 
is  the  chief  topic  which  comes  before  the  inquirvr. 
Reserving  it  fur  future  notice  (see  Becensiox^X  ■< 
pass  to  the  history  of  the  prinied  text,  and  the  eS«ti 
made  to  emend  it 

!.  The  vkok  of  the  New  Testament  was  lint  printed 
(l.)in  the  Compluteueiau  Polyglot,  1514,  l<>L(nil.i), 
thuogh  not  published  till  1&17.  The  fint  puhUihtd 
was  (J.)  that  of  f'^aemus,  at  liable,  in  151G,  i  vols,  in  1, 
fol.  Both  were  issued  independently  of  one  anolliM, 
and  constitute  the  l^asis  of  the  nceired  tezt.  Yet  the 
iH-st  materials  were  not  employal  in  preparing  tbun. 
and  on  lioth  the  Vulgate  was  allawcd  to  exert  an  n- 


V.  7,  was  first  pat.  In  the  last  two  fae  made  grtat  ttt 
of  the  Coniplutensian  Polyglot. 

<3.)  The  third  place  among  the  early  editon  oflk 
Greek  TesUment  has  been  assigned  to  Robert  St> 
phens.  whose  flnt  edition  was  printed  at  Paris  (lUf^ 
I3mo),  chiefly  taken  from  tbe  Complutensiin,  and  gts- 
erally  styled  the  Miiijica  edition,  from  tbe  commeiiw- 
ment  of  Che  preface.  U  is  second  edition  was  pgbliili- 
ed  in  1549 ;  the  third  in  1550,  in  folio.  In  this  lift  br 
followed  tbe  lifth  of  Erasmus,  with  which  he  comparnl 
fifteen  MSS.,  and  the  Complutensian  Folyglol.  [i 
1561  appeared  another  edition,  accompanied  by  tlK 
Vulgate  and  the  translation  of  Erasmus.  It  is  rsnurk- 
able  for  being  the  first  into  which  tbe  diviskiii  of 
verses  was  introduced. 

(4.)  The  next  person  that  contribnted  to  l!»  sili 
cism  of  the  Greek  Testament  was  Theodore  Bea. 
The  text  of  his  Krst  e<lition  (1565,  folio)  was  the  unw 
as  that  of  the  third  of  Stephens,  altered  ui  about  m 
places,  accompani9d  with  the  Vulgate,  a  Latin  venira 
of  bis  own,  and  excgetical  remarks.  In  fail  wcml 
edition  (1582)  he  had  the  benefit  of  tbe  Syriat  v««oo 
and  two  ancient  codices.  A  third  impression  ippHi- 
ed  In  1589,  and  ■  fourth  in  1598.  The  Uirrir  tAitiiBi 
exhibit  partly  the  text  of  the  third  of  Sttrpbenf,  tal 
partly  that  of  Beia.  The  flrst  appeared  at  Lerda  is 
ir>34.  The  second  edition  of  16-13  procUims  its  teit 
to  be  the  trxtui  rrreptiii,  which  it  afterwards  heanK. 
Subsequentl}'  three  other  editions  issued  from  thr  ssmc 
press.  The  eilitor  does  not  appear  to  luve  ccnNiltnl 
any  Greek  USS.  All  his  readings  arc  either  in  Bea 
or  Stephens.     The  Elievir  editions  are  all  in  ISimi. 

(5.)  Brian  Walton,  the  learned  editor  of  the  Lomkn 
Polyglot,  gave  a  more  copious  collection  of  virioai 
readings  in  the  sixth  volume  of  that  work  this  hd 
liefore  appeared,  which  was  further  enlarged  bj  Dr. 
Fell,  in  his  edition,  published  at  Oxfonl  in  IGTi,  ixl 
reprinted  by  Gregorv  in  1703,  folio.    See  Foi-ioum- 

(6.)  Dr.  John  Mill,  encouraged  and  sopportnl  bi 
Fell,  gave  to  the  world  a  new  edition  in  1707.  tbhn. 
The  text  is  that  of  Stephens's  third  edition.  In  il  thr 
editor  exhil  iled,  from  Gregory's  MSS.,  a  rancli  gnsi- 
er  number  of  readings  than  is  to  be  found  in  any  Kl^ 
mer  edition.  He  revised  and  ioenased  tbe  e>tnrt! 
fiirmerly  made  from  ancient  venions.  Nor  did  in 
neglect  quotationa  from  the  fathers.  It  is  said  Hat 
tbe  work  contains  thirty  thousand  various  raiap- 
This  Important  edition,  so  far  superior  to  evrir  jn- 
ceiling  one,  cost  the  laborious  editor  tbe  t«1»nH(Udy 
of  thirty  years,  and  excited  the  prejudices  of  m»av 
who  were  unalile  to  appreciate  its  excellence.  It  re- 
stituted a  new  era  in  the  criticism  of  the  Ns «  Ti*»- 
ment.  Ludolph  Kuster  reprinted  Mill's  Gi«k  Tes- 
Ument at  Amsterdam  in  1710,  enriching  it  >7lb  Ibr 
readings  oftwelva  additional  MSS.  The  firjt  amnp* 
to  emend  the  (crtei  rrcrjiTiu  w(i«  made  by  Joha  Altert 
Bengel,  abbot  of  Alpirspnch.  His  editinn  apptai^  >* 
Toliingen  (quarto,  17S4),  to  which  was  pniixed  Ui 
"Introductioin  crisin  Novi  Tertamenli.'  Salji^«l 
is  an  apparatai  critiaa,  containing  his  coUeetioa  of 


CRITICISM  5 

rmrioiu  Toadlng,  chieflj  Uken  fmm  Hill,  1id[  vUh  im- 

(7.)  Dr,  John  Juoei  WeUUin  contriliule.l,  in  no 
■nHll  dejfree,  to  the  adTHnieraent  of  sacred  criticiam. 
by  his  l.irge  edition  of  the  iSieek  TeaUunent,  published 
atAmBterdainialT61-i,2  vols,  folic.  In  ITSObclud 
pnhlltbvi  praifgomena.  It  wu  bifl  desini  lo  give  B 
new  and  correcced  text,  bat  be  wu  compelled  by  cir- 
cmuUncH  to  exhibit  the  trxtui  recepfw.  Yat  he 
Dotad,  partly  in  tbe  text  itKlf,  partly  in  the  inner  nur- 
^n,  Buch  rskdingi  u  ha  preferred.  His  collection  of 
ruioDB  raadingfi,  vith  their  respective  lutbDritlea,  tat 
«s(«edB  all  former  works  of  the  mme  kind  in  copioni 
new  and  valne.  He  collat«d  anew  many  importsr 
MSS.  that  had  been  •upcrHcIally  examined,  gave  ei 
trkcta  from  many  for  the  flmt  time,  and  made  n«e  o 
the  Horclean  (improperly  called  tlie  Philaxenian)  rei 
■ion,  hllherto  uacollated.  For  convenience  he  marked 
tba  tmcioi  MSS.  with  the  letten  of  the  alphabet,  and 
the  cum'M  with  nnmerical  letters.  Hia  exegetical 
notes  are  chiefly  extracts  Item  Greek,  Latin,  and  Jew- 
Ui  writers,  llie  edition  of  the  Qreek  Tealament  un- 
der considontiini  la  [ndispeaaable  lo  every  critic,  and 
will  elwaya  be  reckoned  a  marveUouB  monument  of 
indomitable  energy  and  nnwearied  diligence.  The 
Prolrffomtna  contain  a  tieaaure  of  sacred  learning  [hat 
will  alwaya  be  priied  bv  the  Bcbolar.  Thcv  were  rt- 
pqblbhed,  with  valuslila  notea,  by  Semler  (i;74,  8ro). 
(t>.)  The  ocbolar  who  is  pre-eminently  diitinguifhed 
in  tba  blstnry  of  New-Testament  criticism  is  Dr.  John 
James  Griesbocb.  He  aoriEhad  the  materials  collect- 
ed by  Wetatein  with  new  and  important  additions,  by 
collating  MSS.,  versions,  and  early  eccleaiisticsl  writ- 
er*, particnlariy  Origen,  with  great  labor.  The  idea 
of  rrcnuKM*,  recommended  liy  Bengel  and  Semler,  he 
adopted,  and  carried  oat  with  much  acutenesa  and  sa- 
gw:ity.  His  first  edition  appeared  at  Halle  (2  vnla.  Hvo, 
1774-5).  The  first  three  gospels  were  Bynoptically  ai^ 
ranged,  bat  in  1777  he  pablished  them  in  their  natural 
order.  Tbe  text  is  founded  on  a  comparison  of  tbe 
eo|uaiu  mateiiala  which  he  possessed.  Nothing  waa 
adapted  from  conjecture,  and  nothing  received  which 
had  not  the  sanction  of  codices  as  well  as  versions.  A 
*el«ct  number  of  readings  is  placed  beneath  the  text. 
In  bis  S3~Mir  Crista  he  gave  an  account  oriiis  crit- 
ical lalwra,  and  of  the  collations  of  Daw  authorities  he 
had  made.  Such  was  the  commemxmtnt  of  Criesbach's 
literaiy  lators. 

(9.)  Between  tba  years  1782-S8,  C.  F.  Mattbaei  pub- 
Usbed  a  new  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  at  Riga, 
in  12  vols.  Sto.  His  text  was  founded  '>n  a  colUtian 
of  more  than  100  Moscow  USS.,  which  he  Hrst  sxam- 
ioed.  It  is  accompanied  with  the  Vulgate,  tdalia,  and 
(zcurnu.  He  avowed  himself  an  enemy  lo  the  idea 
of  recauiom,  desi^sed  tbe  ancient  MSS.  (especially  cod. 
Baus)  and  the  quolattona  of  the  fothen,  while  he  un- 
duly exaltad  bis  Moscow  MSS.  His  chief  merit  lies 
In  the  careliil  collation  ha  made  of  a  number  of  MSS. 
hitherto  unknown. 

(10.)  Before  tbe  completion  of  Mslthaei'a  edition 
appear<!d  that  of  Alter  (Vindob.  17R6-T,  2  vols.  8vo). 
Tbe  text  is  that  of  the  Vienna  MS.,  with  which  he  col- 
lated 22  others  in  the  Imperial  IDiTary.  To  these  he 
added  resulings  from  the  Coptic,  Slavonian,  and  Latin 
vennons. 

(11.)  In  1788,  Proftsser  Birch,  of  Copenhagen,  en- 
la^^  the  province  of  siicred  criticism  hy  hb  splendid 
edition  of  the  four  Gospels  in  folio  and  quajpi.  The 
text  is  a  reprint  of  Stephens's  third,  but  the  materials 
appended  to  it  are  highly  valuable.  They  consist  of 
extracts  taken  liy  himself  and  Moldenhaner,  in  their 
(nvcis,  fhMn  many  MSS.  not  examined  by  Wetslein, 
and  of  Aller's  seleclinns  fmm  the  Jerusalem-Syriat 
version  discovered  in  the  Vatican,  Birch  was  the  first 
who  cnrefDlly  collated  the  Cudtr  VoUcama.  The  pul>- 
lication  of  the  second  volume  was  prevented  hy  a  tire 
that  destroyed  many  of  tbe  matcriala.     In  1798  be 


1  CRITICISM 

published  bis  variana  readings 
New  Teatament,  except  tbe  Apocalypse, 
published  those  relating  to  this  liook  also, 
(ta.)  In  1796  appeared  the  first  volume 
greatly-Improved  edition  of  Grieshach's  New  Te 


1800  hi 


u  the  A 


Slavonic,  Latin,  Sahidic,  Coptic,  and  other  versions, 
lieaides  Incorponting  into  bis  collectiuo  the  remits  of 
tbe  labors  of  Matthael,  Alter,  and  Birch.  The  second 
volume  appeared  in  18(K,  both  published  at  Halle,  in 

.  8vo.  At  the  end  of  the  second  volume  is  a  dissertation 
on  1  John  v,  7,     Tbe  work  waa  reprinted  at  Leipzig, 

I  ie03-7,  in  tout  splendid  4to  vols. ;  aim  at  London  in 
ia09,  and  again  in  1S18,  2  vols.  6vo.  The  prolegomena' 
are  exceedingly  valuslile.  Tills  edition  cannot  be  too 
iiighiy  rated.  It  Is  iudbpensable  to  every  critic  and 
intelligent  theologian. 

In  1827,  many  new  materials  having  been  procared 
since  tbe  date  of  Griesbach's  last  edition,  it  was  thought 
necesssry  to  publish  a  third.  It  appeared  accordiagly, 
under  tbe  SDpariatendence  of  Dr.  Scbulz.  at  Berlin,  in 
Svo.  The  first  volume  contains  tbe  prolegomena  and 
tbe  Gospels.  It  exhibits  various  readings  fmm  about 
20  new  sources,  many  corrections  of  Griesbach's  ref- 
erences and  citations,  besides  considerable  improve- 
ments in  other  respects.  Tbe  second  volume  baa  not 
been  published. 

Tbe  editions  of  Knapp,  Schott,Tittmann,  Vater,  Nil- 
be,  and  GOschen  are  chiefly  founded  upon  that  of 
Griesbach.  Of  these  the  most  esteemed  is  that  of 
Knapp,  which  haa  passed  through  Ave  editiona,  and  is 
characterized  Ly  sound  judgment,  especially  in  the 
punctuation  and  accents. 

(14.)  In  1830  appeared  the  Arst  volume  of  a  large 
critical  edition,  superintended  by  Dr.  J.  Martin  Augus- 
tus Scholi.  profbaeor  at  Bonn,  containing  tbe  Gospels. 
The  second  volume,  in  leBfi,  completed  the  work.  Botb 
are  in  quarto.  The  editor  spent  twelve  years  of  inces- 
sant labor  in  collecting  materials  for  the  work,  and 
travelled  into  many  countries  for  tlis  purpose  of  colla- 
ting MSS.  Tbe  prolegomena  prefixed  to  the  first  vol- 
ume occupy  172  pa^es,  and  contain  ample  information 
respecting  alt  the  coilices,  versions,  fBtben-,  acts  of 
councils,  etc.,  etc.,  which  are  used  as  authorities,  tO> 
getber  with  a  history  of  tbe  text,  and  an  exposition  of 
his  classification  system.     In  tbe  inner  margin  are  giv- 

families.  The  total  numlier  of  MSS.  which  be  has 
added  to  those  previously  collated  Is  606.  Uttle  reli- 
ance, however,  can  lie  placed  on  the  accuracy  of  tbe 
extracts  which  he  has  given  for  the  lirst  time.  His 
researches  have  tended  to  raise  the  leilia  rKtpliu  bibb- 
er ttian  Griesbach  placed  it.  In  consequence  of  his 
preferring  tbe  CotulaiitinitpiJitan  familr.  his  text  comes 
nearer  the  Eiievir  edition  than  that  ofGHesbauh.  The 
merits  of  this  laborious  editor  are  consideralde.  He 
has  greatly  enlarged  our  critical  apparatus.  Yet  in 
acutcness,  sagacity,  and  acbolarshlp  he  is  far  Inferior 
to  Griesbach.  Hie  collations  appear  Co  have  Ijcen  su- 
perficial. They  are  not  to  be  depended  on.  Hence 
the  text  can  not  command  the  confidence  of  I'rotestant 
critics.  We  can  not  believe,  with  tbe  editor,  that  tha 
Byzantine  family  ia  equal  in  value  or  authority  to  tha 
Ale.tandrine,  which  is  confessedly  more  ancient,  nor 
can  we  put  his  junior  codices  on  a  level  with  the  very 
valuable  documents  of  tbe  Oriental  recension.  His 
text  is,  on  Me  tchoU,  Inferior  to  that  of  Griesbach.  In 
a  few  important  passages  only  it  is  superior. 

{lb.)  Tbe  edition  of  Lachmann,  though  small  in  com- 
pass, ileserves  to  be  especially  mentioned.  It  was  pub- 
lished at  Berlbi  in  18.11,  12mo.  The  editor  says  that 
be  has  nowhere  fallowed  his  own  judgment,  but  'ir 
luo^r  n/lhf  OrieiUol  elUi'cy:  The  text  of  Lachmann 
baa  been  well  received  in  Germany,  and  much  impor- 
tance has  been  attached  to  it.  From  [be  authority  It 
has  olitiiinrd.  it  would  oppear  that  the  Constantinopol* 
itan  text  of  Scboli  in  nut  very  favorably  regarded. 


CRITICISM  5 

o  tlu  Bible,  tbavt  a 
iiDunn.  Riitck  cain- 
cldet,  on  the  whole,  with  du  silme.  The  lost-named 
Icholar  haa  flnlar^^  the  critical  upparatUB  of  the  New 
Testament  t>y  coTlsling  and  iletcribing  severul  MS8. 
{Luaibratie  Crittea  m  Ada  Apott.  epp.  CaiA.  el  Paiii-n., 
etc.,  etc.,  Biuel,  1830,  8vo).  There  u  alw  ■  large  edi- 
tioD  by  LschmaDn  (.Viwiuii  TettanaUuia,  Graer  rl  La. 
Hut.  CaToba  Ladtmawaa  Ttcenmit.  Philippui  Batt- 
Momu)  Ph.  F.  Grata  I'Ciionii  auaoritalti  .i/ip,«iii(.  'I'o- 
moa  prior,  Berolini,  1842,  8to  ;  tomnt  alter,  ib.  1K5U). 

The  editioiiB  by  this  critic  are  by  Ikr  the  nwat  hn- 
portaot  that  have  appeared  ainoe  the  duye  of  Gries- 
bacb,  and  muM  produce  resalUt  highly  favorable  U> 
the  advancement  of  New  TesHmaut  criticiam.  The 
priaciple^  on  whicli  lAchmann  proceeda  verc  ex- 
ponnded  in  the  TAtoiog.  Slud!en.  and  Kritikta  for  18:^0. 
p.  817-845.  and  again  in  1835.  p.  670  aq.  The  path 
which  he  lirat  pursued  in  hia  imaller  adlllon  waa  indi- 
cated by  Benlley,  who  purposed  to  piibliah  the  Greek 
Teatament  on  aimilar  princlplea.  In  order  to  discover 
hii  Oriental  l«xt  (a  text  vhich  !a  Bub-itiuilialiy  the 
Ume  ta  the  Alexa^naii\  Lacbmian  mjk^a  uae  of  the 
Ibliowing  aathoridea:  1.  A,  B,  C.  D,  as  aba  P,  Q,  T, 
Z,  in  the  GoBpel^  and  in  the  Pauline  e;H<t1»>,  H  in 
addition.  2.  La6»  inlrrprttcUiont,  riz.  in  the  Gospela 
the  Vercellian,  Vcronian,  Colberline,  Cambridge;  in 
the  Acts  the  Cambrid^'e  and  LaudJan ;  in  the  Paulina 
apistlea  the  Clermont,  St.  Germatna,  Ikismerian  ;  in 
the  Apocalypse  the  Prinuaian.  In  addition  to  thesp, 
the  Vulgate,  aa  edited  by  Jerome,  ia  everywhere  em- 
ployed. Of  the  fathers,  he  conaallt  Ireasna,  Ori^n, 
Cyprian,  Hilary,  and  Lucifer.  Tbe  immense  maaa  of 
later  HS3.  and  bthera  ia  entirely  overlooked  aa  une- 
leas.  The  anthorities  for  the  Greek  readings  an 
given  below  thi  text;  and,  when  it  is  conaidared  how 
few  materials  are  employed,  it  will  readily  he  sup- 
posed that  the  various  reading  noted  are  not  nnmer- 
ona.  They  are,  however,  most  valuable  and  important. 
In  addirion  to  the  Greek  text  and  critical  appsralus, 
tbe  Ilierunymian  Vulgate  is  jjivpn,  in  the  same  form, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  in  which  it  proceeded  front  Je- 
rome, with  itnportunt  readings  extracted  fhitn  tlic  I'ul- 
danaian  Codex,  from  the  naina  corrected  by  Victor, 
bishop  of  Capua,  and  from  the  Lnurentian  Codo.^. 
The  great  aim  of  the  editor  boa  been  to  exhibit  a  toxt 
in  which  the  most  ancient  authorities  an  entir(.-1y 

hia  critical  apparatus  shows  tbe  decree  of  probability 
attached  to  the  text  aa  given  iiy  hiai.  To  the  volume 
is  preflxed  a  prebce  of  Sa  pages  (a  few  of  them  ftnm 
Buttmann),  in  which  the  learned  e.liloT  expounds  bis 
mode  of  procedure,  and  the  autboritiea  conaaited. 
Respecting  the  oppunanis  of  his  syslam,  he  does  not 
Speak  in  the  most  coortsoos  or  becomini{  tanjDsga, 
nor  ia  his  Latinily  the  purest.  Yet  the  preface  is  in- 
atmctlve  withal,  and  must  bt  Uuditd  by  him  who  uses 
Lachroann'a  text.  Were  we  disposed  to  follow  the 
text  of  any  one  editor  abmSultii/,  we  should  follntt 
Lachmann'a.  But  it  may  be  doubled  whether  lis  has 
not  conHned  himaelf  to  a  range  of  autiiorities  too  cir- 
oumscribed.  By  keeping  within  tha/inrtf  century 
he  baa  occasionally  been  compelled  to  rest  upon  one  ur 
tvo  teatimoniea.  We  aboald  therefore  like  to  see  more 
authorities  consulted.  We  are  persuaded,  however, 
that  this  author  haa  entered  upon  a  right  path  of  in- 
vcatigation,  which  will  lead  to  results  both  permanent- 
ly useful  and  unuanally  successful.  The  correctneea 
of  these  princlplea,  in  the  main,  hna  l>e«n  vindicated 
by  the  fact  that  l.ilcr  eminent  critics  have  pursued  es- 
•entially  the  ssmo  path. 

(16.)  Since  the  appearance  of  Lacbmann's  fir^t  edi- 
tion, another  h.na  l«en  publinheii  in  Germany  liy  Dr. 
Tischcndorf  (Leipzii;,  184 1,  Svo  i,  which  requires  notice. 
It  exhibits  a  corrected  text,  taken  IVom  the  moat  an- 
c'lent  and  best  MSS.,  with  the  principal  various  Trad- 
ings, together  with  the  reidings  of  the  Elzevir,  Knapp,  | 


2      (CROATIA  AND  SLAVONIA 

Scholi,  and  Laclimann  editions.  Great  paina  bavs 
manifestly  been  bestowed  on  the  text  and  the  critical 
apparatus  aubjoinad  to  it.  The  prolegumena.  consist- 
ingofSa  pjges,  are  exceedingly  valuable.  They  treat 
of  recf  uiuut,  with  an  especial  reference  to  .Si:boli'B  ■]•>- 
torn;  eaumerate  the  reidingi  ]wckiliar  to  the  third  edi- 
tiun  of  Stephens  and  that  of  Mill,  to  the  editions  of 
Uatthaei  and  Crl^bach;  and  specify  the  critical  ma- 
terials employed  in  the  elaboration  of  a  pun  (cxt. 
A  cjreful  perusal  of  tho  editor's  able  prefacr,  and  a 
i.'olUtion  of  bis  text  and  crirical  apparatus  beneath  it, 
have  convinced  os  of  the  giast  c 


Jl.l0  B 


llbyai 


lis  edition  of  tbe  Greek  Teatsmenl  is  charactoized. 
In  1869,  Tiscbsndi.rf  pulilished  the  seventh  edition 
of  his  Greek  'I  »>■[.. m.;Dt  (Lpi.  8to),  greatly  enlargsd 
and  improved,  from  the  matstiala  which  be  had 
brought  to  light  iu  the  intorim.  A  notable  additko 
to  tbe  lutter  b  tbe  famous  Simiitic  MS.  (q.  v.)  dinwv- 
ered  by  bim.ond  Ltely  published,  the  malt*  of  tba«K- 
amination  of  which,  to|;ether  with  those  of  tbe  Codex 
Vaticanus  recently  ptea  by  cardinal  Mai  to  the  pub- 
lic, are  embraced,  with  other  freab  materials,  in  l^a- 
cbendorTs  eighth  adition  now  in  couiw  of  publication 
(Lpi.  1864,  sq.  Svo). 

(17.)  A  new  and  critical  edithm  of  tba  Creek  Taata- 
ment,  accompanied  by  tbe  old  Latin  remon,  haa  been 
liegun  by  I>r.  Trebles,  and  issued  in  Jbieiadi,  of 
which  the  Gospela  have  appeared  (London,  4lo).  The 
editor  aims  at  great  accuracy  in  bla  authoriliea.  Hia 
text,  however,  ahowa  defective  judgment,  and  relies 
too  exclusively  on  a  few  ancient  USS.      It  will  bs  a 

(18.)  Alford'a  Gmdc  Tetmi^  (London,  1853-61,  6 
vols.  8vo)  contains  a  revised  text  and  a  copious  crit- 
ical apparatus,  mostly  com{nled,  however,  from  Tis- 
chcndorf, and  marked  by  too  great  a  loaning  to  aiib> 
Jective  or  iniemal  evidence. 

(19.)  Mr.  Scrivener's  critical  Ubon  on  tbe  Greek 
Teatament  deserve  mention  In  this  connection  fbr  tbeir 
accurate  research.  An  account  of  tbem  may  be  found 
in  hia  Mi-odHeHtm  (Carabr.  1861,  Bvo). 

III.  The  operations  of  sacred  criticism  have  ortah- 
lished  tho  genuineness  of  tbe  Old  and 
texts  in  every  matter  of  Importance,  i 
and  duties  remain  nnaSbcted  by  ita  investigations.  It 
baa  proved  that  there  is  no  material  corraption  in  ths 
inspired  records.  It  baa  shown  that  during  the  lapae 
of  many  centuries  the  Holy  Scriptures  bare  been  prs- 
Served  in  a  sorpriaing  degree  of  purity.  Tbe  text  ia 
auhatantially  In  the  sam*  condition  as  tliat  in  which  it 
was  found  seventeen  hundred  yeara  ago.  L^  Um 
plain  reader  take  comfort  to  himself  when  be  reflects 
that  tho  received  text  which  he  ia  aecustomed  to  read 
is  ndttbtntiaUs  the  ume  oa  that  which  men  of  tba 
greatest  learning  and  tho  moit  unwearied  diligencv 
havD  elicited  ttma  an  immen'o  heap  of  document*. 

For  a  copiouB  account  of  the  various  editions  of  the 
Greek  Testament  the  reader  is  referrrd  to  Le  Long's 
Sbliatheea,  edit«il  I'y  Maach;  or  to  RosenmQIIer'a 
Hnndlmck/ar  die  Liirratiir  dtr  biblUdum  Krilik  tad 
hxtj'",  i,  P-  278-122;  or  to  Tregellee's  Acoamt  of 
iheprinird  Text  o/ Uie  Gr.  Keie  Tm*.  (Lend.  1»M).  *A 
pretty  full  list  may  be  found  in  Darling's  Cyrli^nrjia 
jUiWwij.col.SlBq.  See  also  an  article  un  the  ''Uann- 
Bcripts  ind  Editions  of  tbe  New  Testament,"  by  Hums 
Stuart,  in  BoUnson's  BibHoHi'^  Sacra,  No.  2,  May, 
1843 ;  Davidsm'a  leeturri  oa  BiUiail  CrUicum  (2  vota, 
8vo,  Kiliii1>.ai>d  ik.st.  185-.!).     Ewe  Bibi.e. 

CKlTICiSM.'i'iiKHioHKn,     See  p.  929  oflhii  voL 

Croatia  and  Slavonia,  a  united  province  of  tbe 
Austrian  empire;  area  9800  square  miles;  population 
iu  1867,  865.40.^.  The  inhabitants  are  of  SlBtoilaa 
descent,  and  mostlv  lielong  to  tLe  Roman  Catbolic  re- 
ligion (in  1851,  77n.G56  Rouuui  CathoiicH.  and  88,831 
United  Greek').  Therv  were,  besides,  S86  Liuh«aas, 
4445  Reformed,  718  Greeks,  G  Unitarians,  and  8914 


CROCIUS  51 

Jewi.  CictU  iioonsidered  *  pert  at  Ilnngarr,  but 
tinDfriy  posHSKd  Hnni  priviteK«a  ;  aniDnB  athen,  to 
cxclnd*  PntesUnCa  from  it«  borden.  In  1866  the 
CnatUD  Due  puMd  nMluttoiu  in  favor  of  religiooi 
toleration. 

Crocinm,  JoDixma,  a  GermiD  theoloKian,  iru 
bom  at  Lauphe  July  28,  1690;  Mndled  at  H«rbom 
tad  Uirbur^,  and  gisdiuled  in  1608.  In  1612  be  bs- 
am  court  |>rpBFbtr  of  the  LindKravc  Moriti  at  Ca>- 
rrl.  doctor  of  divinity  la  161S,  and  in  1616  preacher  at 
Kunigalwrg.  Ketuming  lo  Marburj|[,  he  Ijecame  pro- 
fciMr  of  Theologj  In  th«  Unlvenitj.  lie  wu  the 
Inder  uf  tlie  evan|{ellcal  rtate  Church  of  Hexe-Cah 
kI,  and  the  Lutheran  haTing  Dvercome  the  Refbrmed 
Chunb,  he  fled  to  CaMel  in  1624  ;  but  alter  the  peu» 
in  16&3.  he  returned  and  became  rector  of  tbe  Univei^ 
titT.  He  died  Jaly  1. 16&9.  Hii  iiHocipal  worku  are, 
Emmrtt  dogmata  lurorTin  A  rianonm  m  Fotmia  (Bre- 
men. IG12,  Mva) ;  Aicu  el  ctmcordia  reangttuianilH  la- 
era  ii/,M.o  (Marburg,  16!S,6ro);  AnH-Brcamit  i.e. 
tautreorrtranm  oa»na>ui«».  qaat  Man.  Btcanai  Co- 
iWtfu,  iMlJieri  oe  Cahini  mimint  perjirram  ditertiu, 
ja  UaKtaM.  motil  eaamm,  ex  S.S.tt  amtigiatale  tiuM- 
(■(■n  (CbmcI. 1648,3  vab.4to);  Atiti-Bteimi a Moguit. 
tjmmm  (AnJu^onm  ej'ttntntu  }iala  nmiicatio  (Mar- 
hnrg.  16M);  Anli-HoffeSmt  (Caasel,  1661).— Herzog, 
Btat-f-mcytlopaiiU,  Si,  187. 

Crocodlls,  an  animal  donbtleu  referred  to  ander 
the  name  Zeriul&aa  ('|I^'|lV)  In  >>>«  Ci[n<nu  deKription 
of  Job  xli  (Ilel).  xl,  ifr^^i),  of  wbidi  the  following  ii 


CROCODILE 


He  irlll  r-garf  u  -Irn-, 


L'nder  himlftTe]  pc^nt-  [■']  of  pollery. 

Us  '111  •treir  |hl>  fplkeil  Inllr  llki-j  a  ihntrhlLe.«tedg« 


to  boll  like  the  pot. 


!)» 1  wa\i  rfg.nl  [IhE)  mslri 


e.  larger  beaftt], 
I  tlrikinglf  applicable 


He,  [thcj  k< 

1  hii  description  ig  in  tL 
to  aniiDala  of  the  alligator  tribe,  although  highly  col- 
ored in  the  poetic  ntyle.  Yet,  uobeerredwithrejcard 
to  tbe  aaiDciated  animal  (aee  Behemoth),  the  pbraee- 
olog;  it  perhaps  rather  intended  genericall;  for  lar^e 
amphlhioui  munnan  of  the  saurian  or  lizard  family, 
than  for  any  one  creatiire  di»linclively ;  a  conduiion 
that  ii>  conhrmed  by  the  employment  of  tbe  Ileb.  term 
ltTa'h:n  to  other  anunuls  of  the  fiahj  and  reptile 
kind*.  Indeed,  as  in  tbe  case  of  the  bippopolamua, 
deppite  the  formidable  attribute*  arciibed  to  the  heiit 
in  queFition  by  the  writer  in  Job,  it  appears  to  have 
been  attacked  without  much  ttar  bv  tbe  ancirntr ;  and 
allboogb  beld  Mcred  in  fome  part*  of  Egypt,  where  it 
ia  eti|ieciallf  found,  in  other  nomea  it  waa  hunted  sua 


Lertalhan  with  a  hook. 
It  thou  prew  down  hia 

■1  thoo  put  a  nub.(rope]  to  hit 

Or  vlih  a  thoni.[hookJ  caott  thou  bore 

rm  he  mnltlplr  to  thee  lapplleaHciiu; 
apiom   Ihnu  he   will   ipeak   la   IhM   aoft 

(tMnplI 
Will  he  raiLfr  a  comunt  with  ifaeeT 
will  thou  take  him  for  a  ■arrant  [for] 

nitlbou  plarwithfalio  ai  wUh  th*  iparniw, 
Tttahim  far  thy  inalilenaF 

■hill  Ibora  dig  {■  pti)  for  him  pnrtm  n. 

Unill  ihare  him  helwaen  Uauianllei  [L 


ir 


a«1l  wilh  darti , 

fl>b.ilirar  [L  e.  harpoon]  h!i  I 
ipno  him  [bnl]  thy  hand— 


irti 


Ia'.  hb  n  e,  the  aiaallant'Fl  hopa  I 
belled: 

At  the  rrry  ilitht  of  him  will  he  be  pmairatedr 
N'or  [w]  bold  that  wDl  ronu  him : 
(Then  wb»[l.)  he  [Ihal)"-''™  ""-'-"  ■-*• 

Vbo  hmr  ■ollripab'd  Ire  (In  n 


tad 


loin<.[Wlong.]that!) 


Who  haa  dlficlnHd  Ihe  rurfaee 
b  M>  danbl»  [no]  of  srln'lm 


lAI]  hli  •DHIlDRn  ■  ll^hl  will  tUalu 
And  hIa  erei  [an]  like  the  la>hea  of  daw 

Krark-nfarawlllHcape: 


m  hl>  rialnz  [the]  ■nlthtj' 


Croeodila  (Oui«lilii(  VulgaTifi. 
cEMfDlly  (Wilkinton,  ^ik.  Eg,  i,  241  tq.).  The  croco- 
dile, however,  Is  appuently  elsewhere  definitely  re- 
ferred to  in  Scrlptare  by  other  names,  eaperially  a* 
Ike  rrnUratt  (Psa.  Ixviii,  81 ;  aee  Schramm,  De  briUa 
armdu^  F.  ad  0. 1713).     See  Rakab. 

"The  crocodilea,  conrtitutlng  the  order  Lorieata 
amongreptiles.aredistingnifhcd  pre-eminently  by  the 
character  noticed  in  Holy  Writ.  They  are  clothed  on 
the  entire  upper  fiarta  of  the  body  with  diattnct  aeries 
of  bones,  imbedded  in  the  substance  of  tbe  skin,  and 
for  tbe  most  part  famished  with  a  rid^e  or  creat,  which 
greatly  augtnenta  tbelr  alrenirth,  and  conititutrB  tbe 
whole  a  coat  of  plate-mail  which  la  able  to  resist  tbe 
assaults  of  the  most  powerful  enemy.  The  slmctara 
of  the  skull  Is  remaritably  solid,  and  it  is  snnnoutited 
by  bony  crents.  There  ii>  a  single  row  of  teeth  in  each 
side  of  each  jaw,  locking  intu  each  other.  The  gape  la 
enormous :  the  lip  are  alIo,fFther  wanting,  so  that  tbe 
teeth  are  visible  when  the  mouth  is  cloaed ;  hence  the 
animal,  even  when  tranquil,  seems  to  lie  grinning  with 
ragr.  The  ton((ue  is  fle-hy,  flst,  bnt  free  only  at  the 
extreme  edge,  the  infanor  surface  being  adherent  to 
the  chin  and  throat;  hence  the  crocodile  baa  been  rr- 
roneon<ly  represented  aa  tonguelesa. 

"All  the  Bpeciea  of  this  order  are  of  huge  sliq  Jno4 


thai) 

aga,     Hlgfalj 


CROCODILE  57 

onlj  are  they  the  hugeat  orrcplilsr,  bat  they  are  amoDg  1 

the  moat  gigaD  lie  orill  animiilp.  Crucodilev  bare  b«Fn  ' 
,  described  as  attamlng  a  lengih  of  twenty-five  teet,  tiut 
DO  BpecEnuna  have  beeo  Lrongbt  to  Earope  of  nearly 
"    '  They  are  probably  lonjf-lived,  and  perhaps 

sau  of  dimenaioiis  is  comniBiisnnite  with  thoir 
earnivurous  and  predaeeoo*,  lierce  snd 
■re  greatly  dreaded  In  all  the  Iropieal 
regions  which  they  inhabit.  Lnrking  in  the  dense 
reeds  or  tangled  herbage  that  grotit  rank  and  teeming 

above  the  water,  or  concealed  among  the  bleaching 
truiike  and  branches  of  trees  that  have  tiillen  into  the 
Btrssm,  these  huge  reptiles  watch  for  the  approach  of 
a  living  prey,  or  feed  at  leisure  on  the  putrid  curcaaees 
with  which  the  waters  daily  supply  them.  It  Is  oven 
affirmed  that  they  prefer  a  condition  of  putTrecence  in 
their  prey,  and  that  their  practice,  when  not  prepsed  by 
immediate  hungrr,  is,  on  seising  a  living  prry,  to 
plunge  into  the  stream  in  order  to  drown  it,  afl^  which 
it  is  drag)(ed  away  to  some  hole,  and  stored  until  de- 
compoaition  haa  nmrnenced. 

"Among  the  dec-iratinns  uf  the  palace  of  Shulmane- 
ser,  M.  Botta  dlscovereda  bss-relief  continaed  over  Hve 
sMir,  andrepresenting  a  i:rej<t  naval  expedition  against 
a  maritime  dty.  A  flaet  of  ships  transport  timber 
along  a  coait  washed  by  the  sea,  and  studded  with  for- 
tified islaada — perhaps  the  siege  of  Tyre  by  tbia  As- 
syrian monarch.  The  aea  is  represented  as  filled  with 
various  marine  animaH.  soch  as  fishes  of  vorioDs  formp, 
turtles,  turbinate  shells,  crabs,  and  avcidtei  {Mm.  de 
Nirnvt).  This,  it  is  true,  niav  have  been  bnt  a  license 
of  the  artist;  bntMr.  Lycll,  in  hiB/>rwH7p'fsa/CsuJ(g9, 
olieerves  that  the  gavial,  a  larger  species  than  the  croc- 
odile of  the  Kile,  inhaUitini;  the  Ganges,  descends  bC' 
yond  the  brackihb  water  of  the  delu  to  the  sea.  And 
other  species  of  the  genus  CrotodUai  (js  restricted)  are 
frequently  known  not  only  to  haunt  the  mouths  of  riv- 

to  another,  though  leparsted  by  conaideralde  spaces  of 
open  sea.^'     See  the  I'vmiy  CijuivjHztiia^  s.  v.     Compare 

'*  The  crocodiles  consiat  of  three  varieties,  or  perhaps 
species,  all  natives  of  the  Nile,  dls^nguisbable  by  tlie 
different  arrangement  of  the  scuta  or  bony  studs  on 
the  neck,  and  the  number  of  rowa  of  Ibe  same  process- 
es along  the  bsck.     Their  general  ilzurd-furm  is  loo 

be  remarked  that  of  the  whole  hmily  of  crocodiles, 
comprehending  the  sharp-beaked  gavials  of  India,  the 


alligab 


le  Wesi 


called,  the  last  are  suppll^'d  with  the  most  vigorius  In- 
struments for  ewimming,  both  ttom  tlte  strength  and 
vertical  breadth  of  their  tails,  and  from  the  deeper  webs 
of  the  lingers  of  their  paws.  Although  ell  have  ft-om 
thirty  to  forty  leetb  in  each  Jaw,  shaped  like  spikes, 
without  breadth  so  aa  to  cut,  or  lurbce  so  ns  to  admit 
of  grinding,  the  true  ciwwdile  alone  has  one  or  more 
teeth  on  each  stde  In  both  jaws,  exaerted,  that  Is,  not 
closing  within,  but  out«ide  the  >w.  They  have  no 
external  ear  beyond  a  follicle  of  skin,  and  the  eyes 
I  above  the  plane  of  the  head,  the  pupils 


actlle. 


a  cat,  and  in 


gested  the  comparison  of  the  eyes  of  leviathan  to  'the 
eyeUds  of  the  dawn'  (Job  sli,  10  [A,  V.  18]).  The 
upper  jaw  is  not  movable,  bat,  as  well  as  the  forehead, 
bony ;  the  rest  of  the  upper 


d  with  SI 

}n  the  tail  are  at  last  reduced  fii>m 
two  to  one.  each  scale  having  a  high  homy  crest,  which 
acts  as  part  of  a  great  An.  Although  destitute  of  a 
real  voice,  crocodiles  when  angry  produce  ■  snorting 
sound,  something  like  a  deep  growl  [or  ratlier  grunt]  ; 
donally  they  open  the  mouth  very  wide,  re- 
exposed  fadng  the  breeze,  and. 


?d  ridges,  which 


main  for  a  time  thus  i 


4  CROCODILE 

closing  the  Jaws  with  a>ndden  siuip,caiue  a  report  Ilka 
the  fall  of  a  trap-door.  It  Is  an  awfal  soand  In  tli« 
stillness  of  the  night  in  tropical  countries.  TheguUct 
of  the  crocodile  is  very  wide,  the  tongue  being  mHO- 
plelely  tied  to  the  lower  Jaw,  and  beneath  it  are  gUods 
exuding  a  musky  substance.  On  land  the  crocodile, 
next  to  the  gavlal,  is  the  most  active,  and  in  tbe  water 
it  is  also  the  species  that  most  readily  Avquenta  tin 
open  sea.  Of  the  immenae  number  of  genera  exam- 
ined, none  reached  to  SA  feet  hi  length,  and  the  speci- 
men In  the  Britisli  Mnsenm  is  believed  to  be  one  of  U» 
largest.  Sheep  are  observed  to  be  unmolested  by  tbeee 
animola;  but  where  they  abonnd  no  pigs  can  be  kept, 
perhaps  from  their  frequenting  the  muddy  eboma ;  for 
we  have  known  only  one  instance  of  crocodiles  being 
encountered  in  woods  not  immediately  close  to  tbe  va- 
ter'sBide:  usually  they  bask  on  sandy  islsnds.  Tbej 
rarely  attack  men,  bnt  women  are  sometimes  aeiied  bj 
them :  In  Nabia  they  are  much  more  dangemua  than 
in  EiO'pt.  (See  WUkinson's  Modem  Egypt  awl  TMtbr*, 
ii,  127.)  As  their  teelh  are  long,  but  not  fitted  for  cnu 
ting,  they  seize  their  prey,  which  they  can  not  inasU* 
cate,  and  awallow  it  nearly  entire,  or  bury  it  beoesoh 
the  wavca  to  macerate.  Having  very  small  excretory 
organs,  their  digcstlDn  require*,  and  accordingly  tb^ 
are  found  to  poesess,  an  Immense  biliary  apparatna. 
They  are  oviparous,  burying  their  eggs  In  the  sand ; 
and  the  female  mnjins  in  the  vicinity  to  dig  them  oat 
on  the  day  the  young  have  broken  the  ahell.  Croco- 
diles are  caught  with  books,  and  they  seldom  aocceed 
in  cutting  the  rope  when  properly  prepared.  Thongh 
a  ball  fired  point  blank  will  penetrate  between  the 
scales  which  cover  the  body,  the  invalnerability  of 
Iheae  great  aanrians  is  sufficiently  exemplified  by  the 
following  occurrence.  One  being  brought  well  ImdimI 
to  the  basaar  at  Cawnpors  on  the  Gaogea,  it  was  pur- 
chased by  the  British  officers  on  the  spot,  and  canied 
farther  inland  for  the  purpose  of  being  bailed.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  ligatures,  excepting  thoee  which  aecnred 
the  ninzEle,  being  cut  aaunder,  the  monster,  tboogfa  it 
had  liesn  many  hours  exposed  to  the  beat,  ajul  waa  al- 
most snffbcated  with  dust,  fought  its  way  ihroogb  ao 
immense  crowd  of  assailants,  aoldien  and  nativea, 
armed  with  itives,  lancea,  swords,  and  atones,  and  wor^ 
ried  i>y  numerous  terriers,  hounds,  and  curs  \  overturn- 
ing all  in  Its  way,  till,  scenting  the  river,  it  escaped  to 
■he  water  at  a  distance  of  two  miles,  in  apite  of  Um 
most  atrenuous  opposition! 

"With  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  crocodile  wva  a 
sacred  animal,  not,  however,  one  of  thoae  revered  by 
the  whole  nation,  but  only  locally  held  in  honor.  Of 
old  it  was  found  in  Lower  aa  well  as  Upper  Egypt; 
now  it  is  restricted  to  the  latter  region,  never  descend- 
ing as  low  OS  Cairo,  and  usually  not  bebg  seen  until 
the  travetler  approaches  the  Thebals.  In  hleroglypb- 
ics  it  lieara  the  name  misA,  literally  'in  the  egg,'  as 
though  expressing  surprise  that  so  great  an  aaimal 
should  issue  fhrni  so  small  an  egg.  From  this  name 
the  Coptic  and  Arabic  names  take  their  origin.  TIm 
croca<lile  was  sacred  to  the  god  Sebak,  represeiited 
with  the  head  of  this  animal  and  the  body  of  a  man, 
and  of  uncertain  place  in  the  Egyptian  mythology.  It 
was  not  only  not  worshipped  throughout  Egypt,  but 
was  as  much  hated  In  some  as  venerated  bi  other  parts 

shipped,  and  hunted  in  the  Apolliaopolite  and  Tenly- 
rita  nomes.  The  worship  of  this  auhnal  is  no  doubt  of 
Nigritian  origin,  like  all  the  low  nature-worship  of 
Egypt.  It  is  not  certun  that  the  crocodile  was  an 
emblem  of  the  king  with  the  Egyptiane,  bnt  it  seeau 
probable  that  this  was  the  case. 

"  There  Is  evidence  that  the  crocodile  was  found  fn 
Syria  at  the  time  of  the  Cmsidea.  A  reptile  af  this 
kind  has  lately  been  discovered  In  the  Nahr  el-Ketb, 
the  ancient  Lycus. 

"The  azplolC  of  Dieudonnide  Boioo, knight  of  SL 
John,  who,  when  a  young  man,  slew  the  diagoo  tt 


CBOCODILOPOLIS 


■Kampf  n 

combat  witb  a  crocodile,  vrbkh  had  probsLty  l>«D  car- 
ried noithward  bj-  the  ngaliir  carrent  of  the  eaatem 
McditernTwan  ;  for  fo  the  picture  stjil  extant  In  the 
harem  of  a  Turkish  inhaliitanl  reprcaeotB  the  Ha/a- 
VBii  Kehit,  or  Great  Beart — a  picture  Deceswriiy 
psinteil  aiiteriDrto  tfasexpalsian  of  the  kni^hta  In  1480. 
Aa  De  Bozon  died  Grand  Haatcr  of  the  Order  *t  Khodea 
Iq  135S,  and  tbe  apdla  of  the  animal  long  remained  bung 
up  in  a  church,  there  is  not,  we  think,  any  reaton  to 
(loobt  tl>e  fact,  though  moM  of  the  recorded  circum- 
stuicei  may  be  Cibnloiui.  See  Dbagok.  All  the  an- 
ident  Greek  and  tbe  later  Heditemnean  dragoni,  as 
tboae  of  Naplee,  Aries,  etc.,  where  they  are  not  allegor- 
ieal  or  llciiiiuui,  are  to  be  referred  la  the  crocodile." 
See  LiZAiiK. 

CrOGOdllopJUla  (■pocofii'Xbv  rrlXii),  the  name 
of  B  town  in  Syria,  litnated  near  a  river  of  the  lame 
oama  ICrocodiida  fiimrm,  Ittwetn  Cnoarea  Palnitinn 
and  Ptulemaii  (Strabo,  xvi.  p.  768 ;  Pliny,  v,  17. 1!>). 
BeUnd  iPalatt.  p.  739)  thiuka  the  latter  may  hare 
boan  the  aame  with  ttui  Skihuh-Libiiatii  (q.  v.)  of 
Joab.  six,  36.  It  Is  noir  identiSed  with  the  Xalir 
Ztrka  (Hanmeiv  Paiaat.  p.  SS.  191X  in  nbkh  croeudiles 
tuT*  been  fonnd  (Pococke,  TrartU,  ii,  &8;  Tbumeon, 
Lamd  atd  Book,  U,  !44). 

Croea,  Jons,  D.D.,  Prateslant  Episcopal  blubop 
of  New  Jeiaey,  waa  bom  Jnne  1, 17SS,  and  ordained 
io  1790.  Having  previously  acted  as  lay  reader  In 
the  P.  E.  chnrch  of  Swedeaborongh,  N.  J.,  be  became 
its  rector  In  179i.  He  vas  a  prominent  member  in 
IIm  Convention  of  New  Jeney  for  forty  yeai 
IWl  b«  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Kew 
wick,  and  of  Gt.  Peter's  Church,  Spotewood.  In  IHII 
ha  waa  made  D,D.  by  ColumbU  Collevit,  and  in  1H1& 
was  dioeen  bishop  of  New  Jersey,  having  declined  the 
•[dacopata  of  Connecticut.  From  tbe  time  of  his  con- 
secration he  observed  a  system  of  annual  visitatlans, 
and  his  last  pablic  act  was  an  ordination  in  Christ 
Chmeb,  New  Brunswick.  He  died  Jnly  SA,  \%S2. 
He  pablirbed  several  charges  to  bli  clergi-,  and  a  ser- 
mon on  Tkt  Daif  and  lie  iHlrral  of  amtrihuliiig  lOrr- 
aUg  Io  tit  Promotiim  tjf  Rtl'giout  and  Eeimolinl  Jmli- 

Croft,  Geohoe,  D.D.,  an  EngUsb  divine,  waa  l^oni 
at  Skipton,  Yarkshlre,  in  1747;  admitted  at  Uoirer- 
•it7  College,  Oxford,  in  VIS,  was  elected  scholar  in 
1768,  and  fellow  in  1779.  In  tbe  same  vear  he  l<e- 
eame  vicar  of  AmclilTe,  Toihahire;  in  1791,  lecturer 
at  St.  Martin's,  Birmingham,  and  finally  rector  of 
TbwlQg  in  1K02.  HediediiiI8()9.  He  wrote  Tlou^  t 
rauimmp  tie  Melioduli  nnd  Ihe  EMabUdud  C/rrgy 
(London,  1795,  8vo)  -.—Eigil  Sermau  prtai-hrd  in  178e 
(Oxf.  1786,  8*0) :— J'emoiH  prrathrd  b-fon  lit  Uw 
mrmtf,  of  O'/ord  (Birming.  1811,  S  vols.  8vo).— Dar- 
ling, CsrlopiriHii  BibSograjAica,  r.  i, 

Crofton,  Zachart.  a  learned  Konconfbnnist  in 
Uie  seventeenth  century,  was  bom  and  educated  In 
Dnblin.  He  obtained  the  living  of  Wrensbarr,  Chesh- 
ire, but,  being  a  lealous  Royalist  during  tlie  Common- 
wealth,  and  refusing  the  enEsgement.  he  was  deprived. 
He  afterwardBDliUinBd  the  living  of  St.  Botoiph.  Aid- 
gate,  London.  Ha  was  ejected  for  nonconfhrmUv  in 
166?.  and  died  In  1672.  He  published  Til  Siiinfi 
CWv/t  dun*  CammmiM  (Lond.  I6T1.  sm.  8vo)  :— 
Abar  WonAip  (Lond.  1661,  !4mo).— Darling,  Cyfl'Jxr- 
d-a  BABosropM'ta,  s.  v. 

Ctoiileta,  Ordbb  of.    See  Cross,  OsDnR  or. 

Ctolf,  Georok,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
writar,  was  torn  in  Dublin,  Augosl,  1780.  and  educa- 
ted at  Tiinity  College.  After  hie  ordinelion  be  went 
to  London,  and  spent  some  yean  a*  a  writer  for  the 
newspaper  press.  In  1835  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
"'  "     *     'B,Wslbioak,  and  be  oeeupled  tbi.l  parish 


5  CROSS 

with  great  credit,  both  aa  preacher  and  pastor,  op  to 

the  day  of  his  death,  Nov.  2i,  186l>.  Dr.Croly  wrote 
several  extravagant  novels  and  tmgadies,  among  them 
Saialiiel,  Unrilim,  and  CatUiat.  Uia  beUet  reputa- 
tion nisti  upon  hii  fidelity  and  power  aa  a  preacher, 
after  hii  appointment  to  St.  Stephen'',  and  upon  bis 
religions  *ritlng^  Ihe  more  important  of  which  are,  Ot. 
ride  Proridmce,  ur  tht  Uint  Cgelfi  of  Beetiation  t^Lond. 
1834,  Svo):— 7Ae  Apocalgptei  Profkrcf  </ lit  Rut, 
Prosrat,  andFaU  •/lit  Ciurdk  a/Boot  (3d  ed.,  Lond. 
1838,  8vo):— 7*^  J'.rpui  Prmaiy,  2  sermons  (Lond. 
1860,  8vo):—S«moM  (1848,  Svo).  He  olio  wrote  a 
L\ft  o/Burkt  anda£i/e  ^Ceorye /F,  both  reptiot- 
ed  in  America. 

Crombie,  Alexu(dsb,  LL.D.,  was  bom  at  Aber- 
deen in  1760,  and  wss  educated  at  Marlscbal  Collage. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  In 
London,  and  kept  a  private  school  at  HIgbgate,  and 
afterwards  at  Greenwich,  with  distinguished  succese. 
He  died  in  Wi'i.  Hit  principal  works  are.  Natural 
Thtologn,  or  Eltoilt  o»  lit  Ealtltct  ^Ut  Drily,  etc 
(Land.  ir-SS.  i  vols.  8vo) :— CfuMOnvai,  aire  Sfmbola 
r>Viica,6tbed.l8S*,evols.8voi  abridged,  1886, t!mo): 
A  D-/tnao/Piil<if)piieal}fttn*it)(l.'i9a,6vo).—D»i- 
ling,  Cjtelepadia  Biiliegrtipliica,  s.  v. 

Cromlechi  b  huge  Hat  and  oblong  stone,  placed 
in  a  si'iping  position,  and  supported  by  pillars  of  un- 
hewn and  perpendicular  stones.  There  were  many  of 
tlirm  at  nne  time  in  Ireland,  and  they  are  supposed  to 
hare  been  Dmidic  altars  for  sacriAce.  Their  mssa- 
ivenesshas  defirdthe  ravages  of  time  and  revolutkns, 
while  the  simplicity  of  their  structure  bespeaks  for 
I  them  a  high  ontiquity.  There  is  one  of  them  yet  in 
Glansworth,  Ireland,  which  forms  a  chamber  of  SB  feet 
long  and  6  feet  wide.  tlr.  Sloore  (//utorjr  o/Irdtad) 
I  savs  that  remotelv  they  were  called  in  Irish  "  Bothals, 
houses  of  God."  '  The  Druids  in  ancient  Ireland  had 
no  temples.  Instesd  of  tbrm,  on  a  hill,  in  an  oaken 
grove,  and,  if  possible,  near  a  flowing  stresm,  they  en- 
closed a  circle,  havings  diameter  of  70  or  lOOfee^  and 
In  tbe  centre  of  It  raited  the  cromlech,  around  which, 
nn  certain  days,  the  people  marched,  and  alwsya  in  the 
direction  of  the  sun.     See  DrOids  ;  Ai.tab. 

Crook-backed  QXi,  gibbea',  giUmi).  a  hunch- 
backed or  deformed  person  (Lev.  xxi,  21),    See  Blkk- 

Crop  ("R^iJ,  Bui™*',  imply  In  g/i>a/eHf  1)1^),  the 
craipof  a  bird  (Lev.  I,  IG).     See  Sacrifice. 

GroBlar  (or  Cbozier),  properly  an  archblsbop't 
stair,  terminating  at  Ihe  top  in  a  fioriated  cress,  as 
shown  in  the  subjoined  illustration  of  arch Lir  hop  War- 
ham 'a  crosier  (1520)  in  the  cahedral 
of  Canterburi-,  England.  ItiB(_ 
sometimes  even  of  gold.  The  term 
crosier  is  also  applied  to  tbe  bishop'a 
stair,  which  Is  surmonnled  by  acrouk 
or  curved  circular  head.  1'his  "  pas- 
toral staff,"  In  the  Roman  Church,  is 
carried  before  bishops,  abbots,  and 
abl«sses  as  sn  ensign,  expressive  of 
their  dignity  while  they  are  exercir- 

j  ing  the  functions  of  their  olGce,  and 
the  figure  of  which  is  also  found  In 

,  their  coat  of  arms.    The  origin  of 
the  crosier  is  tbe  shspberd's  crool^  the  bishops  being 

'  regarded  as  the  porters  of  their  dioceses.  By  degnea 
this  hamble  emblem  became  greatly  adorned,  and  was 
made  of  costly  materials,     .'^ome  suppose  the  crosier 

'  to  have  been  originally  only  a  simple  staf^  which, 

'  from  tbe  earlier t  times,  was  (^ven  tojodgen,  kings,  etc., 
as  an  rmbirm  of  aolhority.     St.  Isidore  says  bishops 

'  bear  the  staff  bccansa  it  is  their  dnty  to  correct  tb« 
erring  and  to  soppiirt  the  weak.     See  Staff. 

Cioes  (>n-nunac,  a  pointed  tlale,  prob.  from  (ffni/ii, 

j  to  tiaitd  upright),  In  the  New.  Tet  L,  sigoifles  ^per>y 


loe  InitniineDtaf  crnciOTlon  ;  &nil  hence  (bv  mdony- '  others  In  thta  ghtpe  -f.  At  Sum,  Ker  Poiter  >■■  ■ 
m;)  crDclHxliin  iteelf,  uamel;,  that  of  Christ  (EpU.  ii.  I  etune  cut  irith  bicro^lypbici  and  crndfonn  loKrip- 
16t  Heb.  li1,S;  1  Cor.  i,  17,  IS ;  OjI.V,  llj  vi,  12, 11 ;  !  twoo.  on  which  io  one  corner  ww  the  Sgnn  of  ■  emu, 
Phil,  ill,  18).  It  <1  «1ao  put  ligDiMively  tin  the  phrjres  '  thoi,  ^  The  crow,  be  enye,  is  EenenUv  nndeistood 
"Ijk.  op  [or  beer]  the  cree.,-  etc.)  for  .oj.  seeere  .of.   „  ^  .,„u,ll..l  of  the  ai.lnitr  or  eter-lV^  uX  i«- 

end  deuth  (Matt.  1, 88 ;  avi,  M  j  Msrk  »ni,  84 ;  =t,  21 ;  ,  „  j^c  Egj-ptien  emblem  of  the  future  Ufe,  «  mev  be 
Luhe, ,,  13 i  ...,!.).     (Sceijlo..)  leemed  1.  Soso.e.  end  Iluln.s.      Porte,  else  siste. 

L  B-y^h^l-fcceptthe  Utloc™tb«.  rns.  no  „,„  ,^  Esyplbn  pHesl,  nr|,»l  It.  bem,  foondon  lb. 
word  de«o,m.lj.  .nd  ,n,.r.bl,  .ppbrf  to  th»  l.stro.  ,.„.  .,  Sr  „m,.l.  of  Sertpis  »  ..  numnenl  .it* 
meot  of  punishment.  Th.  Oreek  word  oroepot  prop.  ,,,  ,,,„,,„,  „„'  e,Tbeod»im.  to  „',  It  frmnde. 
eri,,  like  ™,a.+  n,»n.  merely  .  «J.e  (Homer,  M.  !  .„„,„,  ,„„  ,'^  „„„,„^  ^„ 
jl.  11 1  /i  "■».«•);  50  E.."lbiu.  |md  Bes..ehm.  j.„  ^  ^  ^  J.u.nskl,  Z.e8s,Vii>otl,  Poeol^ 
both  de>n.  it.     The  Gr«k.  us,  the  word  to  tr«,.IUe   \^^^  p„,  ^j^^  .„j  .'tb.,.,  the  .ymbol  of  i 

C..S.  (;U^  2!)  ..  eietl,  e,.„.lent  to  Ibe  Letrn  nJ  „„.„,."%„„„„„  „  ,,  „,.  ,^,^  s.n,etm.,rb. 
polm  jTb^re,    In  Ls.y  even  c""  i»""s  ■  mere  sUk.     ,i,„„  y  „  „,,  Kilometer,  or  sn  emblem  of  ik. 

(ij.m,  29),  loet  es  ■«.  rem.  the  fkth.m  use  ,n>.^  ,„„  ,,,„„„  „,  ,j,  ^.„,  ,c^„,.s  s^j  ^ 
«ide.en«,i..of.c,oe.prop,r  In  «.n»,.en»  of  „^„  U  is  iherefore  n.ts.ririsin,lh.t  eidra,.!; 
Ib,s  e.,n.oess  of  meumg,  ,m,rli.,  (Hen«l.  i.  76)  »  „,„  ;„^,„  Cbri.tleu  .rtter.  eboold  oo  this  ulfa 
onetime,  .prken  of  Itraely,  u  .  k.nd  of  cruedll.m.,  ;  „,„  ,„j.,^  ,„  ^,  j  of  rednemcot  UHl  iSs- 

cmd  d,....\o|^n.  1.  n«rly  equlv.Uot  to  "I™™"-  ,ici,m.  Jutio  Mertyr  l_i,J.  1, 1  72)  ..ye,  -The  ft. 
or  wonls  o««.io..lly.pph«lloth.  ..»..re|~*S.l.m  Th,„  i.  h.rdly  .  bsudlceftTmso  b.l  use.  the  ><». 
cmd/hr..,  p«je.  of  .o-l  i"  ».  eh-p.  of  I^^or  V  .nd  .1    „, ,  ,;  impl.menu  of  bis  hid«.l,y.     It  f^s 

teepectlTely  (Dig.  48,  lit  13 ;  Plauto.  J/W.  Gl.  11,  47 ;    „  ^^j  ^^^  himself  e.  may  be  wen  irhen  he  nhes 

end  Sallust,  fr.  ap.  Non.  is,  855,  seems  clearly  to  im-  ■  ' 

«eau  to  have 

„     -,•  ,        „   ,      ,       ...,.„.  snip  wuoae  rail,  aie  apread.  In  every  yoke  that  ma. 

re  ^nerrily  thB  crOM  i.  «llcd  <iri^rm/ayr  (LIvj-. '.  ^^^     ,„  „„l,p^«Jing  of  hl-i™.  in  pn^er. 

UB;  Sen™  fTpalOl)  or  'V^J'fi'"  tC.ce™,  y™  ,  i,.,,';,  ,^  ^  ^P^j  ^;*i„  ^,  ^.^jtcnUrf 
Jiol.  a) ;  and  In  Greek  S^^oj-  (8ep^.  «  Dent  xi.,  2:i) :  <  j;„j„„  ,„j  ,„^    (^,  hwUMn." 
™mp.  -the  «M:or«rftrM        The  folhen,  In  contra-,      w^  m.v  UbnUtt  tho.  the  vm™.  dwcriptiodi  oi 
v«r,v  «,«.rt  to  aooW  th.  word.  «  Kin.or  .d«o,Xi,«.^.  ,  (r-ip»iu^  i).  C™«,  i;   Godwyn'.  jK-Ta* 


■od  balluBt,  n.  ap.  Hon,  it,  BSS,  teema  clMrly  to  im-  j^j"  (,,„,!,  ]„  prayer  "  Ii 
ply  cruciHxiau).  After  iho  nlmlitinn  of  this  mode  of  |  ,^  jg. .  „  £„„  UMnro 
d«th  by  ConaUntm^  T«Loni«.in»  aubBtilul*d>rcji  ,  ,^:,  ^^„  f^^  ^,_     „.^  ^ 

A™*»  far  ™t^«  7'""/''  i^"?!,?*^''?!^-  ■  ship  *bo»  Mil.  .r.  .pr. 
Here  gener»Uy  the  crota  ia  called  arbor  mMa  (LIvy. !  ,„■■ .    .     .„„  „„(,„£. 


o  quote  the  vorda  u  Kfpioc  t'/jao 


"  Tho  Lord  raignod"  (liiriJ  roi  £Woip),  from  P««.  xW, 
10,  or  r-ii.  xcvi,  M  a  propbecy  of  the  erou ;  but  Ibeae 
woida  are  a  rIou  (adalttrina  el  Chrittiand  drrofitme 
addiui),  tbou^  GenebrsTxIus  thought  them  b  propbetic 
addition  oT  the  Sept.,  and  Agelllas  conjectures  tliat 
they  read  yS  for  qK  (Schleasner'a  Thaaar.).  Tbe 
Hebrews  bad  no  vord  fbr  a  croea  more  deHaite  than 
ys,  "  wood"  (Gen.  xl.  19,  etc.),  and  ao  tbey  called  the 
tranaverae  beams  S*^;!  "'PS,  "warpand  woor'(Pear- 
ailD,  On  Ab  Crrtd,  art  It),  like  {vXov  fii«pov,  of  the 
Sept.  Cna  ia  the  root  of  crveio,  and  i*  often  mwd 
proverbUlly  for  what  is  moat  puaful  (iia  Culam.  i,  T; 
Terence,  Phom.  lil,  3, 11),  and  as  a  nickname  (or  vil- 
laioa  (Pbiutur,  PwB.  Ii,  S,  17).  Rarer  terma  are  iirpiDv 
(Ensebius,  vili,  8),  aitnQ  (?),  and  gibtJat  (Varro  ap. 


cap.  ix,  and  Caipio' 
thereon): 


.  Simplex.  OnmpKl 


1  r      s.  X       ^  T 

Fo  -m<  of  C.-WH!*. 


1.  The  vrvz  limpbr,  rr  mere  Blake  "of  ooe  Imgle 
'   piece  nithont  traiiaom,"  was  prol«hly  the  mhrliul  of 
...  -    .  .  -  .      (he  teat.     Sometimes  h  Ural  merelv  drireo  thraogli 

Ken.  ii,373;  Hacrinus  ap.  Capitol.  Mikt.  11),  TtU  the  mans  chest,  but  at  other  timea  i't  was  drireii  Wm- 
lart  word  is  derired  from  ias,    "to  complele,''  .  );itudinaliy  (Heaych.  a.T.  mniXoif.),  cnnlng  ont  at  tb> 

II.  Farmi  i^the  Croa.—lji  its  aimplest  ahape,  con- '  month  (Seneca,  Ep,  xiv),  ■  method  of  punvhmnt 
bating  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  one  standing  erect,  th.-  railed  AvautivUvXuiiit,  or  iitjbh.  The  agiiio  no- 
other  cnutiitg  it  at  right  anglefi,  tile  criias  waa  known  ]  listed  merely  of  h/og  the  criminal  lo  tbe  (take  (pi 
at  an  early  ajjo  In  the  hiitory  of  the  world.  Its  uae  as  pabm  ddigarr,  lAv,  xxvi,  13),  from  which  he  hnng  by 
an  inatrnment  of  punishment  was  probalily  eu);ge>ted  hia  anna :  the  procesa  ia  described  in  the  little  poen 
by  the  form  ao  often  taken  by  branches  of  trees,  which  of  Ausonlns,  "CapidB  erurijintt."  Treea  were  nsta- 
aeem  to  have  been  the  lint  crosses  that  were  employ-  rally  convenient  for  this  purpose,  and  we  read  of  thdr 
ed.  It  was  certainly  customary  to  bang  animals  on  lieinK  applied  to  KUcb  nse  in  tbe  Martymlogle*.  Ter- 
treea.  Cicero  (RiiOir.  n)  appeara  to  consider  bangini!  tuUian,  too,  tells  u>  (-IpoL  viii,  16)  that  the  prieMi  oi 
on  a  tree  and  crucifixinn  as  of  the  aame  import,  and  Saturn  were  thus  panbbed  bv  Tiberias  (comp.  Tacit. 
Seneca  (Ep.  101)  DBea  similar  lanf(iuge.    (See  above.)  .  Gtrm.  xu). 

Trees  are  knuwn  to  havo  been  used  »«  crosaea  (Ter- 1  8.  The  ena  drnuuata  ia  called  St.  Andrew's  cioas. 
lull.  Ap.  viii,  lU),  and  to  every  kbadorhaagisg  which  >  although  on  no  eood  K^ronds,  since,  according  '•' 
bore  a  resemblance  to  cracilixion,  such  aa  that  of  Pro- 1  aome,  he  woa  killed  with  Ihe  award :  and  Hippotytu 
metbeus,  Andromeda,  etc.,  tbe  name  was  common-  eaya  that  ha  was  cnciSed  upright  on  on  olire4ne. 
ly  applied.  Among  the  Scvthion!,  Pereinns,  Cartha-  |  It  is  in  the  fbape  of  Ihe  Greek  letter  \  (Jemms  I'a 
ginians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Ihe  ancient  Germans,  .Frr.  xxxi;  Ixidor.  Orig.  I,  R],  Hence  Justin  Maittr 
traces  are  found  of  tbe  cross  as  an  instrument  of  pan-  |  (Dial.  c.  J'lypk.  p.  200)  qootes  Plato's  expressioa  (f)i- 
ishment.  The  sign  of  the  cross  is  founrl  as  a  holy  |  a^iv  avTiv  Iv  r^  iram)  with  referrnrc  to  tbe  ma. 
aymbol  among  several  ancient  nations,  who  may  ac- ,  The  falhern,  with  their  nsnal  Inxitriani  imagtuboo. 
cordingly  be  named,  in  the  language  of  Tertullian,  I  discover  types  of  this  kind  of  croaa  in  Jacob'a  bbaaing 
"cmcls  religioMB,"  devoCeesof  the  cross.  Among  the  '  of  .Inseph'a  aona  (yipm'  IvtiXkay/iii-nit ;  noip.  TeR- 
Indlana  and  Egyptians  the  croas  often  appears  in  their  :  de  Unplif'o,  viii){  In  the  anointing  of  prieMs  "ilRiia- 
cei^monlea,  Bometimes  in  the  ibape  of  the  letter  T,  at  j  sativcly"  (Sir  T.  Browns.  Ganim  qf  ()piu);  ktliit 


CROSS  5! 

BabUi  laj  that  ;>tcttB  wtn  dlsUnctircIj  thai  ■noint- 
•d  CS  y^VS,  i.  e.  oiiJbrMaat  X  Oraeamm,  SchSttgaD'a 
Bor.  Bdr,  tt  Talm.  It,  id  t) ;  uul  in  tha  cnagiiig  of 
th«  handionr  tba  bod  of  the  goat  on  the  day  of  iix- 
piatioD  (Targam  JimtM.  ad  Lev.  ivi,  21,  etc.). 

8.  Ths  erax  eemmita,  or  St.  Aiitban}''s  crow  (so 
called  from  being  embroideTed  on  that  ealnt'*  cope  ^ 
Ifri.  Jametoa'a  Saertd  Art,l,  icxxr\  wu  in  the  ihipc 
of  a  T.  Bemce  Laclan  (in  hie  Aiii;  faivrtivruiv}  ]o- 
oobbIj  derive*  cTr<iuj>iJf  from  the  letter  Tav,  and  makea 
nunkind  ueoM  it  bitlcily  tor  anggeatiog  to  tynnta  the 
imtTument  of  tortare  (Jad.  Votal.  li).  Thia  abape  ia 
oftui  alluded  to  as  "the  myatlcal  Tan"  (Tertollian, 
aJ».  ifaTe.ili,tl;  Jerome,  >»  £HfA.li,  etc.).  Aa  that 
letter  hsf^iu  to  Hand  for  800,  oppottnaity  mu  trlven 
fw  more  elaborate  trifling:  ;hiu  the  300  enUta  of  the 
aik  are  coniidored  tjpicil  (Clemena  Alezand.  SInm. 
T\;  S.  Panlin.  &>.  ii);  and  even  Abrabun's  818  aai^ 
TanU  {'.):  eince  318  la  repreaentad  by  rii)  (Bamobu, 
£f.  ix;  ClenKUi  Alex.  Slrois.  vi ;  AinUaxr,  PnJ.  M 
Li.<k  fidt. ;  »a  Pewaoa,  On  Ut  Crtrd,  art.  iv). 

A  Tariety  of  this  crou  (the  crux  anaaU,  "craeaes 
with  circle*  on  tbeit  bead*")  ii  found  "  In  tbo  ^ 
•colpturei  ^m  Khoiubad  and  the  Ivories  '  T  ' 
from  Ninirud.  M.  Lajard  (Obarrrotiau  mr  fa  ^.f^^ 
CWns  amir)  refen  it  to  the  Aaayrian  eymbol  ,^n.,|, 
at  divinity,  the  winged  figare  in  a  circle ;  bat 
BgTptiun  aaliqnarlu  quite  reject  the  theory  (Lay- 
ard'e  Ximvek,  ii,  170,  Dole).  In  tlie  Ej(y|ituin  acntp- 
torva,  a  aimilar  object,  called  a  crus  anaata,  is  con- 
■taotly  borne  by  divinities,  and  Is  vailoDsiy  called 
"the  key  of  the  Nile"  (I^T'^ocng  in  Emytl.  Brilm.), 
"the  character  of  Venus,"  and  more  camcliy  (as  by 
Larniie)  "tbe  emblem  of  life."  Indeed  this  was  the 
old  explanation  (Soiomen,  Bitl.  Ecet.  vi,  ll>-,  aa,  too, 
EuBnus  [ii,  29],  who  iaye  it  waa  cae  of  the  "iipan- 
maivtliactrdalaluUaeTa").  '-The  Egyptians  there- 
by expressed  the  powers  and  motion  of  the  spirit  nf  the 
world,  and  the  diffusion  thenof  upon  the  celestial  and 
elemental  oatDre"  (Sir  T.  Browne,  Garrett  o/Cfnu). 
Thia,  too,  was  the  slgnlficatioD  given  lo  it  by  the 
ChritUan  converts  in  the  army  of  Theodoeios,  when 
they  remarked  It  on  tbe  temple  or  Serapis,  iccordiog 
to  the  story  mentioned  in  Suldus.  Tbe  same  symbol 
faaa  been  alw  found  amon^  the  Copts,  and  (perbapt 
accidentally)  among  tbe  Indians  and  Terslsna. 

4.  Tbe  cna  immiaa  (or  Latin  crou)  diffbred  from 
tbe  former  by  the  projection  of  tbo  upright  post(^iifiu 
Gif^^Dv,  or  tipo)  above  tbe  tnnsversa  beam  {tipag 
ijtdpaiov,  or  patifiabn,  Easebin?,  de  V.  Constoat.  i. 
■1).  That  this  wai  tha  kind  of  crou  on  which  our 
Lord  died  la  obvioos  (among  other  reasona)  ftom  the 
DHntion  of  tbe  "  title"  (q.  t.),  as  placed  ofrore  oor 
Lord's  head,  and  from  the  almost  QDBnimona  tradi- 
tion i  it  i>  repeatedly  found  on  tbe  coins  and  columns 
of  Conataotine.  Hence  ancient  and  modem  Imngine. 
tion  has  been  chiefly  tasked  to  find  aymlyilB  for  tbia 
Kirt  of  crow,  and  liaa  been  eminently  aucccasful. 
Thejr  find  it  typlfled,  for  instance,  in  tlie  attitude  ot 
Uosei  during  tbe  battle  of  fiepbidim  (Exod.  xvii,  12), 
aajing  that  he  wu  bidden  to  talce  this  ponlnre  by  the 
Spirit  (Bamaba*,^.  13;  Joatin  Mart.ilta/.  c.  Trgfk. 
89  ;  Tertull.  ade.  Man:,  iii,  IB).  Firmiciua  Hatetnus 
(i>  Errort,  ziO  aaya  (tVom  the  Talmndlsts?)  that 

greater  success  (u^  faaliita  impetrarrt  guod  magivrpm 
pmtularet,  rmccm  Miftril  tx  »iri/d).  He  also  fantss- 
tically  applies  to  the  cross  exprtuiona  in  Hali.  Ill,  S-G ; 
'  Isa.  Ix,  6,  etc  Other  aoppoeed  types  are  Jacoli's  lad- 
der (Jefeme,  Cont.  in  Pt.  xd{  Augustine,  iSrm.  de 
Tttnp.  lxiiz)i  tbe  paacbal  lamb,  pierced  by  trans- 
vena  spila  (Justin  Uartyr,  Dial  c.  Trgpk.  xl);  and 
"the  Hebrew  TVavpAo,  or  ceremony  of  their  oblations 
waved  by  tbe  priest  into  the  fonr  quarters  of  the  world 
after  tbe  form  of  a  crow"  (Titringa,  Obt.  Swr.  ii,  9; 
SchOUgen,  I.  c.)-  ^  ''<"■'  ^TP*  (John  ill,  14)  ia  tbe 
U.— 1» 


7  CKOSS 

elevation  (Cbald.  niD'p^)  of  tbe  fler;  serptDt  (Knm. 
izi,  8,  d).  For  acme  strange  applicationi  <tf  texts  to 
tbfs  flgnre,  eee  Cypr.  Teitim.  11,  SO  sq.  In  Halt.  T, 
IB,  the  pbraM  "a  single  ]o[  or  tittle"  ii  alio  made  to 
repreaant  a  crow  (Tfaeophyl.  ad  loc.,  etc).  To  the  foDT 
Acpa  or  extremiUes  of  tbe  cross  they  also  applied  tbe 
four  dimensions  of  Eph,  iii,  17  (as  Gregori'  KvH.  and 
AugaMJne,  Ep.  120) ;  and  another  of  their  &ncies  was 
that  there  was  a  mystical  aigniflcanca  in  Ihis  four-an- 
gled piece  of  wood  (Nonnius,  in  Joh.  xix,  18),  becaosa 
it  printed  to  the  four  comers  of  the  world  (SeduL  iii). 
In  all  nature  the  sacred  sign  was  found  to  be  India, 
penubte  (Jnatin  Mart.  Apol,  i,  72),  eapecially  in  such 
things  as  involve  dignity,  energy,  or  deliverance ;  as 
the  actions  of  digging,  ploughing,  etc.,  tbe  human 
face,  tbe  cmtoma  of  a  ship  in  full  sail,  etc.  (Jerome,  ia 
Jlforc.  xi;  Hinutina  Fel.  Od.  xxii).  Similar  analc 
gies  are  repeated  elsewhere  (Firm.  Maten.  de  Errore, 
xxi  J  TertuU.  adv.  Nat.  i,  12 ;  ApoL  16  j  de  Conm.  Mil 
iii);  and,  in  answer  to  the  sneers  of  those  to  whom 
tbe  crow  was  "  foolishness,"  they  were  considered  suffi. 
cient  proof  of  tbe  nnlversality  of  thia  sign,  both  in  na- 
ture end  religion.  The  types  adducod  ftam  Scripture 
were  vslus1)te  to  silence  the  diScultiw  of  the  Jews,to 
whom,  in  consequence  of  DeuL  xxi,  22,  tbe  cRiu  was 
in  eipeciil  "  atumbllng-block"  (Tertullian,  adr.Jud. 
ix).  Many  such  fancies  (e.g.  the  barmlessneu  of  cru- 
ciform flowerr,  the  aouthem  crosa,  etc.)  aia  collected  in 
CoHnumcaJioiu  wiOi  Aa  Umim  Worid. 

Besides  the  four  comera  (vpo,  or  opscet,  TerL)  of 
tbe  cross  was  a  liftb  (irq^/ia),  projecting  out  of  the 
centTii  stem,  on  which  tbe  body  of  tbe  sufferer  rested 
(-instin  Mart.  Tryph.  xd,  who  [mors  sm>]  compares  it 
to  tbe  boni  of  a  rhinoceros ;  MdiUt  acant,  TertnU. 
oife.  Nut.  i,  13 ;  Iren.  air.  Htxnt.  i,  12).  This  was  to 
prevent  the  weight  of  the  body  from  tearing  away  the 
hands,  since  it  was  imposeJble  that  it  "abonld  rest 
upon  nothing  bot  Ibnr  great  wounds"  (Jeremy  Tiy  lor,  - 
y/t  nf  Ckriit,  iii,  xv,  2).  This  projection  bi  probably 
alluded  to  in  tbe  famous  tines  of  Macenas  (ap.  Sen. 
Ep.  lOl).  Lipaiui,  bowever,  thinks  otherwise  i^Dt 
Crwt,  i,  6).  Whether  there  wis  aUo  a  vnrieiov,  or 
Buppmt  to  the  feet  (as  we  see  in  iHCturw),  la  doubtAiL 
Gregory  of  Tonra  mentiona  iti  but  he  is  tbe  earliest 
authority,  and  has  no  weight  (VoM,ifani.  Aun'ofs. 
ii,  T,  28).    See  Labardu. 

HI.  Acctaoria  of  lie  Croa.— An  inscription,  lita- 
ba  or  elogium  (_iriypafit,  Luke  xxiii ;  aiVia,  MitL 
xxvil;  ^  Jiriypo^^  ri)f  fli'riof,  Mark ;  rirXoc,  John 
xix ;  Q»  caufoni  potna  mfjcaiu'f,  Sueton.  Cai,  82 ;  wi. 
I'nlJ,  Euaeb.  j  ypd^i^ara  riji-  alriay  r^C  Bavaniaiiot 
^XouiTo,  Dion  Can.  liT.  8 ;  wn>x'ovjirirpafi^t);o>', 
Heaycb. ;  n>!3),  wu  general);  [daced  above  tbo  per- 
son's head,  and  briefly  expressed  hli  guilt  (e.  g.  "  o^ 
nic  Jirrii' 'ArrnXoc  0  Xpioriovoc,"  Enieb.T,!:  "Jm- 
pie  locuuu  parmiittiriiu,"  Sneton.  Dot.  x),  and  gen- 
erally was  carried  before  the  criminal  (pnwntoito  (ifu. 
la,  Sueton.).  It  was  covered  with  white  gypsnm,  and 
the  letters  were  black)  henoa  Sommen  <^lts  it  Xii- 
mfin  (tfiit.  Eni.  ii,  1),  and  Nlcepbomi  a  Xdw^  aavi'c 
(SW.  fed.  vlii,  29).  Dot  Nicqnetna  (7V(.  Aok*.  Cn- 
eit,  i,  G)  wye  It  wa«  white,  with  ni  letlen.  (See  bB> 
low.) 

It  is  a  question  whether  binding  or  ataolnta  ]dnnlng 
to  the  cross  waa  the  mora  common  method.  In  faror 
of  the  first  are  tbe  eipiasslons  I^ore  and  deHgare;  the 
description  In  Aasonlos  (Cupido  Crwcif.) ;  tha  Egyp- 
tian custom  (Xenoph.  Ephet.  W,  2)j  tbe  mention  by 
Pliny  (xxviil,  11)  ofsporftaa  ■  cmce  among  magical 
implements ;  and  tbe  allusion  to  cndflxlon  noted  by 
tbe  fathers  In  John  xix,  24  (Tbeopbyl.  and  Tertull.). 
On  the  other  aide  we  have  the  eiprudon  irpotniXBv- 
oGai,  and  numberlew  anthwltias  (Sense.  De  Vit,  Btati, 
xix  ;  Artamldor.  Oaeiroer.,  in  several  passages;  ApaL 
ifft.  iU,  60 ;  Fiautns,i/oi(c;.  11,1.  IS,  ot  passim).  That 
our  Lord  was  (Mutnl^  aocording  to  prophecy,  la  certain 


CROSS  S', 

(John  XX,  !G,  S7,  etc.  i  Zecb.  zli,  10;  Pm.  siil,  16; 
comp.  Tertull.  adv.  Marc,  iii,  19,  etc. ;  Sept.  uj>u{av  ; 
^tboDgh  the  Jewi  m^auin  that  In  the  latter  text 
"■IKS,  "like  ■  lion,"  ii  the  true  reading ;  Sixt.  Se- 
nensis,  B&l.  Saact.  viii,  fi,  p.  (>40).  It  ii,  however,  ex. 
trsmely  probable  tbatbotl!  methods  were  usedatonce 
(»ee  Lucmn,  rl,  M7  Bq. ;  and  Hilary,  ]Jt  Trin.  x).  We 
may  add  that  In  the  cmciflxion  (aa  it  ia  sometimes 
called,  Tertull.  ode.  Mare,  i,  1 ;  eomp.  Manil.  de  An- 
irom.  v)  of  Prometlieus,  .£schyliu,  besidea  the  nails, 
ipcnka  of  a  girth  (jtaa\a\teTiip,  Prom.  T9).  When 
either  method  was  used  alone,  the  tying  was  coneid- 
ered  more  painful  (as  we  find  in  the  Martyrolaglea), 
aiace  it  was  a  more  tedioiu  snfferiDg  (diiilviui  em- 
it is  doubtfal  whether  three  or  font  nails  were  em- 
ployed. Tho  pMsage  In  Plaatus  (J/bst.  ii,  1, 13)  la,  as 
Lipsius  {Dt  Cnia,  ii.  9)  shows,  indecialTe.  Nonnus 
■peaks  or  the  two  feet  (li/iDirXajciic)  being  fiistened 
with  one  nail  (dfi^i  yrifi^y),  and  Gregory  Nai.  (ife 
CArist,  pol.)  calls  the  cross  "  three .  ruulnd"  (SiiXoi' 
rpicFi]\of) ;  hence  on  gold  and  sUtet  crosses  the  nails 
were  represented  by  one  mby  or  carbuncle  at  each  ex- 
tremity (Mrs.  Jameson,  I.  e,).  In  the  "  invention"  of 
the  cross,  Socrales  (^Hiil.  Ec.  i,  17)  only  mentions  the 
hand-nails ;  and  that  only  two  were  found  has  been 
argued  ftom  the  rd  /liv,  tA  ?i  (Instead  of  rai'c  /liv)  in 
Tbeodont  (^u<.  En.  i,  17).  itomish  writers,  howeTer, 
geaeralty  follow  Gregory  otToors  (d<  Glor.  Mart,  vi) 
In  maintdning  four,  which  may  indeed  be  implied  by 
the  plttral  in  Cyprian  (ie  Fatiione),  who  also  mentions 
tiiree  more,  nsed  to  nail  on  the  title.  Cyprian  is  a 
Tery  good  anthori^,  because  he  bad  often  been  a  wit- 
ness of  executions.    (See  below.) 

Besides  the  copious  monograph  of  Upains(D(  (Trues, 
Antwerp,  1996 ;  Amst.  IGTO ;  Brunsw.  1640),  there  are 
worka  by  Salmosius  {dt  Cmce.  Epp.  B);  Kippin^us 
(de  Cmee  a  CrtKiariii,  Brem.  1871) ;  Bosius  (de  Crwx 
WumpJanftrtirfbn'oia.Antw.lsn);  Grelscr  (de  t>B« 
CArirti)  (  and  Bartholinus  (^Hypoaaiemata  dt  Oiice)  ; 
T«ry  much  may  also  be  c'^s"^  f">m  the  learned 
notes  of  bishop'  Pearson  (Ob  iht  Cited,  art,  iv).  See 
CRnciriiios. 

IV.  The  Cnui  at  a  SgrnioL—Tbe  wcrd  cross  was 
early  used  in  Ronian  literature  to  represent  any  tor- 
ture, pain,  or  misforlune,  or  anything  causing  piin  or 
mlsfbrtnnc.  Chri-'t  adopted  this  use  of  the  word  when 
fae  says  (of  coarse  before  his  OTUciHxion  bad  taken 
place,  or  was  foreseen  by  his  followers)  that  they 
must  Im  willing  to  take  up  their  croa  and  follow  him 
(Halt,  ivi,  H),  meaning  that  they  must  be  willing  to 
endure  eucb  enlFeriiigs  as  the  aervice  of  God  may 
bring.  After  the  death  and  rssurrecUon  of  Christ, 
the  cross  is  spoken  of,  especially  in  the  epistles  of 
Paul,  OS  the  representative  of  Christ's  whole  snfferinga 
from  bis  birth  to  his  death  (£pb.  ii,  IG ;  Heb.  xii,  9), 
and  ftiTthfl  whole  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  (1  Cor.  i,  18; 
Oal.  vi,  14).  The  opposers  of  the  Gospel  are  spoken 
of  as  enemies  of  the  cross  (Phil,  ill,  18).  As  a  symbol 
of  Christianity,  its  doctrines,  and  its  dntiea,  the  cross 
has  become  a  familiaT  figure  ot  speech  In  the  expres- 
sion of  experimental  Christianity,  in  the  preaching  of 
Christian  miaisteis,  and  in  the  hymns  and  songs  of 
Christian  poets.  Vary  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  it  became  the  custom  for  Christians  to  make 
the  sign  at  the  cross.  See  Cross,  bios  op.  That 
IIk  early  Christians  bid  a  hi^  regard  for  the  cross  is 
shown  by  the  replies  that  Tertallian  and  Octavius 
made  to  the  pagans  who  charged  Christians  with  wor- 
riiipping  the  ctoss.  It  is  not  tuy,  however,  to  fix  the 
date  at  which  Christians  commenced  to  have  material 
representations  of  tho  cross.  There  exist  no  earlier 
presen-ed  examples  than  some  rings  of  stone,  with 
the  cross  engraved  on  them,  the  s^te  of  which  seems 
to  indicate  that  ihey  were  made  befbre  the  time  of 
CoDstantlne.    The  martyr  Procopios  and  a  Christian 


soldier  named  Oreitss  an  said  to  have  had  croaiM  a^ 

tached  to  their  necks  before  going  to  their  execnUoo. 
A  single  example  of  the  entx  coonufa,  "Y,  is  pre- 
served, of  the  date  A.D.  B70.  On  tombs,  no  am 
of  any  kind  ia  found  before  the  same  centory.  Kg 
crux  immiaaa,  ■^,  or  Greek  cross,  ^,  is  fonod  earUer 
than  the  fifth  century.  As  far  as  yet  examised, 
no  cross  is  found  of  very  eariy  date  in  the  I'atxcumbs, 
those  existing  there  having  been  traced  by  pil(^ms 
centuries  later.  Such  signa  of  the  cross  as  properiy 
belong  to  the  monogram  of  Christ  (q.  v.)  data  back  for 
their  origin  to  the  time  of  Constantino.  AndeM 
texts  have  often  spoken  of  this  monogram  andor  tbs 
name  of  cross,  giving  rise  to  many  mlsnndentandings. 
In  the  more  distant  provinces  of  the  Roman  empin, 
as  in  Carthage,  marbles  marked  by  the  cross  hsve 
been  found  of  the  fourth  century.  Zeno  of  Venna, 
made  bishop  in  S63,  states  that  he  placed  a  ~p  eraas 
on  a  basilica  which  he  bailt.  This  same  cross  appean 
on  the  coins  and  medals  of  the  emperor  Valenlinlan  I 
(died  876),  and  on  bronaes  struck  by  Conatantine  at 
AquUela  and  at  Treves,  although  many  consider  tluC 
these  were  Egyptian  in  origin,  though  adopted  by  tbe 
Christians.  Constantine  ia  stated  to  hsve  placed  a 
cross  of  gold  on  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter  in  tbe  Vatican. 
Onr  Lord  resting  on  a  cross  is  seen  on  the  tombelant 
of  Probue  and  Proba  (A.D.  Sfi&).  I'anlinus  of  NoU 
(died  482}  bad  in  his  chureb  paintings  of  eroawa  snr- 
rounded  by  crowns.  OUier  ^milar  onea  are  linind  la 
old  mosaic*,  as  in  those  of  San  Vitale  of  Bavenna 
(A.D.  Dt7).  Over  the  summit  of  an  arch  are  two  an- 
gels holding  a  CRiwn,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a  crosa 
adorned  with  gems.  Some  diptycbs  of  the  fifth  eok- 
tary  also  contain  such  crosses.  Tbe  cross  on  tomU 
stones  was  an  attribute  of  a  mar^,  and  on  tbe  early 
sarcophof^  Is  specially  used  to  dedgnate  St.  Petsr,  aa 
he  died  on  the  cnse.  After  his  vision  of  the  croas  in 
the  heavens,  Constantine  (q.  v.)  changed  tbe  Mmndatd 
of  tbe  Roman  emjure  to  a  cross.  See  LABAsmi. 
From  the  sixth  century  the  consuls  began  to  have  a 
cross  on  tbeir  sceptres.  Valentinian  III  and  bii 
qneen  Eudoxia  were  the  fltst  (A.D.  445)  to  wear  a 
cross  on  their  crown.  About  A.D.  400  tho  crosa  call- 
ed cTux  liatiomdii  was  first  borne  at  the  bead  of  pm- 
cessiona.  A  number  of  Christian  cities  and  villagas 
in  tbe  neighborhood  of  Antloch,  Aleppo,  and  Apamca, 
which  were  suddenly  deserlwl  on  the  Invasion  of  Syria 
by  the  Saracens,  and  which  remain  in  the  fonn  in 
which  they  Were  left  by  their  inhabilanta,  show  how 
extremely  general  had  become  the  custom  at  that 
time — in  tho  early  put  of  tho  sixth  ccntuiy — W  paint 
tbe  cross  and  the  monogram  of  Christ,  -X-j  0"i  U"* 
doors,  windows,  poets,  and  on  the  walls  of  the  hoosea. 
It  was  also  used  on  all  domestic  objects,  ai  wei^ts, 
vases,  chairs,  and  all  articles  of  ftirnitnre,  and  was 
put  on  ships  to  keep  olT  disaster  and  the  evil  ere.  Af- 
ter the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  when  the  labaram 
ceased  to  be  nsed,  the  ensign  of  many  cities  became  a 
real  cross.  The  cross-bearer  often  held  two  lighted 
torches,  under  which  were  suspended  by  a  chain  die 
letters  A  and  Q.  These  croa-tUaidaTdi  were  sooa  dec- 
orated with  great  magnificence,  containing  acenes 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  or  linsta  of  sacred 
or  patriotic  persons,  either  painted  or  sculptured,  or 
adorned  with  gold  and  precious  stones.  This  mslKn 
was  then  borne  into  the  thickest  of  the  battle,  bdag  tbe 
ral lying-point  for  the  army,  while  a  prieet  on  the  cart 
on  which  the  ensign  or  gonfalone  was  placed,  cheered 
on  the  soldiers  to  fight,  or  declared  abeolutioo  to  tiM 
dying.  Many  Christian  kings  on  the  eve  af  hittlp. 
or  of  any  great  enterprise,  erected  a  crosi,  ai>d,b«wiag 
before  it,  ottered  up  prayer  to  God  for  sneceas.  Os- 
wald had  a  wooden  cross  erected  befnfe  he  ftmgfat  with 
Cad  wallon,  his  aoldleiB  all  hneeUiMC  devoutiy,  while  be 
himself  beM  the  croea  as  the  <«ith  was  stamped  down 


T.)  wera  Mnnetimes  pliced  in  the  form  of  ■  cnne,  it  U 
not  known  wbetliet  oritjinally  witb  any  ■ignillcince. 
But  after  the  introdnctlini  of  Clirl>ttBnit}i  In  EntilaDd 
and  Iralind  those  cioaHi  ware  approiiriatHl  m  Chns- 


of  paiuhf 


■ndas 


if  liBCtlei 


les,  or  disastroue 
gsthsriug  to  bear  proclamations, 
■annoiu,  ana  prijeraj  to  mark  the  vpot  vhere  the 
corpse  of  any  famons  person  reeled  on  Its  way  to  Inter- 
meot,  "that  puaen-bir  mlgbt  pray  fur  bis  sonti,"  to 
mark  the  spot  where  tanie  person  bad  been  delivered 
fhiin  great  danger ;  to  line  the  way  In  a  cemetery  or  a 
cborch ;  and  at  crosa-roada  in  tlis  country,  or  in  a 
markebflace,  lt>  famiab  pfotacjioD  from  a  paashig 
•torm.  (Beggars  often  took  tliral' .  station  at  these 
crosaee,  asking  alms  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  giving  rise 
to  the  ejtpresBion, "  He  begalLko  a  cripple  at  a  cnm.") 
Croesea  were  sometimes  erected  on  the  tops  of  honaee, 
tsnauta  thus  claiming  the  privileges  of  tempUrs-hos- 
pitallers,  of  being  free  from  the  claims  of  their  lords 
of  landlords.  Hany  of  these  crosaea  were  very  cuetly, 
and  huilt  in  the  hiichcst  architectural  taste  of  the  age- 
Political  and  religions  opheavals  have  removed  many 
of  tfaeae  crosaea ;  time  has  destroyed  others.  Of  the 
1160  crosses  formeily  existing  In  the  email  bnt  historic 
Island  of  lana,  bnt  one  now  remains.  Of  the  numer- 
ona  SBiies  by  the  road  leading  tram  Paris  to  St.  Denla, 
where  the  Itinga  of  Franco  wore  bnried,  all  are  do- 
Mroyed.  Of  the  fifteen  famous  crosses  that  marked 
the  restiog-placea  of  the  corpse  of  queen  Eleanor  (died 
A.D.  1290),  on  its  removal  ftmn  Urantbam  to  West- 
minster, but  three  now  remain.  Among  the  meat  &- 
tnone  preaching-cioeses  were  those  of  St.  Pai 
London  and  of  Spitalllelda,  London,  where  the  noted 
fifutal  Easter  sermons  were  preached.  Croaaca  arc 
naed  freely  on  the  vealxaenta  of  prieita,  and  on  all 
parts  of  the  interior  and  exterior  of  Greek,  ArmtnLn. 
and  Itomith  honscs  of  worship,  and  other  ecclesiastical 
establishments.  The  Church  of  England  and  tho  Lu- 
tlieran  Cbarcb  nse  them  to  crown  their  faouaes  of  wor- 
ship ;  aome  other  Proleetant  denominations  use  Ihem 
thns  at  the  discretion  of  the  individual  society;  ^vhilc 
others  still,  especially  thoso  wiio  hold  the  viona  of  thi 
original  Puritana,  reject  the  nao  of  the  viaible  and  ma- 
terial cross  in  any  form  la  place.  Tboso  Christian 
bodies,  that  aso  the  cross  freely,  place  it  upon  tlu 
tmnba  of  the  dead.  The  cross  we  have  hittierto  apokcE 
of  is  the  passion  croea — the  representative  of  Christ'i 
■aOiBrTng.  In  the  Catacombs,  Chriat  la  reprcaeuted  ai 
coming  forth  (Vora  his  lomb  hearing  a  cross,  the  sym- 
bol of  his  triumph  over  death,  and  of  tho  ultimato  tri- 
mnph  of  hia  doctrines.  Thia  triumphal  ciosa,  also 
colled  Cross  of  the  Resurrection,  never  bearing  Chriat 
vpon  it  as  a  crucifix,  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  the  au- 
thority and  jurisdiction  of  different  officials  in  certain 
branches  of  the  Church.     Sea  Ci 

V.  Th  Croa  a*  a  S^MAire.— Aa  early  as  the  ^ith 
cmtorr  had  it  become  the  cnatom  to  pot  three 
(^  -^  ^)  near  the  signature  of  important  doci 
these  having  the  value  of  an  oath  on  the  part  of  the 
aigner.  Priests  norer  omitted  to  add  it  to  their  sij 
nature,  and  bishops,  as  a  lign  of  tho  dignity  of  thei 
office,  placed  it  t«fore  their  aignalurc.  In  dlplomiti 
document*,  croeaes  were  need  extensively  as  early  as 
the  fifth  century.  The  appropriate  n»  of  crosses 
iaravpoXoyia)  was  an  Important  part  in  diplomatic 
knowledge.  They  were  sometimes  the  ordinary  cross, 
f ,  or  the  St.  Andren's  cross,  Xi  ^^  stany  cross, 
.}k,  the  rtxmbcad  croa*,  ^,  or  of  other  ornamental 
Ibnns.  They wereusDally madewlthbUckinh.  The 
BjaantiDs  empenirs  used  red  ink  till  they  were  Imi- 
tated bjotbersovereigns,when  they  sdopted  the  green 
n)1oT.  The  Anglo-S^on  kings  used  a  golden  cross. 
dlipensins  with  the  signature  and  the  «aal.     Bine  and 


CROSS 

marked  with  a  stile  or  pen,  or  were  stamped,  or  were 
times  made  of  a  thin  plate  of  ivory,  tione,  or  met- 
By  tradition  the  croes  is  now  used  aa  a  aignatnre, 
only  by  those  who  cannot  write.  Crosses  were 
often  presented  to  clolaters  by  guous  visitors,  and  are 
prcaerved  in  many  of  their  mannacriptfl.  Tliey  were 
used  to  mark  the  begiiming  and  end  of  books,  letters, 
documents,  of  chapters,  paragmphr,  references,  and 
criticul  remarks  in  books.  Ihey  are  eipecially  used 
tn  many  countries  at  the  bead  of  letters  atinouaclng  a 
death.  The  cross  was  early  adopted  for  the  giound- 
plan  of  churches.  In  the  later  Gothic  period  the  spsls 
was  turned  out  of  the  lino  of  the  axis  of  tho  nave  to 
represent  the  drooping  of  the  head  of  Christ  at  hia 
death. 

CROSS,  Cbrir's.  The  question  aa  to  "tho  rrtK 
eroat"  npon  which  our  Saviour  suffered  has  been  much 
agitated,  especially  among  rrotettants,  for  the  relics 
shown  OS  sncb  are  generally  credited  amont;  Roman- 
lats.  (See  the  controverrv  revived  In  modern  limes 
ly  Ur.  Williams,  in  favor  olUie  tradition.  Holy  Citg, 
ii,  123 ;  and  against  it,  by  Dr.  Robinson,  Bibl.  Ra.  W, 
IS  aq.)  True,  on  thia  subject  exact  Information  ought 
to  be  occeFsible,  ainco  four  ecclesiastical  historians 
(Socrates,  i,  13 ;  Sozomen,  ii,  1 ;  Ruflnua,  1,  Tj  Theo- 
doret,  i,  18}  concur  in  itatlng  that  tho  cross  waa 
found  fay  Helena,  mother  of  Constantino  the  Great. 
This  event  is  assigned  to  the  year  of  our  Lord  SSG. 
EusebioB  ie  silent  sn  the  discovery.  The  other  writ- 
en  state  that  Helena,  when  seventy-nine  years  of 
age,  was  induced  bv  the  warmth  of  her  piety  to  vialt 
iho  piacea  which  the  Saviour  had  rendered  ancred  by 
hia  prosrnce  and  sufierings.  The  hatred  if  the  hea- 
then had  led  them  tfi  oljllterate  as  much  aa  possible  all 
traces  of  the  memorable  events  which  the  life  and  death 
of  Jbeus  had  hallowed,  and  to  cover  Mount  Calvary 
with  stones  and  earth,  and  raise  thereon  a  tf  mple  to 
Ike  goddess  Venup.  A  Jew,  however,  hud  IresEured 
up  what  traditiona  he  could  gather,  and  was  thus  en- 
ailed  to  point  out  to  Helena  the  spot  where  our  Lord 
had  been  burled.  Tho  place  being  excavated,  three 
crosses  were  found,  and  the  title  which  that  of  Jesos 
bore  waa  airo  found  lying  apart  by  itrelf.  The  qoes- 
lion  aroeo  how  the  cross  of  Christ  was  to  be  distin- 
guished iVom  the  other  two.  Uacsrius,  bishop  of  Je- 
rusalem, BUggented  that  their  respective  eflicscy  should 
be  tried  as  to  the  working  of  miracles.  6ick  person* 
won  brought  forward  snd  touched  by  each  separately. 
One  only  wrought  tho  desired  cuiea,  and  waa  accord- 
ingly acknowledged  Co  bo  the  true  crota.  A  full  view 
of  all  the  authorities  on  (his  mgtler  may  be  seen  in 
Tillemont  {Mem.  Ecdit.  chapter  on  Helena).  Hav- 
ing built  a  church  over  the  eacrcd  spot,  Helena  depos- 
ited within  it  the  chief  part  of  the  real  cross.  Tie 
remainder  rhe  conveyed  to  Constantinople,  a  pirt  of 
iTblcb  ConatanUne  inrertcd  in  the  head  of  a  statue  of 
himself,  and  tbe  otlier  part  waa  sent  to  Home,  and 
placed  In  the  church  of  Sta.  Croce  in  GeruFalerame, 
which  waa  built  oxprosaly  to  receive  the  precious  relic, 
IVhen,  subsequenUy,  a  ftstivsl  to  commemorate  tbe 
discovert'  had  been  established,  tho  bishop  of  .Icrusa- 
1cm,  on  Easter  Sunday,  exhibited  to  the  grateful  eyea 
of  eager  pilgrims  tho  object  to  see  which  they  had 
traveltcd  so  fiir  and  endnred  so  much.  Those  who 
were  persons  of  substance  were  farther  gratifled  by 
obtaining,  at  their  full  price,  small  pieces  of  tho  creaa 
set  in  gold  and  gems;  and,  that  wonder  might  not 
paas  into  incredulity,  the  proper  autborities  gave  the 
world  an  assurance  that  ^e  holy  wood  postcfecd  tbe 
power  of  aelf-multiplication,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
innumerable  pieces  which  had  been  taken  Oom  it  tot 
tbe  pleasnra  and  service  of  the  ftithftal,  remained  In- 
tact and  entire  aa  at  tbe  first  (Pooliniu,  Ep.  xi  ad 
Srt.).  The  captnre  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Persians, 
.\.D.  614,  plBMd  the  remains  of  the  cross  in  the  hands 
of  Cbosroe*  II,  who  mockingly  nmveyed  them  to  his 


CROSS  Bi 

cal^taL     Faarteen  ;em  Bftannrdi  HericUoi  neov- 

aii  them,  und  biA  thtm  curried  lint  to  ConiUatino- 
pla,  ud  then  to  Jenuiilem,  in  snch  pomp  tliut,  oa  luB 
UtItiI  before  ths  Litter  city,  ba  fbnnd  tho  gate  birred 
uid  entrance  forbidden,  lustnicted  u  to  ths  cbdh 
of  tbii  bindruica,  tb«  emperor  Uid  (aide  the  tnip- 
jiagt  ot  hia  greatness,  sod,  barefooted,  bora  on  hla 
own  ■houldara  the  ucred  nlic  tip  to  thj  gJto,  which 
then  opened  of  Itself,  and  ■liowsd  him  lo  enter,  and 
thoa  place  his  churge  beneath  the  dome  of  the  aepul- 
chre.  See  CalvarT.  From  tbii  time  no  mora  ia 
liaud  in  biatoiy  of  the  true  crow,  which  tho  advocutea 
of  its  genuiDBDeaa  claim  may  have  been  deatroyed  tiy 
the  Sarscons  on  their  conqueat  of  Jeniealom,  A.b.  C87. 
Fngmenta  only  of  it  an  now  exhibited  in  viirioua 
parti  of  Eiinipc.  (See  below.)  Tbe  wbole  atorj  ia 
Justly  re;;arded  by  Proteebinta  la  contuining  unmia- 
tikaCle  ecldence  of  beini;  it  best  a  pious  fraud  on  the 
put  of  Helena,  or  a  tiick  on  tho  pLirt  of  her  gnides. 
See  Hi^i-EXA.  Bat,  eren  If  the  alory  were  not  >o  in- 
trinalciilly  oijurd  (for,  among  other  reasons,  it  waa  a 
law  anion  {  the  Jews  Ihit  the  croaa  was  to  bo  Immed; 
Othoni!,  Let.  Rah.  a.  T.  Supplicium).  it  would  require 
far  more  probablo  evidence  to  outweigh  tho  silence  of 
Eniebins.  It  clearly  was  to  the  interest  of  tbe  Chnrch 
of  Rome  to  maintain  the  belief  and  invent  the  atory  of 
lis  miraculous  multlplJcsUon,  because  tho  sals  of  tlie 
TBlics  was  extremely  profitable.  To  this  diiy  the  eup. 
posed  title,  or  rather  fngmenta  of  It,  are  ahotm  to  the 
people  once  a  year  In  the  church  of  Sti.  Croca  in  G<- 
rnaalemme  at  Kooie.  On  the  capture  of  the  true  croaa 
by  ChosToea  It,  and  ita  rescue  by  Herjcliua,  with  even 
the  eeala  of  the  case  anbroken,  and  the  rubsoquent  aale 
of  a  large  fra|^ent  to  Louia  IX,  aee  Gitibon,  ir,  3SS ; 
Ti,  66.  Those  aufflciently  Interested  in  the  annala  of 
Buch  Imposture  may  see  farther  accounts  in  U^roniua 
{Am.  Ecu.  A.D.  826,  No.  42-60),  Jnrtin,  and  Schmidt 
iPrMem.  <U  Cmea  Donimca  /nmMiime,  Helmst.  1724) ; 
and  on  the  fate  of  the  true  croaa,  a  paper  read  by  Lord 
Mahon  before  the  Society  of  Autiquarlof,  Feb.  1881. 

According  to  Ambroaios  ((?ntfK)  de  Obilu  Titcdor. 
p.  498),  the  piece  which  bore  the  title  stood  on  the  ti^ 
of  the  cross  of  out  I/ird  (John  xlx,  13-39,  iri  roii  irniii- 
poi ;  conip.  Mittt.  xivii,  87 ;  Mark  iv,  26 ;  Lniie  iTiil, 
IS):  ths  form  then  would  be  aomewhutthUB,^'  This 
fact  would  !eid  to  tbe  expectation  of  more  accurate 
infbrmatiau  from  tbose  who  ate  aald  to  have  found 
the  cross.  But  the  conduct  of  Helena  in  dividing  the 
croaa,  setting  aside  one  part  for  JsrusiUm,  another 
for  Comtaiitinople,  and  another  aa  a  pbylacterion  fur 


her  « 


and  the 


quently  tonk  place,  rendered  it  impnssilile  to  ascertain 
in  any  aatiaructory  manner  not  only  whether  the  al- 
le,jed  was  tbe  real  croaa,  but  also  of  what  wood  and  in 
what  ihape  it  had  bean  made.  Tbia  only,  then,  ai  to 
the  shape  of  the  Saviour'a  croaa,  can  be  determined, 
that  tbe  prevalent  form  waa  that  of  the  erax  eapila/a, 
and  that  this  form  ia  generally  fbnnd  on  coina  and  in 
the  so-called  monogram  (Muntar'a  SunOUtr,  1.  iv). 
The  wooden  title,  however,  ia  aaid  to  be  »ti!l  preaerved 
In  Rome—nnt  entire,  indeed,  for  only  fhigmenta  re. 
main  of  tlie  Hebrew  letters,  ao  that  they  are  Illegible. 
Tbe  Greek  and  Latin,  except  tbe  letter  i,  are  both 
written  after  the  Eastern  manner,  tro:n  right  to  left. 
Thla  is  said  to  have  happened  either  because  they 
were  written  by  a  Jsw,  following  a  national  custom, 
or  from  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  if  a  Roman, 

Jews.  Nicetos  {Tilalvt  aond.  Cmru)  holds  that  it  is 
not  all  tbe  work  of  one  hand,  Nnce  the  Roman  letters 
are  firmly  and  distinctly  cut,  but  tbe  Greek  letters 
very  badly.  He  thinks  that  a  Jew  cut  the  Hebrew 
<or  Aramasan)  and  Greek,  and  a  Roman  the  Latin. 
All  that  remains  of  the  Greek  ia  KaZapivovt  /J-  [1.  e. 
Nojopjivni  ffamXiic],  of  the  Latin  ffaiaremu  Se- 
[*»i],  1.  e.  "  Kaiarene,  King."    This  tablet  ia  aaid  to 


fiepuMl  T^blel  of  Chrlit'i  Cr 


have  been  sent  by  ConatsntiDe  to  Rome,  and  then  db 

positad  in  a  leaden  cheat,  above  tbe  vaulted  dome  of 
the  chnrch  of  Sla.  Crocs,  in  a  little  window,  and  then 
bricked  into  the  wall,  its  poeition  being  reccrded  hy  a 
MosjIc  inacri[>tlon  without     Time  rendered  the  In- 

Ibe  csieleaaness  of  workmen  eni^ged  in  repairing  tlw 
church,  waa  accidentally  broken  open,  when  tbe  nlic 
waa  diacovered.  A  bull  waa  iasoed  by  pope  Alexan- 
der 111  commemorating  tbe  discovery  and  anlhenti- 
cating  the  title.  The  whole  story  la  evidently  at  a 
piece  with  the  faregoing.  Jlonogiaphs  on  the  sut^ect 
and  relic  in  question  have  been  written  in  Latin  I7 
Alberti(UpB.lG90;  Jen.l7-ie),Altniaun  (Bern.  1739), 
Felter  (Lips.  1725),  Freiealeben  (Lip«.  I661X  Hanka 
(Jen.  1672),  Hiller  (Tubing.  1696),  Nicqueti  (Antw. 
1770),  Reichmann  (Vitob.  1B56),  Reyper  (KUon.  16M ; 
also  In  Menthenil  JXti.  U,  241  aq.),  Waielius  (U  a 
1712).     See  TlTLK, 

Much  time  and  trouble  haft  been  waited  in  diipot- 
ing  as  to  whether  threo  or  four  naila  were  need  in 
fastening  the  Lord  to  hia  cross.  (See  above.)  Kon- 
nua  affirma  that  three  only  wen  uswl,  in  which  he  ia 
(bllowed  by  Gregory  Naiianien.  The  more  genera] 
belief  gives  four  mils,  an  opinion  which  is  supported 
at  much  length  and  by  cniioua  arguments  by  Curtins 
(De  Clavit  DoBHstci'i}.  Others  have  carrwd  tbe  num- 
ber of  nails  as  high  aa  fourtoen.  Of  the  fbororiirina] 
nuls,  the  emproaa  Helena  ia  reported  (Theodorei,  //^. 
£<:cf.  i,  17)  to  have  thrown  one  into  the  Adriatic  shea 
furioualy  rating,  thereby  producing  an  mslant  calm. 
The  second  is  aaid  to  have  bean  put  by  ConstanliiM 
into  either  his  helmet  or  crown,  or  (as  Zonaras  aaya) 
on  the  head  of  the  statue  which  ha  intended  to  betba 
palladiam  of  Constantinople,  snri  which  tbe  peopla 
need  to  snrmund  with  lighted  torches  (Uosheim,  Ecd, 
JTitt.  li,  1,  3,  and  notes).  This  nail,  however,  was  mt- 
terwardi  (o  be  found  in  a  mutllatel  state  in  the  chnrch 
of  Sta.Croce.  In  tho  Duomo  of  llilan  Is  a  third  nail, 
which  Entropina  affirms  waa  driven  throngfa  one  of 
Jaans'a  hande,  and  which  Constantine  used  as  a  bit, 
intending  thereby  to  verify  the  prophecy  of  Zechariah 
(xiv,  in) :  "  In  that  day  shall  l«  upon  the  btlla  (mai- 
gin,  briditt)  of  the  hones,  I/olimu  tnto  fie  Lard." 
Trevea  poaaeeses  the  foorth  nail,  which  la  alleged  to 
have  been  driven  through  tbe  aufferer's  right  fool 
(Lipains,  De  Crva,  ii.  9).  Thoso  who  maintain  the 
mber  of  nails  to  have  lieen  more  than  four  hare  bad 
difficulty  in  fioding  aa  many  naOs  as  their  hypoth- 
esis in  each  case  needed,  and  aa  many  aacred  place* 
for  their  safe  keeping.  There  are  monograpbs  on  thia 
suliject,  in  Latin,  by  Fontanus  (Amst.  ISiS),  Frisch- 
mnth  (Jen.  1663),  Semler  (Dresd.  1711),  Winer  (Lips. 
in4S), Curtins  (MDnaci,lG!!;  Anlw.l6T0:  also  in  tbe 
Sgiib.  liu.  Brrm.  iii,  S09) ;  in  German, lij  Bkhr  (in  Hev. 
clcnraich'a  ZtiiiAr.  ii,  309),  Fautus  {aftnurabiL  iv,  36- 
U).     Sei  Nail. 

Another  dispute  has  been  agitated  relative  to  tlis 
existence  of  a  igpijiodmni  or  tablet  whereon  tbe  fact, 
were  aapportcd.  Gregorr  of  Tours,  who  had  seen  tiu 
alleged  true  cross,  affirms  that  it  had  such  a  fDotstool ; 
hut  hla  dictum  has  been  called  in  queation.  It  is, 
however,  donbtvd  whether  the  hands  alone,  witboot  a 
prop  beneath,  could  anstain  tbe  wsight  of  the  body, 


CROSS  5( 

•ad  aoms  bare  mppcxed  that  a  kind  of  ie*t  WM  pUe«d, 
on  wbich  tbe  sufferer  laty  be  uid  to  hare  In  Mine 
war  ut.  Tbe  conCrovciS}'  la  treated  at  length  in  ttM 
flrsi  of  the  four  Uypomnmata  de  Cmce  at  Burtlwllniu 
(Ham.  IC^!,  Amit.  1GT0,  L.  B.  1696)- 

A  common  tradition  aaalpu  tlio  perpetual  ebifer  of 
tbe  wpen  to  tbe  bet  of  the  croea  bavlng  been  fimned 
of  iU  wood,  liptins,  howe\-er  <,t)t  Cnxr,  lii,  18), 
thinki  it  was  of  oak,  whk'b  was  Btroag  enoujjh^  and 
cammon  in  Jadsoa.  t^vr  will  attach  iinj  conaequence 
to  bis  other  reaaon,  tbat  the  relica  appear  to  be  of  oak. 
The  legend  lo  which  be  allodea, 

Palma  mini  II  relloBt,  Uuilu  latUiir  dUt^i" 
(The  foot  lj  cvdafi  crpre*'  turm*  llie  tliaft, 
Hm  aniu  an  palvh  Ine  title  oliru  Iwli>>, 
Iwidly  need!  refotalion.  It  muU  Dot  bo  orerloolied 
that  croaiea  mutt  but-c  l«en  of  the  meaneet  and  readi- 
eat  material*,  becauac  tbey  were  oted  in  luch  marvel- 
loos  Dnmbere.  Thai  we  are  told  that  Alexander  Jan- 
naui  CTUciAed  BUO  Jews  (JoMphns,  A<a.  xiii,  14,  2), 
and  Vmna  2000  (tft.  xrii,  10, 10),  and  Hadrian  fiOO  a 
dar ;  and  Tiliu  k>  man  j  uiat  "  room  fulled  for  tbe 
muses,  and  erouee  fur  tbe  bodiei"  (Joeephus,  War, 
vi,  ag,  where  Iteland  rightlj'  notices  the  strsnge  retri- 
liDtion,  "bo  that  tbey  who  had  nothing  bnt '  cnicUy 
in  their  mnuth  were  Iberewith  paid  home  in  their 
own  bodies,-  Sir  T.  Browne.  Vu^.  Err.  r,  21).  In 
Sicilv,  Augustus  ciuciOed  600  (Orosius,  vi,  18).     See 

CBCCII'HIO.V. 

CROSS,  Bdli.  of  thb  (Cnaada),  a  boll  bj  which 
pope  Calixtus  III,  In  I4S7,  granted  vei}-  oilsnslve  Id- 
dnlgaoces  to  all  who  would  take  up  arms,  under  king 
Beniy  cf  Castile,  against  tbe  infulclr,  or  paf  to  that 
king  a  certain  sum  for  defraying  the  a.xpeniei  of  tbe 
war.    Tbe  Indnlgenrv  wot  at  flrit  granted  for  only 

Urged,  so  ss  Co  include  mnnj  privitei^cs.  «ncb  as  ox- 
emiition  fkim  tbo  commandmcat  of  abstinence.  The 
pTDi:ccda  of  tbe  Hull  of  tbe  Croas  constituted  a  conaid- 
•ralilc  portion  of  the  public  revenue.  The  last  renewal 
of  tbe  bull  b  of  the  year  1758.  A  similar  bull  was  is- 
■ned  in  1514  liy  pope  Lao,  in  favor  of  king  Sebastian 
of  Portugal,  to  whom,  in  consideration  of  Ills  endeav. 
«n  for  the  eonTcnion  of  inHdcIs  bi  Africa,  the  third 
part  of  the  tithes  and  tho  tenth  part  of  the  taxea  doe 
to  tbe  churches  and  ecclesiastical  lieneiicei  of  tho 
Ungdnm  waa  coDceded._-Wetiar  u.  Welle,  Kirxttn- 
Ltr.  vi,  ^C8. 

CROSS,  Ex*LTATTox  r>r  THK,  a  fcsaval  In  tbe  Ro- 
man  Cathcdic  Church,  instituted  in  cnnrniemoration  of 
tba  exaltation  of  the  supposed  crois  ofChrL<tat  Jemsa- 
lem,  after  its  recoverj'  Irom  tbo  Persians.  Tbe  latter, 
when  conqacring  Jerusalem  la  C14,  carried  off  with 
tbcm  the  relic  whicli,  since  lis  "invention"  [aeeCBOaa, 
Cubist's]  by  the  empress  Helens,  bad  been  veaaia- 
tad  aa  tbe  "Holy  Crces."  With  a  view  to  a  heavy 
Bom  of  ransom,  tbcy  bad  it  saaled  up  bj  tbe  patriarch 
Zacharias  with  ttie  patriarchal  seal,  and  took  it  to  a 
ibong  castle  in  Armenia.  When,  in  S27,  the  ctnpe- 
n>r  Heraclins  conquered  tho  Persians,  he  etipulated  in 
tbs  UBoty  of  peace  for  tho  restoration  of  the  Holy  Croaa, 
and  took  it  with  bim  to  Constantinople.  From  there, 
in  639  (aerarding  to  others  in  G.10),  he  took  it  himself, 
accompanied  by  a  large  retinue,  to  Jerusalem,  where  it 
was  siisiD  set  up  with  great  solemnities.  It  is  this 
restoration  of  the  crws  to  Jeruaalrm  which  is  annual- 
ly commemonled  on  Sept.  14  in  tbe  Church  of  Rome 
as  the  Exaltation  of  tbe  Cross.— Wetier  u.  Welta, 
irir(rAn.-ier.vi,268. 

CROSS,  lavEiTTio:!  of  ths,  tbe  name  elven  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  a  festival  which  commem- 
orates the  finding  of  the  alleged  true  cross  of  our  Sa. 
Tiour,  and  wbich  is  celebrated  on  the  Hi  of  AUy.  An 
order  of  ttitn,  founded  in  honor  of  the  invsation  of 
the  cross,  and  carrying  In  their  hand  a  staff,  on  the  top 
of  which  waa  ■  cn>»,  received  tbe  name  of  CVnrirra 


1  CROSS 

(Ft.  troiz,  cros^,  oormptod  into  Crovcird  or  Craleiid 
Friars.  Tbey  csme  to  England  in  the  ]3lh  century, 
and  had  monasteries  in  London,  Oxford,  and  Kyegate. 
Tbe  festivii!  of  the  Elevation  of  tbe  Cross  (Seplembet 
Jerusalem    bv 


after    i 


bad    I 


away   by    the    Persiana.      See    Csosa,   ExalTAtIOS 

CROSS,  tlcTAFHostCAi.  Skhbk  of.  This  word 
(1),  in  its  most  eomprehenaive  sense,  as  figuratively 
used  in  N-  T.,  designates  not  only  the  v'holc  [tassion 
of  Christ,  culminating  in  the  death  on  the  crosa,  but 
also  tbe  ubolo  Gcirpel  ayatem,  as  a  means  nf  roconcit- 
iation  with  God  through  Christ  (!)  It  is  alfo  used  to 
designate  the  suSerinKa  and  trials  sent  upon  Chris- 
tiana for  their  moral  improvement,  and  nbich  have 
the  effect  of  etrcngthening  faith,  and  teaching  humili- 
ty, love,  and  aul  mlspinn.  The  command  to  "ti.ke  up 
the  cross"  duily  (Luke  ix,  ';8)  Figniilei  that  ue  are 
chcerftilly  to  submit  to  all  tho  evils  of  life,  circum. 
stance,  and  position,  which  God,  in  bis  wiadom,  sees 

at  misfortune,  as  the  discipline  of  Buffering  brings 
fmils  of  panctidcatian  to  those  who  patienti}'  submit 
for  Christ's  sake,  remrmlnring  Ihst  all  Ihings  vork 
for  good  lo  tbcm  that  luve  God  (Rom.  viii,  38).  Four 
kind*  of  "  crosaea"  have  been  recognised :  1,  the  eron 
of  rasTtyrdom,  the  witncsa  unto  death  for  Christ  and 
the  Gospel ;  :',  the  cross  of  trials,  for  tlie  presemtion 
of  Ciith,  love,  and  hope  {  S,  the  cross  of  discipline,  for 
the  puriAcation  of  Ibe  heart  and  the  (ubjectiou  of  sin- 
ful desires  and  inclinationa ;  4,  tbe  cross  of  puniah- 
mcnt,  for  the  chastisement  of  sin  j  though  tbe  aim  of 
punishment  also  la  the  improvement  of  tbe  sinner. 
God  is  love,  and  tberefuro  luya  tbe  ''croaa"  in  evety 
mo  as  be  nee<ls  it.  llo  chasteneth  whom  bo  lovetb. 
It  la  a  sad  mistake  to  consider  suffering  as  the  result 
of  caprice  or  anger  on  tbe  part  of  God  (!  Cor.  iv,  IS- 
IS; xii,  7;  Heb.  xii,  1-12;  Gal.  vi,  1*  ;  Eph.  ii,  10, 
17;  CoL  1, 10-22;  1  Cor.  i,  17,  18;  GaL  v,  11;  ThiL 
iii,  18).— Krobl,  .V.  T.  Htrndteirltrttirh,  s.  v.  Kreux. 

CROSS,  OnDEBS  OF  thf.,  in  the  Roman  Church. 
1.  CammtRfgularoflkeCungirgationo/UitlMsCrou, 
founded  in  1^11  by  Theodore  de  Celle^  a  descendant 
of  the  dukea  of  Urelagne.  It  was  conlirmcd  ijy  Inno- 
cent IT  in  1S48,  and  was  exempted  from  the  juriadio- 
tlon  of  the  bishops  by  John  XXII  in  1818.  The  or- 
der spread  capecinlly  in  tbe  Kalherlands,  Western  Ger- 
many, and  France,  and  still  exista  in  the  Ketberlanda 
and  Belgium,  whence  In  ISoO  a  colony  was  sent  over 
to  the  United  SUtes,  where  they  have  an  establish. 
ment  In  tbe  dioceee  of  Uilwankeo.  See  Hetvut,  who 
calls  them  Croisiore  or  Porte-Croixi  Amirican  Colli- 
i^ic  Almonac.   2.CTmtitrt(firoB-ltanTi)i/Jtalg,ui. 


Cnaa-bearer  In  Halj. 


CROSS  61 

ottwr  congiegmtion  of  ttw  ume  ordar,  tha  origin  of 
vhlch  lj  luilcDOWD,  bat  which  wii  nneWBil  by  pope 
Alazsnder  111  In  1169,  *ad  U  ddw  extinct.  S.  Cni- 
titri  af  Bohemia,  w«  Ehiobt*,  Tkdtoxic.  4.  Dangk- 
Urt  ofAe  Crouy  foanded  by  Hadams  da  Vllltiunve,  in 


Diaghtsr  of  ths  Crua. 

the  Ngllurludl. 

France,  in  1640,  nnder  ths  dlrectron  of  Viocsnt  ds  Paal, 
■nd  confirmed  by  pope  Clement  IX.  The;  devotf 
tliemnlvel  principally  to  ths  instTDCtion  of  girli,  aod 
have  their  priacipal  etlabliahment,  with  mora  than 
100  membeti,  Ht  Paris.  The  order  is  rupidly  incrsai- 
ing  in  France,  and  haj  one  eatablithmcat  in  the  Unit- 
ed Sutes.  in  the  dioceie  of  Natchltochei,  fonndod  in 
18a4.~Fehr,  Gadachtt  drr  JUHK/uorden,  ii.  310.  G. 
Another  con^egatian  of  Daugliltr4  of  tilt  Crou  was 
fhnaded  in  1S35  at  Lla^  by  Halieta,  a  Belgian  prieat. 
They  teach,  keep  aayluir.s  for  fallen  women,  etc.,  and 
hava  eataldiahed  several  hoiiMe  In  Belgium  and  Ger- 
many.— Felir,  Gridtichlt  der  Minclaordn,  ii,S22.  6. 
SUtert  of  (Ae  Crou,  aba  culled  "  Sistsra  of  St.  An- 
drew," founded  in  1806  by  MudcmolMllo  I)ochii;r,  In  tba 
diocese  of  Poitiers.  They  devote  themselves  to  the 
Instruction  of  cbiidren,  and  to  the  nnrvin)[  of  the  sick 
In  the  coontry.     They  are  very  numerous  in  France. 

7.  Another  congretiaCion  of  SUIeri  of  Oie  Crou,  also 
called  "gistors  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Maty," 
was  founded  by  Abb£  Mureau,  at  Mans,  about  18&4, 
and  approved  liy  th^  pops  Id  18&7.  They  came  to  the 
United  States  ia  1^4^,  and  have  eitiblithments  In  the 
dioceses  of  Fort  W.iyne,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicngo. 

8.  A  Cuiwrregaiiun  of  Rrgulir  Cbrti  "flhe  Ifiiy  Crou 
was  fuDnded  in  ]S3ft,  together  with  the  coni{regaIlun 
mentioned  under  No.  7,  by  Abl>6  Moreau.  It  was  af- 
terwanln  united  with  (he  '■Brothers  of  3L  Joseph," 
founddl  sliout  the  same  time  by  Very  Rev.  Mr.  Duja- 

praved  by  Piui  IX  in  18S7.  'Ihov  had,  in  1867,  82  ! 
honses  and  missions,  of  which  oU  were  in  France,  IS 
in  America,  7  in  Bengal,  2  in  Aiipria,  and  1  each  In 
Rome,  I'flland,  and  Austria. 

CRO.SS,  SiOM  or  THB,  a  rite  in  the  Roman  Church, 

and  In  the  Greek  and  other  Eastern  churches.     It  is 

used  by  officiating  priests  aa  a  form  of  blessing  at  all 

■"      *    1  actions  and  consecrations,  and  liy  all  the 

rif  Ehn  Church  at  the  beginninic  of  a  prayer 

thi  host,  iitid  on  many  other  ocoaiion,«.  It  is  always 
made  with  tlio  ri^iht  hand.  In  the  6th  century  it  be- 
came ciisloRisry  to  make  the  sign  of  tho  cmsa  with 
the  thumb  en  ftirehead,  mouth,  and  chest.  Since  the 
8th  century  the  so^alllod  "large"  or  "Ijtin"  ctoaa 
bas  lieen  in  I'ommon  nse  among  the  laity.  It  Is  made 
with  (he  pslm  of  the  hand  by  tonrhinir  firrt  the  fore- 
head; nvxt,  in  directline  downward,  tho  cheat;  next, 


12  CROSWELL 

in  boriiontal  Una,  the  left  and  tlie  right  ahanlder.  Tba 
same  form  of  creaa  is  used  In  liturgical  actions,  if  the 
ciHB  la  to  be  made  over  the  object  to  be  blessed  with- 
out touching  it.  AVbile  among  the  I^tliu  the  cma 
beam  is  drawn  firom  the  left  to  the  right,  the  revoae 
is  the  ciBB  among  the  Greeks  and  Gusjuans.  In  mak- 
ing the  sign  of  the  cross,  it  it  crimmon  to  prononnca 
the  words,  "  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  Son, 
and  the  Uoly  Ghost.  Amen."  Formerly  there  oera 
also  other  form*  in  common  use  (Binterini  raumeiates 
eljht),  bnt  all  have  been  dif pLiced  by  the  above.  The 
different  ways  of  making  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and 
tbe  number  of  fingers  used,  hsvo  colled  forth  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  the  moat  fanciful  aud  myatial  signi- 
fications, and  a  special  power  has  commonlv  been  a^ 
tributed  to  the  sign  of  the  cross.  It  ia,  therefore,  also 
made  over  water,  salt,  oil,  eU.  In  the  Greek  Chnnh 
tbe  sign  of  the  cross  is  of  even  moro  frequent  nse  ibsa 
in  the  Roman  Catholic.  Among  the  Piutestanti  il  is 
almoM  Duiveraally  abandoned  fin  the  Lutheran  Chuieh 
of  Saxony  it  was  in  oae  until  the  introduction  of  a  oew 
liturgy  in  181!).  In  the  Church  of  England  and  in 
the  Proleatant  Episcopal  Chunb  ila  uae  in  baptiin  it 

CROSS,  Wat  op  tbe  (Via  Cnuii),  the  coUectir* 
namo  of  a  certain  number  of  picture*  or  statiouiao 
near  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  aauctuaiies,  to  rep- 
resent an  equal  number  of  events  in  the  bislory  of  the 
Passion  of  the  Saviour.  Generally  tbe  number  ofthe 
pictures  is  14  or  16,  but  Fometlmes  leai.  The  peofJs 
who  "walk  the  way  of  tho  ctdss"  stop  a  little  wbils 
at  each  fdctura,  reciting  a  prayer,  nntil  tliey  hive,  ia 
turn,  visited  everv  ttation,  and  Ihos  completed  the 
commemcrallon  oftho  Paadon.  In  some  Roman  Cath- 
olic countries,  as  in  Southern  Germany,  the  "  Wsy  of 
the  Cross"  cm  be  met  with  in  almost  eveij  chirth. 
This  practice  was  Invented  by  the  Franciscan  monks, 
who  offered  it  to  the  people  aa  a  substitute  for  tho  pit 
RTlma^  to  the  Hidy  l.ind,  and  justly  calcnlated  that, 
by  obtaining  numerous  indulgences  from  the  pop«  tm 
those  Mho  would  adopt  this  peculiar  kind  of  vonhif^ 
they  would  achieve  a  great  popularity  for  the  churcba 
of  their  order.  Their  eiptctathin  was  realised.  The 
popes  ^rjntod  to  the  visitor*  of  the  "Way  of  the  Cn»" 
all  the  indulgences  which  had  formerly  been  granted 
to  tbo  visitors  of  difli-rent  places  in  tbe  Holy  Land, 
thus  enabling  the  people  to  gain  in  a  few  minntes  sn- 
eral  "plenary"  indulgences,  besides  a  nnmbrrof  pa^ 
tUI.  Every  "Way  of  tho  Cross"  must  be  Instllatei 
liy  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  it  requires  a  sperial  pa^ 
mission  fhiiii  the  pope  if  any  one  who  is  not  a  Fns- 
ciscon  ia  to  introduce  it.  Many  special  books  of  d» 
votion  have  been  published  for  tbe  Via  Crvtii. 

CrOBB-beareT  (cmc^).  1.  In  the  Romiih 
Church,  the  designitinn  of  tho  chaplain  of  an  oAr 

solemn  oocaaions.  The  pope  haa  tho  croas  borne  bs- 
fors  him  everywhere ;  a  patriarch  anywhere  osl  of 
Rome;  and  primates,  metropoliUns,  and  tliaee  who 
right  Co  Che  pallium,  throughout  their  respect- 


ive jur 


lictions. 


mist. 


single  ■ 


patriarch  a  double  cross,  and  tbe  pope  a  triple  crosi 
on  his  arms. 

3.  The  name  croa-tairsn  ("cnidftri")  was  also 
applied  to  the  Flaffdloali  in  the  thirtevoth  and  fon- 
teenth  centuries.    See  Flaoellants. 

CroBwelL  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Proieftant  E|u>cepal 
minister,  wo*  born  In  West  Haitford.  Conn.,  June  16| 
177H.  While  quite  young  he  entered  his  brstliei'i 
printing-office  in  Catekill,  y.  Y.,  and  soon  btcaois  <d- 
itor  of  a  newspaper  published  In  that  place.  ilnoC 
IROO  he  established  a  paper  at  Hudson,  N.  T.,  nllad 
The  Bahnet.  Be  Temovsd  to  Albany  in  1809,irhra« 
his  paper  attained  a  still  wider  circulation  andlnifr 
ence.  Finally  be  turned  his  attention  to  tbe  Chris- 
tian ministry-.     Though  brought  up  among  Coopi^ 


CROSWELL 

AmaXtte,  ha  drtenniiMd  to  ontte  with  the  Fivteitant 
Ei^acopal  Church,  ind  piepued  lo  aDtci  Iti  ministry. 
la  the  ynu  1814  ha  wu  orduued  deacoo.  After 
imachlng  a  ihort  time  la  Hodaou.  ha  remtrred  to  Kaw 
HiTan,  wban  he  took  chai^  of  Tiinitj  Chmch,  and 
In  Felvoar}',  IBIG,  be  was  onUlned  (viut.  He  re- 
nuined  in  Iht  lama  pirlab  43  jsan.  It  ia  ttatad  that 
in  a  period  of  41  yaars  he  officiated  at  1844  buiiala, 
adnuniaured  2668  baptiama,  and  married  83S  conptei. 
He  died  March  13, 1868. 

CroBwell,  ^ilUam,  D.D.  (md  of  Henr^),  vas 
bom  in  UadioD,  N.  Y.,  Not.  T,  1»H,  nnd  graduated  at 
Tale  College  In  1822.  After  stud.viii){  Bt  the  General 
Theol.  iieroin&ry,  N.  J.,  be  was  ordained  in  1B28,  and 
in  May,  1829,  he  accepted  the  rcclonhip  of  Chiut 
Church,  Boaton.  In  1840  he  becsme  rector  of  St.Pe- 
ter's  Church,Anbam,  N.T.,  but,  utter  aomewhat  mora 
than  four  yeara,  he  ratumed  to  Itoalon,  and  connected 
bimnlf  with  a  new  enterprise — the  Church  of  tho  Ad- 
vent, which  proved  very  successful.  With  this  church 
he  coDtinued  till  the  ctoae  of  his  life.  Id  IMC  the  do- 
gree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Trinity  Cok 
lege,  Unrtford,  and  on  Not.  9, 1861,  ha  died  suddenly, 
after  the  partial  delivery  of  a  beautiful  sermon,  ad- 
dressed to  the  cbildrrn  of  his  church,  in  connection 
with  a  bKpUsm.  His  piodnctioni,  especially  on  poet- 
ry, were  pablisbed  soon  after  bis  death  by  his  father, 
tn  an  extended  Mtmmr,  but  be  had  atrictly  Ibrbldden 
tbe  pnbliotloo  of  any  of  liis  sermons^ — Sprague,  An- 
maU,  r,  S97. 

Crotb«n.  Samobi.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, waa  bom  neat  Chnmbcrsburg,  Pa.,  October  22, 
1769.  His  (htber  removed  to  Lexington,  Ky.,  In 
1787.  In  Febmary,  1798,  ho  entered  the  Lexington 
Academy,  and  in  1804  placed  himself  under  the  care 
of  tho  Kentucky  Presbytery  as  a  candidate  for  the 
ministry.  Ho  entered  the  Sew  York  Theological 
S«miuaiy  In  1805,  and,  retnming  to  Kentacky  Id  1600, 
was  there  lieensed  to  preach.  He  settled  in  Chili- 
cothe  in  I8I0,  where  he  remained  fbl  three  years,  ri>- 
moving  to  Greenlleld  in  1813.  At  this  time  tho  Aano. 
dite  Keformed  Church  waa  greatly  agitated  with  con- 
troveniica  respecting  Intercomm  onion  and  psalmody. 
Witli  Dr.  MasoD  and  most  of  his  students,  Ur.  Cn>- 
thcn  opposed  close  oommunion,  and  tb>  exclnslTe  use 
of  what  has  been  called  inspired  psalmody.  Tniubles 
growing  out  of  theH  things,  he  resigned  his  charge, 
and  removed  to  Winchester,  Ky.  in  1820  he  retamed 
to  Greenfield,  whor;  he  remained  BO  years.  He  died 
anddcnly  in  Oiwreo,  111-,  at  the  house  of  bis  son,  on 
July  20, 1856.— Wilson,  PmbgleriiM  But.  Almmmc, 
1864. 

Crow  (copwv.-),  Dsruch  vl,  54,  prob.  the  jachdoK. 
Sea  Kateh. 


13  CROWN 

in  1777,  of  Presbyterian  parents,  waa  conrerted  thmn^ 
the  agency  of  Methodist  preacbin);  at  i.bout  20,  en- 
tend  the  iCinBrancy  in  1801,  located  in  1809,  and  died 
ftt  Sturbridge,  Mass.,  July,  1868,  in  the  flfty-aeventh 
year  of  his  ministry.  He  bad  a  strong  intellect,  aonnd 
judgment,  generous  emotions,  and  so  earnest  love  of 
Methodism.  He  wss  an  able  and  succesafnl  minister. 
He  was  one  of  the  fonnders  of  the  Weslcyan  Academy, 
Wilbraham,udInmBny  ways  was  of  eminent  service 
to  the  Chare  h.— Sherman,  SkUdia  nf  Nea-EngUm^l 
DiviMt,  p.  889. 

CrovrelL  Beth,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister 
of  more  than  ordinarv  talents,  was  bom  at  Tolland, 
Conn.,  in  1781,  enlcred  the  Mew  York  Conference  in 
1801,  was  retumcd  aupHsnouatnl  in  1813,  re-enlered 
apon  work  as  a  missionary  in  1SI6,  located  in  1BI9, 
and  was  readmitted  as  auperannnsted  in  1824.  He 
died  in  1826  in  New  York  city.  See  Sfiniitit  cf  An- 
nuof  Con/ersicM,  i,  642;  Stevens,  ifcinoriab  o/ Jfitfii- 
odum,  ii,  ch.  xviii. 

Crowing.     See  CocK-cnowtNo. 

Cro^,  John  F.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bnm  at  Salem,  N.  Y.,  about  1823.  He  removed 
with  his  pirenls  when  quite  young  to  Tray,  N.  Y.;  waa 
converted  in  1889,  and  in  1848  united  with  the  Troy 
Conference.  For  some  time  during  his  ministry  be  lo- 
cated and  labored  as  an  evanRelist.  His  labors  were 
abundant  and  hi(;h1y  successful  to  the  close  of  his  life, 
Sept.  14, 1876.  Mr.  Cronl  was  a  sweet  singer,  power- 
ful in  exhonstion,  and  mighty  in  prayer.  He  bad  a 
daepiv  emntionat  nature,  and  hii  soul  seemed  greatly 
burdeneil  fur  souls.  See  MiaaUt  of  Ammal  Con/tr- 
eaai,  1876,  p.  81. 

Ctrowu.  an  ornament  often  mentioned  In  Scrip. 
tur«,  and  in  sach  a  manner  as  in  most  casaa  to  In^ 
cats  the  circumatances  under  wbich  and  the  persona 
by  whom  it  was  worn;  for  crowns  were  less  excla- 
aively  worn  by  sovereigns  than  among  modem  na- 
tions. Perhaps  it  would  lie  better  to  say  that  tha 
term  "  crowna"  was  applied  lo  other  ornaments  for 
tho  head  than  those  excl naively  worn  by  royal  person- 
oges,  and  lo  which  modem  nsage  woald  give  such  dis- 
tinctive names  as  coronet,  band,  mitre,  tbra,  garland. 
etc.  This  ornament,  which  is  both  ancient  and  nnl- 
versa],  probably  originated  from  the  fillets  used  lo  pre- 
vent the  hair  ^m  being  dishevelled  by  the  wind. 
Sach  flileta  are  still  common,  and  they  may  be  seen 
on  the  sculptures  of  Peraepolia,  Nineveh,  and  F.gypli 
they  gndnaJly  developed  into  turbans  (Joaephua,  Anl. 
iii,  7,  7),  which,  by  the  addition  of  ornamental  or  pre- 
cious materials,  ssanmed  the  dignity  of  niiUes  or 
cronns.  The  use  of  them  as  omsmenta  was  probably 
eiig^ated  by  the  natnral  custom  of  encircling  the  he^ 
with  dowera  in  token  ol  joy  and  triumph  ("Let  as 
crown  oorseUes  with  rosebuds,"  Wisd.  il,  8)  3  Mace, 
vii,  16 ;  Jud.  xv,  13,  and  the  claisical  writers,  jmuim}. 
See  Wrbath.  The  flrst  crown  was  asid  to  have  been 
woven  tor  Pandora  by  the  Graces  (comp.  ori^voc 
Xapimv,  Prov.  Iv,  9).    According  to  Phcrecydcs,  Sat. 

Jnpiter  waa  first  crowned  by  the  gods  after  tbe  con- 
queat  of  the  Tltana.  Pliny,  Harpociation,  etc.,  as- 
cribe its  earliest  use  to  Bacchus,  who  gave  to  Ariadne 
a  crawn  of  gold  and  Indian  gems,  and  assumed  tha 
lanrel  after  bis  conquest  nf  India.  Leo  fgypliua  at- 
tributes tbe  invenUon  to  Isia,  whose  wreath  wna  cereal. 
These  and  other  l^enda  are  collected  by  TertuUian 
trom  the  elaboiate  treattse  on  cnwns  by  Claud.  Sat- 
Dmlnns.  Another  tradition  says  that  Nlmiod  was  iha 
firat  to  wear  a  crown,  the  shape  of  whicb  was  suggest- 
ed to  him  by  a  cloud  (Entychlna  Alexandr.  Atm.l,p. 
eS).  Tntollian,  In  bis  tract  Z>e  Cor.  MiKlU  (c.  vii 
sq.),  argues  against  them  as  unnatural  and  idolatrous. 
He  Is,  however,  singnlarly  nnsucceesful  in  trying  la 
given  to  them  in  Sciiptnt* 


irbsN  lh«7  «n  c<nut*atl7  mentioDcd.     Sm   Bos- 


and  ribboB  i  ID«  vitb  (broftl4Htcb  and  cdjtlag. 
H.  19.  Sfmplv  mp;  0,  vltfa  pcDrlBDt;  ISi  irltb  caoH  uja  nn- 

III.  0.  SLmplfl  cTotm  proper^  T|  with  tenrnted  edge;  fi,  and 
ribbon ;  1,  or  api ;  1 1,  vlib  boUi. 

].  The  word  11),  m'ln- (lit- «'"»«"''«''>;  beneeoow- 
tecraled  Amr,  asof  e  Nazftrite,  and  then  geaerallr  itmjr 
i(Di-),  it  (Dppawd  to  denote  a  dioilFm  (Greek  jinfijfia, 
KeT.  xli,S;  xiii,!;  six,  IS).  It  i>  applied  to  the  in- 
icribed  plate  of  gold  in  front  of  the  bigh-prjeat'«  mitre, 
nliich  nu  tied  behind  by  a  ribbon  (Exod.  xzix,  S; 
zxxix,  30),  and  which  waa  donbtlen  aomethiDn  of  the 
(■me  kind  that  we  see  in  fi^B.  S,  11.  Thi>  ward  i>  ain 
eBipl03'ed  to  denote  the  diikdem  which  Saul  wore  In 
batllf,  and  which  wu  bniaght  to  David  (2  Sam.  i,  10), 
and  alao  that  which  wai  nied  at  the  coronation  of  the 
yonng  Joub  (2  Kingi  xl,  1!) ;  and,  u  another  word  ia 
applied  eluwben  to  the  crown  used  in  this  ceremonl- 
•i,tbepn>babiIi^Uthat  [he  Hebrew  kings  wore  soms- 
timea  a  diadem  md  lometimeg  a  ciown,  and  that  the 
diadem  only  waa  aeceoible  to  the  high-priest,  by  whom 
Joanh  waa  crowned,  the  crown  Ibtelf  being  moet  likely 
ID  the  poaaeaaion  of  Athaliah.  Both  tbe  ordinary 
piiesta  and  the  bigh-prieat  wore  head-dressea  of  thi* 
ornamental  deacription.  Tbe  common  mitro  (!1733^, 
Sept.  litafHt,  Ejtod.  xiviii,  87 ;  xxix,  fl,  etc. ;' joae- 
pbnn,  raiw'a ;  Ueaycb.  arpofiav  ij  si  ifptJc  ^opoi'm) 
vas  a  Bat  eap(TiXac  dcui vac),  farming  a  aort  of  linen 
Ibrls  or  crown  (orj^dMi),  Joaephna,  Ant.  iii,  7,  The 
ceremonial  mitre  (PEJXp,  Sept.  jivvaivr}  ruipa)  of  the 
bigh-prieat  (oaad  alao  of  a  regal  cnwn,  Eicli.  xxi,  SG) 
was  much  morv  aplendid  (Exod.  xiviil,  3fi ;  Lev.  viii, 
9;  "an  ornament  of  honor,  a  costly  work,  the  deairo 
of  tin  eye*,"  Eccbia.  zlv,  13;  "the  Mg  crown,"  Lev. 
viii,  9,  BO  called  from  tbe  Tetragnunmaton  Inacribed 
on  it,  Soprenes,  De  re  Vest.  Jud.,  p.  441).  It  had  a  sec- 
ond fillet  of  blue  lace  (>(  iiaaivSoo  n-fvoiioX^ivac,  the 
color  being  chosen  aa  a  type  of  heaven),  and  over  It  a 
golden  diadem  pTS,  Ezod.  xxiz,  6),  "  on  which  bloa- 
somed  a  golden  calyx  like  the  flower  of  the  iomd'a- 
/u)t."orhyo8cyamas(JosephUB,.Jii(,  iii,  6).  The  gold 
band  (y'S,  Sept.  B-irnAov;  Origeo,  lAoBnipiov)  was 
tied  behind  with  bine  lace  (embroidered  with  flowen), 
and  being  two  fingers  broad,  bore  the  inscription  (not 
in  baa-relief,  aa  Abarbanel  eayt)  "  Holineaa  to  the 
I«rd."  (Comp.  Rev.  xvii,  6;  Bniuniua,  De  Veil.  Stt- 
ctrd.  ii,  24 ;  Maimon.  Dt  Ajiparata  Ttmpli,  ix.  1 ;  Re- 
land,  Antiq.  li,  10 ;  Carpiov,  Appar.  Crit.  p.  85 ;  .loae- 
phoe,  War,  v,  6, 7 ;  Philo,  De  Vit.  Motii,  iii,  619.)  Some 
auppoae  that  Joeepfaui  la  deacrjUng  a  later  crown  given 


4  CROWN 

by  Alazander  tba  Great  to  Jaddna  (Jenningi'a  Jnrial 
Ata.  p.  168).  The  nae  of  tbe  crown  by  priesta  and  in 
religloua  aBrvicea  waa  nniveiaal,  and  perhaps  tbe  bud^fs 
belonged  at  first  "  rather  to  tbe  fontijia^ia  than  ^ 
Ttgi^ia."  Tboa  Q.  Fabiua  Viatat  aiyi  that  tbe  Gr^ 
crown  waa  nied  by  Janna  icitfla  siieri|teH|;.  "A  xtaripad 
head-dreas  and  quene,"  or  "a  ahcrt  wig,  on  which  a 
band  waa  Cietaned,  omameuted  wUh  an  asp,  the  lym- 
bol  of  royalty,"  was  osedby  tbe  kinga  oT  Egrpt  in  re- 
ligiooa  ceremoniea  (Wilkinson's  .ilrac.  Eg^fi,  iii,  354, 
Sg.  18).  Tbe  crown  worn  by  the  king!  of  Asaytia 
was"Bbighmttre  .  .  .  freqaently  adorned  with  flow- 
en,  etc. ,  and  arranged  in  banda  of  linen  or  ailk.  Orig- 
indly  tbere  waa  only  one  hand,  bat  afterwards  tbeie 
were  two,  and  the  omamcnta  were  richer"  (Lsyard,  ii, 
S30,  and  tbe  illuatratioiu  in  Jahn,  ilrcA.  Germ,  ed.,  pt. 
i,  vd.  ii,  Ub.  Ii,  i  and  8).    See  Mmcb 


Ancient  Aaiyriaa  Ciowna. 

Fig.  ],  Evlf  KtnEi ;  I,  IMa. 

The  roysl  crown  originated  in  the  diadem,  whidi 

waa  a  aimple  fiUrt  fitatened  round  the  head,  and  titd 

behind.     This  obrloualy  took  its  riae  among  a  peo^ 

who  wore  long  bair,  and  used  a  band  to  prevvnt  it 

from  falling  over  the  face.     The  Idea  occuired  of  di«- 

"ngaiahing  kings  by  a  fillet  of  different  color  frcm 

lat  naually  worn ;  and  being  thus  eatabiished  aa  a 

!gal  dittlnction,  it  contlnned  to  be  lued  as  auch  srcn 

-nong  nations  wbo  did  not  wear  tbe  hair  long,  or  wit 

nplayed  to  confine  the  bead-dreag.     Wo  loaieUnwi 

aeo'  this  diadsm  aa  a  simple  fillet,  about  two  inches 

broad,  fustened  round  the  otherwiae  bare  head;  ■« 

find  it  as  a  band  of  gold  (fint  cot,  above,  figs.  % 

In  thia  shape  It  aomctimea  forms  the  bans  <d 

raised  omamenUi  work  (flga.  6,  T,  9, 10),  in  whicb 

e  it  becomes  wliat  we  should  consider  a  cmn ; 

i,  indeed,  the  original  diadem  may  be  traced  in  mot 

lent  crowns.     F^.  10  ia  cnrious,  not  only  from  tbe 

ipllcity  of  its  form,  bnt  on  account  of  the  meuUie 

p  to  be  passed  under  tbe  chin— a  mode  of  securing 

crown  protiably  adopted  in  war  or  in  the  chaie. 

Then  wo  find  tbe  diadem  aiimitinding  tbe  bcad-drcN 


CROWN 


^    CROWN 

From  lbs  deKrlptioni  giTtn  of  It.  Ihic  m 


«r  cap  (ttgi.  S,  V,  IS),  and  whan  this  aba  b  omunant- 

•«d,  tbs  diadem  maj  be  coiuulimd  M  baring  bMome  a  i  lo  oavs  dmd  a  woKwiiai  cxniicai  cip,  ■urrouuuiiii  ay  a 

<-rown.      Sea  DiaDUf.  |  wreath  or  fold ;  aDil  this  would  auKKtM  a  reMDiblaDca 

«.  The  more  general  word  for  a  cromt  ia  n^or,  oto-  ,  to  fl(t,  I!  (of  tha  flnt  cut,  abore),  which  i»,  (□  fact,  cop- 

ruA'  (a  orcfc(,  Gr.  arifavoc) ;   and  it  is  applied  to    '«"*™>  ■  Parthian  or  labir  Peraian  coin.     This  ona 

id  liead  oniam»nt»  of  dilftrent  aorta,  includ-    "  ^""■''J  "'  ^"7  p»rticular  attention,  becaUM  it  forma 


iag  tho«  oaed  by  the  kings.  When  applied  to  their 
crowna,  it  appeara  Co  denote  the  etate  crown  u  diitln- 
guiahed  ^m  the  diadem.  Such  wai  proliably  the 
crown,  which,  with  Ita  precloiu  Honei,  weighed  (or 
rather  "w»»  worth")  a  talent,  taken  by  David  from 
the  king  of  Ammoii  at  Rabbab,  and  usol  as  the  state 
crown  of  Jadah  (!  &>ni.  zii,  30).  Soma  groundleailv 
suppoMi  that,  being  too  baavy  to  wear,  it  was  mpeod- 
td  over  bis  bead.  The  royal  crown  waa  sometinies 
bnrted  with  the  king  (Scbickard,  Jm$  Stg.  vi,  la,  p. 
421).  Idolatrona  natlona  also  "made  erowni  for  the 
bsftd  of  their  goda"  (Ep.  Jer.  9).  The  Rabbins  allege 
that  the  Hebrew  Btat»«n)wn  was  of  gold,  set  with 
jcwela.  Of  its  shape  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  no- 
tion, Dnkaa  by  reference  to  ttw  example*  of  ancient 
crowns  contained  In  the  preceding  cot.  These  fig- 
urea,  however,  being  taken  mostly  from  coins,  tm  not 
of  that  very  remote  antiquity  which  we  would  dealra 
to  illuatrHte  nuittan  pertaining  to  tha  period  of  the 
Hebrew  monarchies.  In  Egypt  and  Persia  there  are 
sculptores  of  earlier  dote,  representing  royal  crowna 
in  the  shape  of  a  distinguishing  tiara,  cap,  or  helmet, 
of  metal,  aod  of  dotb,  or  partly  clotb  and  partly  nwtal. 


:llDg  link  bstween  the  ancient  and  modem 
Oriental  crowns,  the  Utter  coniiixlni;  either  of  a  cap, 
with  a  fold  or  turban,  variooalj'  enriched  with  algiettea 


It  EeyjOan  Cnwni. 
I,  Idwer  KfTTt:  %  Upper  EgTP>-  *i  '>o*h  klzigdooii 
BSllad ;  a.  Moral  FlUeL 

The  diadem  of  two  or  three  Hllets  (Ags.  4,  S,  flnt  cot, 
aliorc)  may  have  bmn  similarly  slgniflcaDt  of  dominion 
over  (wo  or  three  eonntries.  In  Bev.  xli,  3 ;  xlil,  I ; 
xi][,12,alluBloniamadeto  "miiqi  crowns"  (fifl^qfioTo) 
worn  in  token  of  OKlended  dominion.  Thus  the  kings 
of  E;:ypt  used  to  be  crowned  with  the  ' '  pehen  t,"  or  sunc- 
«rfcTownsof  Upper  and  Lover  Egypt  (U'ilktnson.  J  nc. 
Egyr'-  iii,  861  iq. ;  comp.  Uyanl,  II,  UW) ;  and  Ptole- 
mv  Philometor  wore  tiro  diadems,  oae  for  Eaiope  and 
one  for  Asia.  This  woald,  in  fact,  form  'Arte  crowns, 
as  his  prerioiis  one  was  doubtless  the  double  crown 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  Similarly  the  three 
crowns  of  the  papal  tiara  mark  various  accessions  of 
power:  the  flnt  corona  was  added  to  the  mitre  by  Al- 
ezaodor  III  in  11S9;  the  second  by  Bonlbce  VIII 
In  1308;  and  the  third  by  Urban  V  in  1S62.  These 
Egyptian  tlana  were  worn  In  war  and  on  occasions 
of  Ftate,  but  on  ordinary  occasions  a  fillet  or  diadem 
waa  used.  It  ia  important  to  oliserve  that  the  tmlrt  of 
the  high-prlaat,  which  is  also  called  ■  crown  (F.iod. 
xxxix,  90),  was  of  similar  construction,  If  not  shape, 
wltb  the  Iddition  of  the  golden  fillet  or  diadem. 

8.  Similar  also  In  cnnstiuctkm  and  materisl,  though 
not  la  tbnn.  was  the  ancient  Persian  crown,  for  which 
there  ia  a  distinct  name  in  the  l>oak  of  Esther  (1, 11 ; 
li,  17;  vi,  8),  via.,  "-ri.  kt'tiitr  (clapUf),  which  was 
donbl^csB  the  ci'larit  or  ritor's  (r.c'ooic  or  lirnpir).  the 
tiigh  cap  or  tian  so  often  mentioned  I  y  the  Greeii  hi*. 
II.-19' 


IS  this  is;  or  of  a  stifl' cap  of  cloth,  studded  with  pn- 
;ioos  stones.  It  must  often  occur  to  the  aludent  of 
Kbtical  sntiqnlties  that  the  modem  csagee  of  the  East 
lave  more  resemblance  to  the  most  ancient  than  have 
those  which  prevailed  during  that  intermediate  or 


clasi 


totions  ' 


which  its  peculiar  n 


din* 


liject  to  n 

from  the  domination  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  So, 
In  the  present  instance,  we  are  much  Impressed  with 
the  conviction  that  such  head-tires  and  cap  as  those 
represented  In  the  above  cnt  more  correctly  represent 
the  regal  "crowns"  of  the  Old  Testament  than  those 
Hgnred  in  the  flrst  cut,  above  (with  the  exception  of 
tig.  IS  and  the  simple  diadems) :  which,  hawerer,  may 
be  taken  to  represent  the  style  of  the  crowns  which 
prevailed  in  and  belbre  the  time  of  (lie  New  TesU- 
ment.     See  Turban. 

*.  Other  Ueh,  terms  rendered  "crown"  are  "t,  ttr, 
a  tcrralk  or  border  of  gold  around  the  edge  of  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  (Eiod,  xiv.  11,  etc.);  and  ^?7i;, 
kodkid',  the  lealp  or  crown  of  the  human  head  (Gen. 
xlix,  36.  etc. ;  •.api'^li,  Bel,  SG).  There  are  sevfn,l 
words  In  Scripture  for  a  crown  (but  not  so  nnden  il) 
besides  those  mentioned,  a*  ^KD,  ptrr',  the  bead- 
dress  of  bridegrooms  (Isa.  Ixi,  lo';  Btr.  v.  g;  Ezek. 
itiiv,lT),andofwomen  (Iss.  iii.M);  PI-^-BX,  bej*- 
iroth',  a  hesd-dress  of  great  splendor  (Isa.  xxviii,  5); 
n^li,  lityah',  a  wreath  of  flowers  (Prov.  i,  9;  iv, 
9);  such  wreaths  wen  used  on  ttatal  occasions  (Isa. 
xxtIU,  1) ;  7|^:^  Umipk',  a  common  tiaia  or  tnrban 
(Job  nil,  14 ;  laa. ill,  «r) :  "bsta,  bnMa'  ("hat," 
Dan.  ill,  SI,  rather  mantle).  Irt^^a  occurs  in  the 
H.  T.  only  once  (Acts  xiv,  IS)  for  the  garlands  naed 
with  victim*.     In  the  Byiantine  court  thia  word  waa 


CROWN  5( 

wmaiied  to  the  inprrial  cmwii  (Dn  Fntnt,  Gloa.  Grac. 
p.  1442).     aea  Gablasu. 

The  Jews  bout  that  thna  crowng  mre  given  to 
them:  nnip  ^ PS,  the  crown  of  tha  Uw ;  nina  nps, 
thBctvwn  of  priesthood;  and  risac,  the  rojii  crown  ; 
belter  than  all  which  i*  TiS  QO  *irx,  the  crotru 
o{^ICoadoMme<f:*Tpiov,AiipiB^il.CrUu:^p.60;  Otbo- 
nis  /jtt,  Sabb.  >.  v.  Coron»).  Crowns  were  eo  often 
uaeil  symbolically  lo  express  honor  and  power  that 
it  is  not  always  ufe  to  infer  national  tuogei  from 
the  pasuf^s  in  which  they  occur.  Hence  we  would 
scarcely  conclnde  ttom  Kzek.  zziii,  43  that  crowns 
were  worn  b}'  Jewish  females,  although  that  they 
wore  soma  ornament  which  ml^ht  be  so  called  is  prob- 
able from  other  sources.  Mr.  Lane  (_AndiitBi  Xightt,  i, 
434)  meDtions  that  until  about  two  centuries  ^o  a 
kind  of  crown  was  worn  by  ArabEan  lemalei  of  wealth 
and  ilisUnetion.  It  was  generally  a  circle  of  jewelled 
gold  (tha  lower  edge  of  which  was  straight,  and  the 
upper  fancifnlly  heightened  to  a  mere  point),  iur- 
mounting  the  lower  part  ofa  dome-ehaped  cap,  with  a 
jewel  or  some  other  ornament  at  the  summit.  It  is 
certain  that  "crowns"  of  this  or  some  similar  kind 
were  worn  at  marriages  (Cant,  iii,  1! ;  Isa.  Ixi,  ID) ; 
and  it  would  appear  that  at  feasts  and  public  festivals 
"crowns  of  rejoicing"  were  cuitomaly.  These  were 
probably  garUinrte  (Wisd.  ii,  8 ;  iv,  2  (  Ecclus.  i,  11). 

With  the  ancienta  generally  the  crown  was  tlie  aym- 
bol  of  victory  and  reward,  it  being  customary  for  eon- 
querora  to  be  crowned,  as  were  also  victors  in  the  Gre- 
cian games.     From  ancient  coins  and  medala  we  may 

ed  of  leaves  of  trees,  to  which  ware  added  flowers. 
The  crown  worn  by  tha  victor  in  the  Olympian  gamee 
was  made  of  the  wild  olive ;  in  the  Pjthian  games,  of 
laurel ;  in  the  Memean  games,  of  panley ;  and  in  the 
Isthmian  games  [see  ConiNTHj,  of  the  pina.  In- 
deed, Claudius  SatuminuB  says  Uiere  woe  baldly  any 
plant  of  which  crowns  had  not  been  made.     The  Ro- 

wera  bestowed  for  rarioua  services;  bnt  the  Doblest 
was  the  civic  crown,  given  lo  him  who  had  saved  the 
life  of  a  citisen ;  it  was  made  of  oak  leaves,  and  was 
presented  by  the  person  who  had  been  saved  to  hit 
preserver.  These  were  all  corruptible,  for  they  began 
to  wither  01  soon  as  they  wen  separated  ^om  the 
ti«a  or  plucked  out  of  the  earth.  In  opposition  to 
these,  there  is  an  incorrupUble  crown,  a  crown  of  life, 
laid  np  for  those  who  are  faithful  unto  death  (Jes.  i, 
12;  lpBt.v,4;  Bev.H,10;  tw  Am.  Prab.  Set.  July, 
1S63>.  Pilate's  guard  platted  a  crown  of  thoini,  and 
placed  it  on  the  head  of  Jesui  Christ  (Uatt.  Jixvii,  29) 
with  an  Intention  to  iiunlt  bim,  under  the  character 


of  the  king  of  the  Jews  (see  below).  The  laurel,  pine, 
or  psnlcy  garlands  given  to  virtots  in  the  great  games 
of  (ireei:c  are  Dncly  ailuded  to  by  Pant  (1  Cor.  ix,  25 ; 
2  Tim.  ii,  S,  etc.).  See  GaMrb.  They  ale  said  to 
have  origlnateil  in  the  laurel-wreath  assumed  by  Apol- 
lo on  conquering  the  Pj-thon  (TertuU.  de  Cor.  MU.  7, 
16).  (On  the  Greek  and  Roman  honorary  crowns,  aee 
Smith,  Diet.  (1^  Com.  .1n«f.,B.v.  Corona.)  See  AiCA- 
HAKTiLiNE.  "Crown"  is  often  useel  (Igaratively  in 
the  Bible  as  a  general  emblem  of  an  exalted  state 


6  CRUCIFIX 

CProv.iii.4;  xva,6;  Isa.  xsTiil,  fi;  Phil.  It,  1,  et&V 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  rims  of  ahart,  tables, 
etc.  (ExDd.  XXV,  25,  etc. ;  Deut.xxii,8;  comp.Vitr. 
ii,  8 ;  Q.  Curt  ii,  4,  BO).  The  andenta  as  well  as  th* 
modems  had  a  coifi  called  "a  crown"  {rliyrri^ivror 
tifiiXtrc,  1  Mace,  xiii,  S9;  x,29;  A. T.  "Crown-tax.** 
V.  Snld.,  B.  V.  oTifai'triv  riXicr/ui):  so  called,  doubt- 
less, because  coins  usually  bore  the  head  of  the  sover- 
eign encircled  with  a  wreath.      See  Cot.i. 

The  chief  writers  on  crowns  an  Gaschalins  (J>t  O^ 
roHs,  lib.  x)  and  Mennios  (/>e  Corima,  Hifnla;,  1671). 
For  olhen,  see  Fabriciui,  BSbl.  AtiL  xiv,  13.  See 
Head-dbesb. 

CROWN  OF  THORNS  (rm'fawt  i£  •ica('3<:i'. 
Matt,  xxvii,  29).  Oor  Lord  was  crowned  with  thorns 
in  mockery  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  object  seems 
to  have  been  insult,  and  not  the  inflictioi  of  pain,  aa 
has  geneToUy  been  supposed.  The  Rhomnos,  or  Spi- 
na Christi,  although  abundant  in  tha  neighborhood 
of  Jerusalem,  cannot  lie  the  plant  intended,  because  its 
thorns  are  so  strong  and  large  that  it  Mmld  not  have 
been  woven  (rXifovric)  into  a  wnath.  The  laig*. 
leaved  acanthus  (bearVfoot)  is  totally  unauited  for 
the  purpose.  Had  the  acacia  been  intended,  as  scone 
suppose,  the  phrase  would  have  been  i{  dEiii4i)c- 
Obviousiy  some  small,  flexile  thorny  sbmb  la  meant; 
perhsps  eofpara  tpinota  (Reland's  Palait.  ii,  523). 
lissselqulst  (TVourfa,  p.  260)  sayi  that  the  thorn  used 
was  the  Armbian  mUft.  "It  was  very  suitable  fot 
their  purpose,  as  it  has  many  sharp  thorns  which  in- 
flict painful  wounds;  and  'its  flexible,  pliant,  and 
round  branches  might  easily  be  plaited  in  the  form  of 
a  crown."  It  also  resemble*  the  rich  dark  grwn  of 
the  triumphal  ivy-wreath,  which  would  give  addition. 
al  pungency  to  its  ironical  purpoee  (BosenmQlleT,  Bot- 
•aig  of  Script,  p.  202,  Eng.  ed.).  Another  plant  com- 
monly flxed  upon  is  the  "southern  buckthorn,"  which 
was  very  suitable  to  the  pnrpose.  Bee  Brakble. 
On  the  empress  Helena's  supposed  discovery  of  the 
crown  of  thorns,  and  its  snbeeqoent  fata,  see  Gibbon, 
ii,  806;  vi,  66,  ed.  Milman.— Smith,  a.  v.  Treatise* 
on  the  crown  in  question  have  been  written  in  Latin 
by  Bartholin  (Hafn.  1651),  Bottler  (In  the  fltU.  Bnm. 
viii,  942),  Freoiel  (Viieb.  1667, 1679),  Giitsch  (Altdort; 
1694),  Gonsager  (Hafn.  1718),  Ladamann  (Viteb.lSiVX 
Sagittarius  (Jena,  1672),  Wedel  (Jena,  1G96),  Glanch 
(Lips.  Ifi61),  Uallmonn  (Boet.  llbT),  MaUer  (in  Mon- 
thenii  Thtt.  U,  280-283).     See  TeoKX. 

Craolflx  (Low  Latin  eneijhiat;  ttom  crw',  to  a 
cross,  and  jEzuni,  fastened),  a  reprtMntation  of  Chiut 
on  the  cross,  executed  Id  wood.  Ivory,  metal,  or  other 
hard  material. 

I.  HiitoTf  ofCntciJixa. — Among  the  many  symbols 
which  the  eariy  Christians  used  to  represent  Christ  as 
tha  central  object  of  their  &lth,  tlie  Umb  was  among 
the  most  predominant.  In  the  beginning  of  tlie  6th 
century  the  lamb  bean  a  triamphat  croas ;  then  it  ia 
lying  on  an  allor  at  the  foot  of  a  eroes ;  then  It  ap- 
pears with  blood  flowing  from  a  wound  in  its  ude,  as 
well  as  ftom  its  feet;  and  Anally,  by  the  end  of  tbb 
century,  a  lamb  is  painted  in  the  centn  of  the  cmw, 
where  the  body  of  Christ  waa  later  placed.  On  the 
celebrated  "  cross  of  the  Vatican,"  on  which  this  lamh 
appears,  are  two  busts  oftbeSavioor:  one  above, 
holding  a  book  in  hla  left  hand,  and  giving  a  benedir- 
jon  (q.  V.)  in  the  T^in  manner  with  the  right,  while 
.he  one  below  holds  a  acrolt  in  the  right  hand,  and  a 
little  cross  in  the  left.  The  sixth  (Ecumenical  Conn- 
'  cil  (A.D.  680)  ordered  that  Christ  should  be  represent- 
ed with  bis  proper  human  liody  rather  than  ■under  the 
symbol  of  the  paschal  lamb,  and  in  the  following  cen- 
tury crncidxes  multiplied  greatly  throughout  all  Chria. 
tendom.  The  way  to  this  decis'ton  had  evidently  been 
prepared  by  several  intermediate  ttepe,  by  which  the 
aversion  and  horror  of  the  dcth  by  the  cro~,  thowh 
abolbhed  as  a  mode  of  exectitlon  ty  Coasts ntine,  were 


CRUCIFIX  5! 

gradosll;  oveTcamc  in  the  minds  of  Che  Chrittian  wartd. 
Tfani,  on  the  vial*  ol  Mania,  which  Gregoij  the 
Great  gave  to  qoeca  Theodelindo,  there  is  a  head  of 
Christ  in  a  nimbus  csDtaininf;  a  crots.  A  mouic  of 
St.  Etieoae,  of  alwnt  tlie  ume  period,  contains  in  ad- 
ilitton  one  of  the  thieiei  on  each  side  of  the  head  of 
Chriat,  with  a  highly  oniaineDted  cnws  below  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  viil,  with  an  ornamented  edicutt 


beloK 


dbj-a 


witbui 


side, 
o  the  lomb  of 


a  bringing  apices 
Christ  on  the  other  side,  indicating  the  reBurrection  oi 
Chriat.  On  another,  Christ  is  represented  with  his 
arms  extended — like  tbe  praying  persons  of  the  Cata- 
combs— with  the  two  thievea  on  crosses  at  his  side, 
and  the  snn  and  moon,  or  other  emblems,  added  to  tbe 
nprcsentation.  In  the  pictorial  cross  of  Monza,  uid 
to  be  a  present  from  Gregory  the  Great  lo  the  empress 
Tbeodelinda,  and  in  others  of  the  meet  ancient  crucifii' 
es.  the  Hgure  of  Christ  wae  Kralched  in  on  the  metal 
with  some  sharp-pointed  instmment.  Later,  it  was 
painted.  It  is  in  ibe  9th  century  that  the  figures  Hist 
appeared  in  relief.  The  flntcrucilixUBedinachurch,  | 
of  which  we  have  any  proof,  is  spoken  of  by  Gronory  i 
of  Tours  as  being  in  the  church  of  Narbonne  <A.D. 
6Sa).  After  the  council  of  692  the  Greek  Church 
naed  painted  crucifixes  freely.  Pope  John  VII,  a  '■ 
Greek  by  birth  (elected  A.D.  T03),  first  used  tbe  cruci-  I 
fix  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  Rome.  A  single  crucitii  is  | 
feuDd  in  the  Catacombs,  and  this  is  considered  to  dale 
fnnn  the  8lh  centary.  The  cruciAx  soon  assumed  the 
moat  prominent  place  in  the  Romish  church  ediflce, 
being  placed  orer  the  centre  of  tho  high  altar,  orer- 
tDwering  the  tapers,  and  being  removed  only  at  the 
elevation  of  the  Host.  This  altar-crucilli  is  olten 
made  in  the  moat  costly  and  artistic  way,  being  usual- 
ly of  gold  or  silver,  and  adorned  with  pearls  or  pre- 
ciona  stones.  Crucifixes  are  also  placed  at  the  doors 
of  churches.  In  clmstars,  in  chapels  by  the  roadude, 
■ikd  at  every  place  where  croues  (q.  v.)  are  erected. 
They  are  constantly  used  by  Soman  Catholict,  both 
ecclesiastics  and  laymen,  and  especially  are  kept  in 
tbe  bedchamber.  The  reason  given  for  thia  abnndanl 
naeofthe  crucifix  la  "to  keep  the  Bufferings  and  death 
ti  Christ,  and  the  fact  of  atonement,  ever  before  the 
minds  of  believen."  Among  the  Proleetsnt  church- 
ea,  the  Lutheran  has  not  rejected  the  nee  of  the  altar- 
cmdflies,  though  Protestants  generally  consider  tbe 
nae  of  crucifixes  to  lead  to  a  worship  of  tiie  material  of 
which  they  are  made,  and  to  a  forgetting  of  the  true 
spiritual  meaning  of  the  Saviour's  death;  hence  they 
reject  them  ahogelher,  regarding  them  as  only  valua- 
ble, whether  scnlplured  or  painted,  ai  marking  a  phase 
of  the  development  of  ritualistic  wonhip,  or  as  works 
of  art. 

II.  iMoib.— Until  the  nth  century  Christ  was  rep- 
resented aa  living,  and  usually  with  bis  head  crowned 
with  a  nimbus  or  other  symbol  of  his  triumphal  resur- 
rection.     His  head  was  erect,  his  eyes  open,  indicating 

more  probably,  hli  triumph  over  his  death.  Though 
Christ  was  crucified,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  in  an 
entirely  naked  condition,  the  earliest  cniciHxes  repre- 
sent him  clothed  with  a  cololAan,  a  tunic  without  arms, 
and  reaching  In  the  feet.  At  the  close  of  the  Sth  cen- 
tury, this  was  modiiled  to  a  tunic  bound  around  Ibe  waist 
and  extending  aboutto tbe  kneesj  and  liy  the  close  of 
the  tenth  century,  the  tunic  was  almost  universally 
contracted  to  a  simple  liand  of  doth  around  the  loins, 
Tfais  baa  been  universally  adopted  by  artists  till  the 

U  Narbohne,  is  the  only  example  extant  of  thi«  type 
being  adopted  before  the  9th  century.  A  manuscript 
to  the  Lanrentian  lilirary  at  Florence,  dating  about 
tbe  year  1060,  conuins  the  first  example  extant  of 
Chriat  being  represented  aa  dead.     All  tbe  crucifixes 


17  CRUCIFIX 

resented  Bowing  from  tbe  wonndt  in  the  haitdi  and 
the  side,  and  falling  upon  the  head  of  some  of  the 
chantctcm  represented,  symbolizing  thus  the  effects  of 
the  atonement.  Nearly  ail  of  the  great  artists  of  Un 
Middle  Ages  have  painted  the  scene  of  tbe  crucifixion, 
these  being  sometimes  their  master-pieces.  Cimahua 
and  Mai^arilone,  in  the  ISCh  century,  made  the  first 
representations  extant  of  a  crucifix  with  but  three 
nails,  the  feet  being  croased,  in  their  paintings  of  the 
crucifixion  in  the  church  of  St.  Maria  Novella  In  Flor^ 
ence,  Tbe  Romish  Church  now  usually  prefers  this 
type  of  the  crucifix,  though  the  fonnei  method,  adopt- 
ed by  this  church  also  till  the  13th  cenlur}',  was  with- 
out doulit  the  more  in  accordance  with  historical  accn- 
ncy.  tbi  luppeilaiituni  to  support  the  feet  is  usually 
represented,  though  some  later  artists  have  placed  a 
globe  In  place  of  thb  tablet  or  shelf.  The  lupportfor 
the  bodg  has  never  been  represented  in  art.  The  title 
oftht  croa  was  placed  on  a  tablet  which  was  attached 
to  the  bead  of  the  y  cross.  There  are  hnt  one  or  two 
eases  in  which  artists  have  given  tbe  full  inscription 
in  the  three  languages,  and  these  are  modem.  Uany 
crucifixes  have  no  titles.  In  most  it  is  indicated  by 
a  few  meaningless  marks.  In,tbe  Greek  Church  the 
monogram  of  Christ,  or  I  C  . .  X  C,  or  A,  w,  is  gener- 

III.  Acct$>iiriti, — These  are  either  such  as  pertain 

Co  Cbe  liCeral  circumstances  of  tbe  crucifixion,  or  are 
symbolical  figures  having  reference  to  the  Atonement. 
The  Virgin  Marj-  and  St.  John  are  often  represented 
as  standing  one  on  each  side  of  tbe  cross,  with  Ibe  bead 
bent  forward  and  resting  on  the  hand— a  posture  of 
grief  ccmmon  la  all  antiquit}'.  The  names  of  tbe  two 
are  usually  given  either  in  Latin  or  Greek.  The  two 
soldiers  are  often  glveo,  one  holding  a  lance,  end  tbe 
other  the  sponge  filled  with  vinegar.  The  very  earli- 
est crucifixes  have  not  these  soldiers,  but  they  became 
common  alter  the  8th  century.  A  single  example  ex- 
ists of  their  drawing  lots  for  the  Saviour's  garments. 
The  sun  andthe  moon,  the  former  with  a  face  surround- 
ed by  a  circle,  and  giving  out  rsys,  and  the  latter  in  tbe 
form  of  a  crescent,  are  often  given,  being  to  tbe  right 
and  left  of  the  bead  of  the  Saviour.  These  are  seme, 
times  replaced  by  two  human  demi-flgures,  one  with  a 

or  holding  a  torch,  while  both  have  one  band  support- 
ing the  head  in  an  attitude  of  grief.  Rays  of  light  often 
stream,  from  both  tbe  sun  and  the  tnoon,  upon  the  fig- 
ure of  Christ.  These  heavenly  bodies  are  considered 
by  many  to  represent  the  darkness  which  suddenly 
came  over  nature,  concealing  tbe  sun  and  moon.  But 
a  better  interpretation  is  that  they  represent  the  di. 
vine  and  human  nature  of  Christ,  as  the  same  figures 
do  on  other  monuments.  Tbe  redemption  of  man 
from  sin  by  the  death  of  Christ  is  symbolized  in  soma 
crucifixes  by  a  naked  man  rising  up  fhim  tbe  ground 
below  the  cross,  while  a  hand  above  him  is  reached 
out  frem  a  cloud.  Another  represents  a  man  lying 
on  the  ground,  while  a  woman,  with  one  knee  on  the 
ground,  is  taking  hold  of  the  hand  in  the  cloud.  Thia 
is  to  indicate  Adam  and  Eve.  A  crucifix  in  St.  John 
LaCeran,  in  Borne,  has  a  gate  (of  paradise)  on  one  side, 
while  on  the  other  is  a  tree  (of  good  and  evil),  show- 
ing that  man,  lost  by  partaking  of  the  forbidden  IVuit, 
is  restored  by  the  cross  to  the  paradise  Oom  which  he 
was  driven  out.  The  emblems  of  tbe  fcur  evangellita 
and  angels  in  adotatlon  are  often  placed  near  the  up- 
per part  of  tbe  crucifix.  Tbe  sknll  and  cross-bones  at 
Ibe  foot  of  tho  cross  la  altogether  a  modem  addition. 
The  crucifix  of  a  diptyrh  of  Ramlmna  contains  a  wolf 
under  the  cross  noarisbing  Romulus  and  Remus,  sup- 
posed to  symboliie  the  sulijection  of  tbe  Roman  em- 
pire and  the  world  to  the  cross  of  Christ,  or  to  the  city 
of  Rome  as  tbe  seat  of  the  Romish  Church.  Other 
symbols  relating  to  the  truths  of  CbristianiCy,  or  to 
the  traditiona  relating  tc  this  central  event  in  the  bis- 


CRUCIFIXION  5i 

toiy  ottha  vorld,  occur  in  variou  crndAxei.  Huiy  | 
othvT  modilicatiDiii  axiit  of  the  pmcnUtion  of  tha 
cTudflilon,  wbetliu  given  in  fall  rallaf,  or  high  or 
low  relief,  or  •rhether  pidntod  ia  mUiUtDra,  Id  moaMC, 
on  rreaco,  or  OD  caorH. 

Cmolflxloil  (prop-  araupiiMnc,  but  In  tba  V.  T. 
the  DOun  doea  not  occur,  the  act  being  deaignated  by 
aoma  fbnn  of  the  verb  aravponi,  to  applg  tie  mm ; 
once  iTrwa*qrvu/ii,  t<i/ai(a*,I.e.  to  tba  croaa.  Acta  U, 
33 ;  the  claiaical  wrltera  lue  mairpoiy,  avaaravpoOv, 
tnoXairiZiiv,  irpovti\ovv,  and,  leu  properly,  dyaattir- 
iuXfuiivi  crud  DTpatitiulo  afictrt,  tujigtrt,  or  simply 
J^™  [TBrtnll.  de  Pat.  ill],  cnciare  [Aqmti.]  ad  pa- 
lum  alkgart,  rruccn  altera  afodure,  ut  cnuxn  agrre, 
teilere,  etc. ;  tha  soflkrer  waa  called  emauruu).     See 

I.  Sutoiy. — The  variety  of  tha  phraaea  Bhova  the 
extreme  commonneu  of  the  paniahmcnt,  the  inven- 
tloa  of  which  la  traditionally  ascribed  to  Semirunti. 
It  wu  in  Dae  amoog  the  Egyptians  (aa  in  the  case  of 
Inama,  Thuc.  I,  30 ;  camp.  Geo.  xi,  19),  tha  Cartha- 
giniana(as  in  the  caae  of  Hanno,etc.,Vat.  Max.  il,  Tj 
Polyb.  i,  86;  SU.  lUl.  U,  SUi  Pluurcb,  Parol.  U ; 
Justin,  xvUi,  T;  Hirt.  Bell.  Afnc.  66),  the  Penians 
(Polycratea,  etc.;  Herod.  Ui,  lift;  It.  43;  vl).  IM; 
Cteiiaa,  EzarjU.  G ;  comp.  Eslh,  vll,  10),  the  Aaayrians 
(Diod.  Sic.  li,  1),  Scj-thiana  (id.  U.  44),  Indiana  (id.  ii, 
13),  Germaiu  (poasiblj  Tacit.  Gtrm.  1!).  and  rtry  fre. 
quent  fram  the  earliest  timei  (LItt,  i,  S6)  emong  thi 
Romans.  Cicero,  however,  refers  it.  not  (as  Livy)  ti 
the  early  kings,  bat  to  Tarquinios  Superbiu  (pro  Sab. 
4)i  Anrel.  Victor  calls  it  Telia  crlerrimuaiqae  (?  le- 
lerr.)  pati&ulorum  npplidMm.  Both  Kpfitav  and  n*. 
pendere  (Ovid,  /bit,  '^9)  refer  to  death  by  cmnjinon; 
tbu^  in  spekking  of  Alexander's  cruciAiion  of  2000 
Tyriant,  lirtupiiiaaiv  in  Died.  Sic.  answers  to  the  crv- 
ciiiu  afxai  in  Q.  Curt,  iv,  4.  The  Greeks  (Stnbo, 
xiv,  647)  and  Uacedonians  (Ap|Hin,  Milir.  B;  Curt. 
Tii,  11,  23;  ix,  3,  6}  also  Bomatime*  resorted  to  this 
mode  of  punishment. 

This  accursed  and  awful  mode  of  puni^ment  was 
happily  abolished  by  Constandne  (Soiom.  i,  3)  proba- 
bly towards  the  end  of  his  rei^  (see  Lipsios, /te  Once, 
ili,  15),  altbougb  It  is  curious  that  we  hare  no  more 
dfjinlu  account  of  the  matter.  Examples  of  it  are 
found  in  the  early  part  of  that  emperor's  reign,  but 
the  reverence  which,  at  a  later  period,  he  waa  led  to 
feel  for  the  cross,  doubtless  induced  him  to  put  an  end 
to  the  Inhuman  practice  (Aurel.  Viet.  C«i.  41 ;  Niceph, 
vil,4e:  Finnic.  Tii i,  20).  "An  edict  so  honorable  to 
Christian ily,"  says  Gibbon,  "deserved  a  place  in  the 
Thendosian  Coda,  Instead  of  the  indirect  mention  of  it 
which  seems  to  result  from  the  comparison  of  the  5tb 
and  18th  titles  of  the  9th  book"  (ii,  loi,  note).  See 
PcstsaxcuT. 

II.  Ai  a  Jemih  Cialom.—Vntethia  this  mode  of  ex- 
ecDtion  waa  known  to  the  ancient  Jews  is  a  matt«r  of 
dispute  (see  Bormltias,  De  Cruoe  mm  Khraor.  tuppBc. 
/Merit,  Viteb.  1614;  Chaufepii,  in  tba  MtKelt.  Daab. 
Ii,  401  sq.).  It  is  asserted  to  have  lieen  so  by  Baro. 
nius  (Aitnal.  i,  Xxxiv),  Siteonius  (Z)<  Hip.  Bebr.  vi,  3), 
i-tc..  who  are  refuted  l>y  Casaubon  (c.  B'iroit.  Emr. 
svi),  Carpiov  (^Apparat.  Crit.  p.  691).  The  Hebrew 
words  said  to  allude  to  it  are  nbn,  ialah'  (sometimes 
with  the  addition  of '^rn  ^S,  "upon  the  tree;"  hence 
the  Jews  in  polemics  call  oar  Lord  '<1^r>,  and  Chris- 
tians '^^^^  ■'^3^^,  "worshippers  of  the  crucified"), 
and  ;^^,  yciibi',  lioth  of  which  in  the  A.  Vers,  are  gen- 
erally rendcied  "to  hang"  (2  Sam.  xvili,  10;  Deut. 
ixi,  11 ;  Num.  XXV,  4 ;  Job  xxvi,  7) :  for  which  or 
pA.  occurs  in  the  Sept.  (Esth.  vil,  10>  and  crvc-J. 
mat  in  the  Vulg.  (a  Sam.  ixi,  6. 9).  The  Jewish  ac- 
count of  the  matter  (in  Haimonldes  and  tha  Rabble) 
is,  that  the  exposure  of  the  body  tied  to  a  stake  b'  ' 
hands  (which  might  loosely  be  called  cmciflxion) ' 


8  CRUCIFISION 

place  after  death  (Ughtfeot,  Iltir.  EAr.  m  Mail,  xxvfl, 
31 :  Otbonis  Ux.  Sabh..  s.  v.  SupplicU  :  Kehuid,  Ami. 
0,6;  Sir  T.  Browne,  i"iJ!J.£>TOr»,  V.  21).  Even  tba 
placing  of  a  head  on  a  single  upright  pole  baa  been 
called  CTBciflxion.  This  custmn  of  cmcWxiun  a/ltr 
deoA  (which  a«ms  to  be  Implied  In  Dent,  xxi,  S, 
28)  was  by  no  means  ran;  men  wtnjirti  killed  In 
mercy  (Suetoo.  Cat.  i  Herod,  ill,  136 ;  Plutarch,  Cteam. 
33).  Acciuiling  to  a  stringa  stoiy  in  Pliny  (xxxtI, 
16,  J  24),  it  waa  adopted  by  Tarquin  aa  a  piMt-moTtom 
disgrace,  to  prevent  the  prevalence  of  suicide.  It 
saems,  on  the  whole,  that  the  Rabbis  are  correct  In  as- 
serting that  Ml  exposure  Is  intended  In  Scripture, 
since  tha  Mosaic  capital  punishntents  were  four  (via.. 
the  sword,  Exod.  xxi;  strangling,  lire,  Lev.  xi;  and 
stonluK,  Deut.  xxi).  Philo,  indei^  says  {De  leg.  ftt.) 
that  Uoaes  adopted  cmclAxion  as  a  murderer's  ponisb- 
nunt  becaose  it  was  the  umrtt  he  could  discover ;  but 
the  passage  In  Deut.  (xxi,  23)  doea  not  prove  his  as- 
serUon.  Probably,  therefore,  the  Jews  borrowed  it 
from  tha  Bomans  (Joscphus,  Amt,  xi,  6^  !;  War,  ii, 
12,  6 ;  L\fe,  76,  etc.),  although  there  mcy  have  been 
a  tew  isolated  Instances  of  it  before  (Joeaphna,  Aai, 
xlii,  11,  2).     See  Haxoimo. 

It  was  unanimoosly  considered  the  moat  horrible 
form  of  death,  worse  even  than  burning,  since  tbs 
"cross"  precedes  "  burning"  in  the  Isw-books  (Lipsi- 
us,  De  Cruc.  ii,  1).  Hence  it  l>  called  crvJaKasuiw 
teterrimanqite  nppSeiiaii  (Cicero,  rrrr.  v,  60),  e>/mM 

:  paiu(Apul.(faj4i(r..4(ii(.x),sirinmaBfl9ifi&»as(PaaL 
■'■'flit.  V,  tit.  xxi,  etc.);  and  to  a  Jew  it  woald  acquire 
factitious  horror  fh>ni  the  curae  in  Deut.  xxi,  23. 
Amende  the  Romans  also  the  degradatiDn  waa  a  patt 
of  the  InHictioo,  since  it  was  especially  a  errvilr  i^ifH 
cum  (Tacitus,  Hit.  iv,  11 ;  Juvenal,  vi,  21S ;  Horace, 
Sal.  i,  S,  3,  etc. ;  Plautns,  TKUtisi),  or  "a  slave's  pun- 
ishment" (De  /fl/ani  fuo  Chr.  adfidia  eti  en.  Hpf., 
In  Langa's  OhtrBOU.  Sacr,  [Lubec,  1731],  p.  161  »q.; 
also  Henche,  Oputc.  p.  187  sq.).  so  that  even  a  freed- 
man  ceased  to  dread  tt(Cicera,  pro  Aui.  6);  or  if  applied 
to  freemen,  only  in  the  case  of  the  vilest  cnminals 
(Joseph.  ^iK.  xvil,  10, 10:  War,v.ll.l;  PauL  AnC 
v,tit.xxili;  Lamprid.  j<  ^.  8n>,  23),  such  aa  penoas 
giiilty  of  robbery,  piracy  (Seneca,  £;i.  vlli  Cicero,  ft- 
IroH.'lt),  asaassinstion,  peijnry  (Firmic.  vi,  86X  sedi- 
tion, treason,  and  (in  the  case  of  soldiers)  deaertioB 
(Dion,  V,  62;  Joseph.  .Inf.  xlii,  2i;  Apaleius,  j4im.  8). 
Indeed,  exemption  from  it  was  the  privile^^  of  ev«y 
Roman  citizen  by  the  jut  Hritatit  (Cicero,  rerr.  il.  1, 
8).  Our  Lord  was  condemned  to  it  by  the  popular 
cry  of  the  Jews  (Matt,  xxvil,  23,  aa  otUn  bappenied  to 
the  early  Christians)  on  the  charge  of  sedition  agaiuit 
C^Bsar  (I.nke  xxili,  2),  although  the  Sanhedrim  had 
previously  condemned  him  on  the  totally  distinct 
charge  of  bUsphemy.  Hundreds  of  Jews  were  cmd- 
fled  on  the  fbtiner  charge,  as  bv  Floms  (Joseph.  ITar, 
ii,  14,  0)  and  Varus,  who  ciudfied  9000  at  oncv  (JiX. 
xvii,  10, 10).     See  ExECLtios. 

111.  /VooeM.  —  The  scarlet  robe,  crown  of  thorns, 
and  other  insults  to  which  our  Loril  wu  sulijefted. 
were  Illegal,  and  arose  from  the  spontaneous  petulance 
of  the  brutal  soldiery.  But  the  punhihroent  properlr 
commenced  with  scourging,  after  the  trimioal  liad 
been  stripped;  hence,  in  the  common  form  of  aentence, 

,we  find  "Bummore,  liclor,  dttpolia,  verbera,"  ric 
(Livy,  1,  2B).  For  this  there  is  a  heat  of  authoritiH 
— Liw,  xxvi,  18 ;  Q.  Curt,  vii,  11 ;  Ucan,  dt  PitrtO. 
•1 :  Jerome,  Ctmmt^.  ad  .Vatt.  xxvli,  20.  etc.  It  wu 
inlllcted,  not  with  the  corayaratively  mild  rirga,  bat 
the  more  terrible  jli^eJIitiii  (Horace,  Sal.  I,  8;  comp. 
2  Cor.  xi,  24.  25),  which  was  not  used  by  the  Jews 

j  (Deut,  .ixv.S).  Into  these  scouTgea  the  soldirvs  oftw 
stuck  nails,  pieces  of  bone,  etc.,  to  hei^Ien  the  pall 

'  '  '  :  fiitoTif  d'ffrpayaXurq  mentioned  by  Atbeasus, 
j  ilagnim  peetanit  etiA<u  eatetmlmm,  kpa\.y  which 

I  was  often  so  intense  that  the  suArer  died  under  K 

i  (\}\\>.  de  Pmit,  1,  vtti).    The  sconrginggraeran.v  tank 


CRUCIFIXION  6( 

place  at  >  cdIdihb,  ind  the  one  to  which  our  Lord  wu  I 
bmiDd  ii  uid  to  have  been  aecu  by  Jarome,  Pnidentius,  I 
Grejjorj  of  Tours,  etc.,  uid  u  >taoMa  at  laveral  vhurcb- 
ei  amoDK  the  relici.  In  our  Lonl'i  cane,  ho«e%-ar,  thi>  | 
inflictVin  aeems  neither  to  have  been  the  legal  acuurg-  . 
iog  ■Tier  the  uatcncs  (Vul.  Max.  i.  T ;  Jonepbur,  llur, 
V.  iB;  ii,  14,  »),  nor  yet  the  examination  by  torture  . 
(Acta  ixU.  2'!),  but  rather  a  tcourging  btforf  the  een-  ' 
t«Dce,  to  excil<  pity  and  procure  imniunity  from  fur-  i 

if  this  view  be  correct,  the  reference  to  it  {^/layiKXiir- ' 
oai:)  in  Matt  zxvii,  36,  b  retroapective,  u  so  great , 
ftn  anguish  could  hardly  hare  been  endured  Ivice  (see 
Poli  iSjFiiopiu,  a<1  Inc.).  How  Mvere  it  waa  is  indica- 
ted la  prophecy  (Psa.  xuv,  lb ;  Isa.  1,  6).  Vosaius 
considers  that  it  was  parti}'  Legal,  partly  tentatlTe 
(linrm.  Faa.  v,  13).     9«e  8couiioi. 

The  crimiunt  carried  his  own  crois,  or,  at  any  rate, 
■  part  of  it  (Plutarch, De  iif  jiii»m),  etc.,  9;  Artemid. 
Otitirotr.  U.  til ;  He  John  xix,  17  ;  comp.  "  patlbulom 
ferat  per  urbem,  deinde  afflgatur  cruel,"  Plaut.  Carbo' 
mar.').  Hence  the  term  fttrcifir,  croes-hearer  (q.  v.). 
Thia  wag  prafigured  by  Isaac  canyin^  the  mod  in 
Gen.  xxil,  6,  where  even  the  Jews  notice  the  parallel ; 
and  to  thia  the  fathers  fsntastieally  applied  (he  eX' 
prasaion  in  Isa.  is,  G,  "the  govemnient  shsll  be  upon 
bia  aboulder."  Ther  were  lometinieB  sconrged  and 
goadedon  the  way  (Plant.  Ji/o«r(f.i.  1,52).  "In  some 
old  Bgurea  we  see  our  Lord  described  with  a  talfle  af^ 
pendent  to  the  fringe  of  hi*  gartnen^  Mt  full  of  nails 
and  pointed  iron"  (Jer.  Taylor.  Life  of  Chritt,  iii,  xv, 
8;  J/artbat  ligno  jtwrf  (ufenw,  Cypr.  rfe  Pof.  p.  60). 
See  Simon  (of  CrRKiiK). 

Tbe  place  of  execution  was  onlsida  tbe  city  ("port 
nrbem,"  Cicero,  Irrr,  v,  66;  "extra  partem,"  Plant. 
Jlil.  at.  11,  4,  6;  comp.  1  Kings  ixl,  IS;  Acta  vii,  M; 
Heb.  xiii,  12;  and  in  camps  "extra  vallum"),  often  in 
■ome  pabltc  road  (Quinct.  Dtel.  i?6)  or  other  conspic- 
wtua  place  like  the  Campus  Harlins  (Cicero,  pru  Ra- 
birio),  1st  some  spot  set  apart  for  tbe  purpoiie  (Tacitus. 
Jns.  xv).  This  might  sometimes  be  a  hill  (Val.  Uax. 
vi) ;  it  i«,  however,  rather  an  inference  to  call  Gol- 
gotha a  iifl;  in  the  Et-angetists  It  b  called  "ap/nct" 
(nnrot).  SeeCALVARi.  Arrived  at  the  place  of  ex- 
ecution, tbe  BofTerer  was  stripped  naked  (Artemidorus, 
Oaesrocr.  ii,  58),  the  dress  being  the  pejqnbite  of  the 
soldier*  (Matt,  ^ixvii,  3£ ;  Dig.  xlrlii,  20,  6) )  possibly 
nut  even  a  cloth  ntund  the  loins  was  allowed  bim ;  at 
bust  among  the  Jews  thf  rale  was  "  that  a  man  should 
be  stoned  naked"  {Sankidf.  vi,  6),  where  tbe 
shows  that  "naked"  rnustao*  be  taken  in  its  restncuii 
aense.  Tbe  cross  wan  then  driven  into  the  ground,  so 
that  (be  feet  of  the  condemned  were  a  foot  or  two  aleve 
tbe  earth  (in  picture*  of  the  •■rucl  fix  ion  the  cross  Is  gen- 
erally much  too  large  and  high),  and  he  was  lifted  upon 
it  (nyfre,  ej-mrrrre,  toUtrt,  luctnd-  re  in  criHTm  j  Pro- 
dent,  ripi  <rrt«. ;  Plaatns,  Mottil.  "  CmcaaUu ,"  id. 
Bacck.  i,  B,  128;  avljyov.  •lyav,  'rynv  tiV  acnov  riXor, 
Greg.  Nai.),  or  else  stretched  upon  it  on  the  ground, 
and  then  lifted  with  It,  to  whirh  there  seems  to  be  an 
allnsion  in  a  lost  prophecy  quoted  by  Bamalias(£)i.  ij). 
iirap  Ei'Xov  rXi&^  lai  avairrfi  (Pearson,  On  iMt  Crrrd, 
Acta  Iv).  Ttit  former  methwi  was  the  o'mmoner,  for 
««  often  read  (as  in  E'th.  vii.  in,  etc.)  of  the  eroM  be- 
ing ert«t«d  beforehand  in  termrem.  Before  the  nail- 
ing or  binding  took  place,  a  medicated  cnp  was  given 
out  of  kindness  to  conAtse  the  aenses  and  deaden  the 
pang*  of  tbe  sulT^rer  (Pror.  xxxi,  6).  usually  of  liitter 
wine  (f^vtK  iapi-pfiti'hvt  or  X.Xi/laiiupivoc),  •» 
amonc  the  .lews  (Light  fool.  Bar.  Brbr.ad  «atl.xx\-ii), 
because  niyrrb  waj>  ?o|KiriAc.  Other  bitter  berU  were 
also  emplo)-eil  (Pipjiinix,  F.iti-cii.  Acad.  p.  65).  Our 
Lord  refused  It  that  his  Ktnse*  might !«  clear  (Mitt. 
xxHi,  31;  Mark  xv,  23;  MalmonideF,  Sanhed.  siii). 
Matthew  calls  It  "  vlnet.-ar  mingled  with  gall"  (ij^di 
(lira  xo*'ir>  y'?'^)'  '"  expression  used  in  reference  to 


19  CRUCIFIXION 

Paa.  Islx,  SI,  but  not  Mrictly  accurate.  Tbb  merci- 
fully intended  draught  must  not  be  confounded  with 
tbe  spongeful  of  vinegar  (or  jiomat.  the  common  drink 
of  Roman  eoldiars,  Spart  Hadr. ;  PUut.  JUU.  Gl.  iii,  2, 
28),  which  was  put  on  a  hyssop-stalk  and  offered  to 
our  Lord  in  mocking  and  contemptuous  ply  (Hatt. 
xxvll,  48 1  Luke  xxiil,  Se) ;  this  he  tasted  to  alby  tbe 
agonies  of  thirst  (John  xix,  29). 

Tbe  body  wai  aSlxed  to  Uie  cross  by  nail*  (sef  Corn. 
Curtiui,  Dt  cJuiu  Dowaai,  Antw.  1T60)  driven  into  tho 
hands,  and  more  rarely  Inlu  the  feet;  scmrtimee  the 
feet  were  fastened  by  one  nail  driven  throui.h  both 
(Tertull.  adp.  Jad.  x  ;  Senec.  De  Vila  Seat.  19 ;  Lac- 
Unt.  Iv,  18).  Tbe  feet  were  occasionally  bound  to  the 
CTOU  by  cords;  and  Xcnopbon  aaserta  that  it  was  usual 
among  the  Egyptiane  to  bind  in  this  manner  not  onlj 
tbe  feet,  but  tha  hinds.  An  inacriptioD  (tittba)  was 
written  upon  a  small  talilet  {aavit,  Socrat.  But.  Ecrl. 
i,  17)  declaring  the  crime  (aea  Alberti,  Bt  Imcripl. 
crudt  Clir.  Ups.  1725),  and  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
cross  (Sueton.  Cal.  38 ;  Don.  10 ;  Euseb.  HiH.  Ecela. 
V,  1).  The  body  of  tbe  crucified  person  rested  on  a 
sort  of  seat  (ir^^jin)  (Iren.  culv.  Hot.  il,  IS).  The 
criminal  died  under  tbe  most  frightful  infferinga — m 
lid  tbe  ngingpassionsof  war  pity  was 


uetimea  t 


.s(H'a. 


taken  at  tbe  siege  of  Jerusalem  that  "  tbey 
were' first  whipped,  and  tormented  with  all  sorts  of 
tortnres,  and  tben  cniciOed  before  the  wslls  of  the 
city.  The  soldiers,  out  of  the  wrath  and  the  hatred 
they  here  the  Jews,  nailed  those  tbey  caught  one  after 
one  way  and  another  after  another  to  crosses,  by  way 
of  }est,  when  their  multitude  was  so  ^  reat  that  room  wa* 
wanting  for  the  crosses  and  croeeea  wanting  for  the 
bodies.  Thb  miserable  procedure  made  Titus  greatly 
pity  them."  Sometimes  tha  suffering  wss  shortened 
and  abated  bv  breaking  the  leg*  of  the  criminal — rra- 
TafnOo  (Cicero,  Pliil.  xiil,  IS).  The  execution  lock 
pUcc  at  the  hands  of  the  «nii^,  or  hangman,  attend- 
ed by  s  band  of  soldiers,  and  in  Kome  under  the  su- 
pcrvinion  of  the  Triumviri  Cafdtales  (Tacit  .tna.  it, 
60 ;  Lactant.  iv,  2G).  The  accounts  given  in  tbe  Gos- 
pels of  the  execution  of  Jesus  Christ  ale  in  entire 
agreement  with  the  customs  snd  practices  of  the  Ro- 
mans in  thb  particular  (Tholuck,  GUMlncvTdigkt'.l  der 
etamget.  Ottck.  p.  861). 

Onr  Lord  wag  erocified  between  two  "thieves"  (^(' 
oroi,  mbbtri)  or  "malefactors"  (tben  so  mmmon  In 
Palestine,  Josephus,  U'or,  ii,  6,  etc.),  according  to 
I  prophecy  (lea.  liii,  IV);  and  wae  watched  according  to 
custom  by  a  party  of  four  foldiers  (John  xix,  ;8),  with 
their  centurion  (reinrru^^n.  Ustt.  xXTii,e6;  miiriqai 
CTUca  atnrabal,  Petr.  ^or.  Ill,  e ;  Plutarch,  Vii.  CItvm. 
88),  whose  (ipress  office  was  to  prevent  (be  surrtption 
of  tbe  body  (Senecs,  £p.  101).  Thia  was  nereisary 
fhnn  tbe  lingering  character  of  the  death,  which  n  mr- 
Um«s  did  not  supervene  even  for  three  days,  ai  d  wit 
at  Ia*t  the  reault  of  gradual  bennmblng  and  stsrvsth  n 
(Euseb.  Tiii,  8;  Seneca. /Vm-.  S).  But  for  this  guard, 
tbe  persons  mlgbt  have  been  t^ken  down  snd  recov- 
ered, as  was  actually  done  In  the  case  of  a  friend  of 
Jose phus,  thouiih  only  one  survived  oat  of  Ihret  to 
whom  tbe  same  carehil  nursing  {Sipo-riia  ini/iiXiv- 
TOTti)  was  a|^lbd  (Life,  TG).  Among  the  Convulsion- 
naires  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV,  women  would  be  re- 
peatedly cmciAed.  and  even  remain  on  Ibe  rroi-s  three 
hours;  we  are  told  of  one  who  underwent  It  twenty- 
three  times  (AWyrl.  Uttr.,  s.  v.  Crrss) ;  the  pain  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  In  tbe  nailing,  and  not  more 
than  a  basinful  of  blond  was  lost.  Still  we  cannot  lie- 
lieve  ftom  the  Mortyrologies  that  Tictjirinua  (crucified 
bead  downward)  lived  three  days,  or  limotheus  and 
Maura  nine  days  (compare  Bretschneider,  in  tbe  i8ft«- 
dlen  V.  Kril..  IKiS,  ii.  625;  Panlus,  In  tbe  Darmrt.  Kir- 
cktuxrii.  1M3.'),  Xo.  ».  9).  Prartare  of  the  legs  (Plaut. 
Ihn.  iv.  2,  (H>  was  especially  adopted  l^y  tbe  Jew* 
(Deul.  xii,  22)  to  harlen  death  (Jobn  xix,  SI),  and  it 


CRUCIFIXION  5! 

WW  B  mitigatian  of  tha  panUhroeDt  (Caunb.  Extn. 
Antib.  p.  &S7),  u  observed  b;  Origen.  But  the  unu- 
■nil  rapidity  uf  our  Lord's  death  wai  due  to  the  depth 
of  bia  prsviODs  agonies  (which  appeare  from  hia  inabil- 
ity to  bear  his  own  croaa  far),  and  to  hia  mental  an- 
gaUh  (SohottgBQ,  flbr.  Edi.  vi,  S;  De pau.  Mraia), 
or  it  may  be  anfficienll;  accounted  for  aimply  from 
peculiaritlea  of  conitituCioa.  There  is  do  need  to  ex- 
plain the  ^*  giving  up  of  the  ghost^'aA  a  miracte  (Tleb. 
V,  7  P),  or  aay  with  Cyprian,  FratnlD  carmjtdi  officio, 
QBT'tan  iponU  Jimisil  (^Adv,  Demdr).  Still  leas  can 
the  common  cavil  of  infidelity  be  thought  noteworthy, 
since,  had  our  Lord  been  in  a  swoon,  the  plercint;  of  bis 
pericardium  (proved  by  the  appearance  of  lymph  and 
blood)  would  have  ensured  death.  (See  Eschenbach. 
OpUK,  Med.  ifa  Btrvatort  nea  appareaier  leJ  vtn  nor- 
tUD,  aud  Omner,  De  tsoiie  Chritii  mm  igaapliea,  quoted 
by  Jahn  in  bia  Bibl.  Arch.)  (See  below.)  PUate  M~  ' 
prtssli/  tatiijied  himself  of  the  actual  dmtA  by  question- 
ing the  centurion  (Mark  sv,  44);  and  the  omiwion  of  [ 
the  breakioK  of  the  legs  in  this  case  was  the  fulHl- : 
ment  of  a  type  (Exod.  xii,  46).  Other  modes  i,C  hast- 
ening death  were  by  liihling  fires  unrier  the  croea  i 
(beoce  the  nicknames  Sarmratitii  and  Stmairii,  Ten. 
Apolog.  50),  or  letting  loose  wild  beasts  on  the  crucified 
<Siiet.A-(r.«). 

Generally  the  body  was  suffered  to  rot  on  the  croes 
(Cicero,  Tate.  «.  i,  48;  Sil.  lul.  viii,486)  by  the  ac- 
tion of  son  and  rain  (Herod,  iii,  12),  or  to  be  devoared 
by  birds  and  beaeta  (ApnI.  ife  Aur.  Aiin.  6;  Horace, 
Ep,  i,  ll),48i  Juvenal,  xiv,  77).  Sepulture  was  gen- 
erally therefore  forbidden  (riiay,  Hul.  Nat.  smvi, 
34),  thouifb  it  might  be  granted  as  a  special  favor  or 
on  grand  occasions  (Ulp.  1,  ii,  De  off.  Pcueont.).  But, 
in  consequence  of  Deut.  xxl,  33, 33,  an  express  nation- 
'■  al  exception  was  made  in  favor  of  the  Jews  (Matt. 
Xivii,  5S ;  corap.  Joseph.  War,  iv,  5, 3). 

IV.  Palkoiogii. — It  only  remains  to  speak  of  the 
manner  of  deatb,  and  the  kind  of  physical  suffering  en- 
dured, which  we  shall  very  briefly  abridge  (Tom  the 
treatise  of  the  physicianRicbter  (in  Jahn'sfiiif.jIrcA.). 
These  are,  1.  The  unoatural  position  and  violent  ten- 

the  least  motion.  3.  The  nails,  being  driven  throngh 
part<  of  the  bands  and  feet  which  are  full  of  nerwi  and 
lendoni  (and  yet  at  a  distance  from  the  heart),  create 
the  most  exquisite  anguish.  S.  The  exposure  of  so 
many  wounds  and  lacerations  brings  on  inflammation, 
which  tends  to  become  gangrene,  and  every  moment 
increases  the  poignancy  of  anlTcring.  4.  In  the  dis- 
tended parte  of  the  liody  more  blood  flows  thmugh  the 
aitaries  than  can  be  carried  back  inln  the  veins :  hence 
too  much  blood  finds  its  way  fttim  the  aorta  Into  the 
head  and  stomach,  and  the  blood-vessels  of  the  head 
become  pressed  and  swoiien.  The  general  obsliuction 
of  circulation  which  ensues  causes  an  internal  excite- 
ment, exertion,  and  anxiety  mors  intolerable  than 
death  itself.  5.  The  inexpiessibla  misery  otgradaaUs 
inereiuing  and  lingering  anguish.  To  all  this  we  may 
add,  6.  Burning  and  raging  thirat. 

Death  by  crucilixion  (physically  wnsidered)  is  tbere- 
fore  to  be  attributed  to  the  sympathetic  Aver  which  b 
excited  by  the  wounds,  and  aggravated  by  exposure  to 
the  weather,  privation  of  water,  and  the  painfiilly  con- 
strained position  of  the  body.  Traamatlc  fever  corre- 
sponds, in  Intensity  and  in  character,  to  the  local  In- 
Aimmation  of  the  wound.  In  the  firat  stage,  while  the 
inflaniniBtion  of  the  wound  is  characterized  by  heat, 
swelling,  und  great  |iain,  the  fever  is  highly  inflamma- 
tory, and  the  sufferer  complains  of  heat,  throbbing 
headaclie,  intense   thirst,  restlessness,  and   anxiety. 

abati'i,  ami  gradually  ceases  as  suppuration  diminishes 
and  the  stage  of  cicalriiation  approaches.  But  if  the 
d  from  henling.  a    ' 


to  CRUCIFIXION 

ever,  the  inflammation  of  the  wound  is  so  interne  ai  to 
produce  mortifleition,  nervous  depression  i<  the  imme- 
diate consequence;  and  if  the  cause  of  this  eiceeMva 
inflammation  of  the  wound  sdll  continues,  as  is  the 
case  in  crucifixion,  the  anfferer  rapidly  sinks.  He  ia 
no  longer  sensible  of  pain,  but  his  anxiety  and  aenaa 
of  proetration  are  excessive ;  hiccough  supervenes,  hli 
Lslfned  ¥rith  a  cold  clammy  sweat,  and  death 


skin 


It  is  in 


n  the  I 


place  in  an  ordinarily  healthy  conati. 
tution.  The  wounds  in  themselves  were  not  fatal; 
but,  as  long  as  the  nails  remained  ui  them,  the  inflam- 
mation must  have  increased  in  Intensity  until  It  pro- 
duced gangrene.  The  period  at  which  death  occnrred 
was  very  variable,  as  it  depended  on  the  constitution 
of  the  sufferer,  as  well  as  on  the  degree  of  exposure 
luid  the  state  of  the  weather.  It  may,  however,  be 
asserted  that  death  would  not  take  place  until  the  local 
inflammation  had  run  its  conr»e;  and  though  this  pro- 
cess may  be  much  hastened  by  fatigue  and  the  alter- 
nate exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  cold  oiEht 
air,  it  La  not  completed  before  forty-eight  hours,  onder 

BO  that  we  may  conaider  thirty-six  boon  to  be  the  ear- 
liest period  at  which  cruciflxion  would  occaxion  death 
in  a  healthy  adult.  It  can  not  be  objected  Ibsl  tbe 
heat  of  an  Eastern  etimste  may  not  have  been  duly 

recorded  of  persons  having  survived  a  much  longer 
time  ttian  is  here  mentioned,  even  as  long  as  eight  ot 
nine  days.  Eusebins  {Bitt.  Eccla.  iii,  B)  says  that 
many  of  the  martyrs  in  Egj-pt,  who  were  crucified  with 
their  heads  downward,  perished  by  hunger.  The  want 
of  water  was  a  much  more  important  privation.  It 
must  have  caused  tbe  sufferer  inexprossltde  aognbh, 
and  have  contributed  in  no  alight  degree  to  hasten 
death. 

Several  eminent  writers  bad  occn[Hed  themMlves 
with  the  physiology'  of  our  Saviour's  passion,  if  we  may 
so  express  ourselves,  before  the  "  scieDtific"  method 
of  treating  it  was  resorted  to ;  such  were  Scheuchzei. 
Head,  Bartholinua,  Togler,  Triller,  Ricbler,  and  £s- 
chenbach.  But  a  much  falter  and  more  exact  inveiti- 
gation  has  since  l>een  nude  by  the  two  Grunen,  fa- 
ther and  son,  the  latter  of  whom  flnt  wrote  under  the 
direction,  and  by  (he  advice  of  the  former.  These  ear- 
lier authors  have  collected  all  that  medical  analo^ries 
could  furnish  towards  establishing  the  character  of 
our  Saviour's  sufferings  and  the  reality  of  bis  death. 
"The  pulmonary,  and  other  veins  and  arteiiea  about 
the  heart  and  chest,  by  the  abundance  of  blood  flow- 
ing thither,  and  there  accumulating,  must  have  add- 
ed frighttal  bodily  suffering  to  the  anguish  of  mind 
produced  by  the  overpowering  burden  of  our  sins" 
(G.  a.  Richteri  Dittertiaiom  Quatmr  MnUea,  Get- 
ting. 177a,  p.  67).  But  this  general  suffering  muit 
have  made  a  relative  impression  upon  different  indi- 
viduals ;  and,  as  Charles  Gruner  well  observes,  the  ef- 
fect it  produced  upon  two  hanly  and  hardened  thieves, 
brought  out  fresh  from  prison,  most  naturally  have 
been  very  different  ftam  that  on  our  Saviour,  whose 
frame  and  temperament  were  of  a  very  oppoaite  char- 
acter; who  had  been  previously  sufl*ering  a  night  of 
tortures  and  restless  htigue;  who  had  been  wrestlmg 
with  mental  agony  till  one  of  the  rarest  phen 


re  tell 


le  feve 


itlhepc 


I  of  life. 


will 


and  the  distress  of  his  pions  mother,  and  few  faithful 
friends  (C.  F.  Gruneri  CommnMio  Antiquaiia  Mr£ta 
ttf  Jriu  Critti  morle  vera  bob  amulaa,  Hals,  ItMA.  p. 
■W-4ol.  To  these  he  might  have  added  other  reflec- 
tions, an  that  our  Saviour  was  evidently  weakeiMd  l>r- 
yond  other  per<oiis  in  similar  cirrumstancea,  seeing  he 
was  not  strong  enough  to  carry  hh  cross,  as  criminili 
led  to  "xeciition  were  always'  ■l>le  to  do ;  and  if  th« 
men  whom  wo  are  answering  suppose  our  Lord  to  have 


CRUCIFIXION  51 

only  hllra  Into  *  tnnce  from  axhrnnstiDii,  thej  have 
jauiife*Uv  do  right  to  Judga  ^m  otbor  oh«,  far  in 
thom  even  thi>  did  not  occar.  The  yoDDger  Gruner 
goes  iniautelj  into  all  the  inuLest  circamsUacu  of 
the  punun,  examining  them  as  abjecu  of  mediul  ]u- 
Tispnideiicf,  and  prnticulail}-  takes  rogniiance  of  the 
stroke  indicted  by  the  soldier's  laout.  He  (han  the 
great  probabili^  of  the  wound  having  lieen  in  the  ieft 
aide,  and  from  IhIdw  tiausverael}'  upward ;  be  demon- 
Mrste*  tbat  mch  ■  stroke,  iuSlcted  by  the  robuat  ann 
ofa  Roman  Kildler,  with  a  short  Unce,  far  tbe  cross  was 
not  raised  mnch  bom  the  gronad,  moat,  in  any  hypoth- 
esis, have  occasioned  a  deadly  wound.  Up  to  this 
moment  he  supposes  our  Saviour  msy  have  been  sUtl 
Jjaintly  alive,  liecaose  otherwise  the  blood  would  not 
have  flowed,  and  because  the  load  ci?  which  he  uttered 
is  a  symptom  ofa  syncope  from  too  great  a  congestion 
-(■fblourt  about  the  heart.  But  this  wound,  whicb,  fiom 
the  flowing  of  blood  and  water,  bo  supposes  to  have 
been  in  the  cavity  of  the  cheat,  must,  accotdlng  to  him, 
Juvfl  been  necessarily  fatal.  Tirinus  anl  other  com- 
mentalors,  as  well  as  many  physicians,  Gruner,  Bar- 
jChulinua,  Triller,  and  Eschenbach,  auppose  this  water 
to  have  lieen  Ivmph  from  the  pericardium.  Vogler 
(Pkgiiologia  Butsria  PatiioaU,  Halmst.  1698,  p.  14) 
auppo4ea  it  to  have  been  serum  separated  itora  the 
blood.  But  from  the  manner  in  which  the  apostle  John 
mentiona  this  mystical  flow,  and  from  the  concurrent 
sentiment  of  all 'antiquity,  we  must  admit 
more  than  a  mere  physical  event.  Ricbter  observes 
tbat  llu  abundant  gUEb  of  the  blood  and  water,  " 
ut  in  mortuis  lleri  solet,  lentum  et  grumoaum,  sed  cs- 
Icnteni  ndbuc  et  fli^xilem,  tamquam  ex  calentiaslmo 
misericoTdite  fonte,"  must  be  considered  preternatural, 
and  deeply  symbolical.  Christian  Gruner  goes  over 
the  same  ground,  and  answers,  step  by  step,  the  addi- 
tional oLr)ections  of  an  anonymous  impugner.  He 
ahowa  that  the  words  used  by  John  to  enpress  the 
wound  inflicted  by  the  lance  are  often  used  to  denote  a 
.mortal  one ;  he  proves  that,  even  sappoalDg  the  death 
-of  Christ  to  have  been  in  the  flrst  instance  apparent, 
the  infliction  of  merely  a  slight  wonnd  would  have  been 
&taL  because,  in  syncope  or  trance  arising  from  loss  of 
blood,  any  vanesection  would  be  considered  such  (  Vim- 
diciir  iloriit  JtmCAntli  trrie,  p.  67,  77,111,);  anil  that, 
in  fine,  ao  far  from  the  apices  or  unguents  naed  in  em- 
balming, or  the  close  chamber  of  the  tomb,  being  fitting 
Testoratives  to  a  persou  in  a  trance,  they  would  be  the 
most  secure  instruments  for  converting  apparent  into 
real  death,  by  suffocation.  To  this  we  may  add  Es- 
-chenbech's  observation  (Ser^rla  Mtdi.-b^Uca,  Rostock, 
1779,  p.  138)  that  there  is  no  welt-recorded  hiatance  of 
•jDcope  lasting  more  than  one  day,  whereas  here  it 
must  have  lasted  three ;  and  also  tbiit  even  this  period 
would  not  have  been  aufficient  to  restore  to  strength 
and  health  a  fVame  which  had  undergtme  the  shatter- 
ing tortures  of  crucifixion  and  the  enfeebling  influence 
of  syncope  ftom  loss  of  blood.  A  consideration  not 
Dodceil  by  any  of  these  authors  seem*  to  decide  the 
point  of  tbe  depth  of  the  wonnd,  and  place  beyond  doubt 
that  it  n«ld  not  be  snperHcisl,  but  must  ha'va  entered 
tbe  cavi^.  Our  Saviour  dbtingnisfaea  the  wounds  In 
his  bands  from  that  of  hla  aide  by  desiring  Thomas  to 
measure  the  former  by  tiie  flnger,  and  the  latter  by  the 
insertion  of  his  hand  (John  xx,  27).  This,  therelbre, 
roust  have  betn  of  the  breadth  of  two  or  three  Angers 
on  the  outside.  But  for  a  lance,  which  tapered  very 
gently  from  the  point,  to  leave  a  scar  or  Incision  on  tbe 
flesh  of  such  a  tireBdth.at  leai>t  four  or  Ave  inches  must 
have  penetrated  into  the  body,  a  supposition  quite  In- 
compatible with  a  superficial  or  flesh  wound.  Of 
conrae,  thla  reawnInK  ia  with  those  who  admit  the  en- 
tire hi^<unr  of  the  p*«sion  and  subseijuent  appearance 
of  our  Saviour,  liut  denr  his  real  death ;  and  inch  are 
the  adiersariea  of  tlie  (j'runers. 

[t  la  not  Inai^injprtate  here  to  introduce  a  esse  which 
^uty  ci>nflrm  some  of  the  foregoing  obeervations.    It 


n  CRUcrnxiox 

la  an  occonnt  of  a  cruclfled  Mameluke,  or  Turkish  ser- 
vant, published  by  Kusegarten  (Chrtti,  Arab.  Lip*. 
1828,  p.  68-66),  from  an  Arabic  manuscript  entitled 
"7Ae  Meadme  of  Ftotntn  aad  the  fragrant  Odov." 
The  narrative,  after  quoting  the  suthoritlea,  a*  is  usu- 
al in  Arabic  hiatories,  proceeds  as  follows :  "  It  ia  s^d 
that  be  had  killed  his  master  for  some  cause  or  Other, 
and  he  was  cmcifled  on  tbe  banlu  of  the  river  Barada 
[Burada],  nnder  the  castle  of  Damascus,  with  bis  tt/x 
turned  towards  the  east.  His  hands,  arma,  and  feet 
were  nailed,  and  be  remained  so  ftom  midday  on  Fri- 
day to  the  same  hour  on  Sunday,  when  lia  died.  Ha 
was  remarkable  for  his  strength  and  prowess ;  ha  had 
been  engaged  with  bis  master  in  sacred  war  at  Askelon, 
where  he  ilew  great  numbers  of  the  Franks;  and  when 
voryvDUBghohad  killed  a  lion.  Several  extraordina- 
ry things  occurred  at  his  being  nailed,  as  that  be  gave 
Umsetf  up  without  resistance  to  the  cross,  and  without 
complaint  stretched  out  his  hands,  which  were  tuiled, 
and  after  them  his  feet:  he  in  the  mean  time  looked 
on,  and  did  not  utter  a  groan,  or  change  hia  counte- 
nance, or  move  his  limbe."  Thus  we  see  a  person,  in 
the  flower  of  his  age,  remarkable  for  hla  hardihood  and 
Bttengtb,  inured  to  military  fatigue,  nay,  so  strong  that 
we  are  told,  hi  another  part  of  the  narrative,  that "  he 
moved  his  feet  about,  though  nailed,  till  he  loosened 
the  bstenlngs  of  the  nails,  so  that,  if  they  had  not  been 
well  secured  in  the  wood,  he  woidd  have  drawn  them 
out;"  and  yet  be  could  not  endure  the  suffering  mora 
I  than  eight-and-forty  hours.  But  the  most  intereKing 
'  ciicnmstance  in  this  narration,  and  the  illustration  of 
the  scriptural  narrative  principally  in  view,  is  the  fact, 
not  mentioned  by  any  ancient  describer  of  this  punieh- 
ment,  that  tiM  principal  torture  endured  by  this  ser- 
vant waa  tbat  of  thirst,  precisely  as  is  intimated  in  the 
Goapel  history  (John  xix,  28).  For  the  Arabic  narra- 
tor thus  proceeds ;  "  I  have  heard  thla  from  one  wbv 
wiluesaed  It — and  he  thus  remained  till  he  died,  patiei 
and  silent,  without  walling,  but  looking  around  him  t* 
the  right  and  to  the  left,  upon  the  people.  But  be  beg- 
ged for  water,  and  none  was  given  him ;  and  the  heart* 
of  tbe  people  were  melted  with  compassion  for  him,  and 
withfHtyon  one  of  God's  creatorea,  who,  yet  a  boy,  was 
anS^ring  under  ao  grievous  a  trial.  In  the  mean  time, 
the  water  was  flowing  around  him,  and  he  gaied  upon 
it,  and  longed  for  one  drop  of  it  .  .  .  and  he  complain- 
ed ofthlnt  all  tbe  flrstday,  after  which  he  was  silent, 
tbr  God  gave  him  strength." 

Various  theories  have  therefore  been  proposed  to  ac- 
count for  tbe  speedy  death  of  Christ  upon  the  cross. 
That  it  did  not  occur  simply  and  direoliy  ftxim  the  cm- 
dfliion  is  evident  fhim  the  above  statements,  and  from 
the  sorprise  of  Pilate  that  it  had  taken  place  so  soon, 
when  the  thieve*  crueifled  at  the  same  time  had  not 
expired.  The  nanal  theory  attrilnitea  hit  sudden  death 
to  a  volnnlary  surrender  of  hia  own  life,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  fkroied  by  the  expression  "yielded  or  'gsve' 
up  the  gbost,"  d^^ici  [irnpi^uici]  vA  rviviia.  Matt, 
xxvil,  60  i  .lohn  lix,  80),  and  also  by  his  declarations 
concerning  his  "  laying  down  his  life"  (ndq/ii  r^v  lini- 
xhy,  John  X,  11,  15, 17).  But,  aside  (torn  the  Inappo- 
siteaesB  of  these  passages  (the  same  terma  being  often 
used  of  ordinary  decease  and  of  voluntary  aubniiuion 
toa  violent  death),  this  view  is  derogstorj'  to  the  char- 
acter of  Christ  (who  is  thus,  in  effect,  made  a  suicide), 
and  Inconaistent  with  the  expressions  concerning  the 
,  guilt  of  his  murderers  (who  are  thus  made  only  acces- 
\  sorics  or  assistants).  The  most  probable  expLanatioo 
i  of  tbe  audden  death  of  Christ  is  that  proposeid  and  ex- 
I  tensively  argued  bv  Dr.  Stroud  iTrratiti  on  lU  Phfi- 
\  ictd  Cuius  oflht  Dtath  afCkritI,  Lend.  1M7),  who  at- 
I  tributes  it  tu  a  proper  rvpntn  of  At  ktart,  a  pathologi- 
■  cal  accident,  which  he  thus  describee  (p.  88):  "The 
I  immediate  cause  is  a  audden  and  violent  contraction 
of  one  of  the  ventricles,  usually  the  left,  on  the  column 
of  blond  thrown  Into  it  by  n'  aimllar  roiitnctlon  of 
,  the  corresponding  auricle.     Prevented  from  returning 


CRUCIFIXION  51 

backwird  by  the  Intervaniog  v«lre,  and  not  finding  B 
Bufficiint  outlet  rarnanl  in  the  connected  utciy,  tlie 
blMid  Tucta  against  the  ventricle  Itself,  wblch  Is  con- 
Mquently  torn  open  at  tbe  point  of  greatest  dlitention, 
or  least  reditance,  by  the  inflaence  of  its  own  reflected 
force.  A  quindty  of  blood  ii  hereby  tlischarged  into 
the  pericardiBm,  and,  having  no  means  to  eseape  from 
tlut  CApaule,  atupi  tlie  circulation  by  comprising  the 
heart  fhini  without,  and  iaducea  almult  inlbintaDeaui 
death,  in  young  and  vigorous  subjeeta,  the  blood  thus 
collected  in  the  peiicaidiam  soon  divides  into  its  con- 
•tituent  parts,  namely,  a  pale,  watery  Uqnid  called  se- 
rum, and  a  su(t  clotted  substance  of  a  deep  red  color, 
called  cnusameDtum ;  but,  except  onder  liniilaT  cir- 
cumstance* of  extravaaation,  this  distinct  aeparatbn 
of  the  blood  is  aeldom  witnessed  in  the  dead  body." 
This  explanation  meets  all  the  ctrcnmiUncee  of 
Christ's  passion.  The  violence  of  his  emotions  was 
aufficieiit  to  burst  open  the  heart,  aa  Dr.  Stroud  shows 
by  a  multitude  of  examplea  of  immediate  death  fhim 
sudden  mental  affections ;  and  this,  as  a  secondsn- 
caiise,  ia  coniirmed  by  the  occurrence  of  the  aanguine- 
ous  pen^ration  In  the  garden  from  similar  emotions. 
See  Bloooy  Sweat.  It  explains  the  suddenness  of 
Christ's  death,  so  evident  in  all  tbe  evangelical  narra- 
tives, as  well  as  its  esrly  occurrence,  ao  snrpriiing  to 
Pilate.  The  load  shrielis  that  immediately  preceded 
:ethe  expression  ofthe  mental 


puviysm  (Mstl.  xivil,  50 ;  Msrk  xv,  87),  and  the  ef- 
fort of  nature  to  relieve  tbe  system  fn>m  the  sense  of 
suffocation  consequent  upon  the  congestion  of  blood  at 
tlie  heart.  This  will  also  account  for  tbe  presence  of 
"water"  (Mrtm),  as  well  as  "  blood"  (croiaamendnii), 
in  a  commingled  yet  distinct  state,  within  the  pericar- 
dium, and  discharged  at  the  orifice  mode  by  the  sol- 
dier's apear  (John  xix.  84),  since  no  blood  would  Bow 
tma  a  wound  in  a  corpse's  friiu.  See  Blood  ahd 
Water. 

V.  liferarurc— An  ezpUnition  of  the  otherciR 
stances  attending  the  cruclflxinn  belongs  rather  to  a 
commentary  tbaa  a  dictionary.  The  assertion  of  Pau- 
lua  and  othera,  that  the  fit!  were  not  nailed  (CDrtius, 
De  dinii  Domim,  Antw.  1670),  la  amply  refntcd  by 
Winer  (De  ptdam  agaiotie.  Lips.  184&)  and  otben. 
Fw  the  detailed  incidents  in  our  Saviour's  case,  see 
jEStra;  and  compare  Hase,  Z,«in  Jrm,  §  IIS.  Ontbe 
types  and  proiAecles  of  i^  besides  those  adduced,  see 
Cypr.  rrftim.  ii,  30.  On  the  resntrection  of  the  saints, 
see  Llghtfoot,  ad.  Malt,  iivji,  I>2  (there  is  a  monograph 
by  Gebaverine — Diurrt,  it  Retvr.  »aiic(orB»i  mm  Chrit- 
(D,  In  his  Comntnl.  MitnU.  So.  6).  See  Bksurrec- 
T10H.  On  other  concomitant  prodigies,  see  SchBtt- 
gen,  Sor.  /Mr.  a  Taina^.  rl.  3, 8.  See  DARxnEse ; 
Earthquakk.  The  chief  oncint'  satborities  may  be 
found  in  Lipaias,  Dt  Cnct  (Antwerp,  1669,  ISM,  and 
(luce)]  see  also  in  Fabric.  BOiUogr.  jnttfuur.  (Hamb. 
1760),  p.  :SS  sq. ;  and  especially  Friedlieb,  A  rckaolo- 
pK  der  Ladnugfchichle  (Bonn,  1843).  On  tbe  points 
in  which  our  Lord's  crudflxion  differed  from  the  ordi- 
nary Jewish  customs,  see  Olhonis  Ltr.  /foUiiiwiiia,  s. 
V.  Supplicla;  Byn«ui,  f>e  Morle  J.  ChHiti!  Voasiue, 
Smin.  Paaiomt!  Carpiov,  Apparal.  Cril,  p.  &91,  sq. 
etc. ;  Salmasius,  £)t  Cruet  (I„  B.  1646) ;  Bartbolinus, 
Of  lalirt  Chritli  aptrlo  (I..  B.  164SI;  also  Dt  Cna 
Ckritti  (Amst.  16T0,  L.  B.  1S9S)  i  Zobel,  In  tbe  Maga*. 
fur  WW.  Interpret,  il,  ail  sq.      See  Cross. 

There  are  monourapba  in  Latin  on  the  followlns 
points  connected  with  the  snhject :  on  the  cross  itself, 
by  Bandissns  (Viteb.  1673).  Crllariua  (ZIt.  \(r,~),  Cyp- 
rian (Hclmst.  1699),  Freiesleben  (Jen.  ir«2),  (iermar 
(Tborun.  1787),  Gezelioa  (UpMU.  1692).  Uleirh  (Up*. 
ITfMI,  Uperuis  (Sedin.  IGTSI,  Ortlob  (Vileh.  1R.'>6),  Ni- 
hasias  (Colon.  1044),  Paschins  (Viteh.  Itmt,  Richter 
(ZitUu,  l??."!),  Veri«rten  iFrcft.  ad  V.  1759),  Gretser 
(lngol>.t.  ISWulftLll.  id.  (ib.  IHim,  I.ipslus  (Antwerp, 
Mm,  ICOe,  Amst.  I<>7U),  Bosiui  ( Antw.  lAi:).  Bomiiius 
(Vit.  1644),  Salmasius  (L.  B.  IWB),  Langc  (Vil.  1669), 


CRTJCIGER 


Lamy  (ffam.  fv.  p.  SiS  fq.);  on  tbe  ta 

erally,  by  Buddcns  (Jen.1707).  Dilher  (Korimb.  160), 
Gerhard  (Roet.  1662).  Yogler  (Helmat.  1698).  VerstMf 

(Trai.  ad  Rh.  17(10),  Lvdiu*  (Dortrac.  1872,  Zntpben. 
1701),  id.  (Tr.sdB.  1701),  UedhDrst(i«iK£r.ii.  I,  i; 
III,  iii).  Uargalitba  (Frcfl.  wl  V.  1706),  Uerchmint 
(DuisI).  172-2),  two  anonymous  /oKiciiii  (Dnsaeldwt 
1730),  Wasthovius  (L.  B.  I7B8),  Sturm  (Hal.  1763). 
Hes^r  (Sondersh.  1770),  Fremery  (1788),  Zobel  (in 
Germ.  Mag.fUr  Obi.  iKUrpnL  1,  2>.  Essner  (in  Genn. 
Kamb.l818),Joni:h  (Tr.ad  Kh.  1827),  Hag  (In  Germ. 
Frrib.  ZiiUeir.  1831),  Scharf  (Lencop.  l«Oe).  Engel- 
mann  (Cygii.  1676),  Haberkom  (Gress.  1656),  Koi^ 
tholt  (Kilon.  1687),  Prltius  (Ups.  161^),  Hsbicbont 
(Roet.  1681),  Mieg  (Mddelb.  lOlX  NItpeneck  (Kiwt 
1700),  Haferang  (Viteh.  I7S9>,  Uoebius  (Lips.  1(*S\ 
Scharf  (Uncopetr.  1666),  Stosch  (Frcft.  ad  V.  17o!i). 
Vitringa  (Wm.  laer,  Ii,  384  sq.) ;  on  the  Infcmy  of  lbs 
punishment,  by  Henke  (Helinst.  1786),  Jetae  (Starg. 
1761),  Lange  (Lubec,  1729)  1  on  the  time  of  CbriM'i 
crucifixion  (in  reconciliation  of  the  discrepancy  be- 
tween Mark  xv,  2S,  and  John  xix,  14),  by  Keil  (Lips. 
1778-1780),  Ueliknecht  (Gless.  1726),  Mlchoflis  C 
Germ.  Bamb.  Bibl.  ill,  2),  Rryper  (nra.  Din.  ii,  341), 
Schwon  (Lipe.  1776),  Moiinus  (Lugd.  B.  1686,  1688), 
Oslander  (Tnbingen,  174S),  Paali  (Halle,  1744, 175*1. 
Woe^er  (in  Menethen.  Tiemir.  ii,  27T),  Wolf  (Upe. 
1750),  Zeibich  (In  German,  Lpt.  171S),  Zeltner  (three 
diss.,  Altorf.  1720,  1721,  1724),  Knittel  (in  German, 
Wolfenb.  1766),  Hem  (Havn.  ]7K)\  Rbein  (in  Gem., 
Lpz.  1882) ;  on  Christ's  thirst  and  dtlnk  on  the  crow, 
by  Bauer  (Viteb.  in4),  Deyling  ((»».  i,  »S7),  Faber 
(London,  1660),  Hutten  (Goben.  1671).  Leo  (LeucopL 
1721),  Neumann  (Viteh.  168B),  Pipping  (Up*.  16881, 
Bauwh  (Jena,  17SBX  Schlegel  (in  Gemun,  Henke  a 
M'-gat.  iv,  2^8-391),  Walch  (Mat.  m  1/aM.  p.  H'l 

I  -ISV-i;  on  hia  prayer  for  hia  morderen,  bv   Marrk 

1  (Sgll.  Din.  p.  BOB,  828),  Pfaff  (Tub.  1746) ;  on  bis  de- 
spairing cry,  by  Hoepfner  (Lipa.  1641^  Frischmntli 
(Jen.  1668),  Niemann  (Jen.  1S71),  Scharf  (\'jt.  1671), 
Lockenrits  (Viteb.  1680),  Oleartas  (Lips.  168.1).  the 
same  (Ib.  1683,  1726),  Deutschmann  (Viteb.  16?5), 
Winslow  (Hsvn,  1706),  EngestrOm  (Land.  1738), 
Lager  (Jena,  1789),  Leucke  (Lips.  1TS8),  Welsstnann 
(Tab.  1746),  Sommel  (Lund.  1774),  Wickenfaufer  (in 
Germ.,  ZImmarmanD's  JiooatneA.  1821,  No.  !4):  on 
his  commending  his  spirit  to  the  Father,  faj  Wolla 
(Lips.  1726;  agahiGatt.l744)i  on  bis  so-called  "lait 
seven  words,"  by  Froerysen  (Argent.  1626), DannlHuer 

;  (ib.  1841),  Lange  (Ups.  1651),  Mayer  (Gryj*.  1706). 
Crager  0'"-  '^^'  Vincke  (Tr.  od  Rh.  1846) :  on  tbe 
present*  of  Haiy,  by  Zom  (Opmte.  ii,  816-82?}:  on 
the  perforaUon  of  the  hands  and  feet,  1^-  Fonti^nas 
(Amst.  1641),  Slemler  (Dread.  1741)-,  on  the  punrtan 
by  tbe  spear,  bv  Sagittarius  (Jena,  I6T3 :  also  in  Tim. 
Din.  Amit.  ii,'S81-7),  Barthollnus  (L.  B.  1646,  l.ip.. 
1664,  1683,  Frcf.  1681),  Fae*  (Helmft.  1676),  Quro- 
sledt  (Viterb.  1678),  Wedel  (Jen.  1686),  Jaeofai  (Ups. 
1686),  Suantenlus  (Rost.  1686),  Loescher  (^'it.  1G»7\ 
Triller  (Vit.  1T7E) ;  on  the  diacbarge  fhim  the  wvnnd. 
by  Kocher  (Dresd.  1697),  RHter  (Vit.  1687>,  Esrhrn. 
bach  (Rost.  1775),  Calovlus  (Vit.  1679) ;  on  tbe  mrdi- 
cal  aspects  of  the  death,  by  Vogier  (Helmstadt.  167S). 
Westphal  (Grvpesv.  1771),  Richler  (Golt  1T67),  Kiss- 
ling  (Eriang.  1767).  Gruner  (Sen.,  Jen.  1800,  Jnn.,  HsL 
1805),  Slrood  (in  English,  London.  1847>.  Brahier  (m 
French,  Parts,  1749).  Swleten  (Vien.  1778),  HnfeUod 
(Germ.,Weim.  1791),  Taberger  (Germ.,  HaDnoT.lS29); 
on  the  attestation  of  tbe  bj-standera,  by  Dietelmaier 
(Aildorf.  1749),  SchCtt'en  (German,  hi  Bldermann's 
Sekaliacien,  iii,  16).  For  other  dissertationa  on  ai*o- 
cialed  incident',  see  Pa*80Ver  ;  Pit^Tit ;  HocaEir 
(of  Christ);  CBowj»(oFTHo«!tB);  Thikp  (oxirr 
Ckoss);  SAHAcmAin ;  EcursE ;  Eartbqcaxe  ; 
VAit, :  CEXTL'nio^:  Priboxrr.  etc. 

Cniclger,  Caspar,  one  of  the  most  faithftal  and 
useful  of  Luther's  coadjutors  in  the  Beformition,  was 


y  M  WittenboTK  ] 


CRUDEN 

bora  at  Lvipsic  Jan.],  ISOl,  of  nligioaa  parcuta,  irhol 
tx»k  pains  witb  hli  edacation.  In  ' ' 
be  rmbraaed  tba  docDiDei  of  Uu 
about  liil  b«  begtn  tu  study  CbeoL 
with  Lather  and  Uelaacthou.  He 
■killed  in  U«bnir.  in  lfiV4  be  n>  oUed  to  Uif^ 
bug.  Bod  thtra  langtat  with  gnat  snccesa  till  1537, 
when  ha  ntunwd  to  Wittanberi;,  wbers  ha  lectniad  on 
the  Scriptnns,  and  aided  Luther  in  his  translatloa  of 
Um  Bilil*.  Ha  ms  rsr^  expert  ia  aburttund  writing, 
■nd  to  Uili  faculty  we  are  indalilad  for  manj>  of  Lu- 
ther'* preeioua  remairu.  He  died  al  WitUnbeqc  ''or, 
16,  IMS.     Hia  if^lten  may  be  Cound  in  the   Corpui 

JbformOlirmm Middieton,  EsOHg.  Bioff.;  Adam,  Vi- 

ta  Theologonm ;  Piper,  Eeaagtt.  Katatdtr,  1854 ;  Prea- 
ael.  Catptr  Cnciger  aaek  gitidadtigtn  Quelltn  (Qbet- 
ftldt,  1M2). 

CradcD,  At^xAxnen,  author  of  the  ireli-knovn 

wa»  educated  at  Maregchal  College  with  a  view  to  the 
miniiitiy.  bat  aherratlun  of  mind  caused  his  temporary 
confinement  iu  ati  asylum,  and  praTeated  his  entering 
on  the  ecileslastkal  career.  In  1732  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, and  was  employed  M  a  classical  tntor  and  correct- 
or of  the  preat.  He  «aa  appointed  bodueller  to  the 
queen,  to  wfaam  In  17B7  he  dedicated  bia  Omptete  Cm- 
conbmea  U>  the  Holg  Scnpiuru  nftheO.and  N.  Tat. . 
which  flm  appeared  In  that  year.  Pecuniar)-  dlfficul- 
dea  growing  out  of  the  publication  of  this  worii  now 
incrBued  his  Insanltj,  and  led  to  bis  temporary  coD' 
Anement,  lint  be  escaped  thim  BelhnsI  Green,  and 
broDgfal  an  action  BKainstthe  proprietor  and  pbysician 
of  tbe  asylum,  who  of  coune  obtained  a  verdict  In 
tbeir  TaTor.  For  the  rvst  of  his  life  he  was  permitted 
lo  TcmaJD  at  liberty,  and  be  returned  nith  zeal  to  hla 
learned  and  aevere  lalxirf,  manifesting  his  strange  ec- 
centricitT  In  a  Uiousand  formii — soliciting  knighthood 
from  the  king,  a  seat  in  Parliament  ttom  the  people 
of  London,  and  conrting  the  duughter  of  tbe  lord 
mayor,  bntpmerring  unchanged  bis  piety  and  benev. 
otence.  He  mode  a  verbal  Index  to  Hilton's  poems, 
a  Brripltirf  Dirtiawini.  and  several  religions  works, 
continuing  to  the  last  tbe  emendation  of  bis  Concord- 
ance. Many  editions  of  tbli  work  have  since  ap. 
pesred.  On  Hoveniher  1.  1770,  he  was  found  dead 
In  his  chamber  In  the  attitude  of  pnyer.     See  Con- 1 


Cmmbanch,  John  Samttel,  a  Lutheran  minis- 
ter, was  bom  in  Frederick  County,  Hd.,  Movemtier  7, 
1831.  He  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  Collie,  Gettys. 
borg,  in  1831.  and  the  same  year  was  appointed  prin- 
cipal of  the  High  School.  LancBiter,  Pa.,  a  position  to 
which  be  seemed  specially  adapted.  While  thus  en- 
gaged, be  also  pursued  his  theological  sludiea  under 
the  direction  of  Bev.  Dr.  Baker,  and  in  1B5S  was  li- 
censed to  preach  tbe  GospeL  His  firM  and  only  pas- 
toral charge  was  St.Johu'i  (Lntbeian)  Church,  Lan- 
caster. His  health,  never  very  vigorous,  be^  to 
bn  UDdar  bis  labors,  to  which  he  had  ao  assiduously 
and  successfully  devoted  himself.  He  resigned  his 
charge  in  1M7,  and  accepted  tb^  otHce  of  superintend- 
ent for  common  schools  of  Lancaster  County,  in  (he 
expectation  that  an  opportunity  would  be  afforded,  In 
the  active  eaarclse  required,  for  tbe  resoscitatioa  of 
hb  health.  Hii  zeal  and  success  in  the  diiwharge  of 
bis  varied  and  difficult  duties  were  regarded  by  tbe 
board  as  unsorpaased.  lie  was  a  man  of  more  than 
ordinary  abllit.v,  and  as  a  teacher  possessed  peculiar 
qoallAcalions.  He  died  Jan.  IS,  1869.  ■'  His  brief  i 
life,"  says  Dr.  Burrowea,  "was  a  record  of  learning,  \ 
usefulness,  and  honor."  He  published  an  sddre 
God  Ht  Batnry,  delivered  before  [he  literary  soc 
of  FranUtn  and  Marshall  College  in  18oS. 

CniMide*,  the  name  given  to  tbe  religious 
carried  on  fn>m  the  close  of  the  el'venth  to 
cloaa  of  the  thirteenth  crntnrv  i>y  tbe  Christian  i 


CRUSADES 

triea  of  Eurepe  against  the  Hobammedans  tOr  tbe  eon ' 
queit  of  the  Holy  Land.  (Id  this  article  we  make 
free  use  of  tbe  article  in  Chambers's  Encfcloprndia.) 
Fium  SD  early  period  in  the  htslor;-  of  the  Cbnrcb 
it  was  considered  a  pious  act  to  nuke  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  to  visit  the  various  spots 
which  tbe  Saviour  had  consecrated  by  bis  presence. 
When  Palestine  was  conquered  br  the  Arabs  In  tliu 
seventh  ceutnr}',  that  flerce  but  generous  people  re- 
spected the  religious  spirit  of  the  fdlgrims,  and  allow- 
ed them  to  build  a  church  and  a  bo>]Htal  In  JerunB- 
lem.  Under  the  Fatimtdes  of  Egypt,  who  conquered 
Syria  about  980  A,D.,  the  position  both  of  tbe  native 
Christian  residents  and  of  the  pilgrims  became  less  fa- 
vorable :  but  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  in  lITiS,  and 
the  subjugation  of  tbe  country  by  brutal  hordes  of 
SelJnk  Tutka  tnim  the  Caucasus,  rendered  It  intolera- 
ble. The  news  of  tbeir  atrocmet  produced  a  deep  sen- 
sation over  tbe  whole  of  Christendom,  and  kindled  a 
general  desire  for  the  litteration  of  the  Holy  Land  from 
the  bands  of  the  infidels.  Tbe  popes  enconraged  this 
movement  to  tbe  beat  of  tbeir  ability.  They  saw  in  it 
an  opportunity  to  extend  the  Church,  to  re-enforce 
tbeir  power,  and  to  turn  the  warlike  ardor  of  the  West- 
ern princes,  which  so  often  led  to  conflicts  between 
Church  and  State,  against  the  Infidels.  In  1073,  the 
Greek  emperor,  Hanuel  VII,  sent  to  snpplicata  the  as- 
sistance of  the  great  pc^n,  Gregory  VII,  aplust  the 
Turks,  accompanying  his  petition  with  many  expree- 
aioos  of  profound  respect  ftor  his  halinesa  and  tbe  Lat- 
in Church,  Gregory  cordially  rasponded,  Iwt  circum- 
stances prevented  bim  from  ever  carrying  tbe  vast  de- 
signs which  he  entertained  Into  execution.     The  idea 

Urban  II.  an  able  and  hunune  man,  whose  sympathies 
were  kindled  by  tbe  burning  seal  of  Peter  tbe  Uetmit, 
a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France,  who  had  made  a  \a\' 
grimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  wltiMSsed  tbe  cruelties  per- 
petrated by  tbe  Turks,  and  was  now  travereing  En- 
rope,  preaching  ever;  where  to  crowds  in  the  open  air. 
and  producing  the  most  extraordinary  enthoatasm  by 
his  impassioned  descriptions  ofhow  pilgrims  were  mur- 
dered, robbed,  or  beaten,  bow  shrines  and  boly  pUcet 
wen  desecrated,  and  how  nothing  but  greed  rwtnlnsd 
the  ruffian  Turks  (who  made  the  Christians  pay  heavy 
taxes  for  tbeir  visits  to  Jeruaalem)  from  destroyiog 
tbe  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  extirpating  every  vestige  of 
Christianity  in  tbe  land. 

fb$t  Cnuadt,  I0S6  1099 When,  by  tbe  addresses 

of  Peter  the  Hermit  and  others,  the  fcdlngs  of  Europe 
had  been  snffideotiy  healfld,  two  councils  were  faelil  in 
1090,  one  at  Piacenia,  in  Hay,  and  the  other  at  Cler- 
mont, In  France,  In  November,  lo  o^ianiie  the  war. 
At  tbe  seooDd,  at  Clermont,  a  crusade  was  deflnilely 
t«solvsdon.  Tlie  pope  himself  delivered  a  stlrrinitad- 
liress  to  a  vaM  multitude  of  clergy  and  U3'men,  and 
as  he  proceeded,  the  pent-up  emotions  of  the  crowd 
burst  forth,  and  criea  of  ^>evs  tW(  (God  wills  it)  rose 
simnltaiMonsly  ftxim  Iba  whole  audience.  These 
words.  Dm  'mil,  by  tbe  injunctbn  of  Urban,  were 
mode  the  war-cry  of  the  enterprise,  and  every  one  that 
embarked  In  itwore,  as  a  tiadge.tbe  sign  of  the  cross ; 
hence  the  name  Cnsode  (Fr.  crsuode,  from  Lat.  crux, 
a  cross).  From  all  parts  of  Europe  thonaands  upon 
thousands  hurried  at  the  auminona  of  the  pope  to  en- 
gage In  the  holy  war.  In  Hay,  1096,  the  crusade  was 
actually  began  by  an  nniUsciplined  force  of  about 
!0,000  foot,  commanded  by  a  Burgundlan  gentleman, 
Walter  the  Penniless.  Itmaiebed  through  Hungary, 
t  to  pieces  by  the  natives  at  Bulgaria,  only 
ng  whom  was  Walter  himself,  escaping  to 
Constantinople.  Thesecond,consistingof«J,no(1mea, 
women,  and  children,  woa  led  by  Peter  the  Hermit. 
It  fbUowed  the  same  route  as  It*  pradecesiwr.  and 
reached  Constantinople   gTBally  reduced.     Here  the 

defpal><d  by  the  Turka  it  Nice,  tbo  capital  of  Bithynia 


CRUSADES  51 

A  tbinl  gxpeditian  of  a  •imilir  kind,  compowd  of 
la.OOa  Germuia,  led  br  ■  prieiC  n&roed  GotUchllk, 
wu  gUughUred  or  diapeiwd  in  Hungary,  vhich  also 
proved  Uie  gnve  of  the  ftmrih,  a  tflrrible  hordes  con- 
■isting  of  ibont  300,000  wietchea  from  Fnnce,  Eng- 
land, Flitnden,  and  LorruDO,  vho  bid  swept  along 
through  (iirmany,  committing  honibla  ravogea,  upe- 
cially  BgHDst  tha  Jews,  whom  they  murdered  without 
mercy.  Now,  however,  the  real  Cntudsrs  made  their 
appearance — the  gentry,  the  yeomanry,  and  the  serfs 
of  feudal  Europe,  under  chiefa  of  the  firat  rank  and  re- 
nown. Six  armies  appeared  in  the  field,  marching 
separately,  and  at  conalderahle  intarrals  of  time. 
Their  respective  leaders  were  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
duke  of  LorruiDe  I  H  ugh  the  Great,  count  of  Verman- 
dois,  and  brother  of  Philippe,  king  of  France  ;  Kobert 
Cnrthose,  duke  of  Normandy,  the  son  of  William  the 
Conqueror ;  count  Robert  of  Flondeia  ;  Bohemond, 
prince  of  Tarentum,  aou  of  the  famoua  Guiifard,  un- 
der whom  was  Tancred,  the  favorite  hero  of  all  the 
biatoriaDaofthe  Cmsade;  and,  laetly,  count  Kaymond 
of  Toulouse.  The  place  of  reudeivous  was  Conatan- 
tinople.  The  Greek  emperor,  Ala:tlua,  afraid  that  so 
magnificent  a  host — there  were  in  all  not  less  than 
600,UOO  men,  exclusive  of  women  and  prieata — might 
be  induced  to  couquer  lands  for  thevadva,  cajoled  all 
the  leaders,  excepting  Tancred  and  count  Raymond, 
into  wlemnly  acknowledging  themselves  bis  liegemen. 
After  some  time  spent  in  feas^ng,  the  Crusaders  cross- 
ed into  Aaia  Minor  (acconipanied  by  the  unfortunate 
TeUr  the  HBrmil).  Here  theirtirst  step  was  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Nice,  the  capital  of  SuiUn  Soliman, 
June  31,  1097.  This  monarch  was  also  defeated  by 
Boheinond,  Tancred,  and  Godfrey,  at  Dorylsnm. 
Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey,  now  crossed  into  Meso- 
potamia, where  he  obtained  the  principality  ofEdesaa. 
After  some  time  the  Crusaden  reached  Syria,  and  laid 
«ege  to  Antioch,  For  seven  months  the  city  held 
out,  and  the  ranks  of  the  beaieger*  were  fearfully  thin- 
ned by  (amine  and  disease.  Many,  even  brave  wai> 
Ts.  lost  heart,  and  began  (o  deaert.    HeUncholy 


relati 


IS  the 


lO  had  planned  the  enterprise.  Fetei 
taally  several  miles  on  his  way  home  when  be  was 
overtaken  by  the  soldiers  ofTancred,  and  brought  back 
to  undergo  a  public  tepiimand.  At  length,  on  the  Bd 
of  June,  1098,  Antioch  waa  taken,  and  the  inhabitanta 
were  massacred  by  the  infuriated  Cmsaders,  who  were 
In  their  turn  besieged  by  an  army  of  300,000  Moham- 
medanB  sent  by  the  Persian  aultan.  Once  more  (am- 
ine and  pestilence  did  their  deadly  work.  Multitudes 
also  deserted,  and,  escaping  over  the  walls,  carried  the 
news  of  the  Md  condition  of  the  Christians  back  to 
Europe.  But  again  victory  crowned  the  eBbrta  of  the 
besieged.  On  June  2H,  1098,  the  Hohammedana  were 
utterly  routed,  and  the  way  to  Jerusalem  opened.  It 
was  on  a  bright  summer  morning  (1099)  that  40,000 
Crusaders,  the  miserable  remnant  of  that  vast  amy 
which  C«o  years  before  liad  laid  siege  to  Nice,  obtain- 
ed their  first  glimpse  of  Jeruulcm.  On  July  15,  after 
■  siege  of  rather  more  Ibsn  five  weeka,  the  grand  ob- 
ject of  the  expedition  was  realized.  Jerusalem  was 
delivered  from  the  hands  of  the  infidel.  Eight  days 
after  the  capture  of  tbe  city,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  waa 
iinaiiimniisly  elected  king  of  Jerusalem. 

Second  C'luaik.  1147 .—In  1114  tbe  principality  of 
Edesaa  waa  conquered  by  the  emir  of  Mosul,  and  the 
Christians  slaughtered.  '  His  son  N'oureddtn  advanced 
to  deatroy  the  Latin  kingdoms  of  Syria  and  Palestine- 
Europe  once  more  trembled  with  excitement.  A  see- 
■ond  crusade  waa  preached  by  the  bmoua  St.  Bernard, 
abbot  of  CIslri-aD.'t,  in  Champagne  ;  and  early  in  1147 

Ttl,  king  of  France,  and  Conrad  lit.  emperor  of  C.cr- ' 
many,  marched  for  the  Holy  Land.  Their  united 
numbers  were  estimated  at  1,200,000  fighlinE-men. 
The  e:tpedition,  nevertheless,  proved  a  total  failure. 


14  CRUSADES 

The  Graek  emperor,  Manuel  ComnenciB,  was  boatile; 
and  through  the  treachery  of  bis  emiMariea  the  army 
of  Conrad  waa  all  but  destroyed  by  the  Turks  near 
Iconiom,  while  that  of  Louis  was  wrecked  in  the  de- 
files of  the  I^idian  Mountains.  After  ■  vain  att«D|i 
to  reduce  at  flrst  Damascus  and  subsequently  Ajca- 
lon,  the  relica  of  this  mighty  host  returned  to  Eunipc. 
Tkird  Cnaadt,  llS9-im.— The  death-blow  to  tba 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  waa  given  by  Salah-Eddin. 
commonly  called  Saladin,  a  young  Kurdish  chief,  whe 
bad  madehimseif  aultan  of  Egypt,  and  who  ospred  to 
the  presidency  of  tbe  Hohammedin  world,  InOctsber. 
1187,  Jerusalem  itaelf  capitulating  after  a  siege  of 
fourteen  days.  The  news  of  this  led  to  a  third  cru- 
sade, the  chiefii  of  which  were  Frederick  I  (BaHstns- 
sa),  emperor  of  Germany,  Philippe  Augnate.  king  of 
France,  and  Richard  Cmr^t-lUm,  king  of  Enirlaad. 
Barbaroasa  took  the  field  lirat  in  the  spring  of  1189. 
but  Bcaidentnlly  loat  his  life  by  fever  caught  (ram 
tiathing  in  tbe  Oroutes.  Hia  army,  much  reduced, 
joined  the  forces  of  the  other  two  monarcbi  befbre 
Acre  (or  Ptolemaie),  which  important  city  waa  imme- 
diately beaieged,  and  after  a  beleaguering  of  twenty- 
three  months  surrendered.  But  the  Crusaden  wen 
not  united  among  themselves.  Pliilippe  soon  after 
returned  to  France ;  and  Richard,  after  accomplishing 
prodikiies  of  valor,  which  excited  the  adtniratjan  ui 
tbe  Saracens,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Sabdia,  by 
which  "  the  people  of  tbe  West  were  to  be  at  liberty 
to  make  pilgrimages  tn  Jerusalem,  exempt  from  the 
taxes  which  the  Saracen  princes  bad  in  former  tuuBi 
imposed."     On  October  !5, 1192.  Richard  set  sail  lor 

Fourth  Cnaadf,  1203.— [n  1203  a  fourth  expeditioB 
waa  determined  upon  by  pope  Innocent  III,  although 
the  condition  of  the  Chriatiana  was  by  no  means  such 
as  to  call  for  it.  It  assembled  at  Venice,  the  govern- 
ment orwhich  republic,  from  political  reasons,  prom- 
ised to  support  the  movenient  by  its  ntvy.  The  army 
never  went  tu  Palestine  at  all,  but  preferred  to  take 
poesesiion  of  the  Byiantine  empire.  TTie  leader  of 
this  boat  of  ptetuio-Criuadtrt,  Baldwin,  count  of  Flan- 
ders, was  seated  on  the  throne  of  the  East  in  1204, 
where  be  and  his  successora  maintained  tbemselvu 
for  fifty-ux  years.    Some  writers  do  not  number  this 

.peditlon  among  tbe  regular  cmsades,  bi 


the  1 


'  another 


n  1217,  which 


king  Andrew 
pope  Honorina  III  to  undertake.  He  was  supported 
liy  the  kings  of  Jerusalem  and  Cyprus,  conqneml  a 
fortress  on  Mount  Tabor  and  soma  imall  fort^  but  in 
1218  returned  home.  In  tbe  same  year  count  Willisn 
of  Holland,  being  allied  with  tlie  kings  of  Jemsalem 
and  Cyprus,  landed  in  Egi'pL  He  conquered  in  ]!U 
Uamletta,  but  in  1321  this  town  and  all  other  con- 
quests were  lost  again. 

Fi/Hi  Cratiuk,  li28-]229.— Tbia  was  commanded  by 
Frederick  II,  emperor  of  Germany.  It  begin  in  JiHf, 
and  terminaied  in  a  treaty  of  ten  yeaia  between  that 
monarch  and  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  by  which  Paleetine 
was  ceded  to  Frederick,  who,  after  being  crowned 
king  of  Jerusalem  In  1239,  returned  to  Europe,  leit' 
ing  his  new  poi-essions  in  a  state  of  tranquillitv. 

Sink  Cnuade,  1248.— In  1344  a  new  race  of  Tntb 
burst  into  Syria,  am!  once  more  the  Holy  Land  fell 
into  the  hands  of  these  ferodous  barbirians.  Jfroaa- 
lem  was  burned  and  pillaged.  In  1348,  LouU  IX  ef 
France  (St.  ].auis)  beaded  a  cmaade  against  them. 
At  the  head  of  40,000  soldiers  be  embarked  ftom  IV- 
jirua,  and  ftum  there  went  to  EgJ"pt.  conquering  ti« 
coast  and  the  town  of  Damietta,  but  when  he  idvsnced 
further  he  was  utterly  defeated,  md  taken  priscniTt^ 
the  sulian  of  Ejjvpt.  By  the  payment  of  a  large  n»- 
8om  he  obtained  his  liberty  (I^.  snd  thatoftbe  dha 


On  hi 


o  Rui 


CRUSADES  6 

dertakan  by  St-Loou,  but  be  luiviog  di»d  at  Tnnii  in 
1270.  OD  hii  way  to  Pilsstine,  prince  Edmrd  of  Eng- 
Und,  ■fMrwsnla  Ednrd  I,  who  bid  Driginally  intend- 
ed to  place  MmMlf  under  tbe  comnund  of  St.  Looia, 
■lurched  dinict  for  Palestine,  where  bli  ranli  and  rep- 
utation in  amu  gathered  round  him  all  vho  vere  will- 
ing u>  Aght  far  the  Crosa.  Nothing  of  conaequsnce, 
however,  was  accampluhed,  and  Edward  noon  re- 
tofnad  to  England,  the  last  of  the  Cruaaden.  Acre, 
Antiocb,  and  Tripoli  still  continaed  in  tbe  posmuion 
of  the  Chriitiana,  and  were  defended  lor  some  time  by 
the  Templars  and  other  military  knlghti ;  but  in  1291 
Acre  capitalated,  tbe  other  towns  Mwn  followed  its  ex- 
ample, and  the  knights  were  glad  to  qnit  the  conntiy, 
and  disperse  tbenuelvea  over  Earope  in  qneat  of  new 
employment,  leaving  FaleUine  in  the  imdiaturlwd  pos- 
aeaslDn  of  tbe  Sacacens. 

Since  that  time  there  have  been  no  further  cniaades, 
although  the  popes  have  more  than  once  attempted  to 
excite  the  Christians  to  tbe  undertaking.  Some  writ- 
era  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  tbe  popes,  under  this 
dcTice,  aimed  at  universal  power  over  the  kings  and 
armies  employed  in  their  service,  which  were  nnmer- 
oua,  because  a  plenary  indulgence  was  the  reward  of  a 
Cnuader.  The  Christian  princes  were  exhausted  in 
tbe  straggle,  while  the  pope  became  omnipotent  both 
over  clerg}-  and  people.  The  people  sold  their  proper- 
ty for  a  mere  trifle,  or  made  a  gift  of  it  to  monasteries 
and  abbeys.  It  Is  computed  that  nearly  two  millions 
of  Cbristiana  lost  their  lives  during  the  crusades  by 
alaughter,  hunger,  pestilence,  etc. 

It  is  impossible  to  overtook  the  fiict  that,  in  some 

auence  on  modem  society,  M.  Guiiot,  in  his  Lro- 1 
Aires  0*  Europam  CinluaUoTt,  endeavors  to  show  their 

"To  theflrst  chroniclers."  be  says,  " and  consequently 
to  the  first  Cniaaders.  of  Kbom  the;  are  but  tbe  e:i- 
pression,  Hohammedans  are  objects  only  of  hatred :  it 
is  erident  that  those  who  speak  of  ttaem  do  not  know 
them.  The  historiana  of  tbe  later  crusades  apeak 
quite  differently  :  it  ta  clear  that  they  look  upon  them 
no  longer  as  monsters;  that  they  have  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent entered  into  Ibelr  Ideas ;  that  tbey  have  lived 
with  them;  and  that  relations,  and  even  a  sort  of 
■rmpatbv,  have  been  eslablished  between  them." 
fhua  the  minds  of  both,  but  particularly  of  the  Cru- 
sadera,  were  partly  delivered  firom  those  prejudices 
which  are  the  offspring  of  ignorance.  "A  atep  was 
taken  towards  tbe  enfranchisement  of  the  human 
mind."  Secondly,  the  Crusader*  were  brought  Into  '. 
contact  with  two  clviliiations,  richer  and  more  ad-  j 
vanced  than  tbelr  own — the  Greek  and  the  Saracenic; 
and  it  is  beyond  all  queaUon  that  they  were  mightily 
struck  with  the  wealth  and  comparative  refinement  of 
tbe  East.  Thirdly,  the  close  relationship  between  tbe 
chief  laymen  of  the  West  and  the  Church  occaaioned 
by  tbe  cniaadea  enabled  the  former  "  to  inspect  more 
narrowly  tbe  policy  and  motives  of  tbe  papal  court." 
Tbe  result  was  very  disaatrons  to  that  aiurit  of  ven- 
eration and  belief  on  wbicb  the  Cburcb  lives,  and  in 
many  casaa  an  extraordinary  freedom  of  Judgment 
and  hardihood  of  otdnion  were  Induced,  aucb  aa  Eu- 
rope had  never  befbre  dreamed  of.  Fourthly,  great 
social  changes  were  bmugbt  about.  A  commerce  be- 
tween the  Eaat  and  West  aprang  up,  and  towns— the 
early  homea  of  liberty  in  Europe — began  to  grow  great 
and  powerful.  The  crusades,  indeed,  "  gave  niarilime 
commerce  the  atrongcst  impulse  it  had  ever  received." 
As  the  croaadea  were  a  rising  of  the  Christian  nations 
of  Europe  to  the  triumph  of  the  Chnrch  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  popes,  they  natnnUy  give  a  pow- 
erful influence  to  the  hi^rsrchicnl  plans  of  the  po|ies. 
Tbe  emperorsand  kings,  by  Itollowing  tbe  exhortations 
of  the  popea  and  l.iktng  tlie  ^^»^  acknowledged  the 
claims  of  the  pnpf  thnt  the  eccleiiHaticsl  power  wae 
higher  than  the  secular.     Ai  the  popes  did  not  perEuin- 


15  CRUSE 

ally  Join  the  crusades,  but  were  represented  by  le- 
gates, the  ayatem  of  papal  legateawaa  developed,  which 
became  in  tbe  hands  of  tbe  popes  a  powerful  weapon 
for  curtailing  the  JuTisdictioD  of  archbishope  and  blah- 
ope.  The  origin  of  bishops  in  parlibuj  infiddiujn  can 
also  be  traced  to  tbe  crusades.  The  raising  of  Im- 
mense armies  was  a  good  pretext  for  the  popes  to  ex- 
tort large  sums  of  money  from  princes  and  nations. 
The  warlike  enthusiasm  against  the  Mohainmedaaa 
kindled  the  popular  fanaticism  against  all  heretics,  and 
stimulated  the  bloody  peraecutiona  of  tbe  Calhari, 
Waldensea.  and  other  sects  in  Western  Europe. 

The  Inaoence  of  the  crusades  upon  acientilic  the- 
ology was  only  Indirect.  The  better  acquaintance 
with  the  philosophical  and  theological  literature  of  the 
Greek  Church  and  the  Mohammedans  could  but  yield 
a  favorable  influence.  In  particular,  the  study  of 
Aristotle  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  crusades,  and 
several  of  hia  works  were  (hen  flrat  made  known  in 
the  weatern  countries  of  Europe.  See  Chambers,  Qf 
clofurdia,  t.  V,;  Brockhaus,  ClmiteriiiMofu-Z^z.  ix,  76; 
CkriMtian  Jtememlirancrr,  xliv,  5  ;  Herzog,  BeaUEacji. 
ilcp.  viii,  68  :  Mosbcim,  CAurcA  IlUtory,  ii,  112,  141, 
233,  etc. ;  tlilman,  Latin  CkritHamts,  vol.  iv ;  Wilken, 
CwAioUsilerKreHu^  (Uipa.  1807-26, 1  vols.):  Hi- 
chaud,  BiHoirt  da  CriAiada  (Paris,  1^5;  translated 
by  Robson,  London,  3  vols.  ISmo,  1854);  Hills,  Hit- 
lory  n/  (Ae  Crmaittt  (Lend.  1828,  4th  ed.  2  vols.  8vo)i 
Keightlev,  rAtCmsoifci  (London,  1847,  2  vols.  12mo); 
Hume,  fiittory  of  Englmd,  1.  226  et  al. ;  ii,  60  et  al. ; 
Hase,  C&.  Hilt.  p.  196,  220,  2B9 ;  Sybel,  GackicSle  da 
tntra  Kreaiaigti  (Leipaic,  1S41) ;  Kngler,  Sluditn  star 
GackichU  da  taeilen  Kreutiagtt  (StuUgaidt.  1806). 
riters  on  the  subject  is  given  by  Micbaud, 
BiHiMluqiir  dtt  C^vwodei  (Paris,  1830,  4  vols.). 

CnMO.  This  now  obeolele  English  word  denotes 
a  small  vessel  for  holdinx  water  or  other  liquids. 
Three  Hebrew  words  are  thus  translated  in  the  A,  V. 
See  Ccp. 

1.  r.ngs,  UappaiA'alA  (lit,  aometblng  tprtad  oui), 
is  applied  to  a  utenail  (usually  considered  ajliut.bnt 
more  probably  a  shallow  cup)  lor  holding  water  (1 
Sam.  xxvi,  It,  12. 16 ;  1  Kings  six,  6)  or  oU  (1  lUngs 
ivii,  12,14,16).  Some  clew  to  tbe  nature  of  this  ves- 
sel is  perhaps  afforded  by  its  mention  as  being  full  of 
water  at  tbe  head  of  Saul  when  on  bis  night  expedi- 
tion after  Daiid  (I  Sam.  xxvi,  II.  12, 16),  and  also  of 
Elijah  (1  Kings  xix,C).  In  a  similar  case  in  the  pres. 
ent  day  this  would  be  a  globular  vessel  of  blue  porous 
*ie  ordinary  Gaia  pottery — about  nine  inches 
r,  with  a  neck  of  alxiut  three  inches  long,  a 
small  handle  below  the  neck,  and  opposite  tbe  handle 
a  straight  spout,  with  an  oridce  about  tbe  siie  of  a 
straw,  through  which  the  water  Is  drunk  or  sucked. 
The  form  Is  common  also  in  Spain,  and  will  be  famil- 
iar to  many  ttam  pictures  of  Spanish  life.  A  similar 
globular  vessel  probably  contained  th£  oil  of  the  wid- 
ow of  Zarepbath  (1  Kjnga  x^-il,  12,  14,  16).  For  the 
"box"  or  "horn"  in  wbicb  the  conaecrated  oil  was 
carried  on  special  occasions,  see  Oil.  Some  writers 
have  supposed  that  the  cruse  of  water  mentioned  in 
the  first  passage  (when  Saul's  life  was  spared  by  Da- 
vid) was  a  ctrp/fdm,  or  one  of  those  water-watch 
measures  used  by  the  ancienta,  by  which  time  waa 


CRUSE 


id  bj  the  taXUTig  at  water  from  one  tukI  into ' 
another,  the  undennogt  vessel  contaitiiDg  a  piece  of  ' 
cork,  the  differeot  altitude*  of  which,  ae  it  graduallv 
nse  npoa  the  ri»iiit;  water,  marked  the  progies*  (^ 
time.  But  we  can  hardly  sappose  that  each  time- 
meaeuraB  were  linown  at  that  early  period.  It  is 
usual  for  persons  in  the  East  in  the  present  daj,  when 
they  travel,  to  lake  with  thain  a  flaik  for  holding  wa- 
ter, aiid  also,  when  thoy  sleep  in  the  open  air,  to  have 
a  imall  vessel  of  water  within  their  reach  (Thomson, 
Land  and  Boot,  li,  21).  These  Gaiks  an  of  vatious 
furms,  aud  are  sometimea  covered  with  a  wicker^ase, 
S«e  Dish. 

'2.  p!|2pa,  ftoBitt' (ftom  the  ^r;;^!!^  soand  in  emp- 
tying), perhaps  a  bottle  (an  it  is  traoslated  in  Jer.  zii, 
1,1V)  for  holding  any  liquid,  as  baoey  (1  Kiagt  xiv, 
3),  but  more  probalily  a  i-itcheh  (q.  v.). 

B.  r^nVs,  iKlochili'  {llL  that  ioto  which  fluids  are 
paartd  out),  tplaller  (i  Kings  ii,  20).  This  wa*  prob- 
alily a  flat  metal  saucer  of  the  Torni  still  common  in 
theEast.  It  occurs  in  2Kingsii,  20,"crusa)"  xxi, 
18,  "dish;"  2  Chron.  iixv,  18,  "pap;"  also  Prov. 
xix,  34 ;  xxvi,  IS.  where  the  figure  is  obscured  by  the 
choice  of  the  word  "bosom."    See  Pax;  Flatter, 


Cnud,  Chbibtiah  F.,  D.p.,  a  minuter  of  the  Prot- 
estant  Episcopal  Cbnrch,  was  bom  June  27, 1794,  in 
Philadelphia,  of  Lutheran  parentags.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Pennsyivaniain  1812,  and  giaduatod  Jan. 
10, 1816,  with  diitjngaished  honors.  He  was  appoint- 
ed profeWKir  in  the  Univemity  in  1881,  and  resigned  in 
less,  lie  was  ordained  by  bishop  White  about  1822 ; 
became  rector  of  Trinity  Parish,  Fishkill,  N.Y.,  in 
April,  1S46,  but  resigned  the  cure  in  18&1,  and  after- 
wards had  no  parish.  He  soon  after  removed  to  the 
General  Theological  Seminar}',  where,  ai  librarian,  he 
hod  ample  opportunities  for  those  studies  in  which  he 
was  so  successfnl.  In  the  ancient  languages— Syriac, 
Hebrew,  and  Greek— Dr.  Crasi  was  very  well  inform- 
ed. He  translated  and  edited  Ensebius's  CAurck  Hi*- 
lory,  and  his  edition  is  the  best  In  English.  He  died 
in  New  York  October  &,  IWfi.— CAurcA  Anin,  Janua- 
ry, 1666. 

Cnwliu,  CBBisrrAii  AnoroT,  a  German  tbeoln- 
^n,  was  bom  at  Lenna,  near  Herseborg,  January  10, 
1715.  He  studied  at  Leipilc,  where  he  afterwards  be- 
cB'.re  proftoaHr  of  philosophy  In  1744.  of  theology  in 
1750,  and  primarlns  of  tbeologr  in  17S7.  He  died 
Octolier  IB,  1775.  Dissatisfled  with  the  existing  phil- 
osophical systems,  he  aCtem[Md  a  new  one,  which  be 
•ought  to  taring  into  harmony  with  orthodox  theology. 
The  Khool  which  he  represenl«d  In  Leipiig  may  be 
designaled  by  the  name  oT  a  Philosophico-Biblical 
Realism.  As  a  philosopher,  be  was  one  oftbe  most 
important  opponents  of  the  idealism  and  mechanism 
of  the  Ixiibn ill- Wolffian  phlloiviphy,  while,  as  a  Bible 
theologian,  be  maintained  the  historical  and  literal  as 
opposed  to  an  esciusively  spiritoalistlc  exegesis.  In 
nora'i  "he  drew  hie  conclusions,  not  from  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  intellect,  but  the  suggestions  of  the 
will  and  conscience.  He  derived  the  notion  of  duty 
from  moral  necessity  or  abligatiom.  He  asserted  the 
free-agency  of  the  human  mind  (which  he  contempla- 
ted principally  in  a  negative  point  of  view,  i.  e.as  nn- 
InSucnced  by  physical  or  msteriul  laws),  and  devel- 
oped the  formal  conditions  of  our  free-will  actions  and 
the  motives  of  [hem.  The  principle  of  a  moral  law 
led  him  In  that  of  a  moral  Governor  and  Legislator, 
and  consequently  to  the  hypothesis  which  ascribes  all 
moral  »bli)!ations  and  laws  (o  the  divine  authority, 
deducing,  as  the  schoolmen  had  done,  the  principles 
of  motsis  fiom  the  will  of  God.  That  which  is  con- 
sistent with  the  nature  of  the  divine  perf^tions,  and 
accords  with  the  design!'  of  God,  is  ftiu-t,  nnd  becomes 
obllKBtor)-  on  all  ratinnol  lieinns.  Cod  demands  of 
his  rational  creation,  in  the  lirst  place,  that  they  should 


«  CRYPT 

be  good ;  and  alio  wills  their  hippbieH  as  a  c<iai*c> 

qoence  of  virtue"  (Tennemann).  His  principal  worki 
an  :  Ijigik  o.  d.  Wcg  i.  6'wBi'irViJ  a.  ZmtHaimfftrit  d, 
mmidUieiea ErhnMaiu (Lpi.  1747 ;  2d  ed.  1762;;  A'lsr- 
maf  d.  matiKotdiffai  lenuH/liniirAsMt  <Lpa,  17*6: 
8ded.I7eE);  Aiiiiieutmg,i>enti)m/l!g  t.Uhm(l.pt.l74t: 
3ded.i;67):  Aiilatm^,i.niMrikJie  BrgitiaJkiten  or- 
dmUiek  u,  Boniclaig  maehtudinJlai  (Lpi.  1749. 2  vole., 
1772);  JSrgr^d.cArvtlkitit  iroralllla>logiel\,pi.l772, 
2  vols.).  See  merer,  Univmal-Leziion,  *.  v.i  Kah- 
nis,  German  Protatamtum  (Edinh.  1856.  I2dm>.  p.  107u 
Delitasch,  Die  hibUA-propluluckt  Theaiogit,  tin  ForU 
bUdmg  dureh  Ckr.  Crunu,  etc  (Lpi.  1845);  Tenne- 
mann,  JCoho/  Hitl.  Plai.  g  868. 

Ciyer,  TnoxAs,  a  Wesleyan  missionaiy  of  ran  pi- 
ety and  Dsefniness,  was  l»m  at  Kngley,  In  Torkshin. 
in  ISOO.  At  20  he  was  converted,  and  wu  called  int» 
the  ministry  about  seven  voars  alter,  and  labored  for  a 
few  months  in  an  Englisb  circuit.  He  waa  then  ap- 
pointed a  missionary  to  India,  and  embarked  for  that 
country  in  1829.  For  22  years  he  labored  for  the  ssl- 
vation  oftbe  heathen,  and  his  name  will  be  long  re- 
membered in  the  East,  In  spite  of  oppoaitioii  aikd 
of  the  long  delay  of  prosperity,  which  Is  the  great 
and  peculiar  trial  of  the  Eastern  misslonarr — in  spite 
of  the  moat  acute  personal  and  family  anictione,  his 
heart  was  undaunted  and  his  faith  unsniidned.  Few 
of  his  fellow-mlHionaries  excelled  him  in  power  of  ut- 
terance, in  the  adroitness  and  effect  witti  which  be  ex- 
posed the  sophisms  oftbe  Brahmin,  or  in  searching  and 
persuasive  appeals  to  the  conscience.  He  "detemined 
to  know  nothing  but  Christ  and  him  cnidfied."  Such 
a  minister  conid  liardly  fail  of  winning  souls ;  and 
many  will  be  tbe  crown  of  his  rejoicing  In  the  day  of 
Jesus  Christ,  not  only  tioiD  among  the  native*  nf  In- 
dia, bat  also  fWim  among  tbe  Europeans  reddeni  in 
that  country.  He  died  of  cholera,  October  6,  l?b-i.— 
Walegm  Minula,  185S. 

CrTpt  (Gr.  apuirn),  a  cataaltd  placs ;  Lat.  crtfta  ; 
Yi.trypU). 

I.  Among  the  ancient  Gtveks  and  Bomaoa  a  nyft 
was  primarily  a  long,  narrow  gallery,  alwve  the  level 
of  the  ground,  surrounding  a  court-yard,  and  having 
wall*  on  both  of  its  sides,  with  windows  In  the  wall  tic-  . 
ing  tlie  court  Those  crypta  had  often  a  portico  iining 
them  or  running  iietween  them  atid  the  open  conit. 
They  served  as  a  place  of  promenade  during  tbe  hot  tf 
wet  weathar,  and  wen  finally  so  extensively  naed  that 
they  were  even  built  for  the  officers  near  the  Prvtotiaa 
camp*  In  Rome.  Crypts  fimilai  In  constmction  and 
location  were  built  for  storing  wines,  vegetables,  and 
other  articles,  like  tlia  modem  subterraiwan  cellar. 
Whan  all  the  windows  wen  dosed  tbey  were  dark  and 
oool,  and  hence  the  word  was  applied  even  by  tbe  oa- 
cieuta  to  any  dark  and  long  cbainlier  or  paseage,  as  lbs 
dork  stables  where  hones  wen  kept  under  tbe  amphi- 
theatre, the  duooa  HOBna  at  Rome,  the  tunnel  at 
Naples,  and  to  a  grotlo  where  Quartill*  offiETed  aocri- 
flce. 

II.  Tbe  word  trypt  was  applied  by  tbe  early  Chris- 
tians (o  those  aubtemiueaE)  burial-placea  which  were 
afterwards  called  Catacombs  (q.  v.).  The  term  wit  la- 
ter limited  to  the  larger  cbambers  in  the  Catanmla 
when  one  or  more  martyrs  were  burled.  Tbeoe  crypts 
were  larger  than  the  other  rooms  in  the  Catacombe,  sud 
were  often  ornamented,  and  devoted  to  divine  worship. 
For  thii  purpose  they  wen  doable,  one  part  aervlDg 
for  the  men  and  tbe  other  fbr  tbe  women,  witb  imsll 
antechambers  for  the  catechumens.  Some  of  tbae 
crypts  had  openings  into  the  fields  above. 

III.  When  persecution  ceased,  and  Chriitians  biill 
chureh  edlflcfS  above  ground,  the  custom  wot  adofited 
cif  placing  the  rematna  of  martj'rs — later  of  ■ivliliiab- 
ops,  liisbnps.  aliliols,  and  other  high  church  official*— in 
crypts  nnder  tbe  Intersection  nf  the  crow  in  the  pliti 
of  the  church.      In  the  BsFillcan  period  of  archilertin 


CRYPTO-CAL.  CONTROVERSY   5»7 


CRYSTAL 


Hmc  erypta  were  often  called  by  the  nune  cmftma.  \ 
In  tbe  KaoMDuqae  period  tha  name  CT3'pt  wna  re- 
■umed.  la  tbs  chnrchsa  of  this  period,  tbe  crjpt  eX'  I 
tended  under  the  high  altar  and  liKk  under  the  entire 
cboir  or  apeii,  ■omMime*  even  inelndlng  the  epace  un- 
der the  truiMpt.  Thii  crrpt  furmed  aloiDirt  ■  aeparate  | 
charcb,  and  caoied  the  Door  above  It  of  the  main  body  . 
<rflhe  cbnrchtob*  railed  higher  than  that  of  the  aara, 
to  which  tbe  aadieDM  bad  accMi.  Cbunbu  founded  ' 
In  tbe  Utter  part  of  the  Romanesque  period,  and  there-  I 
after,  had  no  crrpta.  Tha  reaion  of  thdr  diaappear-  ; 
ante  from  chnn^  architecture  it  not  well  undentood. 
— Labke,  Guduekt*  der  AnUtttHir;  Kkh,  DieHimary  ' 
o/ Greet  and  BomaitAntiqiiilM. 

Ci3rpto-Galvliil*tlo  Controreray,  the  ^ume  : 
given  to  a  dlapaU  within  tin  Lathenn  Church  of  Ger- 
many (IMS-IBT'I)  concerning  tbe  doctrine  of  tbe  Lord'a 
Sapper.  Thefhllowera  of  tbe  Uelancthonian  doctrine.  I 
a*  d  latin  .luiahed  from  tbe  strict  Lutherana,  were  ityled  | 
Crypt  t-Gilrmitli  (alia  Pfailiptnata,  Helancttaoalaaa).        . 

1.  Melanctbon,  it  la  well  known,  earaeatly  desbed 
a  anion  of  (be  LJitberan  and  Calviniatlc  division*  of  | 
tbe  Proteatant  body.  Hla  tendency  towatda  the  Cal- 1 
viniitlc  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  early  «hown  In  I 
the  difference  between  the  Aoi^bui^  Confeeaio  invnri.  j 
ala  (loSO)  and  the  mriala  (JoAi).  In  the  former,  art.  , 
X,  dt  ama  Damiiti,  it  la  stated  that  the  "liody  and  \ 
blood  of  Chriat  are  truly  present  In  the  Lord's  Supper 
{in  tbe  form  ofbread  and  wine),  and  are  there  diatri1>-  ' 
ntedandreoelved(dlatribiinntur(i«wit(>iu9):  therefore! 
tbeopposlte  doctrine  la  rejected."  In  tbei>arMI(a(Lat-  | 
in  of  1540)  tho  raading  Is  "nan  panr  el  vino  sere  exhi- 
bemhir  corpus  et  sanguis  Cbristi  vsKentlbug  in  ccens  j 
Domini."  The  condemnation  of  tbe  ''opposite  doc-  | 
trine,"  U  e.  tbe  Zwinglian.  Is  omitted.  This  altera-  . 
tion  did  not  meet  the  approbation  of  Lutber,  nbo  nev- 
ertheless t4ilerated  Melanrthoa'a  change  of  doctrine. 
But  many  Lutherans  (e.  g.  Flaciua,  q.  v.)  were  leas  I 
tolerant;  and  during  Ualanctbon'a  lifetime  he  waa  I 
bpid  by  many  to  tie  a  concealed  (crypto-)  Calviaist.  , 
The  truth  seems  to  be  fairly  stated  by  Ilaae,  an  Al- 
lows;  "As  Helancthon  was  convinced  that  neither 
Lather's  nor  Calvin's  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  was  I 
an  Insuperable  bar  to  saving  commanlon  with  Christ,  I 
>  be  thought  be  might  allow  twlb  of  them  to  continue  | 
in  tbe  Church.  Bat  when  the  doctrine  of  the  omnl-  ^ 
preaence  of  Christ's  body  (ubiquity,  q.  v.)  was  pro- 
posed aa  tha  only  aaving  lasLa  of  the  Holy  Supper,  i 
and  nuda,  by  Brenta  (see  Brb-Ttius),  tbe  law  of  (he 
Chorcfa  in  Wttrteoiherg,  be  expressed  disapprobation 
of  such  novel  doctrines  in  provlncbil  Ijitin  being  In- 
troduced into  tbe  aymbola  of  futfa"  (Ctarci  Hiiiary, 
f  S50).  HaUactbon  and  Lutlier  never  qoarrelled  oa 
tbe  subject;  but  the  controverxy,  even  daring  Helanc- 
tbon's  lifetiine,  began  ta  be  bitter.  He  did  not  live, 
however,  to  Me  the  Ijerce  strife  which  finally  arose  on  I 
the  subject  within  the  bosom  of  the  Cbarch  (died  | 
IMO).  I 

3.  Bat  the  controversy,  as  tnch,  began  in  tbs  year 
1&5S,  when  Joachim  Weatphal,  a  preacher  In  Ham-  I 
burg,  proclaimed  the  Calvinlstic  doctrine  of  tbe  Lard's  i 
Supper  heretical.  The  controversy  was  especially 
violent  at  Bremen,  between  Tilemann  lieahusius  anil  | 
All>ert  Hardenlierg.  cathedral  preacher,  who  scted  for 
the  Calviniatic  doctrine,  and  it  went  dd  until  Ilanlen-  | 
\vTg  was  diamlsaed  from  hia  paaition.  Shortly  after  i 
Heshosins  shared  a  like  fate.  In  I&38  Heehnsius  was  i 
made  general  superintendent  at  Heidellwrg,  and  be  ' 
»on  delaeted"Crypto-Calviniam"  in  deacon  Witbelm  | 
Kreblti.  In  both  cities  Lutheranism  was  finally  ex-  I 
pflled,  and  Frederick  III,  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  ' 
went  over  to  the  Reformed  Church.  In  WOrteminrn  i 
Brenta  urged  the  ultra-Lutbeian  dortrine  (see  abo\-e)  ;  i 
but  Chris^b,  duke  of  WOrtembarg,  endeavored  to  a1-  ! 
lay  the  atrife.  and  Anally  sacceeded,  in  1561,  at  the  j 
FOrMentag  (Diet  of  Princes)  at  Nanmburg,  In  ohuln- 
iagthe  rscoi^itli'Ti  of  then/trmf  Au^burgConfpssion.  I 


The  elector  Frederick  III  of  tbe  Palatinate  wHhdrear 
titna  the  controversy,  and  Introduced,  In  I56S,  in  Ua 
dominkmi  a  mixed  doctrine  of  Melancthonlan  tenden- 
cy, by  the  incorporation  of  the  Heidelberg  Calechiam 
Into  the  state  law. 

In  the  Saxon  electorate  tbe  WitUnberg  and  L«ip- 
■Ig  theologiana  undertooli  a  like  combination  of  tbe 
doctrines.  Kaspar  Peucer,  son-in-law  of  Melanctbon, 
Cracow,  Schaii,  and  SlOsael ;  G.  Uajor,  P.  Eber,  Paul 
Crell,  and,  Uler,  P,  Cruclger,  Peael,  Holler,  and  oth- 
era,  la  their  writings,  and  also  in  the  well-known  Kat- 
ecbesit,  favored  the  view,  and  these  MeUncth»nian 
theologiana  wen  colUd  Philippiata.  Tbe  Thuringian 
theologians  In  Jcoa,  espscislly  Flaciua,  olao  Wlgsnd, 
CSlestrin,  Kirchner.  and  others,  were  strict  Lnthi^rans, 
and  bitterly  opposed  the  electorate  Saxons.  A  con- 
ference between  the  Wittenberg  and  Jena  Iheologiins 
was  held  at  AlCeBhnrg(Octaber,  IMS,  to  Uan!b,1669X 
in  which  very  intemperate  accusations  were  mads 
agalnat  the  Phillppists.  The  rupture  WBs  widened. 
Tbe  electoral  duke  Auguslua  of  Saxony  called  bb  the- 
ologians together  in  Dresden  on  tbe  T-lDlh  of  October, 
1571.  Tbey  agreed  upon  tha  Coruaaai  Drttdmrii  and 
the  WiOmttrg  Ca/Kitun,  which  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  ubiquity,  but  used  Lutheran  Isnguage  in  moderate 
terms,  Melancthonian  In  spirit ;  for  the  time  It  was 
thought  that  the  strife  was  ended.  But  In  1574  ap- 
peared an  anonymona  work  entitled  Kagttit  pertpieaa 
il  ftrme  inltgra  coatrovenur  de  Morra  cana,  which 
strongly  advocated  the  Calvlnistk  view  of  the  Sap> 
per.  (It  has  been  shown  by  Heppe,  GtteUchle  dti 
deiitKh.  Prot.  ii,  4GS,  that  this  work  was  written  by 
the  physician  Joacblm  Cureua  [died  I&T8],  and  was 
not  originally  intended  tor  pnblicsrion.)  Tbe  work 
caused  a  bitter  renewal  nf  Uie  controversy,  and  the 
elector  determined  to  suppress  Calvinism,  and  he  de- 
posed or  imprisoned  the  leaders,  and  commanded  sub- 
scription to  tlie  Cont^lon  of  Torgan  (May,  157*). 
Peucer  was  Imprlaooed  for  twelve  years.  In  1586  the 
elector  died^  and  his  son,  Christian  I,  succeeded  him. 
Chancellor  Nicolas  Crell  (q.  v.)  and  others  influenced 
him  to  favor  the  Calvlnistic  view.  After  his  death, 
the  dnke  Frederick  WUIUm  of  Saxe-Weimar,  who 
waa  regent,  put  down  Phlllp)dsm  by  brute  force,  even 
executing  Crell  in  1601.  See  LOscher,  Bilor.  motu- 
lOB,  1728;  Heppe,  GrtcUelOe  du  deultchen  Pnlatamt. 
ii»nu,185S,  2  vols. ;  ZnUe*r./.  d.  tfM.  T)ivA.  18S6,  Iv; 
Gieseler,  Chan*  IlUlory  (Smith's),  Iv,  §  37,  88 ;  Gaaa, 
Getdtkhle  d.  pm.  T/iiol.  1, 68  sq. ;  Hagenl>acb,  Hi'iUnj 
f/Dctiritin,^2]b;  Henog,  ftmt£»fjr«,^.  viii,  127. 

Ciystal.  There  are  several  words  whlrh  appear  to 
have  this  meaning  in  the  Bible.     See  Ice  ;  Peakl. 

1.  rnp,  ite'rocA  (properly  ice,  as  it  Is  rendered  Job 
vl,  18;  xxxviii,  29;  "fTost,"  Gen.  xxii,  40;  Job 
xxxvii.in;  Jer.iixvl.SO;  Sept.  epiWoAAoc),  occurs 
in  Ezek.  1, 23,  where  tbe  epithet "  terrililc"  seems  to  be 
ailded  by  way  of  distinction  from  tha  ordinaiy  signifi- 
cation of  tbe  word. 

2.  lr"3),  jJiKji' (properly  ice;  Sept.  /a/Ji'c),  occurs 
only  in  Job  Kxvlii,  IB,  where  it  u  rendered  "  pearls" 

3.  r^33:*.  vhJMy  (lit-  what  is  pure  or  transpa- 
rent; Sept.  (■nXot),  occurs  only  in  Job  xvili,  17,  where 
some  regard  it  as  denoting  ^osr. 

4.  Kfti'"TnXAoc(prop.ice)orcur»inRev.  iv.  fi:  xjtl, 
II ;  xxll,  1.  evidently  In  the  sennc  of  rrgiUd.  and  In 
such  connections  aa  to  identify  it  lu  a  good  degree 
with  the  preceding  terms. 

•'  Crysul  was  anciently  held  to  he  only  pare  water, 
congealed  hv  sreat  length  of  time  into  ice  harder  than 
the  common  (Diod.  Sic,  ii,  BS :  Plin.  llitt. «,(.  xsxvil, 
i\  and  hence  the  Greek  word  for  It.  in  its  more  proper 
Mi;nifi cation,  also  signifies  ice.  Finm  this  it  necessa- 
rily followed  that  crystal  could  mily  be  produced  in 
the  regions  of  perpetual  ice,  and  this  was  accordingly 
the  ancient  l-c11ef ;  bnt  we  now  know  that  It  Is  found 


CUBIT  51 

Id  tba  warmest  regioBS.  Tbeophrutiu  (54)  reckons 
crysul  among  the  pellacid  stonei  ased  br  eagraved 
seals,  la  common  parlance  we  apply  th«  lenn  eryital 
(«B  the  ancienu  apparent]}'  did)  to  a  gla»-llke  trans- 
parent atone,  commonly  of  a  hexagonal  fornix  which, 
from  being  foond  in  rocks,  is  called  by  mineralogists 
racl[-«ryBtal.  It  la  a  stone  of  (he  flint  family,  the 
most  retined  kind  of  quartz."    See  Ulass. 


lA',  lit.  R 


it  has  varied  in  different 


Cubit  (in  Heh.  HQK, 
the  arm,  the^i«-arm ;  Greek  Jrljxvs,  an  ell)  is  a  word 
derived  immediately  ^m  the  Latin  cJttilna,  '*     ^ 
arm.     The  length  of  tho      '  -  '  '  "  ' 

nations  and  at  different  times.  Uerived  as  the  meas- 
ure is  from  a  part  of  the  hmiian  body,  and  as  the  hu- 
man stature  has  been  of  very  dissimilar  length,  the 
cubit  must  of  necessity  have  been  various.  The  low- 
er arm,  moreover,  may  take  in  the  entire  length  from 
the  elbow  tu  the  tip  of  the  third  cr  longest  finger,  or  it 

ly  to  the  root  of  the  baud  at  the  jnist,  omitting  the 
whole  length  uf  the  band  itself.  If  the  definition  of 
Celsus  (viii,  I)  is  taken,  and  the  cubit  is  identified  with 
the  uiou,  the  under  and  longer  of  the  two  bones  of 
which  the  arm  consists,  still  a  fixed  and  Invariable 
measure  is  not  gained.  That  the  cubit  among  the  He- 
brewa  was  derired  as  a  measure  from  (he  human  body 
is  clear  from  Deut.  iii,  11 — "after  the  cubit  of  a  man" 
(U-X  n:3X,  see  BOttcher,  Proten  able4l.  Schrijt.  p. 
288).  But  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  (his  cu- 
bit was  understood  as  extending  (o  the  wrist  or  the 
end  of  the  third  flnger.  Ae,  however,  the  latter  seems 
most  natural.  Bin ce  men.  when  Ignorant  of  anatomy, 
and  seeking  in  their  own  frames  standards  of  measure, 
were  liliel}'  to  take  both  the  entire  foot  and  the  entire 


.rubabilit 


t  the  lonfi 


nely,  the  length  from  the  elbow  to 
tne  extremity  of  the  longest  finger.  The  Egyptian 
cubit,  which  it  ia  likely  the  Hebrews  would  adopt,  con- 
sisting of  six  hand-breadtbs,  ia  found  on  the  ruins  of 
Memphis  (Journal  dri  Saanu,  1822,  Nov.,  Dec. ;  comp. 
Herod,  ii,  149).  The  Rabbins  aUo  (Hisbna,  Chrlim, 
xvii,  9)  assign  six  haad-breadths  to  the  Mosaic  cubit. 
By  comparing  Josephus(i4ii(.  iii,  6, 6)  withExod,  xxv, 
10,  it  will,  moreover,  be  found  that  the  weight  of  his 
authority  is  in  the  same  scale.  According  to  him,  a 
cubit  is  equal  to  two  spans.  Now  a  span  is  equal  to 
three  hand-breadthi  (Schmidt,  Bibl.  Uathtmal.  p.  117  ; 
Elsen-Schmldt,  i>i!  PimderHiut,  p.  IID);  a  cubit,  there- 
fore, is  equal  to  six  hand-breadths.  The  hand-breadth 
is  found  as  a  measure  In  1  Kings  vii,  26 ;  comp.  Jer. 
Iii,  21.  In  the  lattei  passage  the  fiuger-hreadth  is  an- 
other measure.  The  span  also  occurs  £xod.  xxvlii, 
16.  So  that,  it  appears,  measures  nf  length  were,  for 
the  most  part,  twirowed  by  the  Hebrews  Irom  members 
of  the  human  body.  Still  no  absolute  and  invariable 
standard  presents  itself.  If  the  question.  What  is  a 
hand  or  finger-breadth  ?  be  asked,  the  answer  can  be 
only  an  approximation  to  fact.  If,  however,  the  palm 
or  band-l^adth  be  taken  at  S^  Inches,  then  the  cubit 
will  amount^  31  lncbe>.  In  addition  to  the  common 
cuhii,  the  Egyptians  hadalonKer  one  of  six  palms  four 
inches.  The  Hebnws  also  have  been  thought  to  have 
had  a  longer  cubit,  for  in  Ezek.  xl,  b,  we  read  of  a  cu- 
bit which  seems  10  be  an  ordinary  "  cubit  and  an  band- 
breadth  ;"  see  also  Ezek.  xliil,  13,  where  it  is  express- 
ly said, "  the  cubit  is  a  cubit  and  an  hand-breadth." 
The  prophet  has  been  supposed  to  refer  here  to  the 
then  current  Babylonian  cubit,  a  measure  which  it  is 
thoutfht  the  Jews  borrowed  during  the  period  of  their 
<aptivity.  The  Rabbins  tnake  a  distinction  between 
the  common  cubit  of  fire  hami-breadlhs  and  the  sa- 
cred culiit  of  six  hand-breadths — a  dietlncUnn  which  is 
held  to  be  Insufficiently  supported  by  De  Wette  {Ar- 
rhaol'igie,  p.  I7M).  Consult  I>aniy,  Dt  Tabernacul,.  c. 
8  ;  CarpuiT,  Apporal.  p.  676.— Kitto,  s.  v.  An  ancient 
Egj-plian  cubit  now  In  the  T.i-y:.\  )I.-.."::i  r.f  Puris 


CUCKOO 

20.484  Inches.  The  Hebrew  cnbit,  accord' 
ing  to  Bishop  Cumberland  and  H.  Pelletier.  is  twenty- 
one  inches;  and  Ube  Talmndists  observe  that  the  He- 
brew cubit  (meaning  probably  the  longer  or  i>n:«d 
measure)  waa  larger  by  one  quarter  than  die  Bomao, 
which  would  make  it  contain  21.849  inchea.  M^ay 
writers  lix  it  at  eighteen  inches,  confounding  it  with 
the  Greek  and  Homan  measure  of  a  foot  and  a  half. 
The  most  approved  computation  assigns  each  kind  trf 
Jewish  cubits  the  same  length  as  ^e  correspondinf 
Egyptian,  namely,  20.24  inches  for  the  ordlnar;'  one, 
and  21.688  for  the  sacred,  which  is  confirmed  by  the 
mean  length  of  several  ancient  cubits  marked  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments  (Wilkinson's  Ane.  ^gptiant,  2d 
serie^i,30),  by  a  comparison  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
Pyramids  with  those  given  In  ancient  authorities 
(Vyse's  Pyramid,  o/Giuh,  iii,  104. 105),  and  which  we 
shall  find  to  cormpood  remarkably  with  the  Talmnd- 
ical  sUtement  of  the  circuit  of  the  Temple.  In  a  later 
edition  of  his  Ancient  Egyptiani,  however  Q'Po/mlar 
-Iccouiit,"  U,2i8),WiUin»on  makes  the  ordinal;-  Egyi^ 
tian  cnbit  to  have  consisted  of  seven  palma  or  twenty- 
eight  digits,  and  gives  nine  exact  computations  of  lU 
length,  var}-ing  from  20.4729  to  20.7484  inches,  which 
yield  an  average  or20.6]69  inches;  and  he  states  the 
cnbit  Dn  the  kilometer  at  Elephantine,  from  actual 
measurement,  to  be  20.625  inche*.  This  last  is  per- 
haps the  most  accurate  dimension  attainable  for  the 
standard  cubit.  (See  BAckh,  M'lrvl.  UaUrtiu*.  Beii 
1838,  p.  12  j  Thenius,  in  the  SOtd.  v.  KrU.  1846,  i.  770 ; 
ii,  299;  Lepsius,  Die  i^-aggptiiAe  EUt,  Berl.  lH6i.) 
See  MetbOLOOi. 

In  Judg.  iii,  16,  the  term  translated  "cnUt"  is  in 
the  original  Tai,  go'ined  (literally,  a  cal),  a  mt  or 
staff,  as  the  measure  of  a  cubit.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment our  Lord  characteristically  employs  the  term  cu- 
bit (Matt,  xxvii,  6 ;  Luke  xii,  25)  for  the  enrorcemenl 
of  a  moral  and  spiritual  lesson.  The  term  also  ocean 
[n  John  xxi,  8,  and  in  Rev.  xxi,  IT ;  and  id  the  Apoc- 
rypha (2  Mace,  xiii,  5).      See  UeiBCRS. 

Cuciua,     See  Kactz. 

Cuolcoo  (^nd,  ihuA'aph,  prob.  from  its  ^eaaite«; 
Sept.  and  Vnlg.  ta-gaH;  A.V.  "  euckow")  occurs  only 
in  Lev.  xi,  16:  Deut.  xiv,  IS,  among  birds  of  pny  • 
not  clearly  identified,  but  declared  to  be  unclean. 
None  of  the  various  ancient  or  modem  versions  of  this 
word  give  a  bird  possessing  any  affluity  with  the  oth- 
er species  enumerated ;  and  although  the  cuckoo  ii  a 
winter  and  spring  bird,  distinctly  heard,  it  appears,  by 
Mr.  Buckingham,  early  in  April,  while  ennilng  tb* 
mountains  between  Damaicna  and  Sidon,  at  that  time 
covered  with  snow,  it  could  scarcely  deserve  to  be  in. 
eluded  in  the  prohibited  list,  for  the  species  is  enry- 
where  scarce.  The  identifications  proposed  by  bite 
writers  on  the  subject  all  equally  lack  a  sufficient 
fbundation.  Boehart  iBitrot.  vol.  U,  c.  18)  thinks  the 
KarguB  is  meant.  Upon  the  whole,  while  so  much  ob- 
scurity still  remains  on  the  suliject.tbe  interpntation 
of  "cuckoo"  may  as  well  remain  undtstnrbrif.  (See 
Penny  CjKrfopmKo,  B.  v.)     The  word  iKadu^  "as  a 


■'"'""tifjo^lc 


CDDWORTH 


EvMtq  Blhck  Cuckoo  {Eudytamy^  Orimlatiai, 

CnonUuB.     Sea  Cowl. 

Cnonmber  ia  the  tnasUtlDn  of  NISp,  iuAtbi'  (k 
called  probibly  from  its  diffifvlls  c/^iSon;  Sept. 
viniDc),  in  DDT  AnIb.Ten.,  and  the  correctness  oftbis 
rendering  hu  been  almost  universally  admitted.  It 
occars  in  Nam.  xi,  G,  wberg  tbe  Israelites,  when  in 
the  desert,  express  tbeli  longings  for  tbe  melons  and 
UiecMiimAeri  of  Egypt.  The  Heh.  Is  so  similar  to  tbe 
Anbic  Hua  that  there  can  be  very  little  doubt  of  tbeir 
both  meaning  tbe  same  tbing.  Cebus  (ffi<ro4o*.  li, 
247)  KiTss  tela,  hati,  and  kumia  ai  different  pranun- 
dations  of  the  same  word  in  different  Oriental  lan- 
guages. It  does  not  follow  that  these  names  always 
[ndicsta  exactly  tbe  same  species,  since  in  the  ditTer- 
ent  countries  tbey  would  probably  be  applied  In  the 
kinds  of  encumber  most  common,  or  perhaps  to  those 
which  were  most  esteemed  in  particular  localities. 
Thus,  in  Egypt  {see  Prosp.  Alpln,  PlanU.  ^g.  i.  38,  p. 
64),  the  name  hali  appears  to  be  applied  to  the  species 
which  is  called  Cummu  ehnte\\y  dotanists,  and  "queen 
ofcncnmbers"  by  Hafaelquist^  who  desctibea  itus  the 
moat  highly  estcebied  of  all  those  caltinled  In  Egvpt 
(rrai<.p.i5B).  See  Mei.(ix.  In  Indlathe  name  jE-uhi 
U  applied  by  the  Mohammedans  to  the  Cvcamvt  utilii- 

Peraia  and  Syria  tbe  same  name  would  probably  be 
applied  only  to  tbe  common  cnromber,  or  Cuamit  n- 
ticta,  as  the  two  preceding  species  are  not  likely  to 


lensive  cquivbiiod  ana  conaumpiian  of  co- 
cumbers  and  other  vegetables  of  the  sams 
[  tribe,  especially  where  there  is  any  moisture  of  aoil, 
or  the  possibility  of  Irrigation  (see  BurckhanlC,  Arii. 
bic  ProitrU,  No.  660),  Thus,  even  in  the  driest  parts, 
the  neighborhood  of  a  well  Is  often  occupied  by  a 
field  of  cucurbitaceons  plants,  generally  with  a  man 
or  boy  set  to  gnard  it  from  plunder,  perched  up  on 
a  temporary  scaffiildlng,  with  a  slight  protcelion 
from  the  sun,  where  he  maj'  himself  be  sale  from  the 
attacks  of  tbe  more  pawerf\il  wild  animals.  That 
such  plants  appear  to  have  been  similarly  cultivated 
among  tbe  Hebrews  is  evident  from  Isa.  i,  8,  "The 
daughter  of  Zion  Is  left  like  a  cottage  in  a  vineyard, 
tike  a  lodge  In  a  gardm  "/ ciicumUrt"  (■I'.jp':,  mijl- 
ihaJi',  Sept.  aijni^parof).  as  well  as  from  Baruch  ri, 
70,  "as  a  scarecrow  in  t  parden  a/ cueumbrrt  (siruqpo- 
rov)  keepeth  nothing,  ao  are  (heir  gods  at  wood." 
See  GABDim;  Cottaok. 

Cud  (p'^i,  gernh',  mmiiiaiirm),  the  pellet  of  half- 
chewed  food  broaght  up  from  the  first  stomach  of  m- 
mlnant  animals  to  be  thoroughly  masticated  (Lev.  xl, 
3-7,  26;  Dent,  xiv,  &-S).     See  Ci.BAN  (aXiMaLs). 

CndwtiTtli,  Ralph,  an  eminent  English  divine 
and  philosopher,  was  bom  at  AlUr,  Somersetshire,  In 
IG17,  and  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1680,  became  M,A.  16S9,  rector  of  N.  Cadborv  1641, 
and  master  of  Tlare  Hall  1A44.  In  1S4S  he  became 
professar  of  Hebrew  j  in  1654,  master  ..I  Christ  Col- 


CUDWOR'ni  « 

lege:  in  l^^i  ''!'*'  oTABhwett;  and  in  1378,  preben- 
darjafGloDcntcr.  He  died  inlSBB.  Cadwarth  xii 
m  PUtoniet,  of  "great  itrengtli  of  geniiu  ind  Taut 
compiH  of  leaminK."  HIa  reputation  ai  a  writer 
ren«  cbieS;  an  hii  Tnt  Inleltactiial  Sytlem  nfOi*  Vm- 
vtrtt,  which  appnand  in  1S78  u  the  tint  part  of  a  utill 
greater  work  nhtcb  he  pever  completed.  It  li  a  de- 
fence of  haman  liberty,  and  of  belief  in  Ood,  againit 
fulalipm  (uidatbeiam.  Cndworth  deicribee time  falae 
I>v>l«m9  or  bypotheeea  of  the  aaiverne  In  the  preface : 
"Of  the  three  fatalisnia  or  falae  bypotheeea  of  the  uni- 
verse mentioned  in  tbe  be^nning  of  thia  book,  one  la 
absolate  atbeism,  BDathar  immoral  tbeiam,  or  religion 
without  any  aatoral  justice  and  morality  (all  juat  and  - 
unjust,  according  to  thb  hypotheeia,  being  mere  tbetU  ' 
■cnl  or  factltiooa  things,  made  by  arbitrary  will  and  i 
command  only)  ;  the  third  and  last  such  a  theiem  aa 
acknowledgea  not  only  a  God  or  omnipotent  under- 
ftandinic  £ing,  but  alao  natural  Justice  and  morality,  j 
founded  in  him,  and  derived  trom  him ;  nevertheleaa, 
no  liberty  ftom  neceaai^  anywhere,  and  tberefore  no  ' 
diitribntive  or  letilbative  Jiiatice  in  the  world."  Be-  j 
fore  erecting  tbe  true  IntellBctual  ayalam  of  the  uni-  | 
verae  (the  epithet  i^tUatw^  being  need,  aa  he  telle  i 
U!,"to  diatinguish  it  from  the  other,  vulgarly  so  call- 
ed, syBl«mi  of  the  world,  that  ia,  the  Tlaible  und  cor- 
poreal world,  the  Ptolemaic,  Tychonic,  and  Copemi- 

And  the  flnt  of  them,  atheiam,  or  tbe  atheistic  fate,  ia 
demolished  in  the  flrst  part  of  the  "  Intellectual  S>-s- 
tem."  It  is  a  work  of  great  learning  and  acnteneas. 
In  attacking  tbe  atheistic  faith.  Dr.  Cudwortb  de- 
ecrilies  the  atomic  phydology,  which,  aa  held  by  De- 
mocritus,  and  other  ancient  philosopers,  involved 
atheism.  For  tbe  better  conftitation  of  other  fonne 
of  atheiam,  to  which  he  givea  the  namea  Hj'loiolc  and 
Ccsmo-plaatic,  be  makes  the  hypotbesis  of  an  "arti- 
Hcial,  regular,  and  plaadc  natoia,"  working  in  com- 
plete snbordiiution  to  tbe  Deity.  And  to  avert  an 
argument  brought  against  ttaa  oneness  of  the  Deity, 
frum  its  nnnataralnesB  as  shown  by  the  general  preva- 
lence of  polytheiam  among  tbe  pagan  nationa,  he  con- 
tends that  "the  pagan  theologera  all  along  acknowl- 
edged one  aovereign  and  omnipotent  Deity,  from  which 
all  their  other  gods  were  generated  or  created,"  and 
that  their  polytheiam  was  but  a  polyonymy  of  one  God. 
Tbe  TrratUf  oa  Elernal  aid  Inautahlt  Morality  cor- 
responds to  the  second  part  of  the  laitUrdual  Ssllrm. 
It  is  directed  against  Hobbes  and  thoee  who,  with  him, 
''affirm  Justice  and  injustice  to  be  only  by  law,  and 
not  by  natnre."  Besides  the  InliHtctiial  Si/iUin,  Cud- 
worth  published,  1.  A  Dimwne  cimcenaag  ikt  trm  No- 
linn  qftie  Lard'i  Supper,  In, which  he  maintains,  as 
Warburton  has  eince  maintained,  that  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per is  a  (east  upon  a  sacrifice ;— S.  Tkt  Union  of  Ckritl 
ind  rAr  Churcli  Sliadovedi^S.  A  Senum  on  Jokn  u, 
3,  4.  preached  in  1647  before  the  House  of  Commone : 
—4,  A  Sermon  prtachrd  in  ISfH  at  Linooln'i  Inn  m  1 
C'lr,  XT,  B7; — 5.  i^rua  Jut6ficaiut  againti  lie  AHtrtori 
nf  abiolau  and  uncondilional  Srprobatian.  He  lelt 
several  works  in  MS.,  only  one  of  which  has  yet  been 
pnblisbed,  namelv,  the  TVenfiie  coactrning  Eternal  and 
Ivmulahle  Moratifs  (1781).  The  rest  are,  i.  A  Di- 
foiirir  of  Mora!  Good  and  Ecil!—2.  A  Ducmirtr  of 
LUttrig  iind  yecati'y,  in  irhich  thi  Cromidi  nflir  Al^- 
iiiimi  PMlotophg  are  cmfuUd,  and  Aforalil^  rindicnltd 
(Iff  fxpSaintd: — S.  A  Comnrntoiy  oa  Danirl'i  PropMny 
ofllif  Setifniy  Wrrkt: — (.  Of  Vie  Verily  of  Ike  Ckritlitm 
Hrli-iiim  agaital  <he  Jrwu^b.  A  Dikvutk  of  lie  Crta- 
lioa  ■/ lit  World  and  Intmorlalilj  if  Ihe  Sou/.-— 6,  A 
TrnitiK  on  Iltbrev  Lenming: — 7.  An  KipUination  of 
Hobhea;  KoUon  of  God.  and  if  tilt  Eximion  nfSpir. 
ill.  These  MSS.  are  now  In  the  Brili-h  Museum,  In 
173.1  a  Latin  transUtion  of  the  InttUeclv-l  ^j«<m  waa 
pulilished  by  Hoshebn  (Logd.  Bat.  2  vola.  4lo>.  The 
be>t  rd.  of  the  Engliah  work  la  Haniaon'ji  (London, 
1M.'>.  3  vols.  Rvo,  with  index).     A  good  and  cheap  edi- 


0  CULDEES 

tkm  Is  that  of  Andovar  (18ST,  t  vols.  Svo),  which  Is. 
cladea  all  the  published  writings  of  Cudwortb,  Imt  baa 
no  index.  See  Biicb,  Uf»  of  Citilieordt  (pnBzed  to 
most  editions  of  hia  works);  Engl.  Cfiopadia ;  Hack- 
intosh,  EUatai  PkilotopJiy,  p.  7S. 

CujaciilB  (properly  Dt  Cnjai),  jAC4)i;Ea,  a  diatin- 
gulahed  teacher  of  canon  law,  was  bom  in  1&?2,  at 
Toulouse.  Ha  became  in  15&1  a  profenaor  of  law  at 
Cahors,  In  1665  at  Bonrgea,  In  1567  at  Valence,  and 
in  1575  again  at  Bonrges.  The  civil  war  in  France 
Induced  him  shortly  after  to  go  to  Paris,  where  he  also 
received  permission  to  give  lecturea  on  law.     In  1577 

forth  remained,  nolwil  listen  ding  tbe  nio»t  profitable 
oSbrs  from  the  University  of  Bologna.  He  died  Oct. 
4, 1690.  Cujacina  was  the  most  famoua  teacher  of  the 
Roman  law  in  tbe  siztcentb  centuiy.  and  bis  rcpota- 
tion  attracted  large  nnmbera  of  atudents  l^m  all  CDun- 
tries  of  Europe.  He  corrected  numeroua  pasuges  of 
the  Roman  law-books  from  tbe  more  than  500  manu- 
scripts which  be  had  collected,  and  a  great  many  oU 
scure  points  were  by  him  fbr  tbe  flrst  time  elucidjated. 
He  gained  the  love  of  the  thousands  of  his  pupila  to  a 
rare  degree  bj-  the  atfectionato  attention  which  he  paid 
to  tbe  welfare  of  each.  From  tbe  tlieological  contro- 
versies of  his  time  he  cautiDiu>ly  abstained,  tbouiih  he 
was  always  a  steadfast  adherent  of  the  cause  of  Ileniy 

1  IT.  In  his  will  be  referred  bis  wife  and  hi*  daugh- 
ter to  the  letter  of  the  pure  Bible,  without  note  or 

I  comment,  aa  the  sole  rule  of  their  fsith.  He  published 
himself  a  collection  of  bis  works  (Palis,  1577),  which, 
<  however.  Is  not  complete.  The  editions  by  ColombH 
'  (Paris,  1617  and  1634)  doea  likewise  not  contain  aU 
I  the  works  of  Cujaclua.  A  complete  edition  waa  pre- 
pared by  Fabiotl  (Paris,  1658, 10  vols.),  ohlch  has  sev- 
eral times  been  reprinted,  with  some  additions  (latest 
edition,  Prato,  13  vols.  1836).  A  life  of  CD}aHas  was 
i  published  in  1G90  by  Papyriua  Maason,  but  tbe  best 
I  account  of  Cujaciu*  Is  by  Saint  Prix  (sppeodiz  to  his 
work  Hiilmrt  du  droit  Eomaim,  Paris,  1831  j  an  ex- 
i  tract  from  this,  in  German,  by  Spangenberg,  Cajorim 
■I.  anV  ZrOgenoaen,  Leipi.  182!).  — Brockbeus,  Can- 
'  oerKUiont-Ltx.  B.  V. ;  Wctiet  n.  Welte,  Kirck.-Ltx.  ii, 
;933. 

Cnlbertaon,  Matthew  Simpsoh,  D.D.,  a  Pres- 
byterian minister  and  mlaaionaiy,  was  bom  at  Cham- 
lieraburgh,  Pa.,  Jan.  IS,  1819,  and  waa  edncated  at  tbe 
Military  Academy,  West  Point.  WbUe  serving  as 
lieutenant  of  artillei^'  he  made  a  religioaa  proi^aaioo, 
and  went  to  the  Theological  Seminary  at  PriBceten, 
where  he  graduated  in  1844.  In  that  year  ha  was 
licensed  and  ordained  aa  misaionaiy  to  China.  He 
labored,  together  with  Bridgeroan,  for  several  years  in 
preparing  a  revised  translation  of  tbe  Scriptuna  ia 
j  Chinese ;  and  wrote  Darbum  in  the  flofaitry  Ijtad,  tr 
I  Rfligioai  fiodont  and  I'opular  Suprrililiimt  in  jVortl 
I  China  (X.  Y.  1857,  ISmo).  He  died  of  choleia,  Aa. 
I  guat,  ]gi;2.— Wilson,  Preib.Alwiamie,  1863,  p.  163. 
I  Cnlde^S.  The  name  Caldee  is  varloiisly  derived 
!  and  explained  by  several  different  autborlliea.  Ebrard 
'gires"KileDe"— "manofGod;"  Dr.  Braun,  "GHIa 
,  De"— "serrant  of  God."  But  the  latest,  and  perhaps 
'  best  anthority,  gives  us  Oaidiri  aa  tbe  only  name  of 
the  Culdees  known  among  native  Celta.  This  word 
i  means  "a  secluded  comer ;"  a  Culdee,  tberefore,  b 
'  "the  man  of  the  recesa."  This  accurately  enoagfa  de- 
,  scribes  the  Culdees'  mode  of  life :  thoagh  not  monks, 
'  they  were  in  a  certain  sense  recluses. 
'  The  ScDttish  Church,  when  it  first  meets  the  tj*  of 
civilization,  is  not  Komiafa,  nor  even  jJklaticaL  Wbra 
'  the  monk  Augu'tine,  with  hi*  forty  misaionariaa,  In 
I  the  time  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  came  over  tn  !h*. 
sin  under  the  auspices  ofGr^oiy,  the  hiabnpof  fiaae, 
to  convert  the  barbarian  Saxons,  ha  fonnd  the  aotb- 
I  em  part  of  tbe  island  already  weU-nlgh  fiUod  with 
Christians  and  Chiiatlan  instltntiom.     Tbaaa  Cbris> 


«cU*fM 


Ad  Iriih  prMt^rtar,  Colambi,  fwIiDg  hiniMlf  Mined 
with  niMaoiry  nul,  cud  doabtUM  kDowing  tlu 
wntchad  eoDditioa  of  tbs  nvaga  Soota  and  Pkta  Id 
tha  yeai  SBfi,  took  wltb  him  twalve  othsr  DilMlunaria, 
■Dd  puHd  mar  to  SeotUnd.  Jhtj  fixed  their  gettla- 
rnant  on  tha  Uttia  lilaad  Just  D*Di«d.  and  frum  that 
point  bacame  the  mlHloaariaa  of  all  Scotland,  and 
even  penatnled  into  England.  BeTurs  the  end  of  the 
6th  centurj  tbej  bad  0Uad  the  country  vith  thair  in- 
tUtotiona,  and  lubjeclad  it,  at  leatt  nomlDallj,  to 
Chriit.  Invited  to  England  by  Oawald,  Uag  ot  Nor. 
thumhcrUnd,  to  preach  tixi  Gotpel  to  bia  people,  they 
acnt  Cormao,  who  fdlled  becaase  of  too  great  ineter- 

log  the  people's  Un^uaKa,  auccaedod,  and  proved  him- 
•elfoDBofthenoUUBt  of  mlHiODarles.  Tha  poople  in 
the  aoath  of  England  coDveitsd  by  Angnatina  and  his 
aaaistanta,  and  tbose  In  the  north  who  bad  been  wan 
by  Coldee  labor,  toon  met,  as  Cbiistlsn  conqnest  od- 
vuiced  from  both  sides;  and  when  they  came  togotlt- 
ei,  it  waa  eoon  seen  that  Roman  and  Cnldee  Christi- 
aoity  VC17  decidedly  differed  in  a  great  many  re- 
spects. Tha  Cnldeea,  for  tba  most  part,  hid  a  timple 
and  primitiTe  fbrm  of  Chiiadanity,  while  Rome  pre- 
aented  a  vast  accDmuIatlon  of  enpemitiana,  and  was 
arrayed  in  her  well-kaawn  pomp.  The  resnlt  was, 
that'in  England  the  Cnldee  soon  gave  pUca  to  thi  Ko- 
Dian,  and  retired  to  his  Nortbem  home.  Columba  no 
doDbt  chose  the  Utile  Island  of  lona  aa  a  place  of  safe- 
ty from  barbarian  attack,  ai  alw  because  it  was  near 
to  Ireland,  whence  be  had  brought  his  divine  message. 
Beeides,  tbe  loneliness  of  a  tmall  laland  in  the  sea  was 
CBTorable  to  meditation,  and  accorded  with  the  aacetii; 
tendencies  which  at  least  laaried  the  best  men  of  those 
ages.  The  inititDtian  wt  np  by  Columba  has  been 
cill^d  a  monastery,  but,  In  trutb,  It  had  no  claim  to 
that  name.  Tnie,  the  memben  of  the  commanlty 
lived  in  cells,  to  which  they  retired  for  devotion  and 
Btody,  but  tbit  no  more  made  them  monks  than  a 
slmiLir  life  makes  monks  of  tbaolojfical  stQdente  of  ear 
own  day.  The  Coldee  reclnsea  were  not  pledged  to 
celibacy;  Diany  of  them  were  mairied  j  manyoftbem 
were  soceeeded  In  office  by  thair  own  Bona  -,  they  were 
not  dedicated  for  life  to  their  calling,  but  were  ft^  at 
any  time  to  change  it  for  inothcr.  Their  f.iniiliea  did 
not  live  within  the  sacred  encloanre,  bat  the  hosbanda, 
their  work  within  being  done,  pissed  out  to  spend  the 
Teat  of  their  time  with  thair  families.  Nor,  indeed. 
wai  the  aim  of  tbe  insthutJon  at  all  kindral  to  that 
of  mottachlsm.  The  monk  geneially  retiree  for  his 
own  Improvament  eolelyj  he  is  weary  of  the  world, 
and  will  have  no  mote  contact  with  it.  He  reoooncea 
it.  The  Cnldee  want  to  lona  that  in  quiet,  with  med- 
itation, stody,  and  prayer,  he  might  fit  himaelf  for  go- 
ing out  into  the  world  ai  a  miisionarr.  Indeed,  lona 
waa  a  great  misaion  institute,  where  preachcra  were 
ttaiaed  who  evangaliud  the  rude  tribes  of  Scotland 
in  a  very  liiort  time.  To  have  done  such  a  work  as 
this  in  leas  than  half  a  century  Impliea  apMloiic  ac- 
tivity, purity,  and  success.  With  the  exception  of  tbe 
princlpaJ  men,  they  mutt  have  been  much  more  ont  of 
their  celli  than  In  tbem.  Traces  of  the  achool*  and 
churches  they  established  are  found  ail  over  Scotland. 
Tbe  nason  of  tlili  freedom  fh>m  Romish  asceticism 
may  be  found,  at  least  In  part,  in  the  doctrinea  of  theee 
neo.  They  had  no  dogma  of  purgatory,  no  saint  wor- 
ship, no  work*  of  BOperetogation,  no  aoricular  confes- 
aion,  or  penance,  or  absolntlon ;  no  maea,  no  Inutub. 
Btantiation,  no  '^chrism'*  in  baptbm,  no  priesthood, 
and  no  third  order  (Uiahops).  Tbey  knew  nothbifC 
of  any  authoritative  rule  except  tbe  iloly  Scriptuiee. 
"  These  wetv  held  to  be  tbe  one  ttandatd  of  truth,  and 
were  made  by  the  missionaries  a  snb^t  of  close  and 
ooiLatant  stody.  Columba'g  own  home  work  and  that 
o(  his  disciplea  waa  transcribing  tbe  Scriptures.    These 


ical.     Colonb 


I  CULDEES 

•■ily  mlaakmarlea  were  thorongbly  Bl 
ha'a  lifh  by  Adamnan  repreaents  him  m  almost  every 
page  aa  fanilhir  with  the  Word  of  Ood,  and  ready  to 
qaota  it  on  all  occasion*  aa  of  niprcme  authority,"  . .  . 
'The  great  Bobject  of  their  teaching  was  tbe  simple 
trtrth  of  the  Gospel  of  salvation.  It  was  ^  rerbum  vii,' 
the  Word  of  God.  Adamnan  aays  of  Columba  that 
from  hia  boyhood  be  was  Instructed  In  the  love  of 
Christ."  "The  spirit  of  tbe  Culdean  Chqrch  may 
suitably  and  rightfully  be  descrilied  ai  an  evangelical 
spirit,  because  it  was  bve  and  independent  of  Rome; 
and  when  it  and  tbe  papal  Chnrch  came  into  contact, 
it  always  and  obstinately  repudiated  its  anthority,  nn- 
der  appeal  to  the  single  and  eupreme  authority  of  holy 
Scripture )  but,  above  all,  because  in  its  inner  life  It 
waa  penetrated  throughout  by  the  main  principles  of 
tin  evangelical  Church.  The  Culdees  read  and  un- 
dentood  tba  Scriptures  in  their  original  texts.  Wti«r> 
ever  they  came  they  InDaUted  them  orally  and  in 
writing  into  tbe  language  of  the  country,  explaining 
Uiem  to  tha  inhabitants,  exborting  them  to  diligent 
and  regular  Bible  reading.  But  [lie  Scriptures  were 
more  to  tbem  than  a  codex  of  authoritative  doctrines 
of  feith.  Tbey  were  the  bring  wotd  of  Christ.  In 
the  most  earnest  manner  they  preached  the  natunl, 
inborn  inability  of  man  for  good ;  the  atoning  death 
ofChrlst;  justiflcstlon  without  all  merit  of  works ;  the 
worthleesnees,  especially,  of  all  mere  outward  works  ; 
and  the  necessity  of  the  new  birth"  (Ebraid),  These 
views  ot  life  snd  doctrine  reveal  sofflciently  tbe  rea- 
BOO  why  the  Cnldksa  were  mlasionarles  rather  than 
monk*.  The  truths  of  the  Gospel,  pnre  and  simple, 
jnit  aa  tbey  warmed  the  hearts  of  tbe  apostles,  bad 
posseaalon  of  tbem,  and  all  their  work  was  to  make 
men  feel  and  accept  them.  Their  theory  of  Church 
government  was  very  simple.  Tbe  Institution  at  lona 
was  under  the  pre^enoy  of  a  prestiyter  called  a  pres- 
byter abbot,  who  had  asaodatiid  with  him  twelve  olb> 
er  presbytem.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  beadabip, 
these  brethren  elected  their  abbot.  That  he  was  a 
presbyter  simply  there  can  be  no  doubt,  fiede,  who 
belonged  to  theRomish  Church,  himself  mentions  It  as 
a  very  strange  thing  "  that  a  man  who  is  merely  a 
presbyter  should  govern  a  dioceee,  and  have  even  blsh- 
ops  nnder  him."  The  truth  Is,  that  the  ralmionarlea 
sent  oat  from  these  Culdee  saminsriei  were  appointed 
and  ordained  pastors  of  the  churcTies  they  founded; 
and  the  pastor  of  the  dinrch  was  the  overseer  of  it,  L 
e.  the  bishop.  The  presbyter  abbot,  therefore,  had  or- 
dained an  elder,  but,  Ity  appointment  to  a  parish,  had 
made  him  a  bishop.  Tliey  evidently  knew  nothing  of 
tbe  di'tinction  Iwtwecn  the  order  of  presbyter  and  that 
of  bisbop.  Aft?r  tbe  success  of  Augustine  and  hla 
monks  in  England,  tbe  Culdees  had  shnl  themselves 
up  within  the  limits  of  Scotland,  and  had  resisted  for 
centDiies  all  tbe  efforts  of  Rome  tn  win  them  over. 
At  last,  however,  they  were  overthrown  by  their  own 
miers.  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  William  the  Con* 
querar,  tbe  queen  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  Rome,  noUble  for  piety,  of  powerful  mind  and 
skilfol  In  the  mannsemrnt  of  oihcrs,  ret  her  heart  upon 
exchanging  the  Culdee  for  Ifae  lEomiFh  Church  in  Scot- 
land. She  1,'ot  the  Culdee  preslivters  together,  and 
for  three  days  dlscusted  the  matter  with  them  in  per- 
son. She  succeeded  by  persuasion  and  artifice.  This 
was  in  the  latter  part  of  tbe  llth  century.  It  waa 
not,  however,  till  the  ISth  century  thot  Cnldeclsm  waa 
completely  overturned  and  Roinaniim  eatablisbed. 
Nay,  it  is  more  than  pmbable  that  Cnldeeism,  with  its 
simple  and  powerfni  Gospel  Infiuence,  continued  to 
live  in  tha  hearts  of  the  people  long  after  its  forms  and 
public  ministiaUnns  had  been  buried  beneath  the  finery 
of  triumphant  Romanism.  I'bere  was  a  readiness 
among  the  Scotch  to  embrace  the  Beformstlon  when  It 
came,  which,  together  with  their  sturdy  evanf^ical 
character,  reminds  Ifae  faislorlcal  reader  of  Culdceiam. 
'UcLanchlan,  7\e  Eurlg  aeettiii  CAbtd^ 


ftcm  the  lat  to  the  IStJl  ceDtnriu  (Edinh.  1865, 8vt>} 
Aleunder,  lima  (Edinb.  1866) ;  Ebnrd,  Kircktn-  md  \ 
Dogmmgadudui  (1  toil.,  vol.  il);  Ztittdir.f.  d.  hitt. 
neol.  1862, 1863 ;  King,  Tit  Cvldia  and  tieir  iitmoM*, 
1864 ;  Mtth.  Quart.  Sev.  Oct.  1861 ;  Brit,  and  Far.  Et>. 
Jicv.jBii,  1B66;  PrHtuUmRa.Stiti.iiSJ;  !%»  Church 
^fim<i,b7  the  Biihap  dT  Argyll,  1S66.     Sm  Ioma. 

Cnloa  (KovAiiv  t.  r.  KouXiifi,  Jerome  Cmdim),  the 
fifth  nuned  of  tbe  gronp  of  eloTen  citKj  added  by  the' 
Septuaginc  to  tboee  in  tbe  mountuni  of  Jnd>h  (be- 
tween yei.  59  and  60  of  Joah.  zv) )  thought  to  be  tbe 
modern  KvlmaA,  ■  tnca  of  irhlch  ippeen  Id  the  no- 
tice of  the  Cniudes  (Wjlken,  Gttch.  do-  Kma.  It, 
(09),  >  villege  with  mint  eboBt  1^  h.W.  of  Jeniulem 
towudi  Jaffa  (Van  do  Velde,  Mamoir,  p.  BOb) ;  but,  tut 
thia  1*7  bejond  the  border  of  Jadah  (Schiratz,  nilH<. 
p,  118),  the  aathenticity  of  the  name*  la  tbo  SepC  be- 
ing, moreover,  dub)aiu(Wilion,  fiafai-aiidi,  ii,  26en.), 
the  place  porhapa  only  reprtaente  aome  station  or  Co- 
ioiua  of  the  Romuu  (Robbuoo,  Lola-  Rt*.  p.  158). 

Coltiu.    See  Wobbhip. 

CnlTenrell,  Natuaxiel,  U.A.,  a  piona  and 
learned  writer.  He  wae  fellow  of  EmniBDuel  College, 
Cambridge,  and  died  aboat  1660.  We  have  of  him  an 
i3tgiBU  and  Itamed  Diicrmne  on  the  Light  of  fTalurt 
(on  ProT.  xz,  27),  with  aeversl  other  treatis«  (Lond. 
1661,  4Io).  The  Light  of  Kalart  aboanda  in  alriklDg 
tfaoughU,  and  haa  pasuges  of  rare  eloqaenc 

Cumftnas.VEiiTiDiDB,  procuntor  of  Judteainiin»- 
dlaUly  next  to  Alexander  (a  abort  time  after  Fodua), 
and  porll)-  in  conjunction  with  Felix  (q.  v.),  B.C.  49- 
68;  under  his  adminialratlDn  the  dmnDotione  broke 
ont  that  led  eventually  to  the  final  war  with  tbe  Ro- 
mans (JoBephuB,  J  al.  xz,  fi,  S  and  8 ;  6,  ]-S ;  War,  U, 
12,1-7). 

CnmborlBiid   Presbrterltu)  ChnrotL      See 

PBESBTTERian  (CmBEBLANp)  CBIIBCB. 

Cnmbeiland  FreBbTtMians.    See  Pbesbi- 

Cnmberland,  Ricbahd,  D.D.,  biibop  of  Peter- 
borough, a  learned  divine  and  orcheologiar,  wae  bom  in 
London  in  16SS,  and  waa  educated  at  St.  Paul'i  School, 
and  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge.  He  woa  made 
rector  ot  Brampton,  and  in  1667  vicar  of  All  Haliowa, 
Stamford.  In  1691  bo  waa  raiaed  to  the  aee  of  Peter- 
borough withont  any  aolicitation  on  hie  part.  He  was 
previDUslj'  known  by  hia  tieatiae  Dt  Ltgibiu  JVuAme 
(Load.  1672,  4to),  In  anawer  to  Hobbea,  and  by  hia 
E-og  on  JewiA  Wei^i  and  Mtannt  (London,  1686, 
Svo).  He  was  indefatigable  in  performing  his  epitco- 
]ialdutiee.  Being  advised,  on  account  of  li ' 
lufimi  aUCe,  to  relax  a  tittle,  he  replied,  " 
to  weai  out  than  mat  out."  After  his  death  appeared 
hi*  Ori^na  Gmtiam  (Lond.  1724, 8vo),  and  his  Irans- 
latlon  of  SancAonialho'i  PAamcitn  HUloni  (I.ondon, 
1720,  Bvo).  At  tbe  aga  of  eigbty-three.  Dr.  Cumber- 
land, having  been  presented  by  Dr.  Wilkins  with  a 
copy  of  hi*  Coptic  TeeUment,  then  Joat  pnbUshed, 
commenced,  like  another  Cato,  the  study  of  Coptic. 
"At  this  Bge,"  says  Mr.  Payne,  ''he  maatered  the 
language,  and  went  tbrongh  great  partof  tbi*  version, 
and  would  often  give  me  excellent  Unta  and  remarki 
aa  be  proceeded  in  reading  of  it."  He  died  Oct.  6, 
ITIR.  Cumberland's  theorj'  of  monla  is  set  forth  ' 
hi*  treatise  De  Le^lmi  Nanmc.  Tendency  to  effi 
tbe  general  good  is  made  the  standard  of  morality. 
To  endeavor  to  effect  the  grealeat  Amount  of  general 
good  is  the  one  (Treat  duty,  or  the  one  gteat  "  law  of 
naCuro;"  and  ve  know,  according  to  Cumberland,  Chat 
it  la  B  du^  or  law  of  nature,  or  law  of  God,  becauae 
we  know  that  an  individnal  derives  tbe  greatest  bap- 
IHness  from  the  exercise  of  benevolence,  and  Ibat  God 
deairea  the  greatest  pontible  ba;^nen  of  all  hia  ciea- 
tnrea.  Carrying  out  the  fundamental  principle  that 
tbe  greatest  general  good  la  to  be  sought,  he  deducea 


12  CUMEf 

the  aereral.  paitlcDlar  dallea  or  particnlor  "la«a  tt   I 

He  founds  goremment  upon,  and  test*  it  by 

principle.     An  abridged  tranalstion  of  tU 

work  was  published  by  Tyirel  in  1701.     Maxwell,  aa 

Iriah    clergyman,   publialied   a   tranalation   in  1 — 

Barbeyrac  pnbliahed  a  French  version  in  17-11.    A 

third  English  translation,  by  the  Bav.  Jdin  Tonn 

ppeaied  In  17S0.     On  Cumberland  a*  a  mcnl- 

Mackinto*h,  Hiit.  qf  BMcoI  PkUemlm,  p.  »; 

Wbewell,  Si*,  of  Moral  PkUotopkf,  p.  61. 

Cn'ml  (.tovni),  u  mode  of  Gneciiing  the  Heb.  in- 
perative  >-a>p  (ti('ii»).  *ipiUying  Kaa,  aa  it  is  im 
diately  explained  (Mark  v,  U). 

Cwnln  (*Ba,  taaoHm',  Ut.  a  coadnMnl,  froo  IB 
« ;  Greek  eit/jivov  ;  and  namea  of  aiioilar  nngd  in 
I  the  Oriental  dialecta)  1*  an  nmbelliferooa  plant, 
entioned  both  in  tbe  Old  and  Ke«  Teatamcnti,  and, 
ie  the  dill  and  the  coriander,  continnes  to  be  CB]ti> 
vated  in  modem  aa  it  waa  in  ancient  limea  in  Eaaa- 
inntrles  (Pliny,  xiz,  47),  Theee  an  nmila: 
ted  for  many  of  the  aame  purpoae*  aa  the  *i 


and  caraway,  which  supply  thcb  place,  and  are  wae 
common  In  Earope.  All  these  plants  pmduee  fhdti, 
commonly  called  seeds,  which  abound  in  ewenlial  m1 
of  a  more  or  lesa  gratcfal  flavor,  and  warm,  Hlmnlat- 
Ing  nature;  bence  tbey  were  employed  in  ancimt  *i 
in  modem  times  both  aa  condiments  (Plinv,  lii,  8; 
Apidas,  i,  S2 ;  iii,  18 ;  Polym.  iv,  8,  88)  and  a>  mtdi- 
clnea  (Hisbna,  Shahb.  xix,  2).  A  native  of  tpptr 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  it  ia  atiU  extensively  cultiTBted 
in  Sidly  and  MbIIo.  It  would  appear  to  have  beea  a 
favorite  herb  among  tbe  Hebrew*,  and  as  late  ai  ths 
laat  centnry  it  retained  a  place  of  acme  Impottann  'a 
pharmacy  (aae  Ehrmann,  Dt  nnMisa,  Argent.  1783), 
Cumin  ia  flrtt  menlioned  in  laaiah  (xxviii,  V>): 
"  When  be  (the  ploughman)  hatb  made  {doin  tbe  hre 
thereof,  doth  he  not  caat  abroad  tbe  fitchea,  and  Mat- 
ter tbe  cwirinf"  ahowing  that  it  was  extensively  roltl- 
vated,  as  it  is  in  the  present  day,  in  Eattem  countiw^ 
as  far  even  as  India.  In  the  routh  of  Europe  it  Is  alio 
cultivated  to  ttnae  extrnt.  In  the  above  chapter  af 
Isaiah  (ver.  27)  cumin  is  again  mentioned:  "  jor  the 
filches  are  not  threshed  with  s  Ihrrebinj;  instrmnenl, 
neither  is  a  cart-wheel  tnmed  about  npon  the  (•*■■•,' 
but  the  fitchea  are  beaten  ont  with  a  fUtf,  and  the 
cvnin  wilb  a  rod."  Thia  i*  most  applicable  to  Aa 
fmit  of  tbe  common  cumin,  which,  when  ripe,  may  ha 
separated  from  the  stalk  with  the  ilightcKt  stroke,  and 
would  t»  completely  destroyed  by  tbe  tnmlng  rowt 
of  a  wheel,  which,  bruising  the  wad,  would  prru  ert 
.  the  oil  on  which  it*  virtues  depend  (see  Dioecor.  UV 


GUMMING 


603 


eS).  In  the  Naw  TMtwnent,  cumin  fa  nwotlolHd  Id  | 
Uatt.  xxiii,  26,  wbeia  our  SavioDr  denoanca  ths 
Scrilwi  and  PbuiMM,  vho  paid  tbdt  "  lithe  of  mint,  I 
and  uuM,  and  cumim,"  bat  iie|ilect«d  the  vsightisr 
maUttn  of  ttw  Uw.  In  ths  TBlmndinl  tract  Dtmni 
(U,  1)  camia  li  nwntiMiad  u  one  ofUia  tblDp  nga- 
UrlT  lilbed.  (3«  Cclwi  tlimt.  i,  (U-,  ftnjr  C^c^ 
a^  T.)    S«  Aboxatio. 

Cummiiig,  Albxandib,  >  Congnsatkiful  mlnli- 
tm,  DsttTaorFncboldflf.  J.,  wubOTnlTtS.  He  en- 
tend  tlia  miniatcj  VJVl,  and  wai  nuda  coUaague  pu' 
lor  of  the  pTMbytariao  Cbarch  in  Hew  York,  Oct. 
1760.  Owing  to  tnial>lM  in  tin  dmrch,  both  paiton 
nqoeatsd  to  bediimiHedbjra  commlttea  of  tba  Synod 
bl  ITfiS,  and  Mr.  Cumm'mg  waa  reliered  Oct  35, 1763. 
He  WM  oMalned  colleglsto  paitor  with  Dr.  Sewall,  of 
tba  Old  Soath  Chorch,  Boston,  Feb.  ib,  ITSl,  where  he 
lenidlned  until  hia  death,  Aug.  £6, 1T68.  He  pobliih- 
•d  his  ordination  Hrmon  at  Boaton  (IT61),  and  Ani- 
tadmniimt  on  Stv.  Mr.  Cronetlti  kUe  Later,  etc. 
(1788).— Spragne,  AmoU,  i.  Mi. 

Cima!£form  (m^-Ju^ieit)  or  Abrow-hbadkd 
InscBimoNa,  ii  the  name  now  genersUj  applied  to 
tiioae  angular  tetters  lint  found  engraved  on  Persepol- 
han  relics  (see  Ker  Portal's  TravtUi  Rich's  JfomV), 
and  lately  in  great  abundance  stamped  on  Babylonian 
bricks  [see  Bbick],  and  carved  on  the  Aiayrian  mon- 
nmenta.  See  Attaisu.  The  moat  cofdous  collectloui 
of  these  legends  are  contained  in  the  great  works  on 
the  Klnevite  antiquitiea  by  Botta  and  Flandin  (jVona. 
■aeste  dt  Name,  Par.  1B47,  sq.),  and  by  Layatd  (Aofr- 
toa  /fucriprioiu,  Lond.  IB£1),  and  mora  lately  those  of 
Loftui  (/xtcriplioiu  fnm  At  Snau  of  Sua,  Limd. 
]8G'2)j  a  coniuderable  collecUon  is  also  glren  by  Rich 
(^Memoir  on  Bob.  Lond.  I8S9).  The  character  is  the 
Amplest  and  earlieat  known,  and  was  in  common  a 
by  the  Hedea,  Fenians,  Aaayriani,  and  Chaldnana 
the  most  ancient  times.  Like  the  Egyptian  hiel 
glypbics,  or  rather  Meralie,  it  seems  to  have  be 
ctiiedy  employed  in  monumental  inscriptions,  there 
beinK  doubtless  another  fbnn  (like  the  danntu!)  better 
adapted  to  common  use.  It  appears  to  liare  fallen 
lota  disuse  when,  an  the  fall  of  Babylon  under  Alex- 
ander, these  mighty  em[drea  ceaaad  to  hare  any  great 
national  annals  to  record.  Within  the  past  eighty 
TBBn  the  Urst  speclmeni  fDund  their  way  Into  Europe 
ftom  the  fragments  of  Penepolis,  and  at  length  en- 
gaged  the  attention  of  aevenl  German  phnologiats, 
eapecially  Tyscben;  but  Dr.  GroteTend,  ot  Hanover, 
waa  the  first  who  obtained  any  clew  to  their  decipher- 
ment (Me  Vaax's  Kinari  aid  PeTtrpohM,  p.  S91  sq.). 
According  to  him,  this  mode  of  writing  is  formed  of 
two  radical  signs,  the  wedgt  and  the  angU,  bus 
hie,  howover,  of  about  thirty  different  combinal 
and  conaiita  of  three  varieties,  the  Persian,  the  Me- 
dian, and  the  Assyrian,  distingidshed  from  each  oUiet 
by  a  greater  or  less  complication  of  the  characters,  the 
last  being  the  moat  elaborate :  othen  make  sUU  fur- 
ther subdivisions,  e.  g.  the  Achamcnlan,  BabyloBlan, 
Uedo-Assyrian,  Elymnan,  Scythian,  Arian,  etc.  The 
whole  of  each  alphabet,  however,  Is  obviously  rednci. 
ble  to  a  single  element,  the  wedge,  which  Is  fbund 
^ther  singly  or  in  gmnpa  of  two,  three,  or  more,  a  ' 
placed  vertically,  horizontally,  or  obliquely,  in  the  ti 
era!  chanclers.  It  is  evidently  of  Asiatic  origin, 
written  froni  right  to  left,  and  Is  alphabetic.  (See 
riucidation  of  tiie  process  of  deciphering  these  letters 
by  Laysrd,  AmenA,  ii.  1S4  sq.)  Tbe  other  great  U- 
Iwrer  in  this  licld  of  discovery  Is  Col.  RawUnson,  of 
England,  who  has  so  completely  succeeded  in  confh^- 
ing  and  extending  (ho  results  arrived  at  by  others, 
that  the  meaning  of  theac  inscription*,  with  ttie  excep- 
tkn  of  the  exact  rendering  of  some  of  the  proper  nani4 
may  now  be  said  to  be  establbhed  b^ond  dispn' 
(See  hia  ComMenMn/  <m  lit  Ctoteijam  Imtcnplimi,  re 
before  the  Boy.  As.  Sac.,  and  published  in  a  separi 


Atj/rim  Ouriform  Alplu^. 


m; 

. 

W  1 

* 

I. 

5! 

' 

« 

H 

di 

fl 

a 

X 

i? 

■q 

■  k 

« 

!t 

SJ 

eH 

w 

•"■I 

tl 

V: 

-' 

iS 

V 

«t 

rt 

II- 

II 

<f^Hl 

* 

I. 

*i 

f 

>f- 

^ 

^ 

tH 

m 

s$ 

m 

> 

n» 

-* 

»»K 

l'. 

SM 

\ 

form,  Lond.  1860.)    Dr.  Hlncks  has  also  succeuMly 

prosecuted  these  inquiries.  (See  his  papers  In  tba 
Tnouiirliom  of  the  Roy.  Irish  Acad.  vol.  xiii.)  Tbe 
inscriptions  are  asually  bilingual  as  well  as  trlliteiml, 
tbe  alphabets  and  entire  structare  differing  in  each 
version.  See  Bkhistdh.  Tbe  language  is  Shemitic, 
but  corresponds  with  neither  tbe  Hebrew,  CbaUee, 
Syrlac,  nor  Arabic,  as  they  hare  come  down  to  ns. 
The  inscriptions  of  varloos  periods  and  at  diflSrent 
places  dlfb  con^derably  in  their  form  and  diction. 


CUP 


eos 


CUP 


S«lt«:Ii,  Commnt.  p.  S7S).  Id  Iu.  zxll,  U,  the  wotd 
tmulated  "cup"  u  *^X  (aggaa',  litcnill;  ■  Uaagh  fbr 
uaMng  gannenti),  and  tigalSti  a  iaver  or  buiu  (■■  {t 
■  readendin  EiDd.  xzEv,  6;  "goblet,"  C»nl.Tit, 2). 
le  "  cap  of  trembling"  (^Q,  K^A,  ilnewbcre  "  buin" 
"  bowl")  slgniOsa  ■  braid  ooDvex  duk.  tneb  u  la 
Mill}'  madg  to  rock  or  vibrata.  Tbe  >■  eapt"  nfcnvd 
to  in  1  Cbnin.  xxvilt,  17,  were  tlw  nil^  (iutn<Mt'\ 

of  liqaid.    It  U  of  porceUin  or  Dutdt-ware,  and,  be-   or  broad  boicli  for  libstioa  (elaawbere  improperly-  no- 

ing  without  a  handle,  U  placed  within  inother  cup  [  dend  ■■<averB,"  Exod.  sit,  19;  xxxviii,  16;  Num. 

(called  lar/y  of  silver  or  braaf,  according  to  tbe  cii-  |  JT,  7).     Sncb  veueb  appear  In  tbs  hands  of  tbe  Ar- 

cnnistances  of  the  owner,  and  both  In  ahape  and  *iw  |  BTTian  king  on  tbe  monamenti,  (ppareatly  in  ftetiva 

nearly  like  an  egg-cup. 

In  a  f\ill  service  t)iere  an    i 

teojfi^Qw  and  ziirfM  of    | 

Dniftmn  lilndi,  and  ufkn   | 

another^fi^a  and  inr/*    I 

ofasaperiorkindforthe  i 

master  of  the  hoaio  or 

for  a  diatlngulshed  gueat.  | 

In  the  accompanying  | 

tketch,   tho    coffee  -  pot  ll 

(Jitkrtg  or  bakraij'}  and  P 

tbe  tarfi  and  tray  ore  of 

silver,  and  are  nprotent- 

ed  on  a  Bcsle  ofone  eighth 

of  the  real  liie.     Below  | 

thit  set  are  a  almilar  tarf  jL 

and  Jbigan,  on  a  scale  of 

one  fourth,  and  a  lirau 

tarf,  with  thejtn^on  placed  in  It.     Some  MorfitiK  of  mr  reliiriaiiB  drinking  after  pablic  exploitt  (Bonoml, 

'  ^  ' '   )r  gilt  silver  filigree,  and  a  few  opulent  petnons    A'awel,  p.  S&2)^     In  the  Apocrypha  we  find  the  i 


nt  AdTriu  Cpp 


a  BaU-bBDl 


baTS  them  of  gold.    Many  Uodsma,  however,  rslig- 


knuly  disallow  all  utensils  of  gold  and  oT  silver  (Lane, 
Med.  Eg.  i,  SOe).    See  Cdp-bxarer. 

The  practice  of  divining  by  means  of  a  cnp  {S"'2I, 
ffobi'a.  Gen.  xliv,  !-17;  a  gdbltt,  diBdngnished  firm 
tbe  preceding  or  smaller  cnp>  used  in  drlnkingj  ren- 
dered "pot"  in  Jer.  xxxv,  5;  spoken  of  the  callx- 
form  "bowls"  of  tbe  KOlden  eandlegtlck,  Exod.  xiv, 
S1-S4:  xxzviil,  17-20)  waa  a  practtra  of  great  an- 
tiqaily  in  the  East.  We  read  in  early  Peraian  au- 
thors of  the  mystical  cnp  of  Jenshid  (Bonoml,  Sim- 
ret,  8d  ed.  p.  S06),  which  was  imagined  to  display  all 
■  -  -  Ihe  globe  (Tioroff.  Oe 
BeyjAo  JotrpU,  Jen, 
1667;Titt«l,id.T( 
J  1727).  Seed' 
„^^^—J  Tios.     The  bronie 


riu  Mjltlskl  CDp. 


n,  found  by 
Layard  among  the 
niins  of  Simroud,  may  have  iicen  naed  for  such  a  pnr- 
poee  (A'inneA  and  Bab^im,  p,  167).  KAviv,  the  woid 
xntA  in  Gen.  by  the  Sept.,  occurs  in  Uipparehna  {op. 
AlKtm.  p.  47S,  A),  and  is  cDrioaaly,  like  the  Indian 
bmii,  a  aacrMl  Indian  cnp  (Bohlen  on  C<i>.p.40S; 


cred  veeeis  of  ilebovab  called  inrovliia,  gobMt  (]  Efd. 
li,  18.  ■'  In  their  capt"  1  £ad.  ill,  23,  la  a  rendering  for 
Brov  w/vcum,  vhm  tkeg  driak).  See  Basis;  Bowl; 
DiBH;  Vase;  Vial,  etc. 

"The  word  'cup'  la  oaed  tn  both  Testament*  Id 
some  carioaa  metaphorical  pbrasni.  Such  are  lAr  of 
o/Ktlvaliim  (Psa.  cxvl,  a\  which  Grotius,  afUr  Kim- 
chi,  explains  as  'pocniam  gratiarum  aclionis,'  a  rap 
of  wine  lifted  in  thankigiving  to  God  (comp.  Matt, 
ixvi,  27).  That  it  alludes  to  ■  paschal  libation  can- 
not 1m  proved ;  and  that  it  waa  nnderstood  )iy  tbe  Jews 
to  be  expreadra  of  gratitude  wo  may  see  troro  I 
Uacc,  tI,  27,  where  tbe  Jews  offer  'cups  of  salvation' 
in  token  of  deUverance.  In  Jer.  xvi,  7  we  have  the 
term  'eup  o/ tontolaliat,'  which  is  a  referennt  to  Uh 
wine  drank  at  the  wtpHuma,  or  funeral  feast*  of  tba 
Jews  (S  Sam.  Ill,  86;  Prov.  xxxi,  6;  Josrph.  Wttr,  H, 
1).  In  1  Cor.  X,  16,  we  find  the  veil-known  eipra- 
sion  'clip  q/"  Jfcsan^  (iroripioi'  rijs  liXoyint),  e«i- 
trasted  (ver.  !1)  with  tbe '0910/*  dmZi.'  Tb«  aacn- 
mental  cnp  la  called  the  enp  of  blesaing  becatue  of  tbs 
bleasing  pronounced  over  II  (Halt.  xx\-i,  ST;  Luke 
xiii,  17 ;  see  LIghtfbot,  Ilor.  HAr.  in  loc).  Ko  doubt 
Paul  uses  the  expreaaion  with  a  reference  to  the  Jew- 
ish 'cup  of  bleaaing' (1-13^3  Vs  CiS),  the  thiid  of  tba 
foitr  cupa  drunk  by  the  Jewa  at  their  Paachal  fea>t 
(Schfittgen,  Ear.  Htbr.  In  1  Cor.;  Jahn,  Bibi.  JroL 
§  868),  but  it  is  scarcely  neceaaaiy  to  add  that  to  thb 
Jewiah  costom  onr  Lon),  in  bts  solemn  institution  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  gave  an  infinitely  nobler  and  di- 
viner significance  (Bnilorf,  Dt  Sarra  C<tna,  S  16,  (k 
810).  Indeed,  of  itaelf,  the  JemA  cnstom  was  liable 
to  abase,  and  similar  abnae*  arose  even  in  ChricUan 
timea  (Augustine.  5era>,  cxxiii,  rfetenipore,-  Carpcov, 
App.  CriHe,  p.  880  »q.).  See  Pabbovek.  Id  Psa.  xl, 
6 1  xtI,  6,  'the  portion  of  fte  etp'  is  a  general  explo- 
sion for  tbe  condition  of  life,  either  proapenma  or  nia- 
erable  (Psa.  xxlii,  6).  A  e^  Is  oleo  in  Scripture  tba 
natural  type  of  sensoal  alluiement  (Jer.  li,  7;  Pm. 
xxlii,  31 ;'  Rev.  xvll,  t ;  xvill,  6).     See  Bahqcet. 

"  But  In  by  far  tbe  majotlty  of  pasaogea,  the  cop  b 
a  'enp  of  aslonlibmeut,'  a  'cup  of  trembling,'  tbe  fbll 
ted  flaming  wloe-cnp  of  God's  wtatb  and  reCribntiTe 


CUP-BfiAB£R 


607 


CUBCELL^US 


D  (Pbb.  Ixxt,  8;  Im.  U,  17;  J«r.  zxT,  IS; 
Luo.  IV,  :il;  Euk.  xiiii,  8S;  Z«cb.  xli,  i;  Kit.  stI, 
19,  etc.)-  There  la,  id  fact,  in  the  prophets  iia  mon 
fraqaent  or  UniSc  iitiAge ;  ind  it  ia  repeated  with  p^ 
tbeticrarcs  In  the  1uikiu(^  of  out  Lord'*  agon]' (Matt. 
xxTi,  30,  42;  John  xviil,  11;  Mark  x,  38).  Uod  It 
hen  repreMnled  u  the  maiter  of  a  banquet,  dealing 
the  midnesa  and  stapor  of  vengeance  to  gnilcj  gneati 
(Vjtnnga  in  laa.  li,  17 ;  WlchmenDshauten,  De  ira  tl 
fftmarU  Giliet,  in  Tkt:  Nov.  Thiol.  Philol.  i,  906  fq.)- 
The  cap  thua  became  an  obTioui  ajmbol  of  death  (m- 
T^fHOV  -  .  .  OTifiaivti  jrai  rbv  Quvurov,  Etym.  M.); 
and  hence  the  Oriental  phnae,  to  ■  taate  of  death,'  to 
ittDmDnintheN.T.(Hatt.zvi,S8;  tUTkix,l;  John 
Tiii,  &!;  lleb.  iJ,  9),  in  the  Ribbla  (Schottgen,  Bpr. 
Bfbr.  in  Untt.  xii),  hi  the  Anbian  porta  Aniar,  and 
aimng  the  Penkas  (Scfaleaaner,  Lrx,  K.  T.,  a.  v.  iri 
t^ov.  Jahn,£iU  Jrdl.§  208).  The  cnalom  of  gl< 
I  cap  of  wine  and  myrrh  to  condeiDDed  crimiuali 


(Otho,  Lbz.  ItM.  a.  V.  Mora)  ia  alluded  to  In  Katt 
iiTii,   W;    Mark    «■,    iS."      8c<   WamyB,    Clavii 
Bymioi.  a.  t.  ;    Stier,  Wimli  of  Jena,  I,  878  iq.     See 
Cnrcinzios. 
CDP.     See  Lord's  ScrrrKR. 
CCP  oiTB>  TO  TgK  Laitt.     See  Lobd'b  Suppan, 
Cap-baaiar  (Ttpt^'Q,  maMiek',  one  td(a  ^'ret  to 
iii»k;  so  Gr.  DiVoxuoc.  wBK-puwf ;  Vulg.  pinctnvi), 
as  officer  of  hl^  rank  with  Egyptian.  Peiaian,  Aasf  r- 
lan',a9vellBBj»wi»hnion- 
archa.  Tlie  chief  en  p-beai- 
er,  or  bntler,  to  the  iting 
of  EgTpt  »aa  the  mea 
of  niiintC  Joseph  to  1 
high  poailion  (Gen.  it, 
31 1  xli,  3).     Kabshnke 
who  waa  aent  iiy  Senn 
'  cherib  to  HeiekUh,  ap- 
peara  from  bifl 
have  flllad  a  liki 


■    (2 


the    . 

Kings  xViil,  17;  GbmI 
Thaaur.  p.  1236).  and  it 
aeema  probable,  from  hli 
assaclBtian  with  Kaburla 
{iMrfofAe  tmueii),  and 
from  Eastern  custom  in 
general,  that  he  waa,  like 
him,  a  ennnch  (Geaen.  p. 
973).  See  Babbuakeh. 
Berod  the  Great  had  an 
*  eatabUshmcDt  of  eonnclu, 
of  whom  one  waa  a  ci]|v 
n-  (Joaepboi,  JM;  zH,  8, 1).  NehemUb  wii  cup. 
iMtrerlaAnaxerxeiLoaiiimanuB.kingnr  Tenia  (Neb. 
I.1I;  11,1).  Cnp-bearen  are  mentioned  amon.;  the 
attendant*  af  Solomon  (1  KInga  x,  S ;  !  Chron.  ix,  1 ; 
m  AchiacbaniB,  Tobit,  i,  22),  They  are  frequently 
Kpmeoted  on  the  Aayrian  monumenta  (Roiiomi, 
Nim.  p.  2£0),  atwi.va  aa'  eunucha  (Uyard,  Kin.  ii, 
tt8). 

CnpbOMd  (wAxnlov),  a  place  of  deposit  for  yaaea, 
diihes,  etc.  (BO  Alhen.  Btipit.  xi,  e.  2,  p.  48 ;  Zonaiaa, 
ier,  coL  1268),  e.g.  ftiTthe  royal  pUta(l  Maec.  iv,  8!). 
Corato,  literally  one  who  has  the  cure  (Lat.  curd, 
can)  of  BoaU,  In  which  aenae  It  la  used  in  the  Church 
«(  England  Prayer-book,  "all  biahopa  and  cnratea." 
Id  the  Chonh  of  Borne  it  waa  originally  appropriated 
to  aaalatanta  and  vkan  appulnled  by  tbe  biabopa.  It 
li  DO*  generally  uaed  to  denote  tbe  humblest  degree  of 
alnitteraic  tbe  Cbnrch  of  England.  A  earata,  in  thiB 
Mnae,  i*  a  minister  emploj-ed  1>t  the  incumbent  of  a 
ekarcli  (nelor  er  vicar),  sitber  aa  attlatant  to  blm  in 
Ibe  aana  church,  or  dae  In  a  chapel  of  ease  within  the 
paHab  belonging  to  tlie  mother  charcb.  Ha  moat  be 
Ikaoaed  and  admitted  by  the  blahop  of  tbe  dioceaa,  or 


by  an  ordinary  baring  epUoopal  jniladictian,  who  alio 
SBually  appointa  bi>  salary.  Any  curate  that  baa  no 
Bzad  eatate  in  hll  curacy,  not  being  Inatituled  and  In- 
ducted, may  be  removed  at  pleaaura  by  the  blahop  or 
IncnmbenC.  But  there  are  perjKlual  coralaa  as  well 
as  lemporiry.  who  are  appointed  where  tithes  are  im- 
propriate and  no  vicarage  waa  ever  endowed:  theaa 
are  not  nraovable,  and  tbe  impropriatora  are  obliged 
to  maintain  them.  In  general,  the  aalariei  of  curataa, 
certainly  the  bardeat-worked  and  not  the  loaat  devolad 
if  tbe  Engtiab  clei^y,  are  shamefiilly  small,  and  relonn 
Dtbis  matter  la  urgently  required.  "Thia  large  claaa 
if  men  are  abaolntaly  at  the  diapoaal  of  tbe  hisbopa; 
they  have  no  •acurity  whatever,  no  righta,  no  pow- 
ers ;  public  opinion  may  protect  them  to  a  certain 
extant,  hut  any  bishop  who  chooeea  to  set  public 
opinion  at  deflanca  la  absolute  over  the  whole  claaa." 
—Charch  «f  injimrf  Quarterlf  Jtaiew,  April,  18S6, 
p.  S6 ;  Cbamben,  Etoichp.  a.  v.  j  Hook,  Cluircli  Die- 

Curcellana,  Stephanos  (Atiamt  dt  Couraliei), 

I  eminent  and  leiimed  divine,  waa  born  at  Geneva 

In   1686.      He  studied  under  Beia  at  Geneva,  and 

aflerwania  at  Heidelberg.     In  1614  he  was  appointwl 

pastor  at  KoDtaineUean ;  In  1021,  at  Amiens;  but,OD 

bis  nfuaal  to  suliecribe  to  the  canona  at  Don  (q.  v.), 

compfllod  to  iwlifn  his  p-iatorsl  <har„-o.     But, 

li  to  tbe  importunity  offHenda,  he  afterwardB 

ntodiHed  aaacnt  to  the  derreca  o(  Don,  and 

became   pnalor    at    Verrei,  in    Piedronnt,  when    be 

iiinsd   until   16.M.      Becoming  satislied   that   ha 

lid  not,  with  a  good  conscience,  serve  in  a  Chnrcb 

which  held  the  doctrine  of  absolnta  predestination,  ba 

remoTod  to  Amaterdam.  where  he  acquired  a  gnat 

ngtbefullowera  orArmiDius.     He  read 

lectures  in  divinity,  and  succeeded  Epitcopiua  (1684) 

in  tbe  professorship  of  theology  in  the  Hcmonstranta' 

College.     He  had  great  aklU  Id  Greek,  us  appean 

by  his  tranatation  of  Comcnlua's  book,  Jamta  litigua- 

nan.  Into  that  language.     He  applied  himself  psrticD- 

larly  to  a  critical  examination  of  the  Greek  of  the 

Testament,  of  which  he  gave  a  new  edition,  with 

/  various  readings  drawn  from  different  M8S. 

He  pmfixed  a  large  dissertadon  to  this  edition,  In 

which  he  trrsts  of  various  readmgs  in  general  (Arast. 

>8  and  167a,  12mo).      His  large  culture  and  tolei* 

t  spirit  commended  him  to  his  great  contemporaties 

Holland,  Grotlns  and  Uitembogaart,  with  both  of 

lom  he  was  in^mately  connected.     Id  the  discns- 

n  between  Amjraut  and  Dn  Moulin  he  intervened, 

a  sort  of  arbiter,  by  his  Advit  d^jm  pertoimage  diwi- 

tni  rtialitrmeni  a  la  diipute  tw  la  prrdatuuxlioii 

(Amst.  1638,  8Ta>     Later  he  published  Vmdicia  Ar^ 

t^lii  ode.  U.  Amgn^dum  (IM6,  Bvo);  Dtfamt  D. 

" (fc-Jfareriift-i'sitiKHwiwu  (Arast.  1667)  i  fl«- 

(Amtt.  1659,  Svo).  These,  and  other  of  bis 
ings  (translated  into  Latin),  ai«  given,  together 
with  his  Imtinitiu  Seiigiom*  Chrinliima  (an  incomplete 
system  of  Thooiogy),  Id  Curetliai  Optra  Thtoliigica 
(Anutelod.  IGT6,  fbl.),  with  preflKO  by  limborch,  and 
eulogy  on  Cniallani  by  Arnold  Poelembntg.  Cmw 
cellaus  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1669.  Poelemburg 
thus  charactarliai  himi  "B*  first  of  aU  directed 
his  mind  to  a  search  altir  divine  thuth;  for  ba 
thought  that  this  truaeore,  descending  (Tom  beavea, 
should  be  preferred  to  all  other  acquirementa.  Nezt, 
he  bad  all  the  thoughts  of  hie  mind  directed  to  unrnO' 
niTY,  because  he  believed  that  not  even  truth  conU 
be  of  benefll  to  na,  unless  It  brought  some  strikingly 
advanlageoua  aid  (o  onr  piety.  Finally,  this  especial- 
ly he  wished,  and  for  this  peculiarly  be  labored,  to 
unite  the  Christian  body,  torn  Into  many  and  terrible 
acbisma ;  to  compoae  and  concUiata  the  aeporate,  dla- 
trsclad  feelings  of  various  minda;  and  to  teach  that 
not  all  the  doctrines  which  were  ^eged  aa  a  pretext 
for  caosing  or  cherishing  a  schism  were  vital  fiir  salva- 
tion, aod  at  the  same  tlma  to  show  that  thoH  tblugi 


CURE  61 

vUeh  li^  not  tbe  wd^  of  D««uit;  bj  no  niMiia 
■afficed  for  dividing  tbe  Chntch  of  Cfariit.  To  thU 
all  things  were  to  ba  referred  which  be  meditated,  ut- 
tered, or  perfonned ;  for  thi«  ha  remted  to  subKribs  to 
the  fdjnooa  canons  of  the  pjnod,  becaose  ve,  whoaa 
oplniont  ought  not  to  be,  were  catidemned ;  for  thii  be 
abandoned  hit  loved  coonlty,  Fnnee,  »nd  endured 
many  h»rd«hip»  for  the  wkc  of  matDMl  tolention; 
and  for  this  he  determined  to  conteat,  u  if  tor  eoroa 
(Urine  pBlUdinm.  Ho  conceded  to  otben  ■■  much  u 
be  thought  ehould  bn  equally  granted  to  him;  de- 
manded that  nothing  Bhoald  be  conceded  to  hinuelf 
tma  otheri  except  wbet  ]u>Cice,  and  right  reaMin.  and 
the  aacred  writingi  recgulra  sbould  be  admitted.  What 
b  mors  boiy  than  this  propoeition,  what  more  aaln- 
tary,  what  more  neceuary  forthe  times?  For  many 
eoDtend  conwming  the  tmtb,  and  *o  couUnd  that  they 
never  obtain  truth,  but  loH  charity.  Hence  the  many 
dEapat«a  in  Christendom  on  alight  cansea. 
ia  more  dlagraceful  to  ua  aa  membera  of  Chriat,  what 
mora  ignominlout  to  Chrift  aa  onr  Head  and  Leadei 
than  that  his  aeamlesa  coat,  and  hia  body,  vhich  ought 
to  be  united  by  the  cloaeat  tiea  of  love,  should  be  toi 
Into  a  thousand  fVagments?  This,  Indeed,  ia  the  die- 
Unction  of  Remonslranllsm ;  Ihia  our  crown  of  glory 
because  we  neither  caused  Ihia  achlam,  nor  conaantei 
toany  other,  nor  cherished  norapproved  any;  hdtwa 
Invite  and  exhort  all  who  love  Christ  and  adhere  to 
hie  Gospel  alone  to  enter  tbia  commnnion  of  peace' 
(aee  translation  of  Poelemhurg'a  enlogy  in  the  Jfeiio- 
dU  Quarltrly  RmiitK,  January  and  April,  186B).  The 
theology  of  Curcelinus  was  a  modified  Arroinioniim. 
He  held  tbe  Grottan  view  of  tbe  atonement,  but  (tee 
Atonemgmt)  aet  special  empbaeia  u]iun  the  aacriSclal 
characterofthe  death  of  Christ  in  ita  reference 
OS  well  aa  (o  man,  aaaerting  that  Christ  made  eaUsfac- 
tlon  for  sin,  but  not  Ij  enduring  the  whole  panish- 
ment  due  to  finners  (itulil.  lib.  v,  chap,  xvili,  lix). 
Aa  to  tlie  Trinity,  he  held  that  Christ  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  are  divine,  but  that  both  Son  and  Spirit  are  aub- 
Ofdlnate  to  the  Father,  from  whom  they  receive  both 

axistence  and  divinity  {Intlit.  Selig.  ChriM. . 

Zix).— Cnrcellans,  Optra  (as  cited  aboTe)j  Hagea- 
bach,  HiilOTy  of  Doctrima,  ii,  g  236,  368 ;  Domer.  Doc- 
Iriae  o/AeJ^rKn  qfChntt  (Edinb.  iranal.),  div.  11,  vol. 
U,  SdO  sq.  1  Ball,  Definee  of  tlu  JVtcews  Cnxd  (Lib.  of 
Angl. Catb.  Theologj),  i, SI sq. 

Cure,  t<l7?'  mfirpi'  (Jer,  xxxvi  6) ;  lamt  (Luke 
xiil,  Si).  From  the  aame  Heli.  root,  XB^,  rr^',  to 
"heal"  or  nre,  la  derived  r^KBl,  r^pkulA',  the  art  of 
healing,  coring  (Prov.  iii,  S);  and  nitl^^,  riplkaoH', 
remedies,  medicines  (Jer.  xlvl,  11;  Eaok.  xxx,  !1). 
Tha  Scriptures  make  no  mention  of  phyaicUna  before 
the  time  ofJoafph,  and  then  it  Is  Egyptian,  not  He- 
brew physicians  that  are  rpokea  of.  Indeed,  It  does 
not  appear  that  phygiciana  wera  ever  mncb  resorted  to 
among  the  Hebrews,  especially  for  internal  maladies. 
For  wounds,  bruises,  and  external  injuries,  they  had 
physicians  or  surgeons  who  understood  drenlng  and 
binding  them,  with  the  application  of  medicaments 
(Jer.  Till,  2! !  xlvl,  11;  Ezek.  xii,  !I);  and  the  Le- 
vites,lt  seemafivm  Lev.xiii,!!;  Deut  xx,  !,  bad  pe- 
culiar duties  asaiimed  them,  which  rendered  It  nceee- 
■ary  they  should  know  something  of  the  art  of  medi 
cine.  The  probable  reason  of  kinK  Aea'e  not  seeking 
help  from  God,  bnt  from  tha  physicians,  was,  that  they 

offered,  but  tu  certain  snperstltlODs  rites  and  incanta- 
tions; and  this,  no  dDu)>t,  waa  the  ground  of  the  reflec- 
tion cast  upon  bim  (3  Chron.  xvi,  ]!).  The  balsam, 
or  balm  of  Gilead,  waa  parttculariy  celebrated  aa  a 
medicine  (Gen.  xxxvit,  2G;  xliii,  11 ;  Jer.  viii,  2S; 
xlvi.ll;  li,8).  That  mineral  baths  were  deemed  wor- 
thy of  notice,  and  perhaps  fhim  ancient  Umes,  we  know 
fYom  JosephuB.  See  CALLiRnuoK.  Although 
can  be  no  doubt  that  there  were  physicians  In  the 


CURE 

onr  Savlonr  appeared  In  PakMine,  it  ta  «t>- 

the  people  placedhot  little  confidence  in  them 
(Uark  V,  26 ;  Luke  viii,  13).  The  Egyptian  pbyai- 
clana,  on  the  other  hand,  were  highly  esteemed-  Wa 
first  read  of  (hem  as  being  commaiiided  hy  Jowph  to 
Im  (he  body  of  his  father  Jacob  (Gen.  1, !).  Pliaj 
■tales  tliat,  during  tbe  proceoa  of  embalming,  certain 
' '  ins  took  place,  which  enabled  them  to  ■tiuly 
I  of  which  the  deceased  hod  died.  Wllkin- 
es  (_AiK.  Egspt;  2d  aer.,  li,  460  iq.),  "  Tbese 
examinations  appear  to  have  been  made  in  oompiianca 
with  an  onler  from  the  government,  aa,  according  U> 
Pliny  (six,  S),  the  kinga  of  Egypt  bad  the  bndis 
opened  after  death  to  ascertaiti  the  nature  of  their  dia- 
easee,  Iiy  which  means  alone  tbe  remedy  for  phthisical 
complaints  waa  discovered.  Indeed,  it  ia  reasonable 
to  euppose  that  a  people  so  far  advanced  aa  were  tbe 
^yptiana  in  knowledge  of  all  kinds,  and  wboac  medi- 
cal art  was  to  systematically  arraogcd  that  thry  hod 
regulated  it  by  tome  of  the  very  aume  laws  fullowsd 
by  the  moat  enlightened  and  akilfol  nations  of  tbe 
present  day,  wouhl  not  have  omitted  so  useful  an  In- 
quiry, or  have  failed  to  avail  themselves  of  the  meana 
which  the  looceas  adopted  for  embalming  tbe  body 
placed  at  their  disposal.  And  nothing  can  more  clear- 
ly prove  their  advancement  In  the  study  of  human  dis- 
eases than  tbe  fact  of  their  assigning  to  each  bla  own 
peculiar  branch,  under  the  different  heads  of  oculists, 
dentists,  those  who  cored  dipeases  in  the  head,  those 
who  confined  themselves  to  intestinal  oompiainta,  and 
(hose  who  attended  to  secret  and  Internal  maladiea. 
Their  knowledge  ofdmgr,  and  oFtbeir  eSects.  is  suffi- 
ciently shown  by  the  preservation  of  the  mnrnmiea, 
and  the  msnner  in  which  the  intestines  and  other  parti 
have  been  removed  from  the  interior.  And  such  is 
the  skill  evinced  in  tbe  embalming  pi 
medical  man  of  the  present  day,  who 
idence  derived  from  such  an  examination  of  the  taum- 
miea,  willingly  acquiesces  in  the  praiae  doe  lo  the  abil- 
ity and  experience  of  the  Egyptian  emLaloiera."  See 
EHBALUiMa.  There  ia  reaaon  to  lelieve  that  the  an- 
cient Egyptiaus  encouraged,  or  «t  least  proHted  by,  tha 
groMth  of  many  wild  plants  of  the  dcBert,  which  wera 
useful  for  medicinal  purposes.  Many  of  them  are  (till 
known  to  the  Arabs,  as  the  Sahadura  Pertira,  fftU^ 
tropitxm  wAriant,  I.i/ciim  Europaum,  Sdltn  autrilimm, 
CaitiaS<mia,  Oihrad<nuibiKralm,Oc'viHmZalnrhiii^ 
Lwaria  jEijptiaca,  Spariiim  iaoBoiptrmiim,Jii<igtanai 
AlAayi,  Sanlvlaii  /roffraaltDitiia,  Artaatia  Jtilnica 
(oHmotperma  and  inciitta).  Inula  laidiitalii  and  criifo, 
CWufflU  Coiixynlhu,  etc. ;  and  many  others  have  plY>li- 
ally  folUn  into  disuse  from  the  Ignorance  of  the  mod. 
cm  inhabitonta  of  the  country,  who  only  know  them 
from  the  Araba,  l.y  whom  the  traditions  concrraiog 
their  properties  era  preserved.  From  what  Homer 
tells  us  of  "  the  infinity  of  drugs  produced  in  Epi-pl" 
(Odgi.  ii,  229),  the  use  of  "many  medicincF,"  men- 
tioned by  Jeremiah,  ch.  slvi,  11,  and  the  frequent  sUn- 
eion  hy  Pliny  to  the  medicinal  plants  of  that  country, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  productions  of  the  desert 
(where  those  herba  moetly  gnw)  were  particularly 
prized.  See  Mei>icii(e.  The  ait  of  medicine  wasvery 
ancient  in  Egypt,  and  some  writers  have  supposed  that 
Hoees,  having  been  instructed  in  all  the  learning  of  tha 
Egyptuins,  most  have  known  the  chief  secrets  of  med- 
icine, a  fact  which  they  also  infer  frcm  his  accurate  di- 
agnosis, or  indications  concvming  diseases.  llioaRh 
tbe  Arabian  phyaiciana  were  in  tbo.  Middle  Ages  the 
most  skilful  of  their  class,  medical  ait  in  tbe  East  has 
long  sank  into  mere  empiricism  and  merited  contimpt. 
It  ia,  indeed,  in  the  estimation  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, of  fkr  less  utility  than  tbe  employment  of  charms 
for  tbe  recovery-  of  health,  and  is  never  resorted  to  tilt 
this  means  baa  Ihlled.  Roberta  Inlbnns  lis,  "Physi- 
cians in  England  voidd  he  perfectly  aHonished  at  the 
nnmerons  kinds  of  medicine  which  are  administered  to 
■  patient  in  India.    The  people  thcmteltM  are  nairill 


CUKTIUS  6] 

bemitiful  flgnre  of  Im.  Iit,  2  (where  "lubiUtkuu"  , 
■boald  ba  "  Ubetnaclsa,"  nilStiljl,  poetic  word  for  ^ 
"tanta");  Jer.  Iv,  !0;  X,  20  (bere  '■Ubernula"  ind 
"  tent"  in  both  one  nord,  ^nit,  laU);  Pu.  civ,  2 
(wbcre  "iCratcb,"  'jCS,  U  the  word  niiuUy  emploTcd 
for  eslendiDg  a  tent).  Also  epedallr  of  nniudic  peo- 
ple, Jer.  xliz,  39 ;  Hab.  lU,  7  (oT  the  black  hur^lotU 
<rf'  which  the  tenti  ot  the  real  Bedouin  are  itill  com- 
posed); bat  Cant.  1,  6  nther  refers  to  the  hangings 
of  the  pilace.     See  Tsar. 

2.  TjD^,  mofnb',  the  "liBDgiDg"  for  tiie  doorway  of 
theUbeniaele(Exod.zxTi,S6,S7;  zxxv.lfi;  xxivi, 
S7;  zixlx,  38;  xl,  &;  Num.iii.SJ;  iv,  !G);  and  sIhi 
for  the  gate  ot  tha  court  round  the  tabenude  C^xod. 
XXTii,lG;  xxxv,17;  xxXTli[,]8;  xixix,4a;  xl,83; 
Num.  iii,  B6;  it,  S6).  Among  the«  the  rendering 
'•  curtain"  oconn  but  once  (Num.  iii,  26),  while  "hang. 
iog"  ii  ahored  equally  between  matai  and  a  veiy  dif- 
TertDt  word— ';sp,  Ic/ji'.  Seo  Hakoiko.  Bmldea 
"cnrtiin"  and  "  baoKiog,"  matak  !*  rendered  "cover- 
inK"ln£xad.  xxxv.lS;  xxKii.ftl:  il,Sl:  Num.  iv, 
6;  2  Sam,  xvii,  ]9;  Pin.  ct,  B8;  I»a.  xxli,  8.  Tho 
idea  in  the  root  of  nmui  aeenii  to  be  of  ibidding  or 
protecting  01^^,  Geunini,  Tin.  HA.  p.  951).  If  this 
be  lo,  the  oLiject  denoted  may  hare  lieen  not  a  curtain 
DT  veil,  bat  an  awning  tn  »hnde  (he  cnlrnncet— -«  thing 
natural  ■iid  eomnioii  in  the  fleree  «un  of  the  f-tn. 
(eea  Fer)-iiAtir>  XiwitK  and  Piitrpolu,  ji.  184). 
a.  V.  See  Tabebnacls.  The  aacred  curtain  aepar. 
athig  the  holy  of  holiea  from  tbe  aanctaary  ia  deiig- 
nated  by  an  entirety  different  tonn,  P^'\lf,  pero'irth 

£xod.  xxTi,  Bl  M. ;  Lev.ivl,!;  Num.' xriil,  7,  etc.). 


1  CUSA 

moat  beneBcenl  influence  upon  the  rellgioui  life  of  the 
city.     He  also  took  a  promtnent  part  la  many  of  the 

tbeological  conference*  of  tbe  Lutheran  Church.  Thus 
be  WB*  present  at  the  "convent  of  Bmnawlck"  in 
15S7,  which  wae  to  settle  tbe  adiaphoriatic  controver- 
aiea,  and  in  1561  at  the  "convent  of  Luneburg,"  when 
the  "Luneburg  Articles"  were  drawn  up,  whicb  were 
incorporated  with  the  symbolical  books  of  Brunswick. 
Curtiui  is  also  tbe  author  of  the  so-called  "Lubeck 
Formula"  (f'oriitula  amtmitu,  etc.).  whicb  ha  drew  a 


htbe  I 


laadtt 


AwDlDB  b<^ore  the  Thn>ne.roan  at  T< 

8.  p^,  Jot  (prop,  jbosrw),  fine  cloth  tbr  a  garment, 

tpeciMlly  a  nrfoM,  apparently  a  tent-corerlng  of  anpe- 

lior  liueneaa  {Isa.  xl,  22),  snch  as  the  rich  Orientsla 

darsoD,  tn  loc.).     See  ConsT. 

CnrttOB,  YALEtTTtH,  a  prominent  Lnthann  min- 
iMer  of  tha  sixtoetith  century,  was  bom  at  Lebns 
Jan.  G,  1493.  He  sludlcd  at  tbe  University  of  Ros- 
tock, and  early  entered  the  order  of  Franciscans. 
He  was  one  ot  the  earliest  adherenis  of  the  liefonna- 
tioD  of  Luther,  and  became  Itt  leader,  flrst  In  the  city 
ot  Rostock,  and  sobeequently  in  that  of  Lnbeck.  In 
liM  ho  was  appointed  superintendent  of  all  tbe 
dnrcbes  ot  Lubeck,  and  in  this  pwltion  exercised  a 


clergy  of  the  city.  By  it  tho  minister*  pledge  thcm- 
selve  to  abide  by  the  doctrine  ot  the  prophets  and  the 
apostles,  ^e  Apostolic  Creed,  tbe  Augsburg  Confes- 
aion,  the  Apology,  and  the  Articles  otSchmalkald.  tt 
was  signed  by  Curtius  and  all  the  other  ministers  of 
Lnbeck  in  15G0,  and  Bflerwatds  by  all  ministers  ap- 
pointed io  Lnbeck  until  I6S8,  when  tbe  signing  of  it 
was  no  longer  required.  Curtius  also  drew  up,  in  the 
name  of  tbe  clergy,  a  "Prolatatio  contra  Sipvtdum 
Tridrntinta,:'  He  died  KoT.  28, 1973.— HeriOi^  Seal- 
^tiesO.  six,  B7B ;  Starke,  Lib.  Kirei-Riit.  (Hamburg, 
1724, 2  vols.,  where  both  Ibo  "Fumida  Cmwnuu"  and 
the  Pmtettatia  sre  printed). 

C<ua,  NicuoLAs  DB.  OT  CuBAHcs,  a  cardinsl  of 
great  learning.     His  name  was  properly  Nicholas 
EBitTFFPa  (Kbebb),  but  he  was  named  Cuianat  otDe 
CatJ  n\)m  Cues  on  the  Moscl,  wfaoro  be  was  bom  in 
1401.     He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  tisber,  ivbo  wished 
him  to  learn  tha  same  trade.     Rather  than  comply 
with  this  request,  Nicholaa  left  the  paternal  home,  and 
found  employment  with  the  count  of  Minderscheid, 
who,  hii-lnR  discovered  the  eminent  talent  of  his  ser- 
vant, tmt  him  to  the  school  ottbe  Brothers  of  Common 
Life  at  Deventer,  and  subsequently  to  the  (Jniveraity 
of  Padua.    AttbeageofiS 
Nicholas  became  doctor  of 
law,  but  when  be  tost  his 
first  lawsnit  he  left  tbe  pro- 
fession of  law  for  the  study 
of  theology.     Posses^ng  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew 
languages,  and  a  r~re  de- 
gree of  eloquence,  be  soon 
attracted  attention.     After 
holding  severs!  ecilcsiasti- 
eal  benefices  at  St.  Wendel 
and  Coblenti,  he  naa  pres- 
ent as  arcbdescon  of  the  ca- 
thedral church  of  Liege  at 
I  the  CoDncil  orBsnel,  where 
be  presented  Io  the  assem- 
bled bishop*  the  celehratrd 
work  Dt  ConmrdMtia  Ca- 
Uiolica.     This  Is  one  of  the 
>    ablest  works  published  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ag?s  In  T-.,- 
vor  of  tbe  opinion  that  the 
pope  1*  snhordinate  to  an 
cecumenical  council :  It  at- 
"™^  tacka  tho  pretended  dona- 

tion otConitan  tine,  and  the  authority  of  the  false  de- 
cretals, and  Insists  on  the  reformation  of  the  Cliurch 
and  the  Germanic  em;dre.  Coaa  was  opposed  to  the 
dissolution  of  Che  conncU  which  was  attempted  I'y  Eu- 
gene IV,  and  showed  himself  favorable  to  tha  refnrras 
which  the  council  decri<ed.  But  soon  after  be  lelt  the 
reformatory  party  and  became  ID  adherent  of  tbe  pope, 

Constantinople  to  dissuade  the  Greeks  fhnn  going  to 
Basel,  and  to  bidnce  them  to  go  to  Ferrara.  After 
the  mptara  between  tbe  pope  and  the  council,  Cnsa  ac- 
companied the  papal  legato,  Thomas  da  Saraana,  on  his 
missions  to  Germany  and  France.  When  the  latter 
liecamepope,nnder  the  name  of  NicbnIafT.  Curs  was 
made  a  cardinal  (1449),  and  bishop  of  Brixen,  in  the 


cum 

lyrol,  in  11S9.  Hs  «u  ilao  MDt  on  importent  mlt- 
^□s  to  Germtuif,  England,  and  PnuBu.  Being 
charged  with  the  re-eitsblufanient  of  ecdeaiaitical 
discipline  ia  Hollaad,  he  acquitted  himself  of  tbia  tai 
with  great  flnniieea.  Hit  rerorm  meagarH  in  bit  ov 
diaceso  iaTolved  him  in  a  qoorrel  iricb  tbe  archduke 
Sigiiinond  of  Austria.  Casa  excommunicated  tha 
archduke,  who,  In  bla  tarn,  impriaoaed  tho  cardinal, 

matter  iraa  not  fully  lettled  when  the  cordioil  died  at 
Lodi  in  I4M. 

Tba  transition  of  Cnsa  from  the  reform  par^  to  the 
■dheients  of  the  court  of  Home  haa  bj  tome  wri 
been  charged  to  ignoble  motives ;  but,  in  view  of 
purity  of  bie  life,  and  the  honettj  of  his  purpoee* 
bibiud  in  all  his  public  acta,  most  of  the  vritera  i 
aider  it  as  an  honest  cbanye  of  opinion.     It  i«  thought 
that  Cius  bimaelf  discovered  the  iaeoDsistenE;  of 
aame  of  his  views  on  the  unity  of  the  Church,  the  p»- 

El  pnrogativea,  and  the  authority  of  tho  councils,  i 
d  down  in  the  work  De  Coneordanlia  CatAolica,  an 
that,  finding  It  necessary  to  discard  the  one  or  tl 
other,  he  laid  graater  streii  on  the  monarchical  goi 
•mment  of  the  Cburch  tiian  on  the  repreaentatii 
councils.  This  agrees  with  the  strong  attachment 
which  Cusa  shows  to  the  monarchical  principle  ii 
general.  See  Brockhius,  XiaUai  Cutcmi  de  concili 
Uniutriaiii  polalate  lentenlia  erjiUcatur  (_Lj-zg.  1S67). 

As  a  pbiloeopher,  Cusa  was  among  the  flnl  to  aban- 
don tbe  scholastic  creed.  "  Hs  arranged  and  republiah. 
ed  the  Fytbagotsan  ideas,  to  which  he  was  much  in- 
clined, in  a  very  original  manner,  by  the  aid  of  bis  math- 
ematical kaowledgs.  He  considered  God  is  tbe  u 
ditional  Uaximum,  which  at  the  same  time,  u  Abtobdt 
Vaily,  is  also  tbe  unconditianal  Minimum,  and  begetc 
of  himself  and  oat  of  himself  equality  aod  the  combi. 
nation  of  equality  with  unity  (Son  and  Hnly  Ghost). 
According  to  him,  it  is  impossible  to  know  directly  and 
immediately  this  absolute  unity  (tbe  Divinity),  because 
we  con  make  approaches  lu  the  kunwledgB  of  him  only 
by  the  means  of  number  or  plunlity.  Consequently 
be  allows  us  only  the  poeseaaion  of  very  imperfect  no- 
tions of  God,  and  those  by  mathematical  nymbols.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  the  cardinal  did  not  pursue  this 
tJiought  very  consequently,  and  that  his  view  of  tbe 
universe,  which  ho  connectfid  with  it,  and  which  repre- 
sented the  universe  as  the  maximum  cowJnued 
thus  Jeomwjfmte,  was  very  obscure.  Nor  was  he 
successful  in  his  view  of  the  oneness  of  the  Creator  and 
of  creation,  or  in  his  attempt  to  evplain  tho  mysterie 
of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation  by  means  of  this  pantbt 
istic  theism.  Nevertheless,  numerous  profound  though 
undeveloped  ohoervatiooa  on  the  lacnlty  of  cognition 
■re  found  in  bis  writings,  fnlerfpersed  with  his  pre- 
vailing mysticism.  For  instaDce,  he  observes  " 
tbe  principles  of  knowledge  possible  lo  us  are 
toined  in  our  ideas  of  number  (rntio  rrplicaUi)  and 
their  several  relations ;  that  absolute  knowledge  is 
unattainable  to  us  (jireatio  writatit  iTiaOiiigibilii, 
which  be  styled  dnda  iffitoraxUa),  and  that  all  which 
is  attainable  to  us  is  ajin>iaifeknowledge(ci>n)V(«iira). 
With  such  opinions  he  expressed  a  sovereign  contempt 
fbr  the  dogmatism  of  tlie  schools,"  The  works  of 
Cusa  were  published  in  1^11  at  Paris  (S  vols,  fol.},  and 
again  In  1665  at  Basel  (S  vols.  fol.).  Tho  latter  edi- 
tion is  the  more  complete.  See  Tennemann,  Manual 
Bill.  Fha.  %  286 ;  Scharpff,  Ikr  Cardinal  and  BiMhop 
Kic.  voa  Cuta  (vol.  i,  Mainz,  IMS ;  the  Sd  vol.  has 
not  appeared) ;  DQx,  Drr  deuticit  CartUnal  yic.  van 
Ciua  (Ratisbon,  1847,  2  vols.) :  Clemens.  G.  Brtma  tnrf 
M.  voa  Cata  (Bonn,  184T) ;  Zimmcrmann,  Cum  alt  Vor- 
lav/er  LOmUtat  (\'ienna,  ISG3). 

Coab  (Heb.  Kuth.  tJiO,  deriv.  uncertain;  A.  V. 
"Cosh,"  Gen.  x,  6,  7,  8 ;  1  Chron.  i,  8,  9. 10;  Psa. 
Tit,titlei  taa.xi,]li  "Ethiopia,"  Gen.il,  13;  2KingB 
xix,9;  Eath.1,1;  \-iil,g;  Jobxxviii,19;  Psa.liviii, 


2  CUSH 

31;  Ixzxvii,  4;  Iio.  xvUl,  1;  xx,  8,  B;  ziivit,  9; 
xlill,  8;  xlv,U;  Eiek.  xiix,  10;  ixx,4,&;  jizzi-iii, 
b;  Nab.  iii,  9;  Zepb.  iii,  10;  "Ethiopians,"  Iia-  xx, 
4;  Jar.  xlvl,9;  Eiek.  xxx,  9),  the  name  of  two  meo, 
and  of  the  territory  or  larritoiies  occn]ded  by  ttxi  d^ 
Bcendanta  of  one  of  them. 

1.  (Sept.  Xauc.  Vulg.  Cliii.)  A  ton  (fffnoHlj 
the  eldest)  of  Ham.  aC.cir.2GI0.  In  the  genealo- 
gy of  Noah's  children  Cusb  seems  to  be  an  individtul. 
for  it  is  sakl  "  Custa  iMgot  Nimrod"  (G«n.  z,  8 ;  1 
Chron.  1, 10).  If  the  name  be  older  tbsn  Us  time,  be 
may  have  been  called  after  ■  country  allotted  tu  hiDt. 
Tbe  following  descendonta^f  Cush  m  iDnmaatod: 
his  sons,  Saba,  Havilah,  ^btah  or  Sabta,  »«.... ■!>, 
and  Sabtechab  or  Sabtecha ;  his  grandsons,  the  aona 
of  Baamab,  Sheba  and  Dedan ;  and  Nimrod,  who,  ai 
mentioned  after  the  rest,  seems  to  have  been  ■  ra- 
moter  descendant  than  they,  the  text  not  necessarily 
proving  him  to  have  been  a  son.  See  Eam.  Tba 
only  direct  geographical  information  given  In  this  pas- 
sage is  with  reference  to  Nimrod,  the  beginning  td 
whose  kingdom  was  in  Babylonia,  and  who  afterwards 
went,  accordina  lo  tbe  reading  which  we  prefer,  intn 
Assyria,  and  founded  Nineveh  and  other  dlie*.  The 
reasons  for  our  preference  ars:  (1)  that  If  ire  read 
"Out  of  Ihot  land  went  forth  Asshur,"  instead  of  "he 
went  forth  [into]  Asshoi,"  i.  e.  Assyria,  there  is  tM 
account  given  but  of  the  "  beginning"  of  Kimrod'i 
kingdom ;  and  (2)  that  Aasbur  Ibe  patriarch  wnald 
Mem  here  to  be  quite  out  of  place  in  the  gcnealosy. 
S«i>  Niuiioti. 

lutBD  or  CiWR.— Ffom  the  eldest  son  of  Han  (Oeo. 
I,  8;  1  Chron.  i,  8)  seems  to  have  been  derived  tbe 
name  of  the  (and  of  Cusb,  which  is  commanly  rendcfed 
l>y  the  Sept.  Aieiann,  and  by  the  Vulgate  ^lAiopia; 
In  which  they  have  been  followed  by  almost  all  other 
ver^ons,  ancient  and  modem.  The  German  transla- 
tion of  Luther  has  MohmlamI,  which  is  eqairalent  to 
Negroland,  or  tbe  Country  of  the  Blacks.  A  native 
was  called  Cahi'  (^Sl,  Aidioit,  ..tMHa/m,  Jer.  xiii,  JJ), 
the  feminine  of  wMch  was  CadHlk'  (n^C^S,  AWii- 
maaa,  jEAiopUia,  Num.  xii,  I),  and  the  plural,  CVst- 
itm'  (pilots,  Ai'Oioirtc,  ^EMepfe,  Amoa  ix,  7).  Se« 
EtBiOFIAH.  "Oftbe  four  sons  of  Ham,"  says  Joae- 
phus  (AaC  i,  6,  2),  "time  has  not  at  all  hurt  the  nama 
ofChus;  fortbe  Ethiopians  over  whom  be  reigned  are 
even  at  this  day,  both  [y  themselves  snd  by  all  mea 
In  Asia,  called  Ooaitn."  The  Pe»hito  Syrb:c  vetnua 
of  Acts  viii.  27,  styles  both  queen  Candsco  and  bar 
treasurer  Cuntramu.     See  Candace. 

Tho  locality  of  the  land  of  Cash  is  s  question  npon 
which  eminent  authorities  have  lieen  divided ;  fiir 
while  Bochart  (Tlutltg,  It,  8)  maintainad  that  it  was 
exclusively  in  Arabia,  Gesenius  (Lei.  in  voce)  hehi, 
with  no  less  pertinacity,  that  il  is  lo  be  sought  for  no- 
where but  In  Africa.  In  this  opinion  he  is  snppcrted 
liv  Schultheaa  of  Zurich,  in  his  Pamiia  (p.  11,  Ml). 
Others  again,  such  as  Hicbaelis  {S/ittitg.  Gagr.  I/,b. 
Ea.  cap.  2,  p.  'ISi)  and  BosenmOller  {BM.  Gttgr.  by 
Morrcn,  I,  60;  iii,  260),  have  supposed  that  the  name 
Cush  was  applied  to  tracts  of  country  both  in  Anbia 
end  Africa — a  circumstance  which  would  easily  I  e  ac- 
counted for  on  tbe  very  probable  soppoeitian  that  Ibe 
descendants  of  the  primlUve  Cnshite  tribes  who  bad 
settled  In  the  former  country  emigrated  acn«s  the 
Hed  Sen  to  the  latter  re;jion  of  ^e  earth,  carrytog 
with  them  the  name  of  Cush,  their  remote  progenitor. 
This  idea  bod  1  pen  developed  by  Eicbhom  (_Dr  CatA- 
oil,  Obrdaf,  1774).  The  term  Cush  ia  generally  ap- 
plied in  tho  Old  Testament  to  the  conntiies  Mntb  of 
tbe  Israelites.  It  was  the  southern  limit  of  Eprpt 
(Ezek.  itxii,  10),  and  apparently  the  mart  westerly 
of  the  provinces  over  which  the  rule  of  A baaoents  ex- 
tended, "from  India  even  onto  Ethiopia"  (Esth.  i,  1; 
viii. !)).  Egypt  and  Cnsb  an  oseocialcd  in  tbe  msjoi- 
ity  of  instaoces  In  which  the  word  oocnra  (Paa.  Izvii^ 


CUSH 

n-,  Iml.  XTlii,!;  J>r.  zlrl,  9,  etc.):  but  Id  two  ] 
nges  Ctub  aUnds  in  drae  JnxUpoaitlnn  with  E 
(lH.zi,ll)aiidPenla(Eiek.xxzTili,fi).    The  Ci 
iU  king,  Ze»h,  «■»  otCerlj  ittmt«d  bj  Aw  U  Maie- 
■bah,  and  panned  tu  far  a>  Gerar,  a  town  af  tfao  Phl- 
llidnes,  on  tb«  ■oothcrn  bolder  of  Pale*tln«,  vhich 
waa  apparently  ander  big  gway  (2  Chron.  lir,  9,  «tc  " 
In  2  ChroD.  xxi,  16,  tbs  Arabian)  are  deicrlbad 
dwelling  "beaide  the  Ciuhites,"  and  both  ars  n» 
tionod  m  cMnnection  with  Iha  Pbiliatineg.     The  w 
of  Hosca,  wbo,  we  Usrn  fh>m  Exod.  ii,  waa  the  daugh- 
ter Ufa  Mldianlte  chloftlln,  b  in  NDm.  xii,  '    ' 
nated  a  CuabiCe.     Faithnr,  Cush  and  Saba 
S).  Cuah  and  the  Salinatia  (Ita.  xlv.  Ij),  an  aaaoclated 
in  a  manner  conaonant  with  the  genealogy  of  the  div 
•andants  of  Ham  (Gen.  x,  T),  in  which  S«bi  la    ' 
KD  of  Cuah.    Proni  all  theae  circnmatancea  It  ia  i 
dent  that  under  the  denomiiution  Cusb  were  Included 
both  Arabia  and  the  countty  aoutb  of  Egypt  oi 
weaterncwatofthe  Red  Sea.     It  is  poiaible  also 
the  vart  deaert  tracts  waat  of  Egypt  were  known  to 
the  Bebrewsaa  the  land  orCaah,  but  of  th 
no  certain  prooT.     The  Targumiet  on  laa.  >  . 
ing  the  prevailing  error  of  hi«  time,  transUlea  Cuah 
by  tnilia,  but  that  a  better  knowledge  of  the  relatii 
poaltioni  of  theae  conntriea  was  ancleatly  pnaesied 
clear  from  Eith.  i,  1. 

Some  hare  aonght  for  another  Coah  in  more  nortl 
erly  regiona  of  Aaia,  ae  in  the  I'enian  province  t 
CItiaitUia  or  Sosiana,  in  Cul/iili,  t.  diatrict  of  Biibyli 
nia,  etc, ;  and  aa  Nimrod,  the  youngest  aon  (or  di 
•Cendant)  of  Cuah,  apread  hia  conqoeata  in  that  direc- 
tion, it  ia  no  doubt  poaaibla  that  hia  t^tber'a  name 
might  be  preaerved  in  the  deaiguatioa  of  aome  part  of 
the  territory  or  people.  But  here  again  the  data  are 
not  Tery  u^&ctory;  indeed,  the  chief  thing  which 
lad  to  the  anppONtion  ia  the  mention,  in  the  deacription 
of  the  aite  of  Paradise  (Gen.  ii,  I8>,  of  a  Und  of  Cuah, 
eompaaaad  by  the  river  Gihon.  Yet,  even  though  the 
name  of  Cuah  were  more  varionaly  applied  in  Scrip- 
ture than  it  really  is.  It  would  not  bo  more  ao  than 
waa  the  correaponding  term  Ethiopia  among  the 
Oreeka  and  Ruinana,  which  compriaed  a  great  many 
nationa  far  diatant,  aa  well  aa  wholly  dUtinct  from 
each  other,  and  tiaving  nothing  in  common  but  their 
iwartby,  aun-bnmt  complexion — Ar0io^  q.  d.  aiGif 
T^v  oinv,  I.  e.  "bnmt-black  in  the  face."  Homer 
(Oe%w.  I,  22)  apeaka  of  them  as  "a  divided  race— the 
last  of  men — aome  of  them  at  the  extreme  weat,  and 
others  at  the  extreme  eaat."  Striho  (i,  60)  describes 
tbem  as  a  "  two-lbid  people,  lying  extended  in  a  long 
trart  from  the  rising  to  the  letting  «un."  Herodotus 
<Til,  69,  70)  distingulsbea  the  eaatern  Ethiopians  In 
A^a  t^om  the  western  Elhlopians  in  AfHca  by  the 
Mraight  hair  of  the  former  and  the  cnrly  hair  of  the 
laUer.  The  ancients,  in  short,  with  the  uaual  looea- 
ness  of  their  geographical  delinitiona,  onderslood  by 
Ethiopia  Ae  utnona  Bmlh  tn  all  the  earth'a  longitude, 
and  which,  lying,  as  theytboutfht,  cloae  upon  the  flery 
lOEie,  expoied  the  inhabitanta  to  the  sun'a  ecorcfalDg 
nys,  wMch  homed  tbem  black.  It  is  the  mistaken 
Idea  of  the  scriptnnl  term  "  Cash"  being  osed  in  Ibe 
aame  vague  and  indeterminate  manner  that  has  led  to 
BO  much  cimfDslon  on  thia  subject ;  and  one  writer 
(Bnltmann,  AUl.  Erdk.  d.  MorgtnL  p.  40,  note),  in  hia 
doaire  to  carry  out  the  parallel  between  Ethiopia  and 
Coah,  derives  the  latter  word  from  the  root  H^S  (tavA, 
taa,  iUi),"to  bum;"  hat  that  la  opposed  to  all  the 
r^ilea  of  etymological  analogy  In  the  formation  of  He- 
brew pr^Hf  names  (comp.  Kilter's  Erdtmde,  i,  222 ; 
Hmen's  AJiiem  f/atimit,  Engl.  tnuuL  i,  289).  See 
Cdth. 

I.  Tba  exbtenee  of  an  Afiiam  Cuah  cannot  reaaon. 
■hly  be  qneMloned,  thoDuh  the  term  la  employed  in 
Seriptun  with  great  lalltnde,  sometimes  denoting  an 
extaniiTS  bat  nndeAned  coantiy  (Ethiopia),  and  at  j 


3  CUSH 

other  times  one  particular  kingdom  (UeroB).  It  ii 
expressly  described  by  Ezekiel  aa  lying  to  the  south 
ofEgypt  beyond  Syene  (nil,  lOi  comp.  zzx,  4-4.— 
Strabo,  xvU,  B17 ;  Pliny,  Hitl.  Nat.  vi,  S6  ;  Joaephus, 
War,  Iv,  10, 6).  Ita  limita  on  the  west  and  south  ncre 
undefined  ;  but  it  waa  probably  regarded  aa  extending 
eastward  aa  far  as  the  Red  Sea,  if  not  as  including 
some  of  the  islands  in  that  aea,  auch  as  the  famoua 
Topai  lale  (Job  xxviii,  19;  Pliny,  lli»t.  Nat.  vi,  29) 
xxxvii,  8;  Strabo,  ivl,  4,  6;  Diod,  Sic.  ili,  89).  It 
Ihns  corresponded,  though  only  in  a  vague  and  gener- 
al sense,  to  the  conntriea  known  to  us  as  Knbla  and 
Abyaalnta,  ao  famous  for  the  Nile  and  other  great  riv- 
era.  Hence  the  allualona  in  Scripture  (laa.  xviii,  I; 
Zeph.  ill,  11)  to  the  far-distant  "  rivers  of  Ethiopia," 
a  country  which  is  also  spoken  of  (Isa.  xviii,  !)  In  our 
version  aa  the  land  "which  the  riven  have  ipoiled," 
there  being  a  aupposed  reference  to  tho  ravagea  com- 
mitted by  inundationa  (Bruce's  TrartU,  Ui,  158,  and 
Taylor's  Ca'met,  iil,  698-4) ;  but  recent  translators  pre- 
fer to  render  XJ^  by  "divide,''  q,  d.  "a  Und  inter- 
sected  by  atreams."  laaiah  likewise  takes  notice  (in 
tho  above  passage)  of  the  "  bulrusb"-tioats,  or  veatcis 
of  papyrua,  which  the  Ethiopians  employed  upon  the 
watcra,  a  fact  which  ia  confirmed  by  Heliodorua  in  hia 
jElhiopina  (x.  460),  and  also  by  Bruce,  who  atatea 
that  the  only  kind  of  boat  in  Abyaeinia  ia  that  called 
laiKoa,  which  ia  made  of  reeds,  "  ■  piece  of  the  aca- 
cia-tree being  pat  in  the  bottom  to  aerva  aa  a  keel,  to 
which  the  plants  an  Joined,  being  first  aewed  togeth- 
er, then  gathered  up  at  alem  and  atem,  and  the  ends 
of  the  plants  tied  faat  there."  It  la  to  the  swiftncaa 
of  these  papyrua  vessels  that  Job  (ix,  26)  comparea  the 
rapid  apeed  of  hia  daya.  From  ita  proximity  to  Egypt 
"  '  Hiiraim  and  Cush  (i.  e.  Egypt  and  Ethiopia) 
.  classed  together  by  the  propheta  (e.  g.  Paa. 
I;  Isa.xl.ll;  xx,*;  zUil,  8;  xlv,  14 ;  Nah. 
.  ,  The  inhabitants  are  elsewhere  spoken  of  in 
connection  with  the  Lubim  ai>d  Sukkiim  (2  Cbron.  xii, 
3;  ivi,  8;  Jer.  xlvi,Ti  Dan.  xi,  48),  suppoaed  to  be 
tlie  Libyans  and  Ethiopic  7Voglod}-tes,  and  certainly 
idons  of  Africa,  for  they  belonged  to  tho  vast  army 
ith  which  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  "came  out"  of 
at  country  against  Kehoboam,  king  of  Judah.  In 
ese,  and  indeed  in  most  other  passages  where  "Cuah" 
curs,  Arabia  is  not  to  be  thought  of;  the  Ethiopia 
AlVica  is  beyond  all  doubt  exclusively  intended. 
See  Ethiopia. 

In  the  ancient  Egyptian  Insctlp^onB  Ethloi^  above 
Egypt  is  termed  Krak  or  JTis*,  and  thia  torrttorv  prob- 
ably correaponda  perfectly  to  the  AfHcan  Cuah  of  the 
Bible  (WilklDaon,  Anc.  Kg.  1, 404,  abridgment).  The 
Cuahitea,  however,  had  clearly  a  wider  OTtenaion,  like 
the  Ethiopiana  of  the  Greeks,  but  apparently  with  a 

dednite  ethnic  relation.     The  aettlements  oftha 

and  descendants  of  Cush  mentioned  In  Oen.  x, 
may  be  traced  trora  MeroO  to  Babylon,  and  probably 
>n  to  Nineveh.  Thus  the  Cuahitea  appear  to  have 
ipread  olong  tracts  extending  tiom  the  higher  Nile  to 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Philological  and  ethnolog. 
ical  daU  lead  to  the  same  conclusion.  There  are 
strong  reaaona  for  deriving  the  non-Shemitlc  primitive 
>f  Babylonia,  variously  called  by  scholars 
d  Scythic,  from  an  anto-Shemitic  dialect  of 
EthiopU,  and  for  supposing  two  streams  of  migration 
from  Africa  into  Aria  in  very  remote  periods ;  the  one 
if  Nigritiana  through  the  present  Ualsyan  region,  the 
other  and  later  one  of  Cuahiles.  "fh>m  Ethiopia  prop, 
erlv  ao  called,  through  Arabh^  Babylonia,  and  Persia, 
to  Weetetii  India"  (Poole,  Gntttit  of  At  Earik,  p.  214 
sq.).  Sir  H.Rswlinsonhas  brought  IbrwBrd  remarka- 
ble evidence  tendingto  trace  the  early  Babylonlsna  to 
Ethiopia,  particularly  the  almilarity  of  their  mode  of 
writing  to  the  Egyptian,  and  the  indioatkm  in  the  tfa- 
ditiona  of  Babylonia  and  Aaayrls  of  "a  connection  in 
very  earlj  times  between  Ethioida,  Southern  Arabia 


CUSH  81 

aod  tbe  cities  en  the  Lower  Eaphntef,"  the  Ctuhits 
Dime  or  Kimrod  taimseir  xt  «  doitied  bero  being  the 
umo  SB  that  lij  nhicli  Meroi  is  called  in  tbe  Atej'riun 
inacripliona  (Rawlinson'i  //crod.  1,  863  d.).  Hislor7 
affords  manv  traces  of  Ihb  relation  oT  Babylonia,  Ara- 
Ua,  and  Etiiiopiu.  Zenh  tbe  Ciubile  (A.V.  "Ethi- 
opian"), who  wot  dafaated  by  Au,  wu  moat  probably 

■  k'mg  of  E^pt,  caitainly  tbe  leader  of  an  Hgyptian 
■imy :  the  dj'nuty  then  ruliag  (the  22d)  bcara  namee 
that  have  caused  it  to  be  supposed  to  have  had  a  Bti1> 
ylanian  or  Assvrian  origin,  as  Siieshunk,  Shisbah, 
Shrabak;  Naniuret, Nimrod ;  Tekrnt, TeUut, Titflatb, . 
Tbe  early  spread  of  the  MiZTaites  illustrates  that  of 
the  Cusb'iles  [sea  Cai-utob]  ;  it  may  be  considered  as 

■  part  of  one  great  sygtem  of  mirations.  On  these 
gronuds  WQ  suppose  that  these  Uamile  races,  very  soon 
after  their  arrival  in  Africa,  began  to  spread  to  the 
east,  to  the  north,  and  to  the  vest ;  the  Cushitca  eatab- 
lisbiog  settlementa  along  the  southern  Arabian  coast, 
on  tbe  Amlilan  sboro  of  tbe  Persian  Gulf  and  in  Baby- 
lonia, and  thence  onward  to  the  Indus,  and  probably 
northward  to  Nineveh;  and  the  Hiiraltos  spreading 
along  the  south  and  east  shores  of  the  Hedlterronean, 
on  part  of  tbe  north  shore,  and  in  the  great  blandn. 
These  must  have  been  seafaring  peoples,  not  wholly 
unlike  the  modem  Mabiys,  who  have  simllarlv  spread 
on  tbe  sbareB  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  They  may  ho  al- 
iraya  traced  where  very  mBMive  architectural  remains 
■re  seen,  where  the  native  language  is  partly  Turanian 
and  partly  Shemitlc.  and  where  the  native  reli^on  la 
partly  cosmic  or  high-nature  worship,  and  partly  fe- 
ticblsm  or  low-nature  worship.  These  indications  do 
not  fail  in  any  settlement  of  Cushites  or  Mizralles  with 
Thlch  we  are  well  acquainted.     See  Ethsoi.oot. 

Bat  that  part  of  this  vaat  region  of  Cosh  which 
aeenit  chiefly  intended  in  these  and  most  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  is  Ibe  tract  of  country  in  Upper 
Knbia  which  became  famous  in  antiquity  as  the  king- 
dom o/ElAiopla,  or  the  state  of  Merofi.  The  Ethiopian 
nations  generally  ranked  low  la  tbe  scale  of  civiliza- 
tion; "nerertholess,"  says  Hceten,  "there  did  exist 
B  better  cultivated,  and,  to  a  certain  decree,  a  civ- 
ilized Ethio{dan  people,  who  dwelt  in  cities;  who 
erected  temples  and  other  edifices ;  who,  thangh  with- 
out letters,  had  hlerogiypblcs;  who  bod  goremmaDt 
and  laws ;  and  the  fame  of  whose  progress  in  knowl- 
edge and  tbe  social  arts  spread  In  the  earliest  ages 
over  a  considerable  part  of  tbe  earth,"  UeroS  Prop- 
er lay  between  the  river  Astaboraa  (now  the  Attiara 
or  Tacoizi)  on  the  east,  and  the  Nile  on  the  west, 
Tbough  not  completely  enclosed  with  rivers,  It  was 
called  an  island,  because,  as  Pliny  observes,  tbe  rari- 
osa  streams  which  flawed  aroand  it  were  all  considered 
aa  branches  of  the  Nile,  so  tbat  to  It  tbe  above  de- 
aeription  of  a  "coqntry  of  rivers"  was  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate. Its  anrfiice  exceeded  that  of  Sicily  more 
tban  a  half,  and  it  corresponded  pretty  nearly  to  tbe 
present  province  of  Atliara,  Intweon  1S°  and  18°  N. 
lat.  In  modem  times  it  formed  a  great  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sennaar,  and  the  southern  portion  belongi 
to  Abyssinia.  Upon  tbe  island  of  Herofl  lay  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  the 
aite  of  which  has  been  discovered  neat  a  place  called 
AasuT,  abont  twenty  miles  north  of  Ibe  town  of  Sben- 
dy,  urider  IT"  N.  lat.  Tbe  splendid  ruins  of  temples, 
pyramids,  and  other  edifices  found  here  ami  tbrongh- 
ont  (be  district  have  been  described  by  Ceillaud,  Gan, 
ROppell,  BeluHii,  Waddington,  Hoakins,  and  other 
ravellers,  and  atCast  the  high  degree  of  civilization 
and  art  among  the  ancient  Ethiopians.     See  Mebok. 

JosephoB,  in  his  account  of  the  expedition  of  Moaes 
when  commander  of  the  Elgrptian  army  against  the 
Ethiopians,  says  tbat  the  laiur  "at  tengtli  retired  to 
Saba,  a  royal  city  of  Ethiopia  wbich  Cambysei  after- 
wards called  Men>«,  after  the  name  of  hb  own  sister" 
(_A«t.  ii,  10,  2).  The  same  origin  of  the  name  is  given 
both  by  Sirabo  and  Diodorus  Sicnina,  hat  see  Han- 


4  CTJSH 

Dart's  Geog.  of  (Aa  <7r-sejtt  and  Romami,  x,  1EI9.  Tbera 
is  still  a  place  called  Meratei  consideratjly  north  of  tlu 
island  and  near  Uount  Berkal,  where  Heeren  thirika 
there  may  have  been  a  seltlemcnt  of  tbe  parent  atata 
called  by  the  same  name.  Ibe  opinion  of  Joaepbos 
tbat  MeroB  was  identical  with  Seba  acoords  well  with 
the  statement  in  Gen.  x,  7,  that  Seba  waa  the  eldeat 
son  of  Cvih,  whose  name  (9t~D)  is  not  to  be  confound- 
ed with  either  of  the  Shebas  (KSlS),  who  are  roen* 
tioned  as  descendants  of  SkriH  (Uen.  x,  3B;  xxv,  S). 
Now  this  country  of  African  Seba  is  classed  with  tha 
Aral^ian  Sheba  as  a  rich  but  f^Mlistant  land  (t*aau 
Ixxii,  10).  In  laa.  xliii,  3,  God  says  to  Israel. "  I  hats 
given  Egypt  for  tby  ransom ;  Gush  and  Seta  in  thy 
stead  j"  andinlsa.  xlv,lj,"  The  wealth  of  Egvpt.ui<t 
the  merchandise  of  Gush  and  of  the  Selialm,  men  of 
stature,  sbatl  pass  over  to  thee,  and  shill  be  thine." 
Charles  Taylor,  tbe  ingenious  but  fanciful  editor  of 
Ci/ntef,  bad  tbe  singular  notion  that  by  the  axpreasioa 
"men  of  stature"  in  that  passage  is  meant  men  of 
ihorl  meaanre,  or  dwarfs ;  and  hence  he  identifies  the 
Ethkipuins  with  the  pygmies  of  antiquity  {Fragmtmii 
la  Cabntt,  cccxxii).  But  the  Hebrew  phrase  plainljr 
denotes  "  tallness  of  stature"  (comp.  I  Gbron.  xi,  S3), 
and  the  Ethiopians  are  described  by  Herodotna  aa  it 
gigantic  ststuro  (avipiQ  fiiytoroL,  ill,  114;  fti'^urrot 
avOpi^nuv,  iii,  SO) ;  and  Solinus  affirms  tbat  they  sere 
twelve  feet  in  height  iPolyhUt.  cap.  xzi).  Id  c«n- 
mon  with  tbe  other  Gushite  tribes  of  Africa  Ibe  skin 
was  black,  to  which  there  is  an  obvious  allusion  in  Jer. 
xiii,  23 :  "  Can  the  Cushite  change  bis  skin  ?"  Brace 
tinds  Seba  in  Azab,  a  sea-port  on  the  east  coast  of  Af- 
rica, near  the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  this  be 
is  followed  by  Hecren,  while  others  think  of  s  pUce 
called  Suliah,  about  lat.  16°  N.,  where  are  some  oftba 
most  remarkable  mina  of  Nubian  grandeur;  but  both 
upinions  are  merely  conjectural.     See  StBA. 

Among  other  tribes  of  Africa  said  to  have  been  io 
alliance  with  Egypt,  the  prophet  Eiekiel  (xxx,  i) 
mentions  along  with  Ethiopia  (he  name  of  Qhifr,  which 
Uichaelis  connects  with  KM,  a  trading  towD  de- 
!CTibed  by  Ptolemy  as  on  tbe  west  coast  of  tbe  Bed 
Sea.  But  In  the  Arabic  translation  made  from  the 
Septuai^t,  instead  of  CJtoA  we  find  "the  people  of 
.VbKi,"  a  name  easily  interchanged  for  the  other,  and 
in  some  Heb.  MSS.  actually  read  then.  There  an 
still  two  districts  adjoining  MeroA  on  the  sonth-west, 
called  Cuba  and  Nuba,  which  are  said  to  abound  la 
gold.  The  Sukknm,  who,  along  with  the  Cnahites  and 
Lubim  or  Libyans,  formed  pert  of  the  host  of  Sbtshak 
(i  Gbron.  xii,  S),  are  in  the  Sept.  designated  as  Tro^-- 
lodytes,  I.  e.  cavc-dwellcTs,  and  were  no  doubt  tbe  peo- 
ple known  to  the  Greeks  liy  the  same  name  as  inbab- , 
iting  the  mountahi  caverns  on  the  west  coaat  of  tb« 
Rod  Sea  (Diod.  Sic.  iii,  81 ;  StraLo,  ivii,  p.  786).  Tbey 
were  noted  for  ewlflnees  of  fuot  and  expertnen  in  the 
use  of  tbe  sling,  and  hence  were  employed,  as  Keliodo- 
rus  informs  ns  {JEOuapUa,  vlii,  16),  as  light  troopa. 
Pliny  makes  mention  of  a  town  otSiicht  in  tbat  regioD 
iBiH.  Nat.  vi,  S9,  M),  and  there  is  stUl  on  tbe  same 
coast  a  place  called  Snahim,  drscribed  by  Butrkhardt 
in  his  TrmtU  in  A'uito.  If,  however,  tbe  term  Sai- 
Uim  be  of  Hebrew  derivation,  it  would  specially  de- 
note those  who  lived  In  booths,  i.  e.  tabernacles  made 
of  the  bought  of  Irett ;  and  it  deserves  remark  that  Ibe 
Sbangallos  who  inhabit  tbat  country  still  dwell  during 
the  good  season  In  arlvrs  fitted  up  for  tents,  repairing 
in  winter  to  their  rocky  caves.      See  Chub. 

In  the  age  of  Herodotus,  tbe  countries  known  to  as 
as  Nubia  and  Sennaar  were  occupied  by  two  difletent 
races,  one  of  whom  he  Includes  under  the  general  ap- 
pellation of  Ethiopians,  tbe  other  an  immlgratorr  Ara- 
bian race  leading,  for  tbe  most  part,  ■  nomadic  Itfi. 
This  distinction  has  continued  down  to  tbe  piwent  day. 
Among  the  original  inhabitants  the  first  placo  is  due 
to  the  Nutnan^  who  are  weU-fuimad,  strong,  and  mm- 


CTJSH  fl 

colaT,  and  vith  nothing  whataver  of  tbs  ttcgro  pbyiS- 
•gnomy.  Th«j  ga  anncd  with  ipeu,  aword,  and  ■ 
ttiield  of  tile  skin  of  tbe  hippopoUmna.  Sooth  of 
DongoU  is  the  country  of  tbe  Scbeygiu,  vhoM  war- 
rton  are  boreemen,  sIm  armed  with  a  double-pointed 
•pear,  ■  iword,  and  a  large  ehield  (comp.  Jer.  ilvl,  9, 
the  "Cmhitea  who  handlia  the  «hield").  They  were 
completfly  iadependent  till  labdned  by  MehnmBt  All, 
pacha  of  Egfpt.  It  Is  In  their  country  that  the  py- 
ramidal monuiaeTita  vUch  adorned  tbe  ancieat  HeroO 
are  flrat  met  with,  and  even  ila  name  haa  be«a  | 
•arved  in  that  of  (heir  chief  place.  Merawi,  tboDgh 
original  MeroS  miut  1»  lought  farther  aouth.  Next 
cornea  tbe  territory  of  the  Berbers,  etrictly  ao  called, 
who,  though  apealung- Arabic,  evideally  belong  to  the 
Nnbien  race.  Above  tbeae  regions,  beyond  the  Ta^ 
caiu^  and  along  the  Nile,  the  great  maaa  of  th«  in- 
babitants,  though  soniatiine)!  with  a  mixture  of  othei 
blood,  may  be  regarded  aa  of  Arab  origin.  But  be- 
tween tbe  valley  of  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  thera  ii 
■ffll,  aa  of  old,  a  variety  of  scattered  elwrigina]  tribea, 
■mon^  whom  the  Arabic  la  much  leaa  common ;  they 
are,  doabtleu,  partly  the  descendant!  of  the  above- 
meDtioned  Snkkllm,  or  Troglodytes,  and  of  the  Icb- 
tbyophagi,  or  fiah-eatera.  Some  of  them  spread  them- 
•eive*  over  the  plaina  of  tbe  Aataboras,  or  TacsziA, 
being  compelled  to  remove  their  eocampments,  aomo- 
times  by  the  inundations  of  the  river,  at  other  times 
by  the  attacka  of  the  dreaded  iim\  or  gad-fly,  d»- 
Wailied  by  Bruce,  and  which  he  supposes  to  be  the 
"  iy  which  is  In  the  utmost  part  of  the  riven  of 
i^ypt"  (Isa.  vli,  18).  Another  remarkalile  Ethiniuc 
race  in  ancient  times  waa  the  Macnbiaiu,  so  called 
ttma  their  supposed  longevity.  They  were  rapreaent- 
•d  by  tbe  ambaaaadors  of  Cambysea  as  ■  very  tall 
race,  who  elected  the  highest  in  stature  as  kmg;  gold 
waa  so  abundant  that  tbey  bound  their  prisoners  with 
golden  (etlera — drcamstancps  which  a)(sln  remind  as 
of  Isaiah's  description  of  Ethiopia  and  Seba  inch,  xlv, 
11.  (See  Ludoir,  Hut.  Allhiapica,  F.  ad  U.  1G81 ;  with 
hi*  Commcnlarirt  thereon,  lb.  I6S1;  and  bla  IJtid'tm. 
Babf.  italUM,  tb.  16S3).     See  AraiCA. 

i.  That  some  of  the  posterity  of  Cosh  settled  In  tbe 
•onth  ot  Aratia  may  readily  be  granted ;  but  that  he 
gave  a  permanent  name  to  any  portion  either  of  the 

least,  more  a  matter  of  iDferenlial  conjecture  than  of 
Uatorical  certainty.  Almost  all  the  passages  usually 
dtad  in  aopport  of  the  averment  are  eusceptible  of  a 
different  interpretation.  (I.)  For  example.  In  Num.  i, 
31.  Miriam  and  Aaron  are  aaid  to  have  taken  oSence 
at  Uoses  for  having  married  "  a  Cuahiteaa ;"  and  npon 
the  preeUQiption  that  this  woa  the  same  person  as  Zip- 
porah,  daaghtdT  of  the  priest  of  Uidian  (Exod.  ii,  16, 
il),  it  is  Inforred  that  Hidian  ws>  in  Cnah.  But,  to 
Bay  nothing  of  Zipporah's  liigb  rank,  or  of  [he  services 
of  her  family  to  Israel,  there  would  have  been  aome- 
tblng  BO  grossly  incongmoas  and  abanfd  in  Uoees's 
brother  and  aiater  complaining  for  the  first  time  of  bis 
aalection  of  a  wife,  after  the  marriage  had  subsisted 
fcr  more  than  forty  years,  thst  it  la  evident  Zipporih 
wai  DOW  dead,  and  this  second  wife,  though  doabtleaa 
a  proaelyte  to  Judaism,  waa  (whether  bom  in  Aala  or 
Africa)  a  descendant  ofCush,  and  therefore  a  Haaitt, 
and  nut  one  of  the  Mldianites,  who  were  of  f^iianilic 
origin,  being  the  children  of  Abraham  by  Ketnrah. 
Bat,  admitting  that  it  la  a  second  marriage  which  Is 
ttaoa  referred  to,  the  case  Is  not  materially  altered,  for 
*tUI  Cuih  must  be  aooght  near  tbe  place  of  larael'a 
encampment,  aa  It  cannot  be  SDppoeed  that  Moses 
would  go  to  Ethiopia  to  htch  a  wife.  See  Zipforah. 
(S.)  OtlKin  discover  a  connection  between  Cosb  and 
Uidian,  becaose  in  Uab.  ill,  ',  the  clause,  "  I  saw  tho 
tents  of  Cnaban  in  affllctkn,"  finds  a  paralleliam  in 

"tbe  curtains  of  the  land  of  Hidian  did  tremble" 

flukn  being  held  to  be  tbe  poetical  and  hlgh'«onnd- 
iog  form  of  OtA.    Bnt  tbia  idea  ia  met  by  another 


5  CCSH 

identification;  tor  while  it  is  aekoowledged  that  part 
of  the  snblime  description  in  tlul  chapter  refers  tu  the 
Exodus  and  tbe  transactions  at  Sinai,  other  portions 
(anch  aa  the  passage  of  tbe  Jordan,  verse  8,  and  the 
standing  still  of  the  sun,  vene  11)  have  phimly  a  ref- 
erence to  incidents  in  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges. 
Now  in  the  Utter  book  (ill,  10;  viil,  12)  we  fln<i  a  rec- 
ord otsit^al  victories  SDCceulvelyobtalnedby  Othnlel 
over  Cuf&iin  lEishathaim,  king  of  Hetopotaoila,  and 
by  Gideon  over  the  princes  of  M-diiUi.  See  Cubiia:). 
(3.)  But  perhaps  a  stronger  argument  ia  the  mention 
of  Arabians  as  contiguous  to  the  Cushltes.  Thus,  in  2 
Chron.  xxl,  16,  among  tboae  who  were  stirred  np 
agoinat  the  Hebrewa  are  mentioned  tbe  Ftailistinea, 
and  "Arabe  that  were  near  tbo  Cuabil«a,"  and  the 
eipreasioQ  "  near"  (1^  3^)  in  tbia  connection  can 
scarcely  apply  to  any  but  dwellen  in  the  Arabian  pe- 
ninsula. Other  arguments  adduced  by  Micbaelia 
(Spieilts.  CtPffrapk.  IlAr.  i,  H9)  In  hvot  of  Oie  Ara- 
bian Cuah  are  not  decisive,  and  tbe  paasages  on  which 
ho  relies  apply  with  greater  prabability  to  the  African 
Cash.  Thus  the  retreat  of  SennachMib  from  Judna 
in  order  to  meet  Ttrbakah  (2  Kings  xlx,  9 ;  ha.  xxxvii, 
9)  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  latter  parsed 
through  Palestine,  since  the  EgyptUns  had  reached 
CaRhembb  on  tbe  Euphrates  wltbout  doing  ao  (S 
Chroo.  XXXV,  20),  and  Tirhjkah  waa  undoubtedly  an 
African  prince.  See  Tib  a  a  k  ah.  Again,  it  has  lieeii 
rashly  concluded  tbat  Zerab  tbe  Cusblle,  wl^n  attacked 
Ago,  kingof  Judah,  with  so  immense  a  ho!t(2  Cbron. 
xiv,  9),  eonld  not  have  been  an  Ethiopian  of  Africa, 
sad  yet  the  f^t  of  his  army  having  included  Lihyttna 
(xvi,  8)  as  well  as  Elhioplanf,  seems  decisive  of  the 
fact  that  the  latter  were  of  African  origin.  Their  an- 
cestors may  have  belonged  to  the  "people  without 
number"  whom  Shlshak  had  led  fortb  againtt  Asa'e 
grandbtber,  Behoboam  (xii,  S),  and  Iheae  tbeir  de- 
scendants may  have  retained  posseaslon  of  lbs  north 
of  Arabia  Petru,  between  Wieatina  and  Egypt  (aea 
Bmce's  Trat^  i,  30).     See  Zebah. 

Yet,  though  there  is  a  great  lack  of  evidence  to 
show  tliat  the  name  of  Cu;h  was  evor  applied  to  any 
part  of  Arabia,  there  seems  no  reaaoa  to  doubt  tliat  a 
piirtion  of  the  Cushite  race  did  early  settle  there.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ethnographic  table  in  tbe  10th  chapter 
of  Genesis,  Cush  was  the  father  of  Soba,  HaviJah,  Sab- 
ta,  Baamah  (whoso  eona  were  Sheba  and  Dcden),  Sab- 
techab,  and  also  of  Nimrod  (Gen.  x,  7,  S  i  1  Chron.  i, 
9,  ID).  Tbe  Inrt  mentioned  appear*  to  have  moved 
northward,  first  Into  Babylonia  and  then  into  Assyria, 
but  the  others  seem  [o  have  migrated  to  ttie  south, 
though  It  b  Impossible  accurately  to  tmce  out  their 
settlements.  Yet,  even  if  we  give  Seba  to  Africa, 
and  pass  over  as  doubtful  the  names  of  Hovilah,  She- 
ba, and  Dedan  ((or  these  were  also  the  names  of  She- 
mitic  tribei>.  Gen.  x,  28,  29;  xxv,  B),  still,  in  Enk. 
xxvii,  22,  Raamah  is  plainly  daased  with  the  tribe! 
of  Amhia,  and  nowhsro  are  any  traces  of  Sabtah  and 
Sahtechah  to  be  found  but  In  the  some  countri-.  By 
referring,  however,  to  the  relative  geogrephicai  posi- 
tions of  the  aoath-west  coast  of  Arabia  and  tbe  east 
coast  of  Africa,  it  will  be  seen  that  nothing  seiioratea 
them  but  the  Red  Sea,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  while 
a  port  of  the  Cushite  population  immigrated  to  Africa, 
othen  remained  behind,  and  were  occarionally  caUed 
by  tbe  same  name.  In  tbe  Cftb  century  of  our  era, 
tbe  Bimaiyllea,  ia  the  south  of  Arabia,  were  styled  by 
Svrian  writers  Cusfacans  and  Elhloplana  (Aiacmanni, 
BIil:Oriinr.i,SG0;  ill,  66S).  The  Chaldee  paraphraat 
Jonatlian,  at  Gen.  B,  and  apotber  paraphrast  at  1 
Chron.  i,  8,  exfJain  "Cusb"  by  Arabia.  Siehuhr 
(BaxJir.  p.  289)  found  In  Yemen  a  tribe  called  Baii 
Cimi,  Thebookof  Job  (xxviil,  19)  speaks  of  the  to- 
paiof  Cosb,  and  there  waa  a  Topai  Island  la  the  Red 
Sea  (Diod.  Sic.  Ul.  S9;  Pliny,  FU.  Hal.  xxxvj^  8; 
Strabo,  xv\,i,  G).    Yet  moat  oftbese  ate  dicamatauce* 


CTJSH  ei 

npoB  irblch  wa  can  hy  bnt  llttls  itmij ;  and  lbs  pa>- 
tage  la  2  Cbron.  xii,  16,  i>  the  only  direct  evidence 
va  pocsais  of  tlig  uune  "  C<ub"  beiii)(  (pplied  In  Scrip- 
ture to  tny  port  of  Arabia,  and  evan  tliat  doei  Dot 
■mount  to  absolute  demonadiition.     Saa  Akabli. 

8.  Ciub,  as  ■  cDuntiy,  theielbre  appain  to  be  Afri- 
can or  AmbUn  in  all  piuagea  exce[>t  Gen.  ii,  13.  We 
ruj  thus  dielingniib  a  primaval  and  a  pott-dilDvian 
Cu»b.  The  former  wai  encompaiBed  liy  Glbon,  tha 
Kcond  river  o(  PiiradiM ;  it  would  leeni,  ttaererore,  to 
have  been  aomewbere  to  the  northward  of  Aaeyria. 
See  GlHoN.  From  ot^'malogical  conaMeratlooa,  Hnel 
wai  induced  to  pluca  Cuili  in  CbuiiUaa  (called  Cutha, 
3  Kings  xvl!,  '^'I),  Leclerc  in  Caaaiotis  in  Syria,  and 
Belind  in  the  "lagio  CouKomni."  Bochart  ideotifled 
it  with  Suaiana,  Link  with  the  connti7  aboot  tha  Can- 
can?, and  Hartmian  with  Bactria  or  Bilkh,  the  lila 
of  I'unuiiaa  being,  in  this  cue,  in  the  cclebratad  Tale 
of  Kashmir.  It  ii  pouibla  that  Cnib  l>  in  tbU  case  a 
[uuno  of  a  period  Inter  than  that  to  which  tha  hiitory 
relatea,  but  it  eeema  more  probable  Chat  it  waa  of  tha 
earlieit  age,  and  that  the  African  Cu>b  waa  named 
from  Ihii  oldor  coantrj.  Uoet  ancient  nations  tbni 
Connected  their  own  Linda  with  Paradiac,  or  with  pii- 
maval  ccats.  In  tbia  manner  the  fntnre  Paradise  of 
the  Egyptians  was  a  sacred  Egypt  watered  by  a  sa- 
cred Kilo;  tbo  Arabs  have  told  of  the  terreftria]  par- 
adise of  Sbcddod  tbo  son  of  Ad  (q.  v.)  as  sometimei 
seen  in  tbcir  deserts  j  the  Greeks  located  tbe  all-dc- 
itroying  Hoods  of  Ogygea  and  Dencalion  in  Greece ; 
and  the  Heiicans  seem  to  IwTS  pUccda  aimllar  dclngo 
In  American-all  carri-ing  with  them  their  tradition*, 
utd  fixing  them  in  tho  tenitorlea  where  they  estab- 
lished themselves.  Wo  are  told  that,  In  tho  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  Hardens  and  Biotropolis  of  India  are 
placed  atoned  the  monntsin  U6ni,  the  celestial  nortli 
pole;  that,  among  tbe  Babyloniana  and  Uedo-rct- 
tiana,  the  gods'  mountain,  Alborj,  "tbe  mount  of  tho 
con^rregatlon,"  was  believed  to  be  "in  the  sides  of  the 
north"  (lea.  xiv,  IS) ;  that  the  oblesC  Greek  tradidona 
point  northwards  to  the  birthplace  of  gods  and  men  ; 
and  that,  for  all  these  reasons,  tho  Paradise  of  the  Ile- 
breWB  must  be  lougfat  for  in  mme  far-diitant  hj-per- 
hoRan  region.  Guided  by  snch  nncrring  indications, 
Basse  (_EtitdtcLtuym,  p.  49,  60,  n.)  scrupled  not  t« 
gratify  his  national  feeling  bv  placing  tho  Garden  of 
Eden  on  the  coast  of  the  Bijtic;  Rndbeck,  a  gwede, 
found  it  in  Scandinavia ;  and  tbe  inhospitable  Siberia 
has  not  been  withoiit  Its  advocates  (Morren,  Boaen- 
moller's  Gfoff.  i,  SG).  But,  with  all  this  predilection 
in  favor  of  the  north,  the  Greeks  placed  the  gaidans 
of  tbe  HesperidcB  In  the  extreme  west,  and  there  are 
■trODK  indications  in  tho  Pur&nas  "of  a  terrestrisi 
paradise,  dilTereDt  from  that  of  the  general  Bindu  sys- 
tem, in  tbe  southern  psits  of  Africa"  {A:  Am.  Ui,  SOO). 
Eren  Mim  was  no  (biiher  north  than  tho  Hinuloyan 
range,  which  the  Aryan  race  crossed  in  their  migra- 
tions.   See  Edkk. 

2.  (Sept.  XouiTi',  Vulg.  lliiui.)  A  Beniamite,  ap- 
parently at  tho  coort  of  BaoT,  by  tb^namo  of  tusb  Is 
mentioned  in  the  title  of  Psalm  vli,  respecting  whom 
notfabg  more  is  known  than  that  the  psalm  Is  Iberc 
said  to  have  been  composed  "concerning  his  words" 
(or  affairs).  B.C.  1061.  "There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  this  title  to  he  of  great  antiquity  (Ewald, 
Pmlmrn,  p,  9).  Cnab  was  probably  a  follower  of  Sanl, 
the  head  of  lib  tribe,  and  bad  soncht  tbo  friendship  of 
David  tor  the  purpoee  of  'rewarding  evil  to  him  who 
was  at  peaco  with  him'— an  act  in  which  no  Oriental 
of  ancient  or  modem  times  would  ace  any  shame,  but, 
if  successful,  tbe  reverse.  Happilj',  however,  we  may 
gather  from  vci,  15  that  he  had  not  succeeded."  By 
some  (see  Poolc'a  Sj/noptit,  in  loc.)  he  is  believed  to 
have  been  Saul  himself  (see  Hengstenberg,  in  loc.); 
by  others  he  is  identlHed  with  Shlmei  (see  Pfeiffer, 
Did.  Vtx^a,  in  0pp.  1.  297),  who  treat^'d  David  so  scnr- 
rilously  on  his  retreat  from  Absalom  (Z  Sam.  xvi,  6-8). 


6  ctjsm 

A  recent  view  (Eitto's  Saify  Ilhalrattoiu,  In  loc)  b 
that  this  waa  the  name  of  some  treacbBrous  infOrnwr 
in  David's  corps,  through  fear  of  whose  intrigoea  ha 
Sed  the  second  time  to  Aehish  (]  Sam,  xxvii,  1)  ;  w 
(see  Calmet's  Cuwuatnl.  in  loc.),  most  probably,  aoaw 
of  Saul's  malicions  courtiers,  as  no  good  reann  cas  b* 
given  for  calling  so  wall-known  charactara  a*  oitbcr 
Saul  or  Siiiuiei  by  ao  faaciful  a  title  aa  Cusb.      Se* 

Cn'aluui  (Hab  KatlUm',  l^n ;  Sept  Ai'Slmrit ; 
Ynlg.  jElkiopia),  nsually  regarded  as  a  prolonged  or 
poetic  form  (Hab.  iii,  T)  of  tbe  name  of  the  land  oT 
Cdsu  (q.  v.),  bnt  perhaps  rather  the  same  a*  Ciuham 
niiu(j|(wi(A.V.  "Chushan-"),  king  of  HtwpotKmla 
(Jndg.  ill,  8, 10).  Tbe  nder  of  eventa  allnded  to  bj 
the  prophet  aeems  to  famr  this  supposition.  First  lit 
appears  to  refer  to  former  acts  of  divine  favor  (ver.  8) ; 
be  then  speaka  of  the  wondeis  at  the  giving  of  tba 
Law,  "God  came  fnnn  Teman,  and  the  Holy  One 
from  Uount  Paran;"  and  he  adds,  "  I  law  the  tenia 
ofCushanin  affliction:  [and]  tbe  tcnt-curtaJDB  of  tba 
land  of  Midian  did  tnmble,"  as  thoQKh  referring  to 
the  fear  of  the  enemies  of  Iiiael  st  the  manifertaluna 
of  God'a  favor  for  his  people.  Chnshan-riahatliaini, 
the  first  recorded  oppressor  of  the  days  of  tbe  Judgea, 
may  bavu  been  already  nignlug  at  the  time  of  tbe  en- 
trance into  Palestine.  The  Midianitss,  certainly  allied 
with  the  Uoabites  at  that  time,  feared  tbe  Ittraelite*, 
and  plotted  against  them  (Kum.  xxii,  zxlii,  xxiv, 
siv)i  and  it  is  noticeable  that  Balaam  was  aeni  for 
from  Arom  (siili,  7),  perhaps  tbe  Aram-naharaim  of 
tho  oppressor.  Habakkuk  afterwards  alludes  to  tba 
crossing  of  Jordan  or  the  Red  Sea,  or  both  (ver.  a-10, 
16),  to  tha  standing  still  of  the  sun  and  moon  (II\ 
and  apparently  to  tbe  destmctton  of  the  Canaocites 
{12,  IS,  14).— Smith,  s.  v.  There  is,  however,  good 
reason  for  tho  supposition  that  Cn^han  her*  stands  for 
an  AsUtic  Cush  (peo  3fflA.  Qiuir.  Rn.  Jan.  1661,  p.  81), 
aa  it  is  named  in  connection  with  Slidisa  (q.  v.).  Dt- 
MVutAiDn-  Fnphit  Habahik,  Leips.]&<3,  p.159),  who 
admits  only  the  African  Cusb,  holds  that  its  mention 
along  with  Uidian  is  intended  to  show  how  pliers  ao 
fcr  removed  ttma  each  other  wero  equally  lifted  by 
tha  tbeopbany:  bat  tbis  Is  exceedingly  strained,  and 
at  vaiianco  with  the  parallelism  of  the  passage.     Sc« 


Ca'ahl  (Hob.  Kutid',  •'tfi,  q.  d.  CaAile  or  £Um- 
piimi  Sept.  XoBui;  Vulg.  Chan),  a  nnmo  of  tfana 
men  In  the  Old  Test.     See  Ocas. 

1.  (With  tbe  article,  "^UH,  L  e.  "the  Coshltc," 
"  tho  Ethiopian  ;"  Sept.  o  Xowri ;  Tnlg.  Ghfri.)  The 
messenger  sent  by  Joab  to  announce  to  David  tho  rao- 
cess  of  the  battle  against  Abaalom  and  the  death  of 
tha  young  prince  (3  Sam.  ivlii,  SI,  £3,  S.I,  SI.  B!>. 
B.C.  10*28.  He  was  apparently  attached  to  Jeab's  per- 
son, but  unknown  and  unaccustomed  to  the  king,  aa 
may  be  Inferred  frer  his  not  being  ivcognised  Ly  tba 
watchman,  and  alss^m  the  alirupt  nunner  in  which 
he  breaks  his  evil  tidings  to  David— unlike  Ahimaai, 
who  waa  well  aware  of  tbe  effect  they  wer«  sure  te 
produce.  See  David.  That  Casbl  was  a  foreigner — 
as  we  should  iofbr  thim  his  name — is  also  slightly  cor- 
roborated by  his  ignorance  of  tho  firound  in  the  Jordan 
valley- "the  way  of  the  '  Ciccar"'  <q.  v.)— by  know- 
ing which  Ahbnaaz  waa  enabled  to  outrun  him.  Ew- 
ald, however,  conjectures  that  a  mode  of  running  is 
here  referred  lo  peculiar  to  Ahimaai.  and  by  which 
he  was  recognised  a  long  distance  off  by  tbe  wateb- 

2.  Tbe  father  of  Sbelemlah,  and  great  grandfiitber 
of  Jehudi.  which  last  waa  sent  by  the  Jewish  magnstea 
to  Invite  Barucb  lo  read  bla  I«II  lo  them  (Jer.  zxirl, 
Uy     B.C.  long  ante  SOS. 

3.  The  son  of  Gedaliah,  and  fkther  oTtlia  prophet 
Zcplianiah  (Zeph.  i,  1).     B.a  ante  CSfi. 


Sm  Bed  ;  Pillow. 

Caahmaii,  Elibha,  ■  BaptiM  mlnliUr 
•t  Kindlon,  Hus.,  Hay  i,  17flB.  Ua  vu  ordained 
paator  of  the  Pint  Baptiat  Church  ot  HacUtord,  June 
10, 1813.  In  1S14  be  waa  made  H.A.  (boDonry)  by 
Yale  College.  In  1826  ha  reiigned  his  charge  in 
Uutlbrd,  and  became  paator  of  the  Naw  Market  Street 

BapdatCbarchofPhiUdelphU.     In  Septsmber, 

he  retomed  to  Connecticut,  and,  after  preacbin); 
Ume  M  Stratfield,  was,  in  April,  1831,  called  U 
pttetoral  charKe  of  tbe  Baptiat  church  in  New  Hi 
In  1S35  he  removed  to  Plynioutb,  Ma.iii.,  Lot  relc 
to  Hartrnrd  in  1H38,  and  resumed  the  editorship  of  Tkt 
CAnfd'dH  Stcniary,  a  religioun  pjprr  nf  Hbicb  be  bad 
been  the  original  editor  In  1S2Z.  He  died  October  26, 
1838.  Mr.  Cuahman's  preaching  was  simple,  instruc- 
tire,  and  often  eloquent.  He-published  a  namber  of 
occasional  sermoni  and  addressea. — Sprague  Anitali, 
ri,  563. 

Cuapiiu.     See  FADtn. 

Ciutom  (Chald.  1\hn,  AoAil',  a  vny-tax.  i.  a.  t 
Ena  iv,  IB,  20 ;  tU,  n';  Gt.  riXof,  a  toz,  1  Uacc 
35;  Matt,  xril,  36;  Rom.  xiil,  I;  fopof,  iributt,  2 
Uacc  It,  38;  nfiiupnee,  1  Hacc.  x,  29),  Rbcbipt  > 
(jiXmviv,  calleclor't  offia,  i.  e.  liMJuau,  Matt,  ii,  . 
Uarkii,Ui  Lukav,27).  SobTolu  UnderthaPer- 
sian  and  Syrian  ■Dpremacy,  Imposts  of  various  kin 
were  collected  by  local  ageota.  Under  tbo  RomsT 
the  mina^cament  oftha  proviticiiil  revenues  was  ge 
orally  comniitted  to  Iha  Roman  knights,  who  we 
thencfl  denominated  cii-/ publieaiu,  or  chief  collectors 
of  tba  taxes;  the  tat-gatberors  or  exactors  whom 
they  employed  were  termed  puUicaw.  It  was  diOer- 
ent  in  Judtea,  for  there  the  managcmeat  of  the  rere- 
nnes  was  committed  to  the  Jowa  themselTes,  and  those 
who  held  this  office  eventnally  obtained  an  equal  rank 
with  the  knights  of  Rome  (Luke  lii,  3;  Josephus, 
fFar,  K,  14,  9).  Tbe  subordinile  agints,  or  puMicaiw, 
In  collectjni;  the  revenues,  took  their  position  at  the 
gates  of  cities  and  in  the  public  way",  and,  at  the 
place  appointed  for  that  purpose,  called  the  "rrcapl 
of  caj/on,"  esamined  the  goods  thut  passed,  and  re- 
ceived the  moneys  that  were  to  be  paid  (UatL  ix,  2 : 
Hark  ii.  14;  Luke  v,  Tu  29)-  These  tBx-;.'Btberers, 
if  we  may  believe  Cieero  (/Vo  FUkc.  2S),  were  mere 
inclined  to  exact  too  much  than  to  for^  tbo  promise 
which  tbev  bad  made  to  their  masters;  and  wem,  ac- 
cordingly, in  eonseqiirnce  of  their  extortions,  every- 
where, more  particularly  in  Judtea,  objects  of  hatred, 
and  were  placed  in  the  same  class  with  nolorioas  sin. 
nen  (Mark  ii,  15, 16;  Luke  iji,  12, 13).  Tbe  Phari- 
see* held  no  oommonicatkin  with  them;  and  one 
ground  or  their  reproaches  against  the  Saviour  was, 
that  be  did  not  refoaa  to  alt  at  meat  with  ponons  of 
snch  a  character  (Matt,  v,  46,  47 ;  ix,  10,11;  xi,  19; 
xviii,  17  ;  xxi,  81,  3->).  The  half-Mrhl  lax  was  a  Ux 
or  ttibnte  to  be  paid  annnatly  by  every  adult  Jew  at 
tbi  Temple.  It  was  introduced  after  tbe  captivity  in 
coossquetice  of  ■  wrong  interpretation  of  certiiin  ex- 
preasionB  In  the  Pentatench,  and  differed  from  the 
rtvenne  which  accrued  to  the  kings,  telrarchs,  and 
etbnarchs,  and  IVom  the  general  tax  that  was  assesscil 
for  tbe  Roman  Cxaan.  It  was  required  that  thb  t.ix 
ibonid  be  paid  in  Jewish  ooId  (Matt,  xxil,  17-19 ;  Mark 
xil,  14,  Ii).  The  prominent  object  of  the  temple  mon- 
ey-changer* (q.  V.)  Wat  their  own  personal  emolu- 
ment; but  the  acquliition  of  property  In  this  way  was  , 
contrary  to  the  fpirit  of  tbe  law  in  Deut.  xxiii,  jn.  31. 1 
It  W.1B  (or  this  reason  that  Jesus  dnire  them  from  the 
temple  (Matt.  zxi.  22;  Hark  zl,  »:  John  ii,  15).  I 
MesBengers  vrere  iwnt  Into  other  cities  Ihr  the  purpn<e 
of  collectmg  this  Ux  (Matt,  xvii,  25).  The  Jews  who  | 
collected  th1>  tax  from  their  countrrmen  dtcelllng  in  | 
foreign  nations  transmitted  the  sunis  collected  every  ' 
Tear  to  Jeraa;ilem.  This  accounle  for  the  immense , 
11.— 20' 


7  CUTHBERT 

■nMunt  of  tbe  treaanree  which  flowed  into  the  Tsmple 
(JoaephoB,  AhI.  xiv,  7, 2).     Sea  TAX. 

Cut  THi  Flesh;  CUT  oft  from  tbb  People. 
See  Cdtthio,  etc. ;  ExcoiuiniiicATioii. 

Cath  (Hebrew,  Kulk,  rqs,  signif.  unknown  ;  Sept. 
Xoii,  2  Klngi  xvii,  30)  or  Ca'tbab  (Hob.  Kalkah', 
nnSI,  fem.  of  aame;  Sept.  Xau3d,  ver.  24),  one  of  the 
diatricte  in  Aala  whence  Shalmaneaer  transplanted  cer- 
tain coloniaU  into  tbe  land  of  Israel,  wblch  he  had 
desolated.  See  Sailaria.  From  the  inCermixtnra  of 
these  coloniata  with  tbe  remaiaing  natives  aprung  tbn 
Samaritana  (q.  v.)i  who  are  called  Cutbiles  (D^P^S) 
in  the  Chaldee  and  the  Talmud  (see  Buxtorf,  Lex. 
Tain.  col.  1027),  and  fbr  the  same  reaaon  a  number  of 
non-Sbemitlo  woida  which  occur  in  the  Samaritan  dia- 
lect are  called  Cutbian  (compare  XsuSuTsi,  jDaepbos, 
AhI.  ix,  14,8;  comp.  xiil,  9,1).  Josepboa  places  Cu- 
thab  in  central  Persia  (comp.  Zonar.  i,  p.  77),  and  ftnda 
there  a  river  of  the  same  name  (Xot<3ar, -Inf.  Ix,  14, 
3;  1,9,7).  RoaenmDller  and  other*  incline  to  seek  it 
in  the  Arabian  Irak,  where  Abnlfeda  and  other  Arabic 
and  Peraian  writers  place  a  town  of  the  name  of  Ku- 
eio,  in  the  tiaot  near  the  Nahr-Malka,  or  n>ya]  canal 
(the  foBTtb  In  Xenopbon,  AmA.  i,  7),  which  connected 
the  Euplirates  and  Tigris  to  tbe  south  of  the  present 
Bagdad.  The  site  hag  been  idenliAed  with  the  ruins 
of  TatMak,  immediately  adjacent  to  Babylon  (Aint- 
worth's  Assyria,  p.  165;  Knobel,  IWttrto/W,  p.  £62) ; 
the  canal  may  tw  the  river  to  which  Joeephus  refers, 
Othtn  prefer  the  conjecture  of  Stephen  Horin  (in 
Ugolinl  Tha.  vii)  and  Le  Clerc,  wblch  IdenCiilea  tba 
Cuthites  with  the  CoMiai  in  Suslana  (Arrien,  rmdic.  x1 ; 
PUn.  Hilt.  Nat.  vl,  31 ;  DIod.  Sic.  xvii,  HI ;  Mannert, 
ii,  498),  a  warlike  tribe  who  occupied  the  mountain 

lees  habits  made  them  a  terror  even  to  the  Persian 
emperon  (Strab.  xi,  &24;  xvi,  744).  They  were  nev- 
er wholly  anbdued  until  Alexander's  expoditicn,  and 
it  tbeiefon  appears  doahtful  whether  Shalmaneaer 
could  have  gained  sufficient  authority  over  them  to  ef- 
fect tbe  removal  of  any  considerable  number;  tbdr 
liahits  would  bave  made  such  a  step  highly  expedient, 
if  practicable.  Font  (Ur':  /lamdvSrl.  a.  v.)  IdcntlAes 
this  district  with  the  modem  KhuiiUnn  of  Susiana, 
Iho  province  Jultja  of  the  cuneiform  Inscriptions  of 
Itehietun  (llenfey,  D!e  Pert.  Kfiliafhr.  p.  IS,  82).  All 
then  conjectures  refer  essentially  to  the  same  quarter, 
and  nnv  of  thorn  Is  preferable  to  the  one  auggosted  by 
Michae'lis  (_Spieil.  i,  114),  that  tbo  Cuthites  were  Phoe- 
nldana  tnm  tbe  neij;hlKirlKiod  of  Sidon ;  founding  it 
upon  tbe  connectbn  between  tbe  Samaritans  and  tbe 
.Sidonians,  as  stated  in  their  letter  to  Alexander  tbe 
Great  (Joseph.  AiU.  8,  6 ;  xli,  5,  o),  and  between  the 
.Sidonians  and  the  Cuthsans,  as  expressed  In  the  ver- 
sion of  the  Chaldee  Paraphrast  Pseudo-Jonathan  in 
Gen,  1, 13,  who  substitutes  C-i:ri3  for  T-I3,  and  in 
the  Targnm,  1  Chron,  i,  13,  where  a  similar  change  Is 
made;  thlx  is  without  doubt  to  be  referred  to  tbe  tradi- 
tional belief  that  tbe  original  seat  of  the  Pbieniclan* 
was  on  tbe  shores  of  tbe  Persian  Gulf  (Herod,  t,  1). 
Rawllnmn  is  conHdent  that  the  ancient  Cutb  is  identl- 
csl  with  tbe  modem  ruined  site  Ibrahim,  atH>at  twelve 
milea  from  Babylon  (HrTod.  i.  243,  515;  Hit.  F.r.  p. 
340  sq.).  See  Nero.vl.  After  all,  it  is  possible  that 
there  is  some  historical  and  etymological  connection  (3 
changed  to  T)  between  Caih  and  tba  CaA  of  Gen.  ii, 
18.  which  must  have  lain  somewhere  in  tba  same  qnar* 
ter.     See  Ctan. 

Cntbbert.  St,,  an  eminent  monk,  hem  in  tbe  north 
of  EnKland  in  the  licrtinning  of  the  7ih  century.  Ilia 
life,  written  liy  Bedi',  is  full  of  marvellous  stories ;  hut 
it  is  clear  that  he  was  an  earnest  and  filthful  minister. 
He  MM  educated  by  the  Scottish  monks  at  Icolmkill. 
After  being  for  some  time  a  monk  in  the  moaaateiy  of 


livedo 


Bnjoyed  the  r*  [ 
miracles.  In  686  ha  yielded  to  the  entre»tia«  of  ItinH 
K);ljeTt.  Bud  accepted  the  epiacopal  lee  of  Hexham. 
When  be  felt  the  approocb  of  death  he  nturned  to  his 
hermitago  on  Fanie,  and  there  died.  March  SO,  687. 
lie  it  commemorated  in  the  Kaman  Charcti  March  20. 
"  The  fime  of  8L  Cutbbert  had  been  great  during  his 
life;  it  liecame  far  greater  after  hia  death.  ChurrheH 
were  dedicated  to  him  throughout  all  the  countr;  be- 
tween the  Trent  and  Mertey  on  the  aauth,  and  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  on  the  DOith.  When  hit  tomb  was 
opened  at  the  end  of  eleven  yeani,  it  waB  belisred ' 
that  hia  body  was  found  incomipt,  and  ao  for  more  i 
than  eOO  yean  It  wu  believed  still  to  continue,  ll 
remained  at  I.indiafkme  till  8f5,  nlien  the  mobkK, 
liearing  it  on  their  shoulder!,  fled  inland  from  the  fury 
of  the  Danea.  After  many  wanderia.:a  through  the 
aoatb  of  Scotland  and  the  north  of  Eagland,  it  fuand  a 
reittng-plaee  at  Cbe«t*i4»-Street  In  862.  It  waa  tiana- 
forred  to  Ripon  In  96&.  and  in  the  aame  year  it  was  re- 
moved tc  Durham.  Here,  encloaed  in  a  coatty  ehrine, 
and  lielieved  to  HOrk  daily  mlraclea,  it  remained  till 
the  Reformation,  whao  it  waa  buried  under  the  pave- 
ment of  the  cathedral.  The  grave  was  opened  In 
1827,  when  a  coffin,  aicertoined  to  have  been  made  in 
15Jl_when  the  body  was  committed  to  the  earth- 
was  found  to  enclose  another,  which  there  was  reason 
to  suppose  had  been  made  in  IIU ;  and  this  again  en- 
dosed  a  third,  which  answered  the  description  of  one 
made  in  698,  when  the  aunt  was  raised  thim  his  lirst 
grave.  This  innermost  case  contained,  not,  indeed, 
the  incnrrupllhU  body  of  St.  Cnthbert,  but  his  skele- 
ton, still  entire,  wrapped  In  Are  robes  of  embroidered 
silk.  Fragments  of  these,  and  of  the  episcopal  vest  • 
ments,  tO;;ether  with  a  comb  and  other  relics,  fonnd 
beside  the  bones,  an  to  be  seen  in  the  cathedral  ilbra- 
rj*.  The  asceticism  which  distinguished  St.  Cuthbert 
in  life  long  lingered  round  his  tomb.  Until  the  Kef- 
ormatiim,  do  woman  was  auflfered  to  approach  hie 
shrine ;  the  cross  of  blue  marlile  still  remuina  in  the 
cathedral  floor  which  marked  the  limits  beyond  which 
female  footsteps  were  forbidden  to  pass,  nnder  pain  of 
Instant  and  signal  punishment  ftom  the  offended  saint. 
Ilia  wrath,  it  was  believed,  was  etjually  prompt  to 
avenge  every  injury  to  the  honor  or  posseasinna  of  his 
church.  It  was  told  that  William  the  Conqueror, 
anxioas  to  see  the  incorrupt  l-ody  of  Ih/ aiint,  ordered 
the  shrine  to  lie  broken  up ;  but  scarcely  had  a  stroke 
been  struck,  when  such  aickneas  and  terror  fell  upon 
the  king  that  he  rushed  ttom 


-  [  berti  de  Uulonu  IFifbtmauiwm  t:rcrrjtfsf,  and  the  X£ 
,  I  beOia  de  Admiramiii  B.  Cvlkbrrii  Virtaiibtu,  by  Regi- 
nald of  Durham,  both  published  by  the  Snrteea  S«de- 


There 


■  bridle 


crossed  the  Tees !  A  cloth,  said  to  hav 
St.  Cuthbert  in  celebrating  mass,  was 
■  standard,  which  w.ie  believed  to  ini 
the  army  in  whose  ran 


■tory  to  I  '"Bf 
An  wsH   "ledi 


irried.  Floddt 
h  the  defeat  of  the  I 
Scots  was  ascribed  to  the  banner  of  St.  Cuthbert.  It ' 
hung  lieside  his  shrine  until  the  Beformation,  when  it . 
ta  said  to  have  been  burnt  bv  Calvin's  sister,  the  wife 
of  the  first  Protestant  dean  of  the  ciithedral.  The  life 
of  St.  Cuthbert  was  twice  writen  by  the  Yenerable 
Bede — briefly  in  vigoroua  hexameters  in  hia  Ubrr  ilf 
itiracalu  SaiKti  CiilllberrH  Fpiicopii  at  grest-r  length 
In  pnife,  in  his  lM)er  ile  Vila  rt  Mirantu  Sancti  €iilh- 
btrcli  Lindii/aninu'i  Epiicopi.  In  this  latter  work  he 
made  use  of  an  eartier  life  by  a  monk  nf  Lindlsfame, ' 
which  is  still  preserved.  Besides  these  lives— all  of  ' 
which  have  lieen  printed  more  than  once — and  what  is  ; 
tnlrl  nf  St.  Cuthbert  in  Beds's  Hulnria  Ecclaiailira . 
GtBtii  Anglonm,  Uiv  chief  ancient  aulhoriliea  are  the 
His'oria  Tnmtlatinmi  8.  Otlibtrli,  published  by  the 
RolUndbts  in  the  ArUi  StacloTTim,  mrta.  Jfartii,  vol.  j 
liii  the  lAh'Wit  de  JSrordio  Dipihelmntii  Eedeiur.bvl 
Sj'iiicon  of  Durham ;  the  LtbeHai  ih  XatifUale  S.Cvlh-  \ 


the  late  Rev.  James  Baine's  81.  Cmkbtrt  (Dnrhtn), 
1S2R),  and  the  Verv  Rev.  Honsignor  C.  Erre's  ilineij 
Bf  SI.  CulUirrl  (Lond.  1849)."— Chamber^,  EiKyrlofm- 
dia,  s.  V. ;  Butler,  litn  "/Samti,  March  SO;  Hem^ 
RtilEnrytlnp.  xix,  S74. 

Cuthites.    See  Cdth. 

Cutler,  Benjamin  Clarke,  D.D.,  a  minirtrr  of 
the  Protiit  ulEpisciiii«H.'hurch,*a«boniin  Roiburr, 
Mass.,  Feb.  6, 1798,  and  died  in  BtuoUyn,  N.V.,  Feb. 
10, 18i;8.  On  his  mother's  side  he  was  descended  ftinii 
ihe  Unguenote.  Hia  rcligiona  character  dereb'ped 
early ;  it  waa  marked  by  no  epoch  of  sudden  tranri- 
tion,  but  at  the  age  of  el^bteen,  two  yeara  after  kii 
cunHrmation,  be  became  a  decided  Christian.  He  in 
mediatoly  began  to  study  for  the  ministry,  and  gradih 
Bteil  with  high  honor  at  Brown  Univoaity  in  1831 
He  discharged  the  fnncUooa  of  the  ministiy  kvoi 
years  in  Qnincy,  Mass.;  one  year  in  Leesburg.  Vs. ; 
two  years  in  Xew  I'orlt  as  a  d^missionarv,  andthinr 
years  ae  rector  of  SL-Ann's  Chutch,  Bnnklyn.  Ai'a 
preacher  he  was  pre-eminently  evangelical,  and  u  I 
pBBtor  remarkably  snccastfuj.  He  was  one  of  Ibe 
originatora  and  mOFt  active  promoten  of  the  mianM- 
ary  work  of  the  Protestant  Epifcopal  Church.  It( 
was  *  LowXhurchmsn,  and  was  deeply  grieved  lit  tit 
riaeof  PoBeyism.and  its  introduction  into  this  eoantrv. 
He  wrote  of  It  as  "the  reigning  heresy  of  incipient  Bs- 
nunism."  In  1843  he  visited  England  for  Ihe  ia)»  ef 
hia  health.  On  liiB  return  the  ve>Bel  struck  a  »liialin 
the  harbor  of  Kew  Tork,  and  for  twelve  hoars  it  Ial«Kt 
heavily  in  a  storm.  Alwaya  after  he  observed  the  iB- 
nlvcrean'  of  that  dav  as  an  occasion  of  fipecial  tbtaks- 
glt-ing.  '  Dr.  Cntler'was  a  chronic  invalid.  Befijlilw 
went  to  college  he  was  thoaght  to  be  in  a  decUnr,  and 
bis  life  was  one  long  battle  with  dL>eaae.  His  Gaal 
illness  waa  protracted  and  veri'  distressing.  He  wtM 
often  say,  "the  nnder-cnrreots  are  all  peat*."  Ha 
left  no  publisbed  works  except  a  few  occasiinisl  dif- 
coursea  and  a  volume  of  serroons,  which  are  pood  ijit- 
imeas  of  direct,  fervent  Goepel  preaching. 

Cutler.  Manasaeb.  LL.D.,  ■  Congregitirmil 
miiii-ter,  was  born  in  Kiltingty,  Cnnn^  May  a',i;Jl 
graduated  at  Vale  ITGft,  rtndied  law,  and  was  adiaii- 
ted  to  tho  bar,  but  tn  a  short  time  devoted  hioiseUlD 
Ihe  atudv  of  theology.  He  was  installed  parfr  In 
Hamilton,  Uasa.,  Sept.  11, 1771.  After  the  Revolotica 
the  Ohio  Company  chose  him  agent  for  the  porehtf 
of  land  In  the  West,  and  Washington  offered  him  iht 
lioncirable  position  of  judge  of  Ihe  U.  S.  Court  in  tbt 
North-weft  Territory,  bat  he  declined.  He  was  elrrt- 
ed  to  Congress  in  I'SOO,  Dr.  Cutler  devoted  bimsflf 
largely  to  Ijotany,  and  to  the  study  and  |ffictiR  of 
medicine,  but  retained  his  pastoral  relation  rnitil  his 
death,  July  28, 1828.  He  was  made  I.L.D.  by  YaVia 
17S9.     He  published  a  number  of  articles  on  Fcitnn'^c 

.bjecta  and  a  few  occksionnl  Bcrmcns. — Spragae.  J*- 


all,  il,  IS. 


Cutler,  Timotby,  D.D.,  i 

:hurchinAn      ' 
1  the  year  li 


inisler  of  (be  Fn^1i)h 
ii-ncn,  was  i>ora  at  Charlestown,  Mif*.. 
18).  and  graduated  at  Hnrvard  in  I'M. 
lied  and  ordained  for  the  PresbyteriU 
ministry,  and  in  1710  was  installed  pastor  of  the  C<>d- 
},-regJti'onal  church  in  Stratfijrd,  Conn.  He  btaoe 
lire-iident  of  Vale  College  in  1719,  at  the  request  of  lbs 
trustees;  but  on  Ihe  day  after  Commenceinent  ta 
1772,  a  paper  was  presented  to  the  clergj-  and  otkers 
ussenibled  in  tho  college  libran-,  si^^ed  by  the  twtor 
and  one  of  the  tutors,  together  with  several  of  the 
neighboring  ministers,  in  which  they  say  :  "Somaf 
ua  doubt  of  the  validity,  and  the  rest  are  fully  p«- 
suaded  of  tho  invalidity,  of  Preabylerian  ordinatinB  hi 
opposition  to  Epiacopal."     In  Octolier  r»l]owiiig  a  dir 


CUTTING  61 

rauioo  took  plan  in  the  college  Uhrsn'.  the  principal 
■pskcn  being  the  reclor  •nd  Mr.  Samuel  JohnMin 
(itterwarda  Dr.  Johnsoa,  oT  Hartford)  on  the  one  fide, 
■nd  (tovemor  8«!toii>tBll  or  the  other.  The  remit 
w  llul  tbs  rector  declared  himielf  conHrmed  in  his 
EpUcopal  procllTitles,  nnd  in  October  follonint;  the 
tru*tee*  voted  "to  aicuae  the  Rev.  Mr.Cntler  from  all 
further  serrice  aa  rector  of  Yale  College."  Me  went 
to  England  in  Ja\j,  1722,  to  procure  Episcopal  orditia- 
tiiin,  which  ho  raceived  the  following  year,  with  the 
ilegnte  of  D.D.  from  both  Oxfonl  and  Cambridge.  In 
1723,  on  hi>  return,  he  was  appointed  miwionary  to 
tliB  Society  for  the  Propagntion  of  the  Goipol,  and  ba- 
cjiDfl  rector  of  Chriat  Church.  Boefin.  In  that  ita- 
tioD  he  died,  Aug.  IT,  1765.     Ha  published  aeveral  oc- 

CMionil  eennone Sprague,  Aimati,  v,  60. 

CnttlDE  (iH  THB  Flesh),  cipreased  technically  by 
a^iJ,  tt'rrl  (LeT.  lix,  28),  or  T^liJ.  tan'trth  (Lev. 
XkJ,  6,  where  the  cognate  verb  H^ifl,  aaral',  la  used 
ID  the  aame  connection),  a  gaiA  or  incliion  (Sept.  iv- 
ro^ii'l,  Vnlg.  inciiara)  in  the  flaeh  (-iiJ=S);  also  by 
Ilia,  gtdMt  (Jer.  xlvil,  37),  a  cut  in  the'  ekin  (e.  g. 
tha  baltd,  u  there ;  the  verb  IIS,  gudad',  occun  in 
the  umfl  Knae,  with  reference  to  tha  ceremoniei  of 
moominj^  Jer.  xvi,  t ;  xli,  5 ;  xlvii,  a,  or  as  a  part  of 
Uol  wonhlp,  Dent.  xW,  1 ;  J  Kings  xvlii,  28) ;  and  liy 
'??!?'  ionin',  a  "mark"  p 
(Lev.  xix,  3B)-,  compare  the  diemoniac  in  Mark 


V  jdl. 


itmg  I 


tueif 


Amnn;^  tha  pnihibiiary  Uwa  which  God  gave 

raelitna  there  was  one  that  expresalv  fbrbad  tha  prac- 
tice embraced  in  thcM  words,  vii.  "Yb  iball  not  make 
any  cutUngB  in  yonr  fle<h  for  the  dead"  (Lev.  slit,  2«V 
It  ii  evident  from  thia  law  that  inc))  a  fpccics  of  itl/- 
mfitltd  torture  obuined  among  the  nillDne  of  Canaun  ; 
and  itiwaa  doabtleu  to  goard  hia  people  againat  the 
■doplkra  of  eo  barbarous  a  habit,  in  tte  idolitrona  form, 
a*  well  as  to  rtetraln  deaperate  grief  (comp.  1  The'",  i  v, 
13 :  MC  Macdonald,  litlrof.  to  At  Ptnlatru^,  Edinb. 
1861.  p.  11.1),  that  God  led  Moaea  to  rfilerate  the  pro- 
hibition; "They  aball  not  make  Iwldnetia  upon  their 
head*,  neither  (hall  they  ahava  olT  the  comer  of  their 
beanla,  nor  make  any  cattlnga  in  their  flesh"  (Lev. 
xsi.  6 ;  Dent,  xiv,  1).  (See  J.  G.  Micb.ielia,  Dt  Mci- 
mrn  pro,rfcr  ™or(i™,  F.  ad  0. 1TB3.)     See  Corner. 

1.  Tho  ancients  were  very  violent  in  their  expres- 
alona  of  sorrow.  Virgil  represents  the  aister  of  Dido 
aa  tearing  her  tm  with  her  naila,  and  lieaUng  her 
breanta  with  her  fiata  (^n,  iv,  S72).  Soma  of  the 
leimed  think  that  that  law  of  Solon'a  which  was 
tranaferred  by  the  Romnna  into  the  Twelve  Table* 
(Cicero,  Dt  Ug.  ii,  BS),  ihra  vomn  in  moanu^  ihwld 
•ml  Kraiek  Aeir  ttiriki  (Oirp.  Jur.  O.  v,  66,  07,  ed. 
Godnhedns,  15X3),  derived  its  origin  tmat  tills  law  of 
Mona  (I*v.  xii,  2S).  But,  howeverthia  opinion  may 
be  questioned,  it  would  appear  that  the  gimpte  tearing 
of  the  flesh  out  of  grief  and  anguish  of  iqiirit  is  taken 
in  other  parts  of  Scripture  a*  a  mart  n/aj!-ctiai .-  thus 
(Jer.  xlviii,  37),  "  Every  head  shall  Im  bald,  every 
beard  clipped,  and  upon  all  oiMi'nja."  Again  (ch. 
zvl,  ft):  "Both  the  great  and  the  amall  shall  die  In 
the  landt  they  abill  not  he  buried,  neither  ahall  men 
Liment  for  them,  nnr  nil  Ihrnaelm,"  So  (rh.  xli,  5): 
"There  cama  fhini  Samoria  fourscore  men  hwing 
their  heads  shaven  and  tlieir  clothes  rent,  and  having 
cot  themselves,  with  olTerings  to  th"  house  of  the 
Lord."  A  notion  apparently  existed  that  splf-inflictnl 
tuldness  or  mutilation  hail  0  proptiialory  efflnirv  with 
leapert  to  Ihe  manes  oflhe  dead,  perhaps  aa  represenl- 
mnrtifled  d-cr"''.  the  solemnity  of  human  or 


9  CUTTING 

bloodshed  la  represented  on  Ihe  occasion  of  the  burial 
of  Patroclus,  when  four  Imrses,  two  doga,  and  twelve 
Trojan  captivea  are  otTered  up  (//.  xxiii,  171.  176). 
Originally  used  with  hum.in  or  animal  sacrillces  at  fu. 
nerala,  alter  these  hiulgone  out  uf  use,  the  minor  prop). 
tislorv  acts  of  aelf-laceration  and  dapllalion  continued 
alone' (/f,  xiiil,  141;  Od.  iv,  197;  Virg.  ^B.  iii.  67, 
with  Serrina  ad  loc.  ilt,  60S;  Eurip.  Ak.  p.  436;  Sen- 
eca, HipjfJ.  V,  1176, 111>3;  Ovid,  Etg.  I,  iii,  3;  Tibul- 
lus,  £fey.  I,  1. 1).  riutarch  auys  that  soma  bsrbarU 
ana  mutilate  themaelves  (flf  Crnuol.  ad  ApvUon.  p.  113, 
vol.  rl.  Rclnke).  He  also  rave  that  Sidon,  by  the  ad- 
vice of  Epinienides,  curtiiled'thc  Athenian  practice  in 
this  respect  (Soloa.  IS-Sl,  i,  IRl,  194).  Such  being 
the  anciiint  heathen  practice.  It  Is  not  aurpriaing  tliat 
the  law  should  forbid  nimilir  practices  in  every  cats 
in  which  they  mi^-ht  be  used  or  iniaconstrued  in  a  pro- 
pitiatory sense.  "Ve  shall  not  maku  cuttings^* 
(pn>;>(cr)  tbedead,"i:it}3(Lev.  xix.  18;  see  Gcseni- 
us,  TKa.  Bfb.  p.  781 ;  Spencer,  D*  Ltg.  Heir.  II,  xix, 
404,  iOb).     See  Grief. 

2.  But  the  prjctics  of  self-mutllatinn  a*  an  act  of 
worship  lielonged  also  to  heathen  religiooa  ceremonies 
not  funereal.  The  prieits  of  Itaal,  a  Syrian  and  aW 
an  Assyrian  deity,  cut  themaelvea  with  knivee  to  pro- 
piliate'the  god  "af^er  tbeir  manner"  (1  Kings  xviii, 
•i»).  Ilen)dolus  suys  thut  the  Cariana,  who  reaidcd  in 
Europe,  cut  tbeir  foreheads  with  knives  at  festivals  of 
lais ;  in  thia  respect  exceeding  the  Egyptians,  who  Iwat 
themaelvea  on  thoee  occasiona  (Herod,  ii,  CI).  This 
ahows  that  the  practice  was  not  then  ntlcast  an  E.7|k 
tian  one.  Liician,  speaking  of  tha  Syrian  prieslly  at- 
tandants  of  this  mock  deity,  says  that,  using  violent 
gestures,  they  cut  their  amis  and  tongues  with  swords 
(Lucian,  Aiinut,  c.  87,  vol.  ii,  10!,  Amat. ;  De  Dra  Syr. 
ii,  658, 681;  comp.  Ezek.  viii,  14).  Shnilar  practices  in 
the  worship  of  Bellona  are  mentioned  by  Lucan  (Plian. 
i,  560),  and  alluded  to  hv  jGliua  Umpridius  {Comn.  p. 
2(IS).  by  TertnllUn  (.^po'.  9),  and  LacUntius  (Cir.  Ja- 
sfi'.i.c.  31.20,  Paris).  Herodotus,  speaking  of  means 
used  fur  allaying  a  storm,  uses  the  words  Ivroiia  )roi- 
livTiQ.  which  may  mean  cutting  the  flesh,  but  more 
probably  offering  human  sacriHces  (Herod,  vii,  191 ;  it, 
119,  with  Scbweighiuser's  note;  see  also  Virg.  jEb. 
ii,  lie ;  Lucr.  i,  1*.^),  Agreeably  to  the  Inference  which 
all  thb  furnishci,  we  lind  Tacitus  declare  (//uf.  i,  4) 
that  "the  gods  care,  not  for  our  safety,  but  pmifh- 


tn  fad 


oong  tl 


Ilvn 


a(iv. 


Scrtbisn  ns^ise  in  the  c. 

whow  ohseqiiic!  nt  fcner  than  six  hu 

besides  offering's  of  animals  and  other 


-d  kin, 


gods  were  jaJaia  of  human 
bappineai;  and  in  no  part  of  the  heathen  world  did  this 

count,  than  among  the  inhabltints  of  those  very  coun- 
triea  which  surrounded  that  land  where  God  desi»n>ed 
to  place  bia  people  Israel.  The  prohibition,  therefore, 
Is  directi-d  against  prncticea  prevailing,  not  among  the 
Esryptiana  whom  Ihe  Israelites  were  leaving,  bnl among 
theSvrians,  towhom  they  wereal>out  to  become  neigh- 
bors (Selden.  Ik  D.u  Sjru,  lib.  Ii,  c.  1).  The  spirit 
of  Islam  la  less  favorable  tlian  that  of  heathenism  to 
diaplays  of  this  kind;  yetexam- 

currencc  even  in  the  Moslem 

eluding  r«1estine  itself.  The 
annexed  fif^re  Is  copied  IVom 
one  which  is  represented  in 
many  of  Ihe  books  of  travel  in 
Egi-i^t  nnd  Pulestlna  tlial  w.-re 
printed  in  the  seventeenth  ren- 
tnry.  It  is  deaerilird  \>y  tho 
missli.narv  Eugene  Rn.-cr  (_l.11  : 
Terrt  S  iw/e.  etc.,  IftJG,  p.  2J'i) 

■presenting  ''one  of  those     Moicm  Orieniil  Self- 


calen 


e  Balhoi 


the  simple  penpl* 
sinpul:li<;jt*jih« 


CUTTY-STOOL  6: 

ctinetcT  atack  Ibrouzh  the  Seabj  part  of  hl>  aide,  with 
three  heavy  iron  npiks*  thruit  (hrongh  the  muiclei  ;>( 
his  sna,  and  with  ■  feather  insertad  Into  s  cut  Id  hii 
forehewl.  He  moves  about  with  grat  composaTe. 
■nd  Endures  b11  these  saSerings,  hoping  for  recompense 
in  the  Paradise  of  Hohammed.  Add  to  Ihit,  the  com- 
mon accoantu  of  the  gashes  which  the  Persian  doTo- 
tees  inflict  npoD  themselves,  in  the  Tnaiy  of  their  Iotv 
and  grief,  during  the  annual  mouming  for  Huun  and 
Hoasein  (see  Mrs.  PosUna,  in  the  Jimr.  Sac.  Lit.,  July, 
IMS,  p.IO;).  The  Uezicans  and  I'emvbns  oSbred  hu- 
man sacrifices  both  at  fUnerale  and  festivals.  The  Go- 
siyens  of  India,  aclassof  Brabminical  friars,  endeavor 
in  some  cases  to  extort  slms  by  gashing  their  limbs 
with  linives.  Among  the  native  negro  African  tribes 
also  the  practice  appears  to  prevail  of  offering  human 
sacrifices  at  the  death  of  chiefs.  (See  Chardin,  V'oy- 
0^,  vi,  1S2 ;  ii,  68,  4DD  \  Otearius,  TrauU,  p.  237 ; 
Ldne,  Mod.  Eg.  Ii,  69  i  Prescott,  iffxico.  1, 53, 63 ;  Pent, 
i,  86;  Elphinstone,  niil.  nf/itdia,  1, 116;  Strabo,  xv, 
711  et  sq. :  Nlebohr,  ViigagtM,  ii,  64;  Livingstone, 
TriMh,  p.  318,  688;  (?of.  Ci.  Chnm.  No.  cxxxi,  179; 
Unrstori,  Anad.  iv,  B9, 100).    8es  Sacrifice. 

8.  But  there  b  anothernsage  contemplated  moM  re- 
motely by  the  prohibition,  viz.,  that  of  printing  marks 
(orijiiaTa),  tattooing,  to  indicate  allegiance  to  a  deity, 
la  the  same  manner  as  soldiers  and  slaves  bore  tat- 
tooed marks  to  indicate  allegiance  or  adsciiption.  (Sse 
Biedcrmann,  De  Cliaract.  anpori  imprtuU,  Frib.  1755.) 
This  ii  evidently  alluded  to  In  the  Revelation  of  John 
(liii,  16;  lii,  20;  ivii,  5),  thonnh  in  a  contrary  di- 
rection, by  Ezekiel  (iz,  4),  by  Paul  (Gsl.  vl,  17),  in  the 
Bcrelatlon  (vli,  S),  and  perhaps  by  tuioh  (xliv,  5)  and 
Zechariah(xlii,6).  Lucinn,  speaking  of  the  priests  of 
the  Syrian  deity,  says  that  they,  and.  In  fuel,  the  A»- 
ayrion*  generally,  bear  auch  marks  on  some  part  of 
their  body  {D«  Dra  Syr.  Ii,  684).  A  tradition,  men- 
tioned by  Jerome,  was  current  among  the  Jews,  that 
king  Jeholakim  bore  on  bis  bodv  marks  of  tbia  kind 
which  were  discovered  after  his  deuth  (Spencer,  Dl 
Leg.  Hfbr.  II,  xi,  410).  Pbilo,  quoted  by  Spencer,  de- 
scribes the  marks  of  tattooing  Impreued  on  those  who 
snbmitted  to  the  process  in  their  besotted  love  for  idol- 
worship,  as  beine  made  by  branding  (<Tif^|>fiirtrvfiw- 
fitvv,  Philo,  de  Momarch.  i,  819;  Spencer,  p.  416).  The 
Arabs,  both  men  and  women,  are  in  the  habit  of  ( 
tooinf;  their  fiic«s,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 
members  of  Brahmin  ical  sects  In  India  are  distingui 
ed  by  marks  on  the  forehead,  often  erroneously  sup- 
posed by  Europeans  to  bo  marks  of  caste  (Niebuhr, 
Dtter.  de  I'Ar.  p.  S8;  Vogasei.  i,  2«;  Wellaed, 
Arabia,  ii,  206,  4(5;  Oleatius,  T>accli,  p.  ■2S9;  El- 
phinstone, India,  i,  196).    See  Mark  (oh  thk  Pkr- 

CUTTING  OFF  (from  the  Pr,oPLK).     See  Ex- 

COHMOKICATION. 

Oiitty-Vtoolftho  stool  or  seat  of  repentance  in  the 
Scotch  kirks,  placed  near  the  roof  and  painted  black, 
on  which  offenders  againat  chastity  sit  during  service, 
professing  repentnnce  and  n-ceivinB  tlio  minister's  re- 
bukes. It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  a  breach  of 
the  seventh  commandment  should  be  the  only  sin  sub- 
^ctin«  the  oO^nder  In  the  Scotch  Church  to  this  sort 
of  discipline. 

Guylar.  Cobneuos  C,  D,D.,  bom  at  Albany,  It. 
Y.,  Feb.  16,  1783;  graduated  at  Union  College  \mS; 
studied  theology  under  Rev.  Dts.  Livingston  and  Bos- 
■Ftt;  licensed  1808  in  the  Uefutmed  l>ulch  Church; 
Kltled  in  Poughkeepsie  1S0A-I833.  ami  from  that  year 
until  his  decease,  Aug.  31, 1860  was  pastor  of  the  Second 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia.  Dr.  Cuyier  is  rep- 
resented as  "  an  excellent  model  of  dillgencf,  fidelity, 
and  wisdom,"  a  man  of  strong  and  well-fumifihed 
mind,  an  earnest  and  effective  preacher,  an  adept  in 
the  management  of  ecclesiuslical  business.  His  min- 
istry was  cbaracteriied  hy  several  powerful  revivals 


0  CYAXARES 

ofr*llgloii,inwbidi  his  wisdom,  ieal,and  sncona  w«r« 
very  conapicaona,  Ula  printed  works  conniat  of  A 
'ler  of  occasional  sermons,  tracts,  pamphlete.  atti- 
or  periodicsls  and  essays  upon  special  tc^iea,  «. 
g.  the  subjects  of  Baptism,  the  Atonement,  the  Purity 
of  the  Uiuiitry,  Capital  Punishment,  etc. — Spragoc, 
R«a^  iv,  133. 

Cy'omon  (Kwi/ulv ;  Tnlgite,  dielmom),  »  pUce 
imed  only  In  Judith  vU,  8,  as  lying  In  the  pUIn  (oi- 
«■,  A.V.  ''valley")  over  against  (rixiwnri)  Eadre- 
m.  If  l>y  "  Esdralom"  we  may  undentand  Jurerl. 
this  deKription  answers  to  the  situation  of  the  modem 
village  TeU  KaioAi,  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  Camel, 
on  a  conspicnooB  position  overlooking  the  Klshon  and 
the  great  plain  (Robinson,  Later  Rtt.  p.  114 ;  Van  de 
Velde,  NaTTotoK,  i,  880).  The  place  was  known  to 
Enseblos  (Ka/i/iuvd)  and  Jerome  (C%imm]),  ai«]  ia 
mentioned  by  them  in  the  O»omatiicoit  (s.  v.  Camon, 
TLaiituv),  where  they  identi^  it  with  Cakos,  the  bor- 
lal-place  of  Jair  the  Giteadlta  (Jodg.  i,  6).— Smftb,  a. 
V.  Schulti  aaanmes  Cyamon  to  be  identtnd  with  tbe 
modem  Kimiek,  sonth-east  of  Little  Hcrmon  (Z^tfaeir. 
d.  morg.  Get.  iii,  48);  bat  Dr.  Rnbinron  (ut  tap.  p.  389) 
thinks  this  inconsistent  with  the  true  position  (accord- 
ing  to  his  location)  of  Bethulia  (q.  v.),  and  rntonata 
that  "Cyamon"  may  be  only  the  Greek  rendering 
(rn'rofiac)  of  the  Heb.  name  (VlD,  pol,  a  beam)  com- 
iponding  to  the  present  FulrA,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
plain  of  Eadnelon,  a  trace  of  which  appean  in  the  no- 
tices of  the  Cmsaders  (nilken,  Getdt.der  Krtax.  Ill, 
II,  281, 267).     But  see  Joknkah. 

CytucSres  (fivatifuK,  Gracbed  for  the  Old  Per*. 
Ucalihalara,  "  beanti^l-iq'ed,"  RawUnson,  Btrod.  iii. 
455),  the  name  of  two  Median  kings.     See  Medu. 

1.  Ctazaris  I  was,  according  to  IletodotDs,  tha 
third  king  of  Media,  being  the  eon  of  PhrBarte^  and 
grundson  of  Dejoces.  tlis  father  having  been. killed 
while  liesleglng  Ninne  (Nineveh),  he,  Immediately  on 
bis  accession,  B.C.  631,  collected  all  the  mililaiy  re- 
sources of  the  empire  to  revenge  his  father's  death ; 
but  he  was  called  away  from  the  siege  of  Ninns  by  an 
attack  of  the  Scj'thians,  by  whom  he  was  defeated,  and 
reduced  to  a  tribntarv  condition  of  great  rigor  for  many 
years  BC.  684-607  (Herod.  1, 103).  Herodotus  el«- 
where  (i,  73  sq.)  gives  a  different  account  of  tbia  war, 
as  having  originated  in  the  tmchery  of  Alyattea  of 
Syria,  who  had  sheltered  some  fugitive  Scythians  Ibst 
bad  served  up  to  Cyaxares  as  a  banquet  one  of  his  own 
sons  whom  they  had  killed.  The  war,  carried  on  for 
fire  yean  against  the  Lydlans  hy  the  Median  monarrh. 

ted  by  the  mntnal  awe  inspired  by  an  eelipM,  which 
has  been  variously  calculuted.  but  prolablv  was  that 
of  Sept.  80,  B.C.  610  (Baily,  Pliilm.  Traiiiaii.  1611 ; 
OlCmann,  Sthrifi.  ilet  Bert  Amd.  1813-18;  HaJa, 
Anal.  ofChmvA^,  i,  74-78;  Ideler.  Uaadlmck  ia 
Chrrmtionie,  I,  209  sq. ;  Tiscber,  Grieek.  Z/iUnf.  s.  a. 
610).  Cyaxsres  after  this  expelled  tbe  Srvthians. 
II.C.  607.  and  in  the  following  year,  with  the  aid  of  tbe 
king  nf  Babylon,  he  took  and  destroyed  Ihe  Assyrian 
capital,  at  that  time  governed  liy  Sarilanapalns.  Thte 
event  i>  referred  to  in  the  Apocrypha  (Tob.  xiv,  IS), ' 
where  Ihe  Median  king  Is  styled  ■'Abasuerui"  (q.  v.), 
and  bis  Babylonian  ally  is  called  NabnchodonoMTr, 
doubtless  referringtoKabopolassar,  the  father  of  Neb- 
nchadupziar.  See  Babtij)kia.  The  result  of  this 
campaiinii  according  to  Herodotus,  was,  that  the  Medn 
made  the  Asnyrians  their  subjects,  except  the  district 
of  Baln'lnn,  probably  meaning  that  the  king  of  BabT- 
lon  noir  obtained  complete  deliverance  from  the  yoke 
of  Assyria.  Tbe  leacne  between  Cyaxares  and'  tbe 
king  of  Babylon  is  aaid  by  Polybiator  and  Abydcais 
(ap.  Euseb.  CAroa.  Arm,  and  SynaB.  p.  ilO  b)  to  bve 
been  cemented  by  Ihe  betrothal  ofAnyhis  orAnrtii, 
the  lUugbler  of  Cjtxtier,  to  NabacbadroeMr  ir  Sib- 
uchadnnosor  (i.  e.  KebachadDeiiar),  tha  son  of  tbs 


CYCLE  e: 

Babjlonlan  Idng.  Tbe;  tuve,  however,  faj-  mUlakc. 
pot  the  Dune  of  bit  tan  Aadipsge*  (Artyigu)  for  C7- 
■xiTta  (Clinton,  I,  271,  879).  Cyuursi  wu  a  brave 
and  energetic,  but  violent  *nd  cruel  prince,  and  died 
B.C.  SM,  aflsr  a  reign  of  U  jean,  leaving  tbe  tbrone 
to  AstyegoB  (Herod,  i,  78, 74, 103-106 ;  iv,  11, 12 ;  vii, 

20) Smith,  Diet.  o/CUut.  Btog.  t.  v. 

2.  Ctaxares  II,  the  Mm  of  ABty&gea  ind  grand- 
ion  of  the  preceding,  aocceedsd  his  father  at  Ibe  age 
of  foity-nine  yean  \  bnt,  tning  of  a  gentle  dirpoeition, 
he  left  the  government  principally  in  the  hands  of  his 
nephew  and  son-in-law  CyniB.  Thla  account  Is  given 
by  XcDOphon  (in  hia  CyropaiHd),  with  which,  bow- 
ever,  tbe  ilatements  of  Herodotus  and  Cteiias  mute- 
liallj  diaagree.  See  Crnus.  This  Cyaxares  ia  be- 
lieved to  be  the  "  Darius  the  Mede"  (q.  v.)  referred  to 
in  the  book  of  Daniel  (ii,  1). 

Cycle,  a  certain  number  of  years  in  civil  and  ec- 
dsalaatical  chronology.  The  iMiar  CycU  (cyclat  ht- 
IKE,  or  decemmo€ftlu)  embraces  nineteen  years,  after  the 
oxpiratjon  of  which  the  days  of  the  new  and  full  moon 
genenli}'  fall  again  upon  the  Bame  day  of  the  month. 
The  Greek  astronomer  Melon  Is  Ibe  inventor  of  this 
CTcle.  Anatolins,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  In  Syria,  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  third  century,  dnt  used  it  for 
calculating  Eulfr  (q.  v.).  When  the  Council  of  Nice 
terminated  the  Easter  controversy,  and  eelsblished 
noUbrmlty  in  the  celebration  of  Easter,  tbe  bishops  of 
Alexandria  were  commiaBioned  to  calculate  annually 
the  time  uf  Easter,  and  to  communicate  it  to  the  other 
metropolitans.  At  flrst  the  bishopa  of  Alexandria 
naed  astronomical  calcolationa,  bat  lubsequentlj  they 
again  adopted  the  lunar  cycle,  and  by  means  of  it  cal- 
calated  Euter  for  a  number  of  cycles  in  advance. 
Thai  the  patriarch  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  prepared 
■D  Euter  cycle  for  480  years,  or  22  lunar  cycles,  b*- 
^nnlng  with  the  jear  S80.  This  cycle  was,  however, 
not  well  received  in  the  Western  churches,  and  patri- 
arch Cyril  consequently  reduced  It  to  95  years,  or  five 
iDDar  cycles.  This  new  Eister  cycle  extended  from  1S7 
to  &B1.  When  it  approached  its  termination,  Diony- 
ains  Eiiicuui  (q.  v.),  in  62S,  proposed  a  new  £JisUr 
ejrele,  which  embraced  16  lunar  cycIe^  or  S04  (Julian) 
jear*.  The  detects  of  this  cycle  resulted  from  the  in- 
accuracy of  the  Julian  year,  and  were  not  remedied 
nntO  the  introduction  of  the  GretMirlsn  calendar. 
Nearly  connected  with  the  lunar  cycle  is  the  Goldtti 
Jfmi^Kr  (q.  v.),  which  Indicates  what  place  a  given 
year  occnplee  in  the  lunar  cycle.  The  Cyclt  of  tit 
Sm  (or  of  the  dominical  letter)  embraces  iS  )'eara, 
after  tbe  expiradon  of  which  the  Sundays,  and  conse- 
qnentl  J  also  the  days  of  the  week,  fall  again  upon  the 
same  days  of  tbe  month.  In  Christian  chronolngy  it 
became  early  customary  to  use  the  flnt  seven  letters 
of  tbe  alphabet  for  designating  the  seven  days  of  the 
week.  A  was  always  nsed  for  the  1st  of  January,  and 
the  letter  upon  which  fell  the  first  Sunday  of  the  year 
was  called  tbe  Dominieni  l^Utr,  which,  in  ordinary 
j'eara,  designated  every  Sandny  of  the  year,  Bui  in 
every  fiitmb  year  the  2Sth  of  Febrnaiy  was  IntercaU- 
tMl,  and  as  It  had  the  same  letter  aa  the  S4th  of  Fe ' 
ary.  tbe  intercalary  year  had  two  dominical  let 
one  applying  from  Jan.  I  to  Feb.  24,  and  the  s* 
fhim  Feb.  2&  to  tbe  close  of  tbe  year.  As  an  ordinBTy 
year  constats  of  ft!  weeks  and  1  day,  the  dominical 
letter  of  the  new  rear  Is  generally  the  one  preceding 
Ibe  dominical  letter  of  tbe  year  past;  and  if  alt  years 
were  ordinary  years  of  S65  days,  the  same  dominical 
letter  vonld  revert  every  aevenlb  year.  As  there  is. 
however,  a  change  of  one  day  every  (onrth  year  hy 
the  intercalatbn  of  one  day,  and  the  consequei'  * 
vance  of  the  dominical  letter,  it  takes  Ibur  timei 
en,  or  2S  years,  Iwfore  tbe  cycle  is  completed,  and  the 
same  scries  of  dnminlca]  letters  recommences, 
other  slight  disturbance  is,  however,  produced  b 
omission  of  tbe  intercalary  dav  three  times  id  i 
400  years  (thus,  in  the  years  1700, 1800, 1»00). 


CYMBAL 

Snd  the  dominical  letter  of  ■  particular  year,  it 
Is  first  necessary  to  find  the  place  of  the  year  in  the 
cycle  of  the  sun.  As,  according  to  the  chronology  of 
Dionysius,  Christ  is  said  to  have  been  bom  in  the  ninth 
of  the  cycle  of  tbe  sun,  the  place  of  a  particular 
year  Id  tbe  cj'cle  of  the  sun  Is  fouad  by  adding  9  to 
^ven  year,  and  dividing  tbe  whole  by  38,  the  re- 
ider  indicating  the  place  of  the  year  In  the  cycle. 
For  instance,  to  find  the  dominical  letter  for  the  year 

.M.,„«U.„ddMd.»,^.0.»i,!?^JgZ, 
■hich  leaves  a  remainder  of  1.  Tbe  year  1868,  there- 
'ore,  la  the  flrstuf  the  cycle  of  the  sun  for  tbe  present 
century  (the  omission  of  the  intercalary  day  in  the 

year  ISOU,  as  stated  above,  intentiptiug  the  regular 

order  of  tbe  cycle).    The  cycle  of  tbe  dominical  letter 

is  as  follows : 


d  13th       de  Wtb  b         ITth  g 

t        14th        b        lilt       ■(         ISih         f 
The  intercalary  year  18C8,  aa  the  first  of  a  new  cycle, 
baa  therefore  the  two  dmninical  letters  e  d,  e  from 
Jan.  1  to  Feb.  24,  and  d  tnan  Feb.  2G  to  Dec.  SI.     Af- 
r  thus  ascertaining  the  dominical  letter  of  tbe  year, 
is  easy  to  find  what  days  of  every  month  are  Sun- 
days.    For  that  purpose  the  Initial  letters  of  the  sev- 
eral words  in  the  following  two  hexameters  are  uaed : 
AHra  Debit  DiHDinas  Qnllsi|ne  B™tiil  Skeox 
Oiatia  CbrbtlceUe  Ferct  Autha  Dona  FIdelt 
The  Initial  letters  of  the  words  of  these  two  verses  are 
iS  letters  designating  the  first  days  of  every  month, 
being  the  1st  of  January,  and  E  being  tbe  dominical 
letteroftheyearlHeHfromJsn.  I  to  Feb.  24. the  Sun- 
days of  18GB  are  the  Sth,  IStb,  19tl),  and  26th  of  Janu. 


The  in 


li  iJofth 


>tthe 


first  dominical  lettrr  (£)  of  February  falls  on  the  !d  of 
February.  For  March  and  the  foUowiog  monthii,  the 
"  ■  ileal  letUr  of  the  year  1868  is  D;  consequently, 
rat  Snndava  of  the  following  months  are,  Hsrcfa 
1,  April  6,  May's,  June  7,  July  6,  August  3,  September 
6,  October  4,  November  1,  and  December  6, 

Finally,  in  order  to  ascertain  npon  which  day  of  the 
month  and  the  week  full  and  new  moons  occur,  the 
Epattt  are  used.— Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirdtm-Lex.  ii, 
960.     See  Epacts;  Ciibo'ioi.ooy,  CHBinrAN. 

Cymbal  (^^^^,  ImIoUxV,  In  the  plur.  2  Sam.  vi, 
6;  rsa.Gl,6i  or  rliso,m(4M'M*,in  tbednal.lChron. 
xiii,8;  XT,16.I9,28;'xvi,B,42:  XKv,l,6i  SChron. 
V,  12,  !3;  xxix,  2S;  Ezra  lii,  ID;  Neb.  xii,  27;  both 
from  Vs-t,  Ualat,  to  t'mkU ;  Kiii^aknv,  in  the  plur.  1 
Esdr.  iv,9:  Judith  xvi,  2;  IHocc.  iv,  54;  J  Cor.  xiii, 
1),  a  musical  instrument  consisting  of  two  convex 
pieces  of  brass,  which  are  struck  together  to  make  tbe 
rythm  or  time,  and  produce  a  loud  clanidng  aound. 
They  are  generally  emploj-ed  in  connection  with  the 
dram  in  out-door  orehestraa.  Josephns  (Aid.  vii,  13, 
S)  describes  tn  like  manner  the  cymbala  (cv/i^oXo) 
used  in  the  Temple  services  as  "large  plates  of  brass." 
They  were  used  from  the  moat  ancient  timea  in  the 
East  aa  a  part  of  a  martial  band  in  public  religions  oc- 
casiona  (1  Chron.  xlii,  9\  and  also  by  females  in  con- 
nection with  dancing  (l.ucian,  Saltat.  c.  £8;  comp. 
Chryaost.  in  Gm.  XXIV,  horn.  48 ;  Clem.  AL  Padag, 
ii,4)i  also  along  with  the  drum  (Pliny.  V,  i).  Kiabnbr 
{Beii.  i,  1P1,  pi.  2T)  learned  that  in  Arabia  two  kinds 
of  nutinsti  were  employed  in  a  ilmilar  manner;  one 
of  small  metal  clappers  held  between  the  thumb  and 
ftngera,  especially  by  females,  as  with  the  dancing- 
girls  of  Egypt  (Lane,  tfoi /■j.  ii,  10«);  the  other  con- 
sisting of  larger  pieces  of  metal,  like  our  cymlirl^. 
PfeiUte  (Jfvmt  4tr  Urbr.  p.  55)  thinks  thi*  dtsUncUon 


Dsnrlng  Flgiirea,  wllh  CwtaDeta.— Finn  IlercuUntiini. 
ts  intended  bctmea  tbo  two  kinda  of  cymbals  men- 
tioned tn  Paa.cl,  6,  S^D  '!>3^X,'- loud  cymbali,"  and 
n?nn  ""^sbs,  " bigb- wuDding  cTmtnls."     "Tha 


2  CYMBAL 

AHph,  Hemin,  ind  Jeduthuo,  the  noowoed  oondoet- 
ora  ot  the  miuic  of  the  uoctDuy,  empioyed  the 
'luad  eymbala'  poaMbly  to  hot  lime,  and  la  give  the 
•ignil  to  the  chmr  nbea  it  wm  tu  lake  pan  in  the 
■acted  chanl."  The  incicat  Egyptjaoi  liliewiie  had 
cymbala  and  cytindricai  macrf  (cnXitla,  or  cLippen), 
tRO  of  vliich  were  struck  together,  and  probably  emit- 
ted a  Bharp  metallic  uuild.  The  cymbala  Ken  of 
mixed  met^,  apparently  brau,  or  a  compound  of  linHi 
and  silver,  nnil  uf  a  form  exactly  reiembUng  tboH  of 
nioiUm  times,  tboagh  smaller,  being  only  settn.  cr 
live  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  handle  irsi 
also  of  brass,  bound  with  leather,  string,  or  any  simi- 
lar subsLince,  sod  heing  inserted  in  ■  small  bole  tt 
the  summit,  was  secured  by  bending  liack  the  two 
ends.  The  same  kind  of  iD^trumant  is  osed  by  tlie 
modem  inbabitanU  of  (he  country,  and  from  then 
hare  been  borrowed  the  y»Ty  etnatl  cyml«lt  played 
with  the  Unger  and  thumb,  which  sapply  the  place  of 
castanets  in  the  almrli  dance.  These  were  the  ori^nD 
of  Ibe  SpuDish  castunet,  having  been  introdDced  into 
that  country  by  the  Moors,  and  afteriraids  altered  in 

instead  of  metal.  The  lymbsls  of  modern  E^ypt  (tee 
DfiCr.  de  tKgypfr,  xiii,  196  sq.)  ate  chiefly  uwd  hy  ihe 
attendants  of  sheiks'  tombs,  who  travel  through  the 
country  at  certain  periods  of  the  year  lo  eiAct  chiri- 
lable  donations  from  the  credulous  or  tliedeTOOtiDuing 
the  Moslems  by  Ihe  promise  of  some  blessing  from  the 
indulgeat  saint.     Drum*  and  some  other  noisy  inatn- 


Anelen  Cyaibala.— Frai 
former  probably  cooaisted  of  four  smsU  plates  of  brass  |  mt 

or  of  some  other  bard  metal ;  two  plates  were  attached  cssions,  accompany  the  cymbals,  bi 
to  each  band  of  the  performer,  and  were  smitten  to- '  moie  (ncnliarly  appropriated  to  the  service  of  tbe 
gether  to  produce  a  loud  noise.  The  latter  consisted  '  sheiks,  and  the  external  ceremonies  of  relipon,  u 
of  two  larger  plates,  one  held  in  each  band,  and  struck  among  the  ancrant  Egyptians ;  and  a  female,  wboss 
together  tu  an  accompaniment  to  other  instnuDeats,  !  coffin  contained  a  pair  of  cymbals,  was  descrilcd  in 

ttao  biert^lyphica  of  the  exte- 
rior as  tbe  minstrel  of  a  ddcr. 
The  cylindrical  maces,  or  clip- 
pers, were  also  admitted  amcng 
the  instruments  used  on  sole  no 
occasions,  and  tbey  rreqnmtlT 
fanned  part  of  the  military 
band,  or  regulated  the  dinn. 
They  varied  slightly  in  fenn. 
and  some  were  of  wocd  nr 
of  shells;  others  of  hnw,  or 
some  sonorous  metal  baving  s 
straight  handle,  ■urniesnltd 
by  a  head  or  other  omameDlil 
device.  Sometimes  the  hi>t 
die  was  slightly  cur^rd.  »<< 
double,  with  two  heads  .1  He 
upper  entremity;  bnl  in  ill 
cases  Ihe  performer  held  obs  ia 


CYPRESS  6! 

e«cb  band ;  ud  tbe  xiiind  dependsd  on  (beir  •lie,  ttnd  ' 
Uu  materi&l  of  which  thej  were  midt.  When  ot 
irood  they  corrcflpondad  to  the  crotfda  of  the  Greeks, 
&  inpposed  invenCion  gf  the  SidlUns.  and  rapotted  to 

Df  Stymphaliu  ;  and  the  paintings  of  the  Etrutcana 
show  that  Ihey  were  adopted  by  tbem,  u  by  the  Egyp- 
Uins.  in  tha  dance  (Wiikinioa,  A«e.  Egypt.  1, 99  iq.). 
Amon^  the  Greek*  i-ad  Romans  cymUla  ofa  Bimilar 
deHTiption  were  incieDtly  uaed  in  the  wonhip  otCy- 
l>e1i>.  Bacchus,  Juno,  and  other  surlier  duilies.  They 
were  prohablv  derived  ftocn  the  East.  At  Kome  they 
an  »nt  mentioned  In  LIvv'a  aceount  (xxxlx,  9)  of  the 
Bacchic  orgiea  introduwd  from  Etrnria  (Smith,  Diet. 
ofClaa.  AnUr].,  t.  V.  Cymhatam).  See  Menileli»ohn> 
Praruce  la  Booh  o/Pwalmii  Klmcbij  Lewis.  Origiatt 
JIAroa  (Lend,  17a<,176-7)j  Forkel,  Crsr*.  rfer  Monk; 
Jahn,  ^rcAooJogy,  Am.  ed.,up.v.  §9R,  !;  Munk./Vit 
r)(MK,p.4e6;  Eaendier,  i>>c«.>/ J/Hric.l,  IIS.  Limpe 
baa  an  excellent  disserUtion.  Dt  Cgmbalu  nrlemm  (Tnj. 
•d  Rh.  170B;  also  in  Ugolini  Thet.  xxxli).  Mono- 
paphs  on  the  subject  have  also  been  written  In  latin 
hv  Ellid  (^ordiia  Sacra.  Rotterd.  1727,  p.  2B7-B7fi), 
HaiciDS  (Amtt.  16A4).  Zom  (Opuic.  1,  IIl-tfiB).  See 
Mdsicai.  Isbtrdues™. 

Cypresa  C^I^^E^,  b'naA',  from  iU  harditai;  Sept. 
^fpio0aXaroi,  hut  most  copies  omit;  Vujg.  ilti)  is 
DwntioDcd  only  in  Isa.  xliv,  M:  "He  (1.  e.  the  car- 
penter, ver.  IS)  heweth  him  down  cedan,  and  takelh 
thef^pFTSf,"  for  the  purpoae  of  making  an  idol.  There 
Is  no  donbt  that  the  wood  must  have  lieen  of  a  tealare 
lit  to  be  worked,  as  well  as  to  ratain  tha  shape  given 
to  it.  Though  translated  "cypress,"  we  hare  no 
proof  that  this  tree  was  intended,  but  it  li  well  suited 
for  tho  purpose  indlcatnd.  Sea  Fir.  The  Greek 
trao'labira,  Aqaila  and  Thaodotion,  have  employed  a 
word  which  denotes  the  wild  or  furett  oak  ('iypioila- 
Xavni).  The  a1de*t  Latin  renlon  renders  the  Heb. 
word  by  ifei,"thB  evergreen  oak"  ( Rosen mOller,  p, 
317).  As  the  wood  of  thii  apeciei  Is  well  fitted  fur 
being  worked  into  image*,  and  was  so  employed  by 
the  ancients,  it  li  possible  that  It  may  be  that  intend- 
•d,  though  we  have  no  aatisGictnrv  proof  of  Ita  being 
*o.  Celsius  {Hitrob.  ii,  269,  70)  defends  the  rendering 
of  tb*  Vnlg.  In  In.  xliv,  14,  but  the  etymology  of  the 
word  from  T^ri,  to  be  hard  (as  in  Ladn  we  get  rcAur, 
an  oak),  equally  well  suits  tha  cypress,  and  there  Is 
great  probabitiCy  that  the  tree  mentioned  liy  Iiaiah 
'With  the  cedar  and  the  oik  is  identical  with  the  "  cy- 
preaa"  {nvriipimot)  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  Ecclus. 
xxir,  13.  it  is  described  as  growing  Opon  the  mnnnt- 
alns  of  Hermon;  and  it  has  been  olmerved  by  Kitto 
(Pija.  ffiMl.  ofPaUtl.  p.  ccixiv)  that  if  this  Ih  under- 
atood  of  the  great  Harmon,  it  is  illustrated  by  Po- 


Tke  Cypieu  (puprrtiitt  Srmpervirr 


8  CYPRESS 

oocke,  who  tells  ns that  it  lathe  only  tree  wUch  growl 
towards  the  summit  of  Lebanon.  In  Ecclus.  1,  10, 
the  higb-prieat  is  compared  to  a  "  cypress  towering  to 
the  cloud,"  on  account  of  bla  tall  and  nolile  figure. 
It  is  usually  supposed  that  the  words  tranaiated  "fir." 
"  gopber-wood. "  and  "  tbyine-wood,"  in  our  version 
of  the  Bible  indicate  varieties  of  the  Juniper  or  cypress. 
(See  each  in  its  slphslieticsl  order.) 

Cyprma,  the  Euirdpuriioc  of  the  Greeks  and  the 
ninw  of  the  Arabs,  called  also  by  them  illujriil.jtlAi/:it. 
m  tree  of  life,  is  the  Ctiprutut  temptrciiviM,  or  tbo 
eTergreen  eypresa  of  botaniau.  This  tree  is  well 
known  as  being  tapering  in  form,  in  consequence  of 
its  branches  growing  upright  and  close  to  the  stem, 
and  also  that  in  its  generul  appearance  it  resembles 
theLombardy  puphir,  so  that  the  one  is  often  mistaken 
far  the  other  when  seen  in  Oriental  drawings,  In 
Boulhem  latitudes  it  usually  grows  to  a  height  of  flfty 
or  sixty  feet.     It*  branches  are  ctoaely  covered  with 


Cypress  Branch  sud  Cone. 
very  small  imbricated  leaves,  which  remain  on  the 
trees  five  or  six  years.  Du  llamel  states  that  be  has 
observed  on  the  bark  of  young  cypreasei  email  parti 
clea  of  a  aabstaucs  resembling  gum  tragacantb,  and 
tbat  be  has  seen  liees  taking  great  pains  to  detach 
these  particles,  probably  to  supply  some  of  the  matter 
required  fur  forming  their  comtis.  This  cypreai  ia  ■ 
native  of  the  Greciun  Archipelago,  particularly  of 
Candla  (the  ancient  Crete)  and  Cyprus,  and  also  of 
Aua  Minor,  Syria,  and  Persia,  It  may  lie  aeen  on 
the  coast  of  Palaitine,  at  well  ai  in  the  interior,  aa  the 
Mohammedans  plant  it  in  their  cemeteries.  That  It 
is  found  on  the  mountains  of  Syria  is  evident  from  the 
quotatkini  by  CeUiu*  (_Hierot<it.  1,  133),  from  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  (in  Etaiam,  p.  646),  Jerome  (Commttit.  in 
ffoa.  xiv,  6),  and  otbera.  See  Cedar.  Tbewoodof 
tbe  c}-presa  la  hard,  fragrant,  and  of  a  remarkably  fine 
close  gnin,  very  duratde,  and  of  a  beautiful  reddiih 
hue,  which  niny  layi  it  never  loees  (Wial.  /fat.  ivl, 
33).  As  to  the  opinion  respecting  the  durability  of 
the  cyprees-wond  entertained  l)y  tbe  ancients,  it  may 
be  sufficient  to  adduce  the  authority  nf  Pliny,  wbb 
aayalhat"  the  statue  of  Jupiter,  in  the  Capitol,  which 
waa  formed  ut  cypress,  had  existed  above  600  years 
without  sbowing  the  slightent  symptom  of  decay,  and 
that  the  doors  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Epbesur, 
which  were  also  of  eypresa,  and  were  400  years  old. 
bad  tbe  appearance  of  being  qaite  new."  This  wood 
was  used  lor  a  variety  of  purpo»e%  as  for  wine-preeses, 
poles,  rafters,  and  Jnbta.  and  was  an  especial  favorite 
for  funereal  grounds.  Horace  uyt  (Corn,  ii,  14,  3S) 
that  whatever  was  thoncht  worthy  of  being  handed 
down  to  remote  posterity  was  preserved  in  cypress  or 
cedar  wood;  and  Virgil  reftra  to  It  Id  (imilsr  terms 
(fftorff.  ii,  442;  yfffl.  v.  64).  (Sea  Pniif  Cicbmrdia, 
s.  V.  Cupreauis.)     See  Buiant.  |(J 


CYPRLAN  6S 

Cyp'rian  (Kuvput),  ■  Cjpriot  or  tahtbitut  (! 

uc  It,  29)  of  tbB  iaUud  at  Cyprm  (<).  v.). 

CTpiljui  Maonscilpt  (CnDExCTrtiiDs,Ki  called 

,      from  iia  placs  of  diicaveiy), 

*^_*  :      utoallydefiKnUsduKofUie 

J '  ^^      "j      Uospeb,  ODC  ofthc  imporUnt 

'  ^       iincUlMS8.oftheN.T.,ton- 

taining  the  four  G«peli  aani- 

.,      pl«*^  ""   broQght  into  the 

'^^-     ^    'U      Colhtrt  collectiOD  from  Cj- 

^^  ^^        >      pnu  id  1673,  and  ii  mw  in 

^^^^      ^^      t      the  Royal  or  Nuioiul  Lilm- 

<»'     !      ry  it  Puis,  whe«  It  u  No. 

T  *^       ^B      f     63.     It  ig  tn  oblong  ijiuito, 

«J        J^      ^      vrittm  in  >  lini^e  oulomn  of 

r  ^9       ^E      I     aliont   tweotj-one   lines   on 

[  ^    /  *»       J      each  page,  in  Urge  opright 

^^      {|^      »      and   compre«ed   cluncten. 

f  ^&i       ^^       ■-      K>n)twhit  irregDlir.     A  >in- 


>  £.: 


^^  f^  ^  t«i  nanding  where  tbe  teate 
~^  ^^^  3  doe*  not  reqaite  it,  (eenu  to 
^C  ^»  5'  indicate  that  it  wu  cofued 
^  ^      ^~         f  ^  from  ■  text  arranged  in  vri- 

[^  ^™  5'S  x<"-  Tlie  (ubacriptiona,  rit- 
»  ^=»       ^  J  Aoi,  Ammanian  lections,  and 

^  *^F"  ~  !■  iodicea  of  the  rifiiXaia  of  tbe 
^tV^^*-  S^  la.1  three  Goepela,  are  belicv- 
Lri  V  ^o;edtolietha  worit  of  a  later 
"  4tM^  =>.  hand;  tho  EuHbian  canoni 
^  T*">'  Ii  »"  absent.  The  breathinga 
^.^  "^  ?ie  "id  accenU  are  by  the  first 
§  ,  band,  hut  often  incorrectly 
S"*  placed.  Theiiritiiig,etc., may 
€';  betakenaapnwfthsttheMS. 
g'i  isnotolilertbsnthe  middteor 
J  £  the  ninlb  century.  Wvtetein 
^l  Bied  readin,;a  frooi  it  fur  his 
^       N.  T. ,  and  Schnlz  also  collated 


itOV* 


i    '^ 


ly  by  TUchendorf  and  Tre- 
•)  gelles.  The  MS.  yield*  many 
.8  raluable  roiulin([i — Seriven- 
^  er.  Intndiic.  p.  tOl  tq. ;  Tre. 
a  Kel1eB,lnHome's/iUroibi;.  iv, 
t:       201  aq.     Sea  UASoacuiPTB, 

a  Crprlan,  THAacioa  Cae- 
'E  CILIUS,  a  Islnhop  and  martvr, 
%  was  bom  in  North  Africa, 
5  probably  in  Carthage,  about 
"9  the  beginnlngof  the  third  cen- 
g  tary.  His  faUier  was  wealthy, 
3  and  ODS  of  tbe  principal  lena- 
1  tors  of  Carthaj^.  His  noble 
^  paraotage  insarad  bim  a  good 
education,  by  which  Us  natural  endowments,  which 
were  ofa  high  order,  were  duly  developed,  both  iotellec- 
toally  and  morally,  according  to  the  heathen  type  of 
training.  The  representation  he  gives,  after  bis  con- 
version to  Christianity,  of  bis  earlier  immoral  life,  is 
generally  regarded  aa  an  exaggeration  springing  from 
humility,  ind  the  legend  to  the  effect  that  he  had  giv- 
'  wrcery  is  not  accredited. 


while 


stUI  si 


much  burled  in  abscurity,  eren  as  to  the  precise  time 
and  place  of  his  birth.  His  biographer,  the  deacon 
Pontius,  regarded  all  thia  as  unworthy  of  mention  "in 
Tiew  of  that  spiritual  greatness"  which  characteiiied 
his  subsrqoent  life.  It  seems,  however,  that  be  was 
an  earnest  student,  and  that,  baving  enjoyed  all  the 
advantages  furnished  in  his  lime,  he  excelled  in  the 
study  of  oratoij-  and  eloquence,  and  devoted  himself 
to  tbe  leaching  of  law  and  rhet-iric  in  bia  native  city, 
where  he  waa  greatly  admired,  became  wealthy,  ami 


lived  in  aiSoence  and  grandenr.  His  Ufa  srrms  to  havs 
received  naw  impetoi,  conccntnled  pnrpoae,  and  trw 
meaning  from  the  time  of  his  oonvenien  atid  bttptiRn, 
which  occurred  A.D.  !46,  when  be  waa  not  far  short  of 
fifty  yean  old.  He  had  bean  won  to  ChristiaQitv  by  a 
pre«byter.  Caecilius,  who  also  instrncled  and  prepaied 
iiim  for  baptiun,  at  which  time  Cyprian  added  to  hii 
name  that  of  CaectliaSjOQtt^  gratitude  to  Ilia  Christian 
teacher.  Befoie  bia  conversion  he  was  •xercisol  17  a 
deepsenseofthe  vanitrofbeatbeniim.  In  his  tract  iJe 
GraHa  Dei,  addressed  to  bis  &iend  Donatus  som  after 
bis  oonveision,  speaking  of  bis  spiritual  state  while  yet 
in  heathenism,  be  says :  "  I  lay  in  darknesa,  and  Aut- 
ed  on  the  world's  boiaterous  sea,  with  no  rMting-placc 
for  my  feet,  ignorant  of  my  proper  life,  and  cnraiij^ 
fnta  aatb  and  light."  God's  mercy  in  his  t«pl^ 
he  ever  praiiea  aa  being  a  marked  epoch  in  hia  life- 
He  feltbimsairtobe  a  new  man,  having  reccsved  '■by 
means  of  tbe  regenerating  wave"  the  "second  tarth, 
by  the  Spirit  derived  from  on  high."  Aa  a  new  mae, 
he  DOW  devoted  himEclffaily  to  tbe  atady  of  the  holy 
Scriptures,  and  also  to  a  life  of  celibacy  and  volnotuy 
poverty.  He  amdied  the  holy  Scriptnrea  eanicatly. 
and  alio  the  lieet  eccleaiaatical  writen  known,  among 
whom  Tertullian  was  his  favorite,  with  whom  he  wn- 
maned  in  mind  eveiy  day,  calling  for  him.  as  Jooms 
relates,  with  the  simple  word, ' '  Hand  Bkc  tbe  llasler." 
He  sold  hia  wtate,  and  gave  the  proceeds,  togrthM 
with  almost  all  else  that  he  poeseised.  for  tb^  sappKt 
of  the  poor.  This  be  did  with  tbe  doable  end  in  vtn 
of  renouncing  and  despising  all  secular  influencea,  aad 
at  the  same  time  fulfilling  the  law  of  charity,  vhicb 
he  believed  God  prefers  to  all  ucrilicee.  Beindt*  tbe 
above-mentioned  lelUr,  Off  Z)owilwBa,  he  about  this  ti» 

principles  and  convictions,  as,  for  instance.  Dr  idalerni 
nuitoU  and  hu  Libri  III  IrilimcmiarMm  adr.  JtJrot. 
So  wonderfully  grew  Ua  Christian  rcpntation  Ibsl. 
on  the  death  of  Dons lus,  tbe  bisbop  of  Carthage,  there 
was  a  pressing  cry  from  both  clergy  and  laity  Ihit 
Cyprian  might  be  ordained  as  his  succcasor.  He  med- 
estiy  declined  the  nomination,  but  tbe  people  wosU 
not  be  put  off.  They  so  lieaieged  him  with  their  iB>- 
portnnitiea  that  he  fled  into  retirement  to  avoid  tbe 
popular  pressure ;  but  tbe  place  of  his  ennoMlnHnl 
was  diacovered,  and  tbe  people  surrounded  hit  hoass, 
closed  every  avenue  of  escape,  and  refused  to  with- 
draw until  he  should  yield  to  their  wishes.  He  at 
lengtb  hnmlily  bowed  to  what  aeemed  to  him  now  s 
necessi^  imposed  on  him  by  the  providence  of  God. 
Thus,  in  perhaps  not  more  than  two  yean  after  lus 
baptism,  with  the  unanimoas  appruliatiun  of  the  tub- 
ops  of  the  province,  be  was  coDscciated  bishop  of  Cur- 
thage  A.D.  Si8.  His  elevation  to  this  place  of  di|Bi- 
ty  and  power,  thoDgh  effected  under  such  wide  ttvia, 
waa  for  tum  the  beginning  of  long  and  severe  conflicts. 
Opposition  to  bim  arose  among  some  presbyters.  Sme 
of  tbe  more  aged,  among  whom  were  Fortunatos  and 
Donalus,  who  bad  themselves  aspired  to  the  vacant  of. 
fice,  with  some  of  their  friends  among  tbe  laity,  offtmi 
his  elevation  as  being  still  only  a  novice  in  the  ChBRh. 
See  DoNAnBTB.  These  gave  bim  much  tnHibls.  He 
treated  them  with  kindness,  but  at  the  same  time  naia- 
lained  tbe  authority  and  dignity  of  his  office  with  dA 
cision.  In  the  time  of  peace  which  bad  prpcededUi 
official  term,  luiurioas  exttavagaace  and  immmlity 
had  gotten  the  upper  hand  in  society.  Cyprian  pushed 
earnestly  for  reform  and  diedpline.  This  becsms  the 
occasino  of  lncrea.ied  opposition,  bis  strictness  bsTioji 
been  attributed  to  a  spirit  of  hierarchical  aasatap6oB 
of  power,  though  be  did  nothing.  e.spe<usUy  in  tbe  be- 
ginning of  bis  episcopate,  without  first  gathsiag  in 
the  views  of  tbe  preshytera.  whom  be  caJls  bil  am- 
prabyleri  (comp.  Ep.  H).  Still  worse  tronblei  (anw 
with  the  persecution  under  Decias,  which  broke  oM 
not  much  more  than  a  year  aftor  he  had  been  raited  te 
tbe  episcopal  office,  in  which  the  heathen  pepolaca 


CYPRIAN  65 

with  Tiolenee  draumded  lii>  deith,  ciyin)-  Ct/prianum 
ad  leomen  I  The  cruel  edict  cume  to  CurtlUKB  slnut 
tbe  beginning  of  A.U.  S50.  The  heaiben  builed  It  bb 
letting  loo»B  their  rage  apon  oae  who,  having  but  a 
Tsw  yean  before  atood  aa  prominent  in  heatheniam, 
Ml*  occupied  the  froDl  rank  in  the  Cbrktlaa  Church. 
Ha  acccrdiagl}'  wa«  their  first  marh.  He,  howeT- 
er,  nTod  hImHif  b;  Bigbt,  irhich  wi.s  made  tbe  occa- 
sion fbr  fteah  reproache*  from  those  in  the  Cborch 
who  atill  bora  tbe  old  grudge  against  him.  Some  saw 
cowardice  in  tbia  aelf-exile,  but  many  praited  it  from 
comidemtions  of  prodenie,  and  b»  a  courie  which 
would  still  preserve  bis  great  worth  and  Influence  to 
the  Choich  after  peace  ahoutd  be  roacured.  He  kept 
bimself  In  conataDt  correepoDdenca  witb  the  Church, 
and  is  tbe  deepest  B^mpsthy  witb  tbe  triola  of  the  con 
fbasora  and  martyn.  He  longed  to  be  witb  them,  snl 
looked  upon  himself  as  deprived  of  all  this  by  a  necea- 
■itj  painful  to  bla  heart.  He  himself  seems  to  bftvi 
possessed  the  consciousDess  of  having  been  in  tbi 
path  of  duty,  and  he  gave  abundsot  evidence  in  his 
after  life,  in  times  of  pestilence  and  In  the  penecotion 
of  Tslarian,  that  he  poaieased  the  flrmeat  Chriatian 
courage,  and  knew  no  fear  of  death  In  tbe  path  of 
duty.  The  strict  and  severe  manner  in  which,  after 
his  return  from  flight,  he  dealt  with  tlioH  who  ha  ~ 
uied  the  faith  under  trial  was  not  favorably  regarded 
«T«n  by  tboae  who  had  faithfully  endured  tiie  perae- 
cutioD,  and  was  viewed  aa  coming  with  less  charlQ- 
■nd  grace  from  bim  who  bad  himself  withdrawn  from 
tlw  file.  The  affects  of  tbe  penecution  had  been  tar- 
riblj  disaatrons.  Hultitudea  were  driven  from  the 
fkith  like  chaff  before  tbe  wind.  Cyprian  looked  upon 
it  aa  a  providential  sifting  of  the  Church  made  neces- 
auy  by  its  previous  worldly  and  immoral  state,  and 
beuce  was  concerned  that  the  lapsed  eboold  not  I 
Mored  without  the  atrictast  care.  Of  the  bavoi 
confuiloD  thus  produced  in  the  Church,  and  tbe  tronb- 
laa  of  reatoritioB,  be  gives  a  sad  picture  in  his 
JM  LapuM,  HLa  abrldneaa  with  tbe  lapsed  gav( 
to  new  tronblea.  The  faction  of  disaffected  pres- 
byters was  beaded  now  by  Feliclssimai,  with  > 
were  Joined  Novatian  and  four  others  who  refused  to 
acknowledge  his  aotbority  in  the  form  be  exercised  It 
io  tbe  case  of  the  lapsed.     They  nndertook  to  eatab- 


liabai 


to  be  allowed  to  enter  without  further  delay.  Many 
of  the  impatient  among  tbe  lapsed  were  charmed  by 
this  open  door  for  speedy  restoration.  The  result 
was  a  serious  achiam.  Cyprian  maintains  hia  posi- 
tion flrmly,  and  In  a  letter  warn*  all  against  this 
■nare  of  the  devil  (Epiatle  13).  An  important  aeries 
of  controver.'ies  ensuea  relating  to  the  unity  of  the 
Chnrcb.  the  nature  of  schism,  the  validity  of  baptism 
by  heretics,  and  affiliated  points,  which  became  tbe 
occasion  of  one  of  the  moat  important  works  of  Cypri- 
an on  r*«  Dnitg  of  At  ChiirrA.  Thia  controversy  also 
gradually  involved  tbe  qnestlon  of  the  independency 

Stephanna,  tbe  bishop  of  Rome,  as  over  against  thr 
trfsbop  of  Carthage.  (See  Herzog's  Sat!-Enei,aapad,t, 
iU,  819, 220;  also  fcur  articles  on  Cyprian  l.y  Ur.  Nevin 
in  the  iftrcenbiay  Snino,  vol.  Iv,  IBbl,  psrtlcalarly 
p.  G27-Sae.)  In  thia  Novatian  controversy  Cyprian 
■howed  great  bittemeas  as  well  as  great  lirmnesa,  and 
his  statements  as  to  bis  adversaries  are  to  be  taken  with 
many  grains  of  allowance.  Hagenliacb,  in  Heriog'a 
£»iti;*cyjBpaifv,  briefly  sums  np  tbe  closing  scene  of 
hii  life,  and  gives  an  estimate  of  hia  character,  which  we 
tranalate.  "At  length  tbe  time  catne  whan  he  should 
have  opportunity  to  wipe  out  the  stain  which  was  sup- 
posed to  rest  on  bla  name  In  consequence  of  his  flight  by 
the  blood  of  his  own  martyrdom,  tl  took  place  in  the 
Talerian  persecution.  On  tbe  60th  of  Augnat,  25T,  it 
was  demanded  of  him  hy  the  Roman  consnl,  Aspaaiua 
PntarnDS,  to  oflti  to  the  gods.  Having  refosed,  he 
was  banished  lo  Caribis,  a  day's  journey  ttma  Car- 


5  CYPEIAjr 

thafn.  From  thii  place  he  comforted  tbe  Ch-iteh 
through  letters.  In  a  dream  be  saw  foreshadowed 
the  bloody  lata  which  ahonld  in  a  year  befall  bim. 
Having  been  called  back  from  eslle,  he  withdrew  for 
a  brief  season  tn  hb  coontiy  home.  Under  the  con- 
sul Galerius  Uaiimua,  the  auccessor  of  Aspasius  Fa. 
temua,  he  received  bu  linal  hearing.  With  serene 
composure  and  tbe  words  '  Uod  be  prised,'  be  wel- 
comed the  sentence,  which  was  that  be  sbonld  be  ex- 
ecuted by  tbe  sword.  Followed  by  a  large  crowd  of 
apectatora,  ha  was  led  out  beyond  tbe  city  to  a  spot 
)janled  with  trees.  Hera  he  laid  olT  his  over-clotbss, 
kneeled  down,  prayed,  and  received  the  stroke  of 
death,  on  the  14th  of  Sepumber,  A.D.  2b8.  1'u  tbe 
executioner  he  gave  twenty-five  pieces  of  gold.  Iha 
ChrietlanB  buried  him  near  the  spot  on  which  be  suf- 
fered martyrdom.  Over  bis  grave,  aa  well  aa  over 
the  place  where  he  suffered  deatii,  churches  were  af- 
terwsids  erected,  wbicii  were,  however,  deoiolished  st 
the  invasion  of  the  Vandals  under  Genseric.  Ac- 
carAng  to  a  legend,  Charlemagne  conveyed  his  bones 
to  FraDce,  where  they  were  preserved,  Htst  at  Lyons 
andafterwords  at  Aries."  Other  churches  alio  (Ven- 
ice, Compline,  and  Rosnay  In  Flanders)  claim  to  be 

The  character  of  Cyprian  and  his  acts,  in  tbe  vari- 
ous clrcamstances  of  his  life,  bave  been  variously  esti- 
mated. While  some  admire  and  praise  hia  exalted 
views  and  shining  virtues  as  a  Church  dignitary,  others 
charge  btm  with  pride  and  despotiim.  The  holy  ear^ 
nestness  with  which  be  honored  his  calling,  the  high 
degree  of  self-denial  be  manifested  in  life  and  in  death, 
inn  aa  little  be  denied  him  as  his  extnordinary  qusli- 
Acations  and  activity  as  a  leader  in  the  Church. 
Herein  we  must  seek  his  peculiar  greatness.  Epecn- 
ladve  thinking  was  not  his  forte.  In  this  respect  he 
la  excelled  not  only  by  the  Alexandriana,  bnt  aleo  by 
Tertullian,  to  wboca  theology  he  conformed  his  own. 
Prominent  among  his  doctrinsl  presentations  is  that 
of  tlie  Church,  the  unity  of  which  he  develops,  not  so 
much  dialectically  and  theoretically  as  he  apprehends 
it  in  actual  life,  and  sets  It  forth  in  telling  pictures  in 
a  coucrete  and  energetic  way.  (Comp.  his  work,  D» 
tMtCofs  teclt$ia.)  Cyprian  may  he  regarded  as  tbe  fa- 
ther lA  the  Roman  episcopal  system.  "In  conse- 
quence of  conftinndlni!  the  ideas  of  the  visible  and 
invisible  Church,  be  referred  all  Christian  Uh  to 
communion  with  a  definite  eitemal  Body.  In  his 
view  the  Church  wsa  an  outward  organism  founded 
hy  Christ,  of  which  the  bishops  were  the  pUlars;  to 
them  the  Holy  Spirit  was  communicated  through  tbe 
ordination  of  the  apostles,  and  hence  they  were  the 
indispensable  links  for  connecting  the  Church  with 
Christ-  Only  throagh  them  conld  the  Holy  Spirit  Ix 
imparted,  and  out  of  the  Thnri^h  no  one  could  be  saved. 
tCxIra  riicUiian  lunc  viiitilmi  ntiUii  mliu.  It  is  of  no 
avail,  says  Cyprian,  what  any  man  teaches  i  It  li 
enough  that  he  teaches  out  of  the  Church.  It  can  be 
only  haman  outrageoiis  wilfulness  lo  subftllule  any- 
thing tot  a  divine  Institution,  to  erect  a  human  altar 
instead  of  the  divine"  (N'eander).  N'or  can  it  be  de- 
nied that  Cyprian  laid  the  foundations  of  the  primary 
oftheseeofRome.  Hepiacwl  the  unity  of  tbe  Church 
in  tbe  episcopate,  making  the  bisbopa  representatives 
of  the  apostles ;  and  further,  ha  made  the  chair  of  St, 
Peter  the  centre  of  episcopal  unity,  and  ths  Chnrrh  at 
Rome  the  root  of  all  (radix  tt  matrix  tceUtta  CalinSea, 
F.plst,  4a).  Practically,  in  his  quarrd  with  pope  Ste- 
phen (see  above),  he  denied  thia  primacy ;  but  the  doc- 
trine lay  in  hia  own  writings,  and,  after  he  had  passed 
away,  the  legitimste  inferences  from  his  doctrinae  were 
ilrawn  by  his  eucceaaurs.  But,  while  the  writings  of 
iL'yprisn  afforded  undoubtedly  a  basis,  on  the  one  hand, 
for  Roman  and  prelatical  claims,  they  have  unqnes> 
tionable  merit,  on  the  other,  of  setting  forth  Scriptnrc 
as  the  sole  ground  of  faith.  During  his  controversy 
with  pope  Stephen,  who  was  contiBoally  tslkini;  of 


tnunibm,  CyprUn  uttered  the  ahirp  end  pregnant  apli- 
otlsiii,  "  Cuitom  without  truth  ia  only  ancient  error." 
Ai  i>n  Interpreter  of  Scripture,  Cyprian  w-cupies  ullo- 
gvther  a  practicil  Bland-pcriiit,  end  hence  does  not  de- 
epiae  alleKory  wbertver  it  forcae  itself  upun  his  fancy. 
(See  Herzo^,  RtaUEucykiop.  iii,  iiD-ii\J)  His  life  Iim 
been  written  by  the  African  prealiyter  PontiuBii^  rila 
Cypnani  (in  Ruinart, /I  «a  if cirfynim,  ii,  and  in  theedi- 
tiuni  of  the  works  of  Cyprian).  With  tlii«,  compare 
Ada  Procomuiaria  ifartifrii  Cuprumi  (in  lluinurt,  21G 
■q);  Lecunt.  ZnV.  Intl.  v,  1;  EuaeUiua, /f.  i.'.  vii,  3; 
also  later  worka  of  Pearson,  Anm^i  ^rumin  (l)xf. 
168S);  ]'.  Maran,  Tito  Csprva^;  H.  Uoil»ell,  Diu. 
Capriuaiw  (Oxon.  1684);  i'illeinont,  Mtraoira,  W,  76 
aq. ;  (Gervaiae),  La  vie  de  S.  Cgpritn  (Paria,  1717,  4 
vols,);  VTtfft\,Bt.Ctiprieti,ttrigliKd:Afri<iutmiii" 
wbcU  (Paris,  1865,  8vo)  j  Qaart.  Rrrirnr,  l.ondon,  Julv, 
1«53,  art.  iv ;  Cinper,  Fm  Churti  ./ubo™<  Chrittta- 
dom,  p.  297  aq.  (Land.  1844, 18mu);  Cunningham,  Bit- 
ICrical  ThtoUigg,  ch.  vi,  §  6. 

The  beat  editions  of  Cyprian'a  works  (Optra  Omaiaj 
■re  those  of  Oxf.  I6H2,  fol.,  ed.  Pell ;  Amat.  170U  t  Par., 
Benedictine  ed.,  1726.  fol.,  and  Ten.  172i4,  fol.  Trans- 
lation :  The  gtname  Worki  of  St.  Cfpnan,  with  hla  Life, 
by  Pontius,  by  Nathaniel  Marahall,  LL.B.  (Undon. 
ITIT,  fol.) :  also  In  French  by  Lombert  (168!).  Trans- 
lations of  separate  tracts:  On  MOTtaHly,  with  othera, 
by  Elyot  (1694),  liy  Breniio  (1663),  by  Story  (1566), 
and  bv  Lupaet  (1560)j  on  The  Lord'i  Ptayrr,  by  Pav- 
net  (1639):  an  Virgiiu,  by  Barkadala  (1676);  on  Tht 
Vtiilf  of  the  Ckarch,  by  bishop  Fell  (1681,  4to) ;  and 
by  Horsburgh  (1816).  The  Epitila  tranalated,  lAbra. 
ryifihe  r<ilkert,\<A.  Jivii  (OKf.1844);  the  TreiKiaea. 
lib.  .f  Fathrn,  vol.  Ill  (Oiford,  1S40).  The  life  and 
niartj-rdom  of  Cyprian,  by  Ponljua,  bia  intimate  friend, 
ia  atill  extant,  and  printed  in  aereral  editions  of  the 
Optra  Onni'a,  but  Ibe  style  la  loo  rhetorical  for  simple 
truth.  A  compact  edition  of  Cyprian  for  practical  use 
is  Cgpriani  Optra  Geituina,  ed.  Goldhom  (Leips.  1888- 
9,  2  parts).  A  new  Lfi  if  (^/prian,  by  Poole,  was 
punished  in. 1840  (Oif.  8to);  another,  by  Rettherg, 
in  1B31  (GSttingen,  8vo);  anotber  in  Saint  Csprien, 
(Eui-res  complttea,  traduct.  Guillon  (Par.  1836,  2  vols. 
8vc)).  New  editions  of  aeveral  of  the  epiatles  were 
published  by  Krabinger  (Tuldng.  1863-1868,  sq.). 

Gypiiarcb  (Ki-irpinp;(^,  "governor  of  Cypma"), 


•6  CrPRLTS 

the  title  of  Nicanor  (q.  V.)  aa  Syrian  Ticcroy  of  111*  U- 
and  of  Cyprus  (2  Mace.  lu,  2). 

Cyproa  (Kinrpoc  L  e.  Ci/yna'),  Ihe  name  of  ser- 
eril  females  of  the  Herodian  I'luuilt .     A-v  Herod. 

1.  An  Idumnan  (or  Arabian)  of  noble  family,  wift 
of  Antiputer  tlie  elder,  by  whom  be  bad  bur  avna, 
Pbasaelus,  Herod  (the  Great),  Joseph,  and  Pheroraa. 
and  B  daujjbler,  liiilome  (Joseph.  j4 of.  xiv,  7,  3:  Wax 
i, !»,  9), 

2.  The  second  of  the  two  daughters  of  Herod  (tb« 

Aniipater,  the  Miu  of  Salonig,  Herod's  sister  (Jewph. 
Am.  iviu,  6,  4). 

3.  The  second  of  the  two  daaghters  of  Phasaclin 
(Herod  the  Great's  brother)  by  hia  niece  Salampua; 
she  was  married  to  Agrippa  I,  the  son  of  AriatoLolm, 
by  whom  she  had  two  eons  and  three  daogbteni  (Jiy 
seph.  Ant.  xviii,  6,  4;  War,  ii.  11,  6).  She  once  di- 
verted lier  husband  from  bis  purpoae  of  auidde  (JaL 
xviii,  e,  2). 


5.  A  daughter  by  the  marTlaga  preceding  (iA.). 

CT'pnia  (KtTpoc),  the  modem  KArit,  one  of  th» 
largest  blanda  in  the  Ueditemneiin,  and  next  to  Slo 
ily  in  importance.  It  is  about  140  miles  in  length, 
and  variea  in  breadth  trom  fiOto  6  miles.  The  inlzriot 
of  tlie  itland  la  mountainous,  a  lidge  bemg  dnim 
acroae  the  entire  length,  attaining  its  highest  elevk 
tion  near  Ihe  central  region  anciently  called  Olrmpai. 
It  had  several  namea  in  early  ains,  mostly  poetical. 
From  lla  numerous  headlands  and  promontories,  it  was 
called  Kipaor'c.  Crrtufii,  or  (Ae  llo'tudi  and  fram  iti 
eiulierant  fertility,  tiarapia,  Macarin,  or  Hit  fijnrd 
(Horace,  Carm.  iii,  26,  9).  Its  proximity  to  Aala  Mi- 
nor, Phsnicia,  and  Egypt,  and  ita  nnmeroua  hanmi, 
made  it  a  general  rendezTons  for  merchants.  ''  Com, 
wine,  and  oil,"  which  are  to  often  mentioDrd  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  the  cholceet  productions  of  Palatine 
(Deut.iii,17;  I  ChroD.  ix,29;  Neh.  x,  S9;  Jer.xiii, 
12),  were  found  here  in  the  highest  perfection.  Ths 
forests  also  tUmished  large  snpfdiea  of  timber  ftr  ship- 
building, which  rendered  the  conquest  of  Ihe  island  ■ 
favorite  project  of  tin  f^yptjan  kings.     It  wai  lbs 


ovGoo'^lc 


bout  of  tbe  Cjpriuta  that  tbe;  could  build  uid  com- 
pleta  (heir  vessels  without  any  aid  rroni  foreign  coon- 
trifw  (AnnniBu.  Mucell.  itv,  »,  §  14).  Anions  tbe 
mineTak  products  were  diuDOads,  eotei^dp,  and  otber 
precioai  stones,  slum,  ind  ubeebw ;  beaides  iron, lead, 
liur,  with  a  portion  of  silver,  and,  above  all,  copper, 
tbe  fur-hoMd  ai  Cspriam.  The  principal  mines  were 
In  the  nelgbljorhool  of  TamaMus  (Sirabo,  xiv,  G  ;  ill. 
SIS,  ed.  Tauchn.)'  I'linv  ascribes  the  InvenlioD  of 
brus  to  this  istaad  (JVot.  Hit.  xsxlv,  i).  Cvproa 
bmoDi  plice  in  mythological  history.  The  presii 
divinity  of  the  ialjnd  was  Venus,  who  had  a  celebrated 
temple  at  Paphoe,  and  is  hence  often  called  tbe  PaphU 
an  goddess.  Tbe  inbttbitants  were  Iniurions  and  ef- 
feminate (Herod.  I,  199;  Atben.  12,  p.  &16;  Clearch. 
aptid  Alkr».  6,  p.  253).  Nevertheless,  literature  and 
the  arts  flourisbed  bere  to  a  considerable  ciftent,  even 
at  an  early  period,  as  the  name  of  the  Cjpria  CVirnma, 
aaeribed  by  some  to  Homer,  sufficiently  Bttests(Herod. 
ii,  118;  Atben.  IS,  p.  682).  Situated  In  the  extreme 
•aitem  comer  of  the  Mediterranean,  with  tbe  range 
of  Lebanon  on  tbe  easCand  that  ofTaorua  on  the  nortl 
distinctly  liaible,  it  never  tiecame  a  thoroughly  Greel 
Island.  Its  religious  rites  were  half  Oriental,  and  it 
political  history  has  almost  always  been  aisociatsi 
with  Asia  and  Africa.— Smitli's  Diet,  of  Clou.  Gei<s 
■.  T.     See  Paphos. 

Cyprus  was  ori){iDa11y  peopled  trma  Phcenicla  (Ge 
aenlns,  M<m.  Phot.  p.  12^).  Amasis  1,  king  of  Egypt, 
■ubdued  the  whole  island  (Herod,  il,  IHS).  In  the 
time  of  Uerodotns  tbe  population  consisted  of  Athen- 
Lins,  Arcadian*,  Pbccnicians,  and  Ethiopians  (vii,  9I>) ; 
and  fiir  a  long  time  the  whole  island  was  divided  Into 
nine  potty  sovereignties  (Xenoph.  Cgnp.  viii,  6,  81 ; 
riinv,  V,  So;  Diod.  Sic.  xri,  43).  It  b«»ni3  a  part 
of  the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iil,  19,  91),  and  furniah- 
ed  sfaips  against  Greece  in  the  expedition  of  Xerxes 
(a.  vii,  90).  For  a  time  it  was  sobject  to  Greek  in- 
fluence, but  agaia  became  tribntary  to  Persia.  After 
tbe  battle  of  Issue  it  Joined  Alexander,  and  after  hla 
death  fell  to  the  share  of  Ptolemy.  In  a  dcapcrate 
■ea-llght  off  Salamis  (q.  v.),  at  the  east  end  of  Cyprns 
(B.C.  306),  the  victory  was  won  by  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetasj  but  tbe  island  was  recovered  by  bis  rival,  and 
■fkerwaids  it  remained  in  the  power  of  the  Ptolemies, 
and  was  regarded  as  one  of  their  moat  cherished  pos- 
•essioos  (LivT,  xlv,  12;  Josepbus,  Aat.  xui,  10,  4; 
Strabo,  liT,  &A;  DIod.  Sic.  xix.  &9,  ;9j  XX,  21,  47). 
It  became  a  Roman  province  (B.C.  58)  under  clrcum- 
sUnceg  discreditable  to  Rome  (Strabo,  xiv.  G84 :  V\oT. 
iii.9;  Veil.  PBt.il,  38 1  Dion  Cass.  XKXylii,31;  xxxix, 
32).  At  first  its  administration  was  Joined  with  that  of 
Cilicia,  but  after  Uie  tiattle  of  Actium  it  wae  separately 
governed.  In  the  Itrat  diiislon  it  waa  made  an  Impe- 
rial proTlDce  (Dion  Caes.  liii,  Ii).  From  this  passage 
and  (h>m  Strabo  (xiv,  p.  683)  it  has  been  supposed  by 
■oma,  as  by  Batonius,  that  lJike(Acts  xiil,  7)  usa^  ' 
word  avSiivanc  (jiroemtuJ,  "deputy"),  becanse 
island  was  still  connected  with  Cilicia;  by  othen 
by  Grotius  and  Hammond,  (hat  tbe  evangelist 
ploys  the  word  in  a  loose  end  general  manner.  1 
In  fact,  Dun  Cassios  himself  distinctly  tails  us  (ib. 
llv,  4)  that  the  emperor  afterwards  made  this  island 
a  senatorial  )«Tivince,  so  that  Luke's  language  is  in 
tbe  strictest  sense  correct.  Further  conflnnatlon  is 
supplied  by  coins  and  InacrlpCiona,  which  mention  oth- 
er proconttdi  of  Cyprus  not  very  remote  from  the  time 
of  Sergiua  (q.  v.)  Paulos.  The  governor  appears  to 
have  resided  at  Paphos,  on  tbe  west  of  the  island. 
Under  tbe  Roman  empire  a  road  connected  the  two 
(owns  of  Paphos  and  Salamin,  as  appears  from  tbe 
Prut.  TfMe.  One  of  tbe  most  remarkalile  events  in 
llii*  part  of  the  historj'  of  Cyprna  was  a  terrible  innur- 
rectioD  of  tbe  Jews  in  Che  reign  of  Tr^an,  which  led 
to  a  masaacrs,  fint  of  tbe  Qreek  Inbabltanta,  and  thi-n 
■f  the  insurgents  thamselres  (Milmsn,  Binary  af  Ih' 
/<M,  Ui,  111,  111),     niien  the  empire  was  divided  it 


CoppFT  PruGDOsuLsr  iMn  at  Cyprus,  «lth  llu  IihiI  and  tills 
(in  iMla)  of  CJuHdiut  Camr,  anil  the  legend  (In  OTB'k). 
'•I'nder  Arminlus  I-kxIum,  Pinwuiil  b.(l,>>aT«]  of  Ute 
CyprLsna,** 
fell  to  tbe  ebare  of  the  Byiantine  emperors.     Richard 
I  of  England  conquered  it  in  ll'Jl,  and  gave  it  to  Gay 
Lusignan,  by  whose  family  it  waa  retained  for  nearly 
three  centuries.     In  1473  the  republic  of  Venice  ob- 
tained posaessioa  of  K;  but  In  1671  it  was  taken  by 

of  tbe  Turks.  Cyprus  was  fumed  among  tbe  ancients 
for  its  beauty  and  fertility,  and  all  modem  travellers 
agree  that  in  the  hands  of  an  industrious  race  it  would 
be  one  of  the  most  productive  conntiies  in  the  world, 
but  Turkish  tyranny  and  liarliariBm  have  reduced  it 
to  a  deplorable  condition.  Through  the  neglect  of 
drainage,  the  streams  that  descend  ftom  tbe  mountain 
range  form  marshes,  and  render  the  island  particular* 
ly  unhealthy.  Imperfectly  as  it  is  cultivated,  how* 
ever,  it  atill  abounda  in  every  production  of  nature, 
and  bears  great  quantities  of  com,  flgs,  olives,  oranges, 


d,  of  ev 


y  (ruitsc 


ishes  great  numbers  of  goats,  sheep, 
,  >tthe  latter  of  which  [t  has  at  timea 
exported  aupplies  to  Malta.  The  most  valuable  prod- 
uct at  present  is  cotton.  Tbe  m*)arity  of  the  popnla- 
tion  belong  to  the  Greek  Church  ;  tbe  archbishop  r»- 
aides  at  Leikosia. — Ftnui  Cgdapadia,  a.  v. ;  M'CnU 


Eiek. 

identification  in  the 
BO  Epiphan.  Uaer,  ii 
settled  in  Cyprus  bef 


1  to  In  a 


CHir 


in  close  commercial 
and  there  Is  little  doubt 
h  paaaages  of  tbe  O,  T.  aa 
Josepbus 


.press  terms  (A<il.  i.S,  1; 
Possibly  Jews  may  have 
ime  of  Aleiandei.  Soon 
lerous  in  the  island,  as  la 
distinctiv  implied  in  I  Mace.  xv.  2B  (comp.  Joaephoa, 
AiU.  liii,  ID,  4;  Philo,  0pp.  ii,  bS7).  Tbe  name  also 
occurs  3  Mace,  x,  IS ;  xii,  2.  Tbe  copper  minea  vera 
at  one  time  farmed  to  Herod  (he  Great  (Josepbus,  Ant. 
xvi,  4,  5),  and  there  ia  a  Cvprian  inscription  (Biickh, 
Xo.  WIS)  which  seems  to  refer  to  one  ufthe  Herods. 
The  first  notice  of  it  in  tbe  N.  T.  is  in  Acta  iv,  86, 
where  it  is  mentioned  as  tbe  native  place  of  Barnabas. 
In  Acts  xi,  19,  20,  it  appear*  prominently  in  connec- 
tion with  the  earliest  spnading  of  Christianity,  first 
as  receiving  an  impulse  among  its  Jewish  populatioa 
from  tbe  persecution  which  drove  the  disciples  from 
Jemsalem  at  the  death  of  Stephen,  and  then  as  fur- 
nishing disciples  who  preached  the  Gospel  to  Gentilea 
at  Antioch.  Thus,  when  Paul  waa  aent  with  Barna- 
bas from  Antioch  on  his  first  misaionary  Joumey,  Cy- 
was  the  first  scene  of  their  labor*  (Acts  xiil.  4-18). 


Again,  whe 


Paul  a 


le  latl 


separated  and  took 
)  hia  native  island, 
ith  him  bia  relative  Mark,  who  had  also  been 
there  on  tbe  prevloos  occasion  (Acts  xv,  39).  Anoth- 
er CbristUn  of  Cypro^  Mnason,  called  '  an  old  dlad* 
pie,'  and  therefore  probably  an  earlv  convert,  is  nen- 
tinned  Acta  xxi,  16.  The  other  notioss  of  the  island 
■re  purely  (leographlcal.  On  Paul's  return  from  the 
third  missionary  joumey,  tbey  '  siKht»d'  Cyprus,  and 
sailed  to  ths  pniithwnrd  of  It  oii  the  voyage  from  Pa- 
tara  to  Tyre  (ill.  3).  At  the  commencement  of  tbe 
voyage  to  Rome  tbey  sailed  to  the  northward  of  it  on 
leaving  SIdon,  In  order  to  be  under  the  lee  of  tbe  land 
(.Acts  xxvii,  4),  and  alao  in  order  to  obtain  tba  advan> 


CYPRUS 


628 


CYRENE 


lags  of  tbt  current,  wbich  *cu  northed^  along  jths  IJhyan  Atwwt,  uxl  iu  wsilth  tad  bonon  ^rmn 
the  ci>a»t  of  PhcEntcis,  and  westerly  with  coiKidcr-  transferTed  to  the  epiacopal  cll}-  of  IHobmau,  in  tt* 
alile  furc«  along  CUicia."  S«e  Shipwreck  (  of  neit;bliorhi>od.  The  Saraceiu  completed  the  work  oT 
Paul),  |  dsstTDction,  and  for  centaHei  not  onl^  the  city,  bnt 

All  the  ancient  nntlcat  of  Cypna  are  collected  bT 
UeuTsiiu  (Optra,  vol.  ill,  Plor.  1744).  Comp.  Cellarii 
XotU.  ii,  'iSS  Bq. ;  Bee  also  Eogel'i  Kt/pro*  (Elerlin, 
184:!)  and  Kobb'b  Jlaiia  nod  dcr  Itutl  Cyptn  (Halle, 
1853),  Further  flceounla  may  be  found  in  Mannert, 
Qtograpbia,  VI,  ii,  422-464.  Modem  deuriptjons  are 
given  Ly  Pococke,  fast,  ii,  iVi-iSb ;  Wilaon.  Lomli  of 
Bibk,  ii,  1T4-J97 ;  Turner,  Lraml,  U,  40,  fi88 ;  Maritl, 
Viag.inCsper.  (Flor.  1 G79};  Uneer  and  Kotscbj,  Die  In- 
ttl  Cyptm  (Wien,  1865) ;  Cemola,  Cgpni  (Lond.  1877). 

CYPRUS,  Christiahitt  in.  Biihopa  of  Cyprua 
mre  for  tbe  Grat  tima  mentioned  in  the  4th  century. 
Boon  ConiUntia  became  the  seat  of  a  metropolitiin, 
who  asserted  and  maintained  bis  independence  of  all 
the  piktriarcha.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fith  century 
the  patriarch  John  of  Antioch  made  an  elfort  to  have 
CypruB  incorporated  with  his  patriarchal  diatrict,  but 
the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Epheaut  (431),  before  which 
the  newly-elected  metropolitan  Rbeginus  and  two  oth- 
er Cyprian  bbhopa  pleaded  their  right,  decided  in  fa- 
vor of  the  independence  of  Cyprus.  Ever  aince  the 
churcbeB  of  Cyprus  have  conBtituled  an  independent 
group  of  the  orthodox  Greek  Church.— Wetier  uad 
Welte,  KinAat-Jyx.  Ii,  BM  sq. 

Cyian,  St.    See  Duvrbdibh  db  HACBAXin. 

Cyre'iiA  (Kvp^yij ;  Ghrama,  In  modem  Arabic},  a 
ctty  in  Upper  Ubya,  Aiunded  by  a  colony  of  Greeks 
fVom  Tbera  (Saatorini),  a  email  island  in  the  ^goan 
Sea  (Thirlwoll'B  Hiitory  nfGrttce,  vol.  ii,  ch.  IS).  Ita 
name  is  generally  suppoeed  to  be  derived  from  a  foun- 
tain (but  according  to  Justin,  Hut.  zili,  a  monnloin), 
called  Ki^,  Cyre,  near  ita  site.  It  waa  bnilt  on  a  ta- 
ble-land, ISOO  feet  Bbave  the  level  Of  the  Ha,  in  a  re- 
gion of  estraordinorj- fertility  and  beauty.  U  wai  the 
capital  of  a  district,  called  from  it  CurfnaUa  (Barca), 
which  extended  from  tlie  Gulf  of  Platiea  (Binnlia)  to 
the  Great  Syitia  (Gulf  of  Sid  ra).  With  ita  port  Apol. 
Ionia  (Muaa  Sooaa),  abont  ten  milea  distant,  and  the 
dtiea  llarca,  Teuchira,  and  Hoaperia,  which  at  a  later 
period  veie  named  Ptolemais,  ArsinoS,  and  Berenice 
(Slrabo,  xvii ;  vol.  iii,  p.  49G,  ed.  Taachn.),  it  formed 
the  Cyrenaic  PenUpolis  (Mel.  1,  4,  8)  Pliny,  v,  6; 
Ptolem.  iv,  4, 11 ;  Amm.  Marcell.  axii,  16).  It  ia  ob- 
servable that  the  expression  DBcd  in  Acta  U,  10,  "the 
pawts  of  Libya  about  (cora)  Cvrene,"  exactly  corre- 
■ponds  with  a  phrase  used  by  Dion  CassioB  (\i0vti  >) 
STBp)  Kip/t^iiji',  liii,  12),  and  also  with  Iha  language  of 
Joaephus  (q  irp^  Vivpiivtiv  Atpiri;  Attl.  xvi,  6,  1). 
See  LiBTA.  Ita  inliabitsnta  were  very  lusarious  and 
nfiaed,  and  it  was,  in  a  manner,  a  commercial  rival  of 
Carthage  (Forlri^r,  aamli.  der  a!l.  Geogr.  ii,  980  iq. ; 
Ritter,  Erta.  i,  946  >q.).  The  Greek  coloniiadon  of 
this  part  of  AMca  under  BattDs  began  aa  early  aa  B.C. 
6S1,  and  it  became  celebrated  not  only  tor  its  com- 
merce, bat  for  its  phyaicians,  philosophen,  and  pncts 
(Herod,  iv,  1B6, 164).  It  would  »em  that  the  old  Hel- 
lenic colonists  cultivated  Mendly  relations  with  the 
native  Libyans,  and  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
usual  became  intermingled  with  Uiem  bv  mamage  re- 
latioosbipB  (Herod,  iv,  186-189).      For  aiwve  ISOyeara 

came  rcpahlican,  and  at  last  the  country  became  trib- 
utary to  Egypt,  under  Ptolemy  Soter.  It  waa  be- 
queathed lo  the  Romani  biy  Apion,  the  natural  eon  of 
Ptolemy  PhyBcon,  about  B.C.  07  (Tacita^  Am,  liv, 
18 1  Cicero,  Dt  leg.  Agrar.  ii,  19),  and  in  B.C.  75  form- 
ed into  a  province  (Strabo,  ivii,  8).  On  the  conquest 
of  Crete  (B.C.  67)  the  two  were  united  in  one  province, 
and  loKother  iVtqoently  called  Crela-Crrene.  See 
Crbtr.  An  insurrectinn  In  the  reign  ofTrsjan  led 
to  great  diaoeters,  and  to  the  beginning  of  ita  decay. 
In  the  4tb  centuiy  it  was  destroyed  by  the  natives  of 


Usp  of  the  Cout  of  AMee  a4)c4iiin«  Crnse. 


tb«  once  populoui  and  fertile  district  of  which  it  wu 
tb*  onumeDt,  hat  been  almost  lost  to  civilization. 
Daring  three  pacta  of  tbe  jear  the  place  la  tenaiiled 
by  wild  animal*  of  tbe  desert,  and  daring  Ihe  fonrth 
part  the  waadering  Bedouini  pitcli  their  lenti  on  the 
low  groandi  in  ilK  neigliliorh and.— Smith.  Diet,  of 
Clatt.  Gtog.  a.  v. ;  Ptnny  Cyclopadia,  s.  v.  Cjrenaica, 
Cynns;  BawliDaoa'a //emiiufiu,  tii,108«q. 


CoIbi  el  CjTene,  baarlnf  tlie  Hcnd  .'if IpA^um  Plant  (which 

Strabo  (qnolffii  by  Joeephni,  AnI.  xiv,  T)  Mys  that 
in  fjrene  there  were  four  claaaee  of  peraoni,  namely, 
ciliitna,  buabandmen,  foreiKnera,  and  Jews,  and  that 
tbs  latter  enjoyed  their  own  customs  and  Uwa  (comp. 
Dio  Casa.  Wiii,  S2).  Ptolemy.  Ihe  aon  of  LaguB,  in- 
tmdllced  them,  becaata  he  thought  they  would  con- 
trlbuta  to  the  security  of  the  place  (Joseph,  c.  Apion, 
t,  t).  They  became  a  prominent  and  inflnential  claaa 
or  tb*  community  (^A^U.  sIt,  7, 2),  and  they  afterwards 
Rceivad  ranch  consideration  from  the  Bomana  (xvi,  6, 
fi).  See  1  Uacc.  xv,  2A\  comp.  2  Mace,  li,  23.  We 
learn  fiomJoaephua  (Li/>,  78)  that  Boon  after  the  Jew- 
iab  wtr  they  naa  againat  the  Roman  power.  Tbe  no- 
tkaa  abon  giroi  of  the  nambera  and  poaition  of  the 


Jews  in  Cyiene  (conArmed  by  Philo,  who  epeaks  of 
the  diffoaion  of  the  Jews  southward  to  Ethiopia,  ode. 
Ftacc.  p.  629)  prepare  Da  for  the  fteqaent  mention  of 
the  place  in  the  N.  T.  In  connection  with  Christianity, 
Simon,  who  bore  our  Sarionr's  cross  (Matt,  xxvii,  82; 
Mark  XT,  21;  Luke  X-Tiii,26),  was  a  native  of  Cyrene. 
Jewiah  dwellera  In  Cyrenaica  ware  In  Jerusalem  at 
Fenlecust  (Acta  ii^  10).  They  even  gave  their  name 
to  one  of  the  sTnagoKucs  in  Jemsalem  (vi,  B).  Cbria- 
tian  converts  ftatn  Cvrene  were  among  those  wbo  con- 
Irilmted  actively  to  the  formation  of  the  flnt  GenUle 
church  at  Antiocb  (li,  30),  and  among  thoM  who  are 
specially  mentioned  as  laboring  atAutloch,  when  Bar- 
nabaa  and  Saul  were  aent  on  their  misaionaiy  Jonmey, 
is  Lucius  of  Cyrene  (xlll,  1).  traditionally  said  to  have 
lieen  the  Hrat  bishop  ofhis  native  district.  Other  irm. 
dltions  connect  Mark  with  the  first  eatahlishment  of 
CbcistianltT  In  this  part  of  Africa.     See  Africa. 

See  Delia  Cella,  Vioggio  da  Tripoli,  etc.  (Genoa, 
1S19):  Pscbo,  Voyfigt  dtou  la  Marmariqar,  la  Cgrr- 
fwijne  (Paris,  1S27-29);  Trige,  Rn  Cgraumrt  (Hafn. 
1)*28) ;  Beechey,  Ezprdition  In  Erplort  Ae  nnrth  Coatt 
•if  Africa  (I.ondDn,  1H2M);  Barth, IPinkfrnKi^ni  dunA 
dot  Pmlirhe  u.  KsmSitclie.  KiaterJand IBeiKn,  1849); 
Hamilton,  K'ondi-rni^f  in  Kortk  Africa  (lAndon.  IBfi6), 
p.7H;  Smith  sndPorcber.ffiK.o/ZJuttweriu  at  (>«- 
M  (Lend.  leSS). 

Cjrte'niaii  (Kupqi'DiDc,  Cyrnunm,  "of  Cynoe," 
Matt.  zivii,S2;  AcU  si,  20;  xiii,  1),  a  native  ofCy- 
rene  (q.  v.)  or  Cyren^ca,  in  Africa  (Mark  it,  31  j 
Luke  xiiii,!6;  Activi,9). 

Cyie'nlaB  <Gr»clied  KMnjcioc,  Lnha  11,  ! ;  ne 
DrvrinR,(%u.li,4Sl  sq.),  for  the  [.atin  Qidrtaw  (prob. 
noiQmrimat .-  see  Meyer.  CoameM.  in  loc.).  Hit  fhll 
name  was  Pchmch  SoLncica  QiiHiKDa  (aee  Sneton. 
Tibtr.  4S;  Tacit.  Ami.  ii,  SO).  He  is  tbe  eecond  of 
that  name  mentioned  in  Roman  historv  (aee  Smith, 
Did.  n/Clau.  fi%.  a.  v.),  and  was  consul  with  M. 
Valerius  Messala,  B.C.  12.  From  the  language  of 
Tacittia  (^m.  ill.  48),  it  would  appear  that  he  was  of 
obsctue  origin,  a  auppotltlou  apparently  fkvored  by 


CTRENICS  61 

bii  niraune,  Qufriniu,  V  rendered  (u  It  might  per- 
hapa  bej  the  Cj/renian,  liut  oppoied  by  it  if  referred 
to  the  old  8sbiD«  epithet  of  Romnlua.  He  is  niDre 
llkel;  to  have  been  tbe  bod  of  the  consul  of  the  ume 
name,  B.C.  42,  Tacitug,  however,  »Ute«  (hI  lup.)  thai 
he  was  a  lutive  of  LtnuTium,  neu-  Rome,  and  wu 
not  >  member  of  the  miclent  SulpichiD  family  j  and 
that  It  waa  owing  to  his  milltar}-  abilities  and  active 
aervices  that  he  gained  the  coDBulahip  ander  Augu»- 1 
toa.  He  was  anbtequently  seat  into  Cilicia,  where  he  ' 
vaa  so  sacceufn)  la  his  campiilgii  aa  lo  receive  the 
honor  of  a  triumph.  In  B.C.  1,  or  a  year  or  two  after- 
wards, Angnstus  appointed  him  b>  direct  the  counerls 
of  hia  grandson  C.  Cstar,  then  in  Armenia ;  and  on 
his  way  thither  he  paid  a  visit  to  Tiberius,  who  was  at 
tbat  time  living  st  Rhodes.  Some  years  afterwardu, 
bat  not  befurb  A.D.  6,  he  wu  appointed  govemar  of 
Syria,  and  wbile  in  this  oSce  he  took  a  crn»ui  of  the 
Jewi^  people.     He  was  a  favorite  with  Tiberius,  and 

on  by  tbe  senate  at  the  request  of  tbe  emperor. 
(Dion  Com.  )iv,!8;  Tacitus,  .df».iil,!!i  Stnb.  xii,  p. 
669;  Josephns,  Ant.  liv,  1,  l.J— Smith,  Did.  o/Oau. 
BUg.  a.  V. 

The  mention  of  the  name  ofQuirinnsIn  connection 
with  the  ceosna  which  was  in  jjrogress  at  the  time  of 
onr  Lord's  birth  presents  very  serious  difficalties,  of 
which,  from  the  want  of  adequate  data,  historical  and 
critical  inquiry  bos  not  yet  attained  an  entirely  satis- 
factory solution.  The  passage  1b  as  follows:  avni  ij 
araypaf^  vpimi  iyiviro  iJyi/iowiiovTOC  r^c  Xippioc 
Kvpgviau,  translated  in  the  Authorized  Version  tbns  : 
"  Now  tbls  taxing  was  first  made  when  Cyrcnins  was 
governor  of  Syria."  Instead  of  "taxing''  it  Ib  now 
•greed  that  the  rendering  should  be  "enrolment"  or 
"  re^tration"  (of  which  ute  of  the  word  itcoypofi- 
ii0in  many  ezamplea  are  adduced  by  Wetslein),  as  it  i> 
clear  from  Josephus  that  no  taxing  did  take  place  till 
many  yean  after  this  period.  Tbe  whole  pasfage,  as 
it  now  stands,  may  be  properly  road,  "This  first  en- 
rolment took  place  while  Cyrenlns  waa  governor  of 
Syria,"  This  appears  very  plain,  and  would  suggest 
no  difficulty  were  it  not  for  the  knowledfta  whicb  we 
obtain  from  other  qoarterr,  which  ii  tn  Uia  effect,  I. 
That  there  is  no  hlBtorical  notice  of  any  enrolment  at 
or  near  the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth ;  and,  2d,  That 
the  enrolment  which  actually  did  take  place  under 
Cyrenlua  was  not  until  ten  yean  after  that  event.  The 
dlfEcully  begins  somewhat  before  tbe  text  now  cited ; 
for  it  is  Baid  that  "  in  those  days  there  went  out  a  de- 
cree from  Ciesar  Augustus  that  the  whole  world  should 
be  taxed"  (enrolled).  But  since  no  historian  mentions 
any  such  general  enrolment  of  the  whole  empire,  and 
since,  if  it  had  taken  place,  it  is  not  likely  to  hare 
been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  governor  of 
Syria,  It  is  now  usually  admitted  that  Judaia  only  is 
meant  by  the  phrase  rendered  "the  whole  earth"  (but 
more  properly  "the  whole  land"),  as  in  J.uke  xxi,26; 
Acta  xi.  28 ;  and  perhaps  in  xxl,  20.  The  real  diffi- 
culties are  tiios  reduced  to  the  two  now  Mated.  With 
ragan)  to  tbe  enrolment,  it  may  be  said  that  it  was 
probably  not  deemed  of  sufficient  importance  l>;  the 
Koman  historians  to  deserve  mention,  being  confined 
to  a  remote  and  comparatively  unimportant  province. 
Ifor  was  it  perhaps  of  .luch  a  nature  as  wonid  tend 
even  JosejiliuB  to  lake  notice  of  it,  if  it  Bbonld  appear, 
as  usually  snppnsed,  thst  no  trace  of  it  can  be  fonnd  In 
hia  writint.'S. 

Quirinus  held  a  cenaus  in  Jndsa  after  tba  banish- 
ment of  Arcbelaus  (Joseph.  Atii.  xviil,  1, 1),  which  took 
place  B.C.  6.  This  is  what  is  meant  hy  the  bamg 
(_iwoyfia<tii)  In  Acts  v,  37.  Hence  it  ia  evident  that 
be  cannot  have  held  a  census  in  Judiea  in  the  vear  of 
Chriit'a  hirth,  as  it  «iid  in  Luke  ii,  3,  bi  the  capacity 
of  head  of  the  province  of  Syrio  (the  census,  however, 
being  a  general  one  throughout  the  empire,  according 
to  the  emperor's  command,  v,  1).    At  tbat  time  Q. 


0  CYRENIUS 

Sentlus  Satuminos  (Tart.  adv.  Mart,  iv,  13),  or,  If  JnatU 
was  bom  after  B.C.  6,  P.  Quintilint  Varus,  mnil  hare 
been  governor  of  Syria  (Ideler,  dremd.  ii,  SH  aq,). 
The  interprelera  have  attemptod  various  metboda  bf 
reconciling  tbe  words  irf  Luke,  "  Tliis  taxing  was  llr«t 
made  when  Cyrenius  was  governor  of  Syria,"  l,ake 
ii,  3,  with  the  chronology  of  Josephns.  (6e«  Wolf, 
Car,  i,  bis  aq. ;  Zom,  HiHar.  Ftxi  Jud,  p.  91  Mg. ; 
Tbieas,  Krii.  OmiiinK.  ii,  S8&  sq.  i  KuinAl,  CommaU. 
Ii,  SOI  rq.,  whose  references,  however,  are  not  pre- 
cise; K.  Nabmmacher,  ZM  .1  u^uiea  (rr  {num  af/rt>tr, 
Helmst.  ITSS,  Ii,  4 ;  Huschkr,  UA.  4.  lur  Ztit  drr  Gf 
bu<-t  J.  dr.  ffoiafi.  Cm.  Bresl.  IMO ;  Witaelar,  Otrtm. 
SgiHtpie,  p.  Ill  aq.).  Apart  from  tbe»,  who  eat  tbe 
knot  liy  pronouncing  the  passage  an  Intarpotatioii  (as 
Beia  in  his  first  thrw  eds.,  Praff,Venema,  KuinCI,  Ols- 
huuBcn,  and  othera),  we  notice  the  following : 


for,. 


r(comp.Job 


It  the  stf 


S,«pcu 


1.>-,s< 


mirpoTt 


Ic  fov,  brfan  me),  ai 


by  the  camparaUvei  rendering,  Iku  Mnsu  todc  plaer 
brfoTt  Qmtimt  Kot  govemnr  o/Syria.  (So  J.  G.  Her- 
vart,  Admir.  Ethnic.  T^tol.  Mgilrr.  pnpal.  Voaach. 
1626,  p.  188;  Petavlns,  tlynina,  Ctericua,  J.  Periio- 
niua,  De  Aagial.  Orbit  Trrmr.  Dacrip.,  in  bia  Ditqait. 
de  Pntlar.  p.  908  sq.;  Zeltner,  Heumann,  i)e  Oiua 
Ai^tqidr.  1732,  and  in  hi<  Diutti.  Sglliye,  i,  763  eq.; 
Noriniua,  Cetmlaph.  Plian.  ii,  IG;  Storr,  ()pur.  AcaJ. 
iii.l!^iHi.:  S(ifi.mi,Venn.Av/ialtf,Ti.63;  Hicbacler, 
Dtier  d.  Gebartt-  tvid  SUrbrjaJir  Ckriiti,  I,  G9  sq. ;  Tho- 
luck,  Glaubvrard.  p.  182  sq.,  and  others).  Bnt  this 
would  he  Btrange  Greek,  even  if  wporipn  stood  in  the 
passage  (comp.  Friliache  on  Rom.  ii,  421  sq.,  where 
hIeo  the  passage  of  the  Sept.  Jer.  xxix,  2,  compared 
by  Tholock,  ia  settled) ;  and  the  posaihllity  of  writing 
irpun;  for  It  is  not  eatabliihed  by  the  reference  to 
John,  and  certainly  such  a  ure  would  be  erpedaily 
avoided  where,  as  here,  every  reader  must  naturally 
understand  the  passage  as  tbe  Anth.  Vera,  renders  it. 
More  recently,  Huschke.  ill.  tup.  p.  *>»!  Wieieler,  1 
Bip.  117  rq.,  r.nd  an  anonymous  writer  in  Rhelnwald'a 
Rqarrtor.  xxxvl,  105,  have  dlacoveiid  that  Luke  pqr- 
poiely  places  the  superlstive  before  the  genitive  to 
express  tbia  meaning:  Vitt  cmut  ai  Ihejirtl  (i.  e.  of 
all  Roman  censuses)  Irfert  Qvirniw  iecoav  goBrmpT; 
and  that  there  ia  hers  an  abbreviated  expr»!tori,  as  is 
usual  with  the  comparative  degree,  whicb  they  would 
fill  out  thus:  irpA  r" 


..   Surely  n< 


Btj'lc  could  aupt»M  ll 
snd  eipresaed  Ibis  complicated  idea  with  worde  which 
on  their  6ce  mean  something  very  different.  This  is 
lbs  result  of  considering  a  language  only  in  tbe  liglil 
of  one's  Btady,  not  In  tbat  of  living  intercoorse. 

2.  Several  have  tried  conjectorai  emendation  (comp, 
Bowi'er,  Critical  Crmjtcl.  on  tke  K.  T.  i.  117  rq.).  Her- 
mann gives  aa  anoUier'a  snggestion  Kpaviiw,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Latin  Satuminua.  Wliston.  Prim.  A'. 
T.  (Lond.  1746),  reads  avni  ^  diroyp.  to.  Xiinwii'^f. 
ftvripn  it  ifpiTO  ^yiii.  t^  Ii'P-  Kl'p..  1.  e.  TUt /rH 
crmmtoaliplaettBhenSatiirainaticai'gaifrniori'/SjTia, 
and  a  second  tnnirr  Cuirimu.  But  tbe  lut  clause  has 
no  pertinence  here.  L.  Cappellus  snd  Huetius.  ft- 
moattr.  EtKmg.  p.  781,  put  KuivnXioip.  Qirintii:ia,  or  K, 
Opnpou.Q.ramf,  instead  of  QaiiinUB.  Q.  Varus  toc- 
ceeded  Satuminus  B.C.  6  (see  Josephus.  Ant.  xvij.  5. 
2 ;  Tacit  Sift.  V,  9).  Michaella,  Amfeit.  isi  N.  T.  i.  71, 
would  read  irpo  rijc  after  wpwn)  (1.  e.  he/ort  Ikat  mirr 
Qairmui,  etc.).  which  might  easily  have  dropped  out 
(comp.  R.  BflUllier,  DitteH.  Saer.  Amst.  1750,  No.  1}. 
II.  Venema,  Sflfcta  e  SeioliM  Valct.  \,  70,  thought  arnr 
i;  Dwoyp.  vpuTV.  V  fl  (i.  e.  ^lorfpo)  JytMro  i/ilfi.. 
etc.,  i.  e.  Till  vn>  lAeJSrif  cnno;  but  lit  lecoml  loot 
placf  ichen  Quiriata,  etc.  Bat  ai.-aln  the  second  cIshk 
is  out  of  place.  Valeoius  (ad  Eureh.  B.  E.  i,  G)  «  eoM 
at  once  write  Satnmlnus  tat  Qufrinus.  All  snth 
changes  of  the  text,  especially  in  tba  face  of  the  Liia- 


CTKENIUS  e; 

nimity  of  nuiinscripta  snd  verdons  (hc  Griesbach  in 
Ibc.),  u  nnerlticil  and  Torced. 

a.  Rejecting  all  thew  methods  of  TecDncilialion,  »ina 
hen  ■nppou  s  misuka  or  murecollection  OD  Luke's 
part  (AmmoD,  Bibl.  Theohg.  ii,  371  j  Conn,  ife  Ctnn 
Uuir.  Erluigcn,  1810 ;  LAm  Jrm,  i,  201  Bq. ;  Thieu, 
Kril.  Otmm.  ii,  883 ;  Strsuu,  Lfben  Jau,  p.  S6S  aq. ; 
Weiua,  Etangil.  Gacldchle,  i,  204  sq.),  iC  l«ing,  U 
the  time  of  wrilinii.  manv  ytait  since  the  occnrronie. 
So  Winer,  who  still  bold*  tbe  ceniiu  u  ■  fu:^  and 
thinks  QuiriDoi  nu/  hsrs  condacMd  it  (Ncander,  Le- 
htn  Jau,  p.  25 ;  Meyer  on  Lake,  11,  2),  tba  only  error 
beinK  in  naming  bim  Bovemar  of  Syria  (comp.  AUti 
tmd  yarn,  1TZ7,  p.  120).  Certainly  It  li  not  to  ba  >Dp- 
pnaed  Chat  Luke  bere  rtfera  to  the  above-mentioned 
census  of  QnirlnaB  (Acta  T,  87).  and  miidates  it  thus, 
for  the  mention  of  it  in  Acta  shows  tbat  ha  was  well 
acqnaintod  <Hth  it;  and  even  In  U.  2,  the  wordjSrd 

i.  Anotber  mode  of  getting  orer  the  difficulty  Is 
■anctloned  by  tbe  namei  of  Calvin,  Valuins,  Wet- 
stein,  Hales,  and  other*.  First,  changing  oiin]  Into 
abrii,  thoy  obtain  the  sense ;  "  In  those  days  there 
went  forth  a  decree  froni  Augustus  that  the  whole  Und 
ahonld  be  enrolled;  bat  the  mrolmaU  iUel/iita  tint 
made  when  Cyreniua  was  governor  of  Syria."  The 
■apposition  here  Is,  that  tbe  cenana  was  commenced 
nnder  Sitamlnas,  but  waa  not  completed  till  two  years 
after,  under  Qairinua.  Dr.  Itotdnson  (Addil.  lo  Cai- 
mM.  In  "Cyrenins")  oblecta  lo  this  view  tbe  entire  ab. 
Knc«  of  any  hbtorical  basis  fbr  It.  But  be  must  at 
tbe  Um«  have  been  unmindful  of  Halea,  who,  Id  bis 
Chrwihgj  (ill,  18-63),  has  worked  ont  this  explana- 
tion with  more  than  bia  uausl  care  and  soceess.  Hales 
reminds  as  that  a  little  before  the  birtb  of  Chriiit, 
Herod  had  martbed  an  army  into  Arabia  to  redress 
certain  wrongs  which  be  had  received;  and  this  pro- 
ceeding; bad  1>een  so  mlsrepreaentad  to  Aagnstus  that 
be  wrote  a  very  harsh  letter  to  Herod,  the  substance 
of  which  was,  that  "  having  bitbarta  treated  bim  aa  a 
friend,  be  would  now  treat  him  as  a  subject."  And 
when  Herod  sent  an  embassy  lo  clear  himself,  the  em- 
perar  repeatedly  retiuad  to  hear  them,  and  so  Herod 
was  forced  to  submit  to  ail  the  infiinu  (rapovofiiar) 
offered  to  bim  (Joseph.  ^nC  xvi,  9).  Now  it  may  l>e 
collected  that  the  chief  of  these  Injuries  was  the  per- 
formance of  bis  threat  of  treating  him  oa  a  suliject  by 
the  degradation  of  his  kingdom  to  a  Koman  province. 
For  soon  after  Joaepbus  incidentally  mentions  that 
■'the  whole  nation  of  the  Jews  took  an  oath  of  fidelity 
to  Ciesar  and  the  king  jointly,  except  6000  of  the  Thar- 
isees,  who,  throtigh  llieir  hostility  to  the  regal  govern. 
ment,  relUsed  to  tikg  it."  Tbe  date  of  this  transac- 
tion is  determined  by  its  having  been  shortly  before 
the  death  of  Phemrai,  and  coincides  with  the  dme  of 
thU  decree  of  enrolment  and  of  the  l>irth  of  Christ. 
Tbe  oatb  which  Josephus  mention*  would  be  adminis- 
tered at  the  same  time,  according  to  the  usage  of  the 
Roman  census,  in  which  a  return  of  pe^son^  ages,  and 
properties  was  required  lo  he  made  upon  oath,  under 
penalty  of  conflscallon  of  goods,  as  we  learn  from  L'l- 
pian.  Tbat  Cyrenius,  a  Roman  senator  and  procura- 
tor, waa  employed  to  make  Ibis  enrolment,  wo  learn 
not  only  from  Lake,  but  by  the  joint  testimony  of  Jus- 
tin Martyr,  Julian  the  Apostate,  and  Euseidus;  and 
it  wa*  mode  while  Satorninus  was  president  of  Si-rla 
(to  whom  it  waa  attributed  by  Tertullian),  in  the  thir- 
ty-third yeat  of  Herod's  reign,  corresponding  to  the 
date  of  Christ's  birth,  Cyreniu-,  who  is  described  by 
Tacitus  as  "an  active  solder  and  rigid  commissioner," 
was  well  qualifipd  for  an  employment  so  odious  to 
Herod  and  his  sulijects,  and  probaUv  came  to  execute 
the  decree  with  an  armed  force.  The  enrolment  of 
the  inhabitant,",  ''each  in  his  own  city,"  was  in  con- 
formity with  the  wary  policy  of  the  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, lo  prevent  insurrections  and  to  expedite  tbe 
baslDesa ;  and  it  this  precaution  waa  Judged  prudent 


1  CTEENHJS 

even  In  Italy,  ranch  more  must  it  have  appeared  nc<y 
easarj'  in  turbulent  provinces  like  Jndiea  and  Galilee. 
At  tbe  present  Juncture,  liowever.  it  appears  that  the 
census  proceeded  no  farther  than  the  first  act.  name- 
ly, the  enrolment  of  perHms  in  tbe  Roman  register. 
For  Herod  sent  bia  trusty  minister,  Nicolas  of  Damas- 
cns,  to  Rome,  who,  by  bis  address  and  presents,  found 
means  to  mcdlify  and  undeceive  tbe  emperor,  so  that 
be  proceeded  no  farther  in  the  design  which  be  ha^ 
entertained.  Tbe  census  was  consequently  at  this 
time  suspended;  but  it  waa  afterwards  carried  iulo  ef- 
fect upon  tbe  depoeal  and  banishment  of  Arcbelaus, 
and  tbe  settlement  of  Judsa  as  a  Roman  province. 
On  this  occasion  tbe  trusty  Cyrenius  waa  aent  again, 

cate  tbe  property  of  Arcbelans,  and  to  complete  tbe 
census  for  the  purpoae*  of  taxation.  This  taxation 
was  a  poll-tax  of  two  drachma  a  head  upon  males  from 
fourteen,  and  females  fi-om  twelve  lo  sixty-five  years 
of  age — equal  to  about  fifteen  pence  of  our  money. 
This  waa  the  "tribute  money"  mentioned  in  ilUU 
xtU,  24-27.  The  payment  of  it  became  very  obnox- 
ious to  tlic  Jews,  and  the  imposition  of  it  occasioned 
the  insurrection  under  Judas  at  Gulilee,  which  Luke 
himself  describes  as  having  occurred  "in  tbe  daya  of 

ed  with  the  slight  emendation  of  the  text  already  in- 
dicated. Hales  consider*  that  "the  Evangelist  b  crit- 
ically reconciled  wilb  tbe  rarying  accounts  of  Jose- 
phua,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Tertullian;  and  a  hi^lorical 
difficulty  satisfactorily  wived,  which  has  hitherto  ret 
criticuim  at  defiance."  This  la  prrhaps  saying  too 
much,  but  the  exp1an;>[ion  is  undnutiledlv  one  of  the 
l»»t  that  has  vet  been  given  (Urdner'a  CrrditiUly.  1, 
21S-B29;  Wetatein,  Kuinfll,  and  Campbell,  on  Luke 
ii,S,elc.J. 

6.  The  preceding  eiplanstions  all  render  Tpwnt. 
"  fint,"  as  an  adtrrb,  but  it  is  clearly  not  susceptible 
of  such  a  construction,  being  an  adjtrtiti  tei.-ulariy 
qualifying  avoyoafii,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of 
distinguishing  the  present  "taxing"  ftma  a  subs^ 
quent  one  under  tbe  same  authority,  namely,  tbat 
mentioned  In  the  Acts,  The  writer  of  an  eluUor.le 
article  in  the  JoiiTnal  ff  Saired  Lileraturt  (Octiibtr, 
IfSI)  Indeed  ames  that  Luke  onght  to  have  H.U  r> 
nsoypn^ii  if  rpiitrrj,  and  adduces  many  citations  to 
show  tbe  adverbisl  force  of  irpilTof  ;  hut  these  are  in- 
appropriate, for  they  would  rather  require  the  render, 
ing  "this  waitlieflrFt  taxing  tbat  took  place,"  etc.,  a 
sense  equally  difficult;  and  Luke's  design  docs  not 
I  appear  to  lie  to  contrast  so  strontily  tbe  two  taxings, 
I  since  they  were  In  a  measure  one.  this  tbe  be^nning, 
,  tin  other  tbe  complelion.  We  are  dixposcd,  therefore, 
lo  adopt  a  modification  of  this  last  preceding  explana- 
lion,  and  find  the  distinction  between  these  Iwo  dates 
in  the  verb  lyiviro.  rendering  It  "effected"  or  r-m- 
jiettd.  tlie  enrolment  having  only  been  Jfjuo  in  the 
]>resenl  case.  This  will  combine  all  \ht  hi.loricai  no- 
tices above  cited,  and  obviate  all  tbe  objections  thai 
bare  been  raised  lo  the  explanations  of  this  difficult 
text  bilherto  prnpoted.  (See  Strong's  Harming  ami 
Expotiiim  o/the  Gotprlt,  Append,  i,  p.  20.)  There  is 
the  greater  propriety  in  this  solution,  inasmuch  us 
Luke  himself  not  only  elsewhere  alludes  to  the  later 
enforcement  of  the  tax-roll  in  question,  but  in  this 
very  passage  under  dlacussion  he  clearly  implies  it  by 
the  use  of  rpivTii.fa-it!  Ilie  rendering  of  which  as  an 
adverb  (-' first  occurred")  make*  the  word  itself  either 
altogether  nugatory  or  positively  iiuipposite,  since  no 
later  censua  of  the  kind  is  recorded  tiian  that  referred 
lo  in  the  .\cts.     Ihere  can  be   no  good  philoln^'ical 

cept  to  throw  greater  stress  upon  iyiyira,  which  olhtr- 
wise  KDuld  not  naturally  bear  so  strong  a  sense  as  the 
f-rKHlioa,  under  tho  direction  otQuiriuas,  of  what  liad 
already  l>een  inaugurated  (rpwrq)  under  different 
auspices  (see  Alfurd,  Cr.  Tttl.  b  loc.).    The  paren- 


It  U  Luke  who  gives  both  indc 

e,  Kuny  take  ^ifHw  in  the  wider  ilgnificatlOD  ef 
Ugh  eiteutlvt  egletr  Id  gannal,  includiDg,  for  iiutince, 
the  pnicantora.  (So  Cuiubon.  £urcif.  Ati^xjrott. 
(1.  126  iq.  1  Grotioa,  B.  Ch.  RkhMd,  in  Ikeo,  Nm. 
Tkttavt.  li,  428  aq. ;  Magnnni.  PtM.  M  Nata.  ChrtMli, 
f.  !60  sq. ;  O.Wemadorf,  De  cnju  qaemCat.  <M,  Au- 
fuX.  /eci(,  Viteb.  1698. 1720 ;  Daylirg,  Otwnwt.  I,  283 
•q. :  WeihrnirUipTtigr  v.  BtUtlaJl.  1737;  K.  Vnbia- 
machcT,  Hf.  lap. ;  Vnlliartb,  Dt  renta  QairitU,  Getting. 
1786;  Birch,  De  cnm  (twiini,  H.vn.  1790 1  Suicle- 
iDmU,DtViilj,^niEaund.p.4UKi.;  UDnter,  £(m 
d.  iVeutn,  p.  88  «q. ;  Meander,  L/itn  Jen,  p.  86,  and 
others.)     These  auppoaa  tliat  Quiriaua  held  thi*  cen- 

command  of  Auguatoa.  (Comp.  Uafaer,  Aimal.  p.  5S0 
aq.;  Wedel,  i<e  <yniu  v1n^.  Jena,  1703.)  Manter,  p. 
99  aq.,  hai  ahown,  after  othen,  that  extraordinary  le- 
gates, besidea  the  ihiefa  of  tha  provineea,  were  aome- 
timea  sent  tor  ailch  special  datiea,  thoogh  perhaps  not 
alt  the  inatancci  iddoced  bv  him  are  mild.  If  we  are 
fnily  10  beliere  Jaatin  Martyr,  Apol.  i,  44,  gnlrinos 
niiut  have  held  the  ceiuna  whcD  be  flret  became  iri- 
r/wiroc,  or  procnrator  In  Judau.  See  Credner,  B<i- 
M^  t.  Emteit.  va  N.  T.  i.  330  aq.  But  there  were  no 
procuratoiB  in  Judea  in  Herod'a  lima.  We  must  Ihen 
BDppoae,  with  Credner,  that  Qnirinua  waa  then  aent  to 
Palestine  as  procurrilor  of  SiTia  simply  to  Uke  Ibe 
cenant  of  the  people,  whose  niiml«r  Augustus  wished 
Id  know.  But  thia  la  simply  Dialcijilyin);  hypothesea. 
Comp.  alio  Huachke,  p.  73  aq.  This  view  appears 
the  more  probable,  alnce  Qairinus,  who  was  a  favorite 
with  the  emperor,  waa  then  in  the  East  on  hia  commii- 
alon  (Tacit.  .Jan.  lii,  48:  ii,  42).  There  is  also  an  in- 
Btription  (Muratori,  Tiamir.  Imcripl.  i,  p.  070)  which 
atatea  that  Q.  £inil.  Falieanus  Secundns,  by  order  of 
QoirintU,  held  a  eeneus  in  Apaiaea  (in  Syria),  and, 
liktwiae  by  hia  ordrr,  conquered  the  Iturcaua  in  Leb- 
anon. But,  thuugh  the  word  iiyiiiviv  ia  not  limited  to 
a  permanent  governor  of  a  province,  yet  Luke  mold 
hardly  use  aucb  a  phraae  aa  thia  (ifyifioviuoi^oc  r^ 
£iipia(')  of  an  extraordinary  officer.  In  common  lan- 
guage thia  could  only  mean  "  bang  g^^vtmor  of  Sj/ria" 
(•ee  beaidea,  Hnachke,  p.  65  sq.).  Just  aa  little  doea 
liengel  hit  the  maik  {Ordo  Ttmp.  p.  203)  when  he 
makes  QuirinuB  to  have  tilled,  as  governor,  an  interim 
between  Satnmlnus  and  Varus. 

T.  A»snmlnp,  on  the  authority  of  Luke,  that  an  en-  I 
raiment  actually  did  take  place  at  the  time  of  our  I 
Lord'e  birth,  a  modification  of  the  last  foregoing  hy- 
pothesit  pmceeds  to  make  out  a  probability  that  Cjr^ 
nius  waa  then  Joint  governor  of  Syria  along  with  Sat- 

thi*  date  Volumnloa  had  b«n  joined  with  SatDmlnna 
aa  the  pn>curator  of  Ibat  province,  and  the  two,  Sat- 
nminna  and  Volumnina,  are  repeatedly  spoken  of  to- 
gether by  Joeephua,  who  atylea  them  eqnally  govem- 
op»  of  Syria  {AnI.  itI,  9,  1 ;  9,  8).  Josephua  doe* 
not  mention  the  recall  of  Volumnius ;  but  there  is  cer- 
tainly a  possibility  that  thia  had  taken  place  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  and  that  Cyrenius,  who  had  already 
dbtingoiahed  himself,  had  lieen  aent  in  bla  place.  He 
would  then  have  been  under  Satuminus.  ■  iiyi/uuv, 
"goiemor,"  of  .Syria,  Just  aa  Volnmniua  had  been  be- 
fore, and  aa  Pilate  woa  afterwards,  of  Jud»a,  That ' 
he  should  here  be  mentioned  as  such  by  Luke  rather  ; 
than  Saturninus  is  very  naturally  acconnted  tor  by , 
the  fact  that  ha  returned,  ten  yrars  afterwards,  as : 
procurator  or  chief  governor,  and  then  held  >  second 
and  more  important  cenaus  for  the  purpose  of  registra- 
tion and  taxa^oa,  when  Archelaus  was  deposed,  and 
Jndiaa  annexed  to  the  Boman  province  of  Syria.  The 
only  real  objection  lo  this  colution  ia  the  silence  of  all 
other  history.  Bat,  aIthoui;h  probne  history  does  not 
••firm  the  fkct  of  Cyreniua  iiaving  formerly  been  pro*.  ] 


2  CYRIA 

urator  of  Syria,  yet  It  doei  not  In  any  way  deny  itt 
and  we  may  therefore  aafely  rest  upon  the  BOtlunty 
of  the  uered  writer  tbr  the  tmtb  of  thia  bet,  Jut  as 
we  do  for  the  hct  of  the  existence  of  the  Gnt  tonl- 
ment  itaelf.— Kltto,  a.  v.     See  Sybia. 

A.W.Zumpt,  of  Berlin,  in  hia  Comnaatafia  ife  Ajria 
Ranamorm  prvnacia  a  Camre  A  Hjrwfo  ad  T.  I'apaii- 
mav,  has  recently  shown  it  to  be  probable  that  Qoi- 
rinns  was  lieiet  governor  of  S}Tia.  This  he  auppoits 
by  the  following  conuderatious :  In  B.C.  9  SrBthu 
Satuminus  sncceeded  U.  TitluB  in  the  province  of  Syr- 
ia, and  govemed  it  three  yean.  Ue  was  succeeded 
by  T.  QoiDtilina  Varna  (Joseph.  Jiaf.  zrij,  6,  2),  who, 
as  It  appears,  remained  governor  up  to  the  end  of  B. 
C.4.  Thenceforward  wa  lose  aight  of  him  till  be  is 
appointed  to  the  command  In  Germany,  in  which  ha 
lost  his  life  in  A.D.  7.  We  alao  loee  sight  of  the  gov- 
emon  of  Syria  till  the  appointment  of  P.  Snlpidiis 
QulrinuB  in  A.D.  C.  Now,  from  the  maxim  acted  «e 
by  Auguitua  (DiDn.  Cass,  lii,  2S),  that  none  al»ald 
hold  an  imperial  province  for  teaa  than  three  or  torn 
than  five  yean<,  Varna  cannot  have  been  goTemor  ef 
Syria  during  the  twelve  yean  from  B.C.  6  to  A.D.  G. 
Who,  then,  wen  the  mlaainggovemon?  One  of  them 
has  bean  (bund—L.  Volusius  Satorninns,  wbose  naoM 
occurs  as  "legatus  Syria"  on  a  coin  of  Antioch,  A.D. 
4  or  S.     But  hia  proconeuUte  will  not  all  the  wbola 

tween  Varus,  ending  B.C.  4,  and  Volusina,  A.D.  4  orS. 
Just  in  that  interval  flUla  tbe  eensos  of  Lake  ii,  I 
Could  Qnirinns  have  been  governor  at  any  inch  duK? 
From  January  to  Angual,  B.C.  12,  be  waa  cooanL 
Soon  after  that  be  triumphed  over  the  Uomonadeosca 
(Tacit.  Atm.  iii,48).  Now  Znmpt  applies  the  eihaiot- 
ive  proceaa  to  the  provinces  which  could  by  any  pcni- 
bility  have  been  under  Qnirinns  at  thia  time,  anddiia- 
inatea  from  the  inquiry  Asia — Pontna  and  Bithynia— 
and  Galatia.  Cillcia  only  remains.  But  at  thia  timt, 
aa  ho  ahowB,  that  jwovince  had  been  reduced  by  no- 
cessive  dlminntiona,  had  been  separated  (Dion.  Caaa. 
liv,  4)  troai  Cyprus,  and — as  is  shown  by  the  b'aUrf 
n(  the  misconduct  of  Piso  aoon  afterwards,  who  na 
charged  with  having,  as  sz-govemor  of  Syria,  attempt- 
ed a  forcible  repoaaession  of  the  province  (Tacit,  itaa. 
iil,  12),  becanae  be  had  attacked  Celenderis,  a  fort  is 
Cilicia  (i£.  ii,  78-80),  attached  to  the  province  ofSyiii. 
This  Zumpt  also  conflrma  by  the  acconnta  in  Tadtoi 
(.4m.  vi,  41;  xi>,  fro)ofthaCtitB,aaeditiiiua  tribeef 
Cilicia  Aspcra,  who  on  two  occasions  were  repiesaedby 
troop  sent  by  the  govemora  of  Syria.  Quirinua  tlm 
Bppeara  to  have  been  governor  nf  Syria  at  some  tins 
during  this  inCervsl.  But  at  rliat  timet  We  find 
him  in  the  East  (Tacit.  Am.  ill,  48)  in  conneetiai  with 
Cesar's  campaign  againat  tbe  Armenians;  aud  this 
cannot  have  been  during  his  well-known  govemonbip 
ofSyria,  whichb^taninA.D.  6;  tbr  Caina  Caoar  died 
in  A.D.  4.  Znmpt,  byergnmenta  too  long  toberefro- 
daced  here,  but  very  atriking  and  satisbctory,  fixes 
the  time  of  his  first  governorship  at  from  B.C.  4  to 
B.C.  1,  when  be  waa  aucceeded  by  H.  IjiUi us.— Smith, 
a.  v.  Thia,  however,  atill  leaves  a  diaciepancy  of  en 
or  two  years  between  hia  first  appointment  and  Cbriit'i 
Idrth,  which  cannot  be  brought  down  so  late  as  KC 
4.  (See  Lutberoth,  SeetnKmeiU  it  (^'rwu  as  Jmiit, 
Par.  1865.)    See  CinsDa. 

Cyila  (Kup/o,  "  lady,"  2  John,  vcr.  1,  S),  a  Creek 
term  signifying  mutrwi,  and  used  aa  an  honorary  tltla 
of  address  to  a  ftmale  (ao  Efdct.  E»A.  40),  aa  in  Ecg- 
liah.  But  in  2  John  it  appoara  lo  be  the  proper  usas 
of  the  diatinjinisbed  female  to  whom  John  directed  Ui 
cpislle  (aee  Alford,  Gr.  Tat.  vol.  v,  pioleg,  p.  IgS  sq.) 
That  Cgria  waa  often  a  proper  name  of  females  asMof 
the  Greeks  there  ia  no  donbt  (Gruteri  Itucnft.  p 
1127).  Others  regard  the  associated  term  icAfri 
("elect")  as  a  proper  name,  q.  d.  BftHa  (q.  ».),ad 
the  word  in  qucation  aa  a  ccaunon  tilla.     Sea  JoK^ 

ErtnLBS  or. 


CYBIACU8 

C^ftUotlB,  t^d  to  bavfl  been  pope,  ind,  (cconlliig 
So  Bomiih  tradition,  to  hava,  for  thssika  of  St.  Ur  ' 
and  ber  11.000  maidsni,  fonaken  the  papal  m  Is 
fcr  raartyidDm  with  tbetn  at  Cologne  (Ang.  Bth).  HI* 
•xiatence  is  probablj  a«  tnj'thical  and  fictitiona  u  that 
at  the  11,000  Tirgina.  The  charch  anil  eullege  of  St. 
<:yriac  (fonneilj  St.  Dlonjaii),  at  Neuhanaan,  near 
Worma,  claima  to  have  poeaeaaed  hia  relica  linee  the 
beginnlDg  of  tbe  9th  ceotuiT', 

CyrlaciiB,  patriarch  of  Conatantinople  at  the  end 
of  tbe  6(h  century,  and  lucceSMir  o!Johi  J'jvauloT  af- 

»oc  or'icDu/ui'iiriic,  which  be  tauaed  to  be  conftnned  by 
»  council.  The  Rominh  blihop,  Gregory  the  Great,  op. 
poaed  him  at  (irat  vithout  anccesa,  hut  by  giving  his 
aopport  to  the  ugurper  Phocss  he  finally  ^(allied  his 
md,  and  CTtiacug  liad  to  lenounce  his  title.  He  ft 
aald  to  have  died  of  grief  In  GOfi.— Henog,  Real-Ency- 
UopSdU,  ui,  221. 

CytU  (St.)  (KvpiAVof),  D/^fazfwfrio,  waa  bom  Id 
Alexandria  towards  ttw  end  of  the  4lh  centurv,  and 
was  educated  under  hii  uncle  Thenphilua,  bishop  of 
that  place.  Theophiloa  died  In  412,  and  Cyril  was 
elected  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  One  of  his  first  steps, 
according  Co  Socrates,  was  to  plunder  and  shut  np  the 
ehnrchet  of  the  Novatiani  (Sect.  But.  Ead.  vii,  7). 
He  led  on  a  farions  mob,  which  drove  out  the  Jews, 
who  hod  enjoyed  many  privileges  in  Che  city  for  ages- 
Tbis  proceeding  excited  the  anger  of  Oestea,  the  gov 
■nor  of  Che  city,  and  made  him  henceforth  the  impla- 
cable opponent  of  the  bishop.  An  nCtsck  was  made 
on  the  goTFmor  in  hia  chariot  by  a  band  erf' 600  monks; 
and  one  who  severely  wounded  him  having  saffeied 
death  on  the  rack,  Cyril,  in  hi*  church,  prononnced  a 
eulogy  o*er  hia  body  as  that  of  a  martyr  (Socrates, 
L  vii,  e.  It).  He  Is  also  charged  with  the  mnider  of 
Hrpatia,  the  celebraCed  daughter  of  the  mathematician 
Theon;  but  hit  shaTB  in  this  aCrocttv  was  only  Indl- 
t«t.  See  HiFATiA,  The  titles  o{ Doctor  cf  Ihe  In- 
tarmtitn  and  CAnmptni  of  the  Virgin  have  been  Kiven 
to  Cyril  on  account  of  hit  violent  ditpi 


"ThB< 


lofNesI 


having  i>e<n  decreed  by  Pope  Celeetino,  Cyril  waa  ap- 
pcnnted  to  execute  the  sentence,  for  which  he  prcuded 
atu  council  of  sixty  bishops  at  Ephosus.  Jnhn,  patrl- 
oich  of  Antioch,  baring  a  few  days  afterwards  held  a 
codDcil  of  forty-one  bishops,  who  snpported  Nestorina 
and  excommunicated  Cyril,  tlia  two  parlies  appealed 
to  the  emperor  Theodoaiua,  who  (brthwith  committed 
both  Cyril  and  Nestoiiut  to  prison,  when  they  remain- 
ed for  tome  lune  under  rigorona  treatment.  Cyril,  by 
tbe  influence  of  Celettine,  waa  at  length  liberated  and 
restored  (-131)  to  the  see  of  Alexandria,  which  he  retain- 
ed untU  his  death,  which  occnned  in  444"  {Engi.  Cy- 
dap.  a.  v.).  See  Sebtobids,  Cyril's  doctrinal  wtit- 
Ingi  are  chiefly  on  lofist  connected  with  the  contro- 
veniea  on  the  Trinity.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
principal  treatltea :  T'jUtnurus  m  lAe  TVnttfjr,  intended 
aa  a  eompleterefutoliDuof  Atiaulsm.  In  IXatogtui  on 
lie  lacanialuni,  in  Fire  Booki  agaitui  Nrilorait,  and  in 
an  ample  Convamlaiy  on  SI,JoAn'i  Goiptl,  tho  sams 
tnbject  is  continued.  Ten  Iioaka  ayaintt  Julia*  con- 
tain replies  Co  that  emperor's  three  books  agnintt  the 
Goapels,  which,  if  Cyril's  quotations  are  faithful,  were 
■a  weak  and  abiurd  aa  the  answers.  Seventeen  books 
0»  \FarMp  in  Spirit  and  TniA  show  that  all  the  Uo- 
aaicol  iusCilutiona  were  an  allegory  of  the  Gospel ;  "a 
proof,"  asys  Dr.  Adsm  ClaAa,  "how  Scripture  may 
be  tortured  to  say  anting."  Thirteen  books  on  the 
PmialaiiA  and  Ae  Propliai  are  written  with  a  simi. 
lor  view.  Thirty  paschal  Uemilitt  annoonca,  aa  cus- 
tomary at  Alexandria,  the  tinu  of  Easter.  Sixty-one 
.Qmdrt  neariy  all  rrlsle  to  the  Neatorian  eontrovany. 
OjrH't  eynodieal  LrUtr  contains  twelve  tolemn  curses 
ogalnat  Neatotiua.  who  aa  eolemnly  replied  wlch  twelve 
cuiiaa  ogalAst  Cyril.    His  wtitings  abound  in  tnrgid 


3  CYRIL 

pralaes  of  Mary,  though  be  did  not  hold  bertobewitb 
out  sin.  "The  history  of  none  among  the  Christian 
fsthen  is  more  disgraceful  to  the  Christian  character 
Chan  that  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria— a  man  immoder- 
ately amhltioup,  violent,  and  headstrong ;  a  breeder  of 
disturbances  1  haughty,  Icnperiuus,  and  as  nnfit  for  a 
bishop  as  a  violent,  bigoted,  unakilfol  theologian  could 
poasiiily  be — but  resolved  that  if  tbe  meek  inherit  tbe 
earth,  the  vlolenC  should  have  postession  of  the  sees" 
(Claike,5iicces>ionn/'5aereJZilenifur<,ii,13;).  "But 
Che  faults  of  his  personal  character  ahould  not  blind 
us  to  the  merits  of  Cyril  aa  a  theologian.  He  was  a 
man  of  vigorous  and  acato  mind,  and  extenaive  learn- 
ing, and  is  clearly  M  he  reckoned  among  the  most  Im- 
portant dogmatic  and  polemic  divines  of  the  Greek 
Church.  Of  his  contemporaries  Theodoret  a) 
his  superior.  He  was  tbe  tafC  considerable  re 
ative  of  tbe  Alexandrian  theology  and  the  Alexan- 
drltn  Church,  which,  however,  was  already  beginning 
to  degenerate  and  stiSen ;  and  thus  he  oflkets  'Theodo- 
ret, who  is  the  moat  learned  representative  of  the  An- 
tlochlan  tchooL  He  aimed  Co  he  the  same  to  the  doe- 
Idne  of  tbe  incarnation  and  the  person  of  Christ  tint 
his  purer  and  greater  predecessor  in  the  see  of  Alex- 
andria had  been  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  s  cen- 
tury before.  Bnt  he  overstrained  the  supranaturalism 
and  mystlcitra  of  the  Alexandrian  theology,  and  in  hia 
zeal  for  the  reality  of  the  incarnation  and  the  unity 
of  the  person  of  Christ  he  went  to  the  brink  of  tiie 
MonophyslCe  error,  even  sustaining  himself  by  Che 
words  of  Athanasius.  though  not  by  hia  spirit,  becauae 
Che  ^icene  age  had  not  yet  lixed  lieyond  all  inter- 
change tbe  theological  dietinction  between  avnia  and 
vroaTanc"  (Schaff.  CAurcA  BiHmy,  %  171).  Ilia  best 
edi^n  of  the  Optra  Omnia  of  Cyril,  in  Greek  and 
Utin  (Paris,  1688),  la  that  of  Auliert  (7  vola.  Ibl.). 
This  edition  is  followed  by  Uigne,  In  his  Patrol.  Cams 
CoBiplelai  (liviii-lizvii).  His  Cimm.  in  Luea  £«». 
fffUm  waa  re-edlted  In  Latin  by  iC.  I'.  Smith  (Oxford, 
1868);  and  In  an  English  version,  by  tho  same,  with 
notes  (Oxf.  1869).  See  Clarke,  f.ucccaion  Sac.  Lit.  U, 
137;  Cove,  Jut.  it(.  Anno  412;  Tillemont,  Jf^aoiref, 
Kiv,  27! ;  Butler,  Lwfi  of  Sainlt,  Jan.  28 ;  Neander, 
Ciartli  Hitoty,  li,  468-498;  Lardner,  Wortt,  vol.  iv; 
Domer,  Pnwn  o/Chn'it  (Edinb.  trans.),  div.  1,  vol.  U. 
Cyril  (Si.)  (Kb,)cXXoi),  of  Jenualtm,  ia  sappoted 
to  have  been  bom  in  that  city  about  A.D.  Blfi.  Ha 
was  ordained  deacon  by  Uacarioa  about  SB6,  and 
priert  by  the  patriarch  Haximua  about  846.  On  tbe 
death  (^  Uaximua,  Cyril  was  chosen  to  succeed  htm 
(A.D,  650).     A  luminous  sppesrance  In  the  heavens, 

marked  the  beginning  of  his  episcopate  (Socrates,  Hill. 
Etct.  ii,  SS).  He  soon  became  involved  in  disputes 
with  the  Arian  Acacius,  bishop  of  CiesiirBa,  who  com- 
menced a  persecution  sgsinat  him,  which  terminated 
in  bit  depceltion  by  a  council  in  S67.  tie  wat  restored 
to  hia  ace,  but  waa  deposed  a  second  time  by  the  Arian 
Council  of  Constantinople  in  SCO.  On  the  accesaion 
of  Julian,  Cyril  reCumed  te  his  bishopric,  but  was  ex- 
pelled a  third  time  (A.D.  SC7).  Finally,  under  Theo. 
doeius.  he  wat  reatorcd  by  the  Council  of  Conatantino- 
ple in  S«l,  and  died,  cleared  of  all  charges  against  hia 
orthodoxy,  May,  SB6.  "An  incident  noticed  by  all 
the  biographers  of  St.  Cyril  bi  tbe  celebrated  attempt 
and  failure  of  the  emperor  Juiltn  to  relmild  tbe  tem- 
ple of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem,  ostentiUly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promoting  tbdr  religion,  but  reslly  with  the 
sinietar  view  of  lUslfying  the  prophecies  respecting  its 
Irreparable  destruction"  (see  Gregory  Nailan.  Ont.  4 
adeen.  Jidian ;  Theodoret,  Socntea,  Phiiostorgiua,  So- 
Eomen.  and  bishop  Warburton'a  Dissertation  on  tbe 
subject,  p.  88). 

"The  axUnt  writings  of  St.  Cyril  are  In  the  Gnek 
language,  and  consiit  of  eiehteen  books  of  CafecAeaes, 
or  sermons,  delivered  during  Lent  to  the  catechumens 
(called  befbre  baptism  Hbtntimiti);  five  aimilaf  dis- 


CTRIL  61 

tamti  delivend  during  Easter  WMk  to  tb»  neophjtet 
■fUr  liaptiam,  called  Hgitaffngie,  being  expUnitorj  of 
the  mystaries  of  the  Ctarialian  ucnmenU ;  m  tre*ti>a 
OD  words,  and  the  Utter  to  Constantini,  betides  which 
■avenl  homilieB  and  epiatlei  are  aametimea  improper- 
ly included.  Rivetus  (lib.  iii,  c.  8,  9,  10,  De  Cjnm 
CalaAetibui)  considers  the  Gto  Hyatogc^ci  and  ' 
letter  to  CouMmtius  aa  sappoaitidoui ;  bat  by  Voasi 
Cave,  Mil),  Whittslier,  and  biabop  Soil,  they  are 
ecired  as  genuine.  The  booki  of  Cateehesea 
crowded  with  qnotations  ftom  Scripture,  and  the  atyle 
li  dull  and  tiresoniely  prolix ;  but  tbe  facta  they 
tain  relating  to  the  doctrines  and  diacipline  of  the 
Ealtem  Cburch  In  the  4tb  century  nre  extremely  ii 
tereating  to  the  student  of  Chriatisn  aDtlquitiee.  I 
the  first  Catechesis  ire  deacribed  tbe  sffecU  oT  bap- 
tinn.  The  fonrth  eirea  an  czpoaition  of  all  the  Chi* 
Uan  doctrines,  and  treats  of  nameroua  queatiooa  c< 
earning  the  body,  soul,  virginity,  marriage,  etc.  The 
■nbaecjuent  dlscounea  exhibit  and  enjoin  a  lielief  in 
the  miraculous  Tirtnea  of  the  tsUc*  of  sainla,  whli 
are  npreaeoled  as  worthy  of  all  Teneralion ;  in  tbe  e 
Scacy  of  prayen  and  aacriflcea  for  tbe  dead ;  In  tho 
powers  of  oxorciam,  consecrated  unction,  oil,  and  ws 
ter.  Christians  are  e.iborted  to  croaa  themselves  o 
every  occasion  and  action  throughoat  the  d*y.  The 
enthusiastic  adoration  of  the  crosa  dispiayod  b; 
Cyril  waa  probably  owio);  to  hla  oSciating  Ir 
ehnrcb  of  tbe  Holy  Croaa  in  Jeruaaloni,  where,  after 
the  '  Invention  of  tbe  Cross,'  it  waa  itepoaited  in  a  sil- 
ver case,  and  shown  by  the  archbishop  to  thoasands 
of  pilgHms,  who  each  took  a  little  cbip  uf  it  without 
occasioning  any  diminution  of  iu  bolk!  A  descrip- 
tion of  this  cross  is  given  by  Toutlio  at  the  end  of  his 
edition  of  Cyril's  works.  Hia  chief  theoloj^cal  work 
is  the  above-named  Kanfxliaiii;  ^uri^op'vuiv,  Cata- 
cheses,  delivered  in  preparing  a  class  nf  catechumens 
for  baptism,  and  it  is  tho  first  example  we  have  of  a 
papular  compend  of  Ciiristian  doctrine.  The  per- 
petual virginity  of  Mary  is  taDght  by  Cyril.  The 
it4te  of  Tir){inity  in  general  is  extolled  as  equal  to 
tbat  of  angels,  with  an  assurance  that,  In  the  day  of 
Judgment,  tbe  noblest  crowns  will  be  carried  off  by 

ted  by  the  atory  of  the  Pbcenix"  (^EnjIUA  Cyciipiwlia). 
The  best  editions  of  hia  worka  are,  lili\\e,Opera  Onaia, 


.  (M, : 


various  readinga);  Toultfie  (Benedictins,  Or. 

Parla,  ful.,  IT20) ;  also  in  Migne,  Patrtilogia  Can.  Grae. 

vol.  xxiiii.     Tho  Calecheaea  are  given  in  English  In 

the  Lthnmi  oftkt  FaUurt  [vol.ii),  Oxford,  1889, 8vo 

See  Clarke,  8\tcctttinn  3m.  Littr.  i,  379  j  Lardner, 
WotU,  iv ;  Neander,  Church  HMwii.  ii,  Da ;  Cave,  Ilim. 
IM.  I,  211 ;  Taylor,  Ancient  ChriitiaitUg ;  Sohaff,  Bitl. 
ijflhf.  Chrittiaa  Church,  S  168. 

C71II,  at,  the  aposUa  of  tba  SUvi,  was  bom  in 
Theuabinica  about  830.  His  orii^nal  name  was  Con- 
staatine.  He  waa  educated  at  Constantinople,  where 
he  became  acqaainted  with  Photlna,  and  gave  fbr 
Mma  time  iecturea  on  philoMphy.  He  theretbre  re- 
ceived and  alwaya  retained  tlic  name  "The  Phltoa- 
oplier."  After  some  timo  he  took  orders,  became  a 
tnonk,  and  aoon.  with  hia  brother  Hotfaodina,  with- 
drew into  aolitnde.  He  now  fell  out  with  Pholiua, 
daftnded  tha  veneration  of  images,  and  wrote  agsinat 
the  Uohammedana.  About  BSO  he  waa  sent  by  tha 
emperor  Michael  III  aa  a  missionary  to  a  Tartar 
tribe,  the  Chazari,  which  at  that  Ume  Inhabited  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Block  Sea  as  br  as  the  tow- 
er Volga.  Jews  and  Mohammedans  vied  with  Chris- 
tian missionaries  to  gain  an  influence  npon  this  tribe, 
and  the  setecrion  of  Constantine  by  the  emperor  for 
this  difficult  mission  indicates  the  bi^^h  repuUtkin 
which  ho  enjoyed.  Ha  first  went  to  Kherson,  acqair«d 
a  knowledge  of  the  languajre,  and  put  himself  in  pos- 
aeasion  of  some  relics  of  Clemens  Romanna,  wUch  he 
iriemi  to  tiave  always  carried  witii  him  from  thla  time. 


14  CYRIL  LUCAR 

A  portlati  of  the  tribe  enbrocsd  ChristianKy,  bnt 
there  ia  no  proof  of  a  ChrittUoixition  of  the  whale 
tribe  and  of  the  organiaatiun  of  a  national  Church. 
After  his  return  (o  Constantinople  he  again  tired  with 
his  brother  Methodius  in  ascetic  retinmeut  until  ha 
was  sent  by  the  emperor  as  a  missionary  to  ttia  Sooth 
Slavic  tribes.  Both  Greek  and  Roman  misiiooarias 
had  for  some  time  been  at  work  among  this  people, 
which,  anxious  to  preserva  ita  Independent  notiooal- 
ity,  mlatniatad  both.  Conatontine  gained  their  conli- 
donCB  by  convincing  them  Uiat  ho  syntpathiiad  with 
their  national  aentiments,  and  had  in  view  nothing 
bat  their  conraralon  to  Christianity.  He  became  tho 
founder  of  8  Slavic  literature  by  translating  Into  their 
langnaijo  portions  of  tha  Scriptures  and  tho  most  im- 
portant liturgical  books.  For  this  purpose  ho  used  an 
alpliaiict  which  either  had  been  invented  by  him  or 
In<^diIiod  from  one  (the  "  Gkgolitic")  more  oucienL 
Tho  new  alphabet,  called  after  hbn  the  "Cyrillic,'' 
was  adopted  by  moat  of  the  Eastern  Stavl  (Baigiriins, 
Servians,  Dosulana,  Slavonians,  Russians,  etc),  bat 
subsequently  underwent  in  the  several  countriea  s 
number  of  modifications.  By  prince  Raetislav  be 
waa  called  us  a  mliaionary  into  Iha  Slavic  coBOtrtes 
uutside  of  tha  Oreek  empire.  This  Rurislav  ii  prob- 
ably tba  samo  whom  the  Germans  call  Ruticts, 
the  founder  of  a  great  Moravian  empire  whose  a't- 
act  limits  cannot  at  present  be  defined.  About  EM 
they  arrived  at  tbe  court  of  Bastisbiv,  tbe  seat  of 
which  we  do  not  know,  but  which  waa  probably 
at  a  point  fur  to  the  south-east  ttoia  the  present 
Moravia.  By  disseminating  the  Scripturee  and  eel- 
ntiratlng  divine  worship  In  the  Slavic  language,  they 
soon  founded  a  flourishing  Slsvic  Church  In  tin 
territory  of  Ilaatialav  and  other  Pannonian  princte. 
When  popa  Nicholas  I  hoard  of  their  aucceoes  ba  in- 
vited them  to  Rome.  In  868  they  followed  this  invi- 
tation, accompanied  by  many  disciples.  Their  Sialic 
Bible  and  Slavic  moss  attracted  great  atteiilioD,  and 
the  successor  of  Micbolos  (who  iu  the  meanwhile  bad 
died),  Adrian  1 1,  received  them  with  marks  of  grsst 
favor.  They  ptnsented  the  pope  with  the  relics  ef 
Clemens  Romanna,  and  tiie  pops  approved  their  work, 
inclusive  of  the  Slavic  translation  of  tbe  Bible  and  tba 
Slavic  litnrgy,  and  declared  his  intention  to  organlia 
tha  new  churches  in  the  Slavic  provinces  as  an  lnd» 
pendent  eccleaioMicai  province,  under  Constantine  and 
UethodluB  aa  biahops.  But  Consuntinc,  who  fi>II  the 
end  of  his  life  approaching,  preferred  to  remain  as  a 
monk  In  Rome,  aaanmed  tba  name  of  Cyril,  UDdet 
which  he  hsa  aince  been  known  in  Cborcb  history, 
and  died  a  few  vreehs  later,  Feb.  14,  ^69.  Tho  wwk 
of  evangellaUion  waa  continued  by  his  brother  Metho- 
dius. The  works  "which  were  formerly  ascribed  to 
Cvril  {Apoitgi  Jfom/u,  Vienna,  1630;  OpumJipa  A 
Dirlion.  Venice,  UVT)  are  spurious.— Herxog,  RrolSf 
ci^titp.  10,201;  SchntTiV,  Slav.  AUertAOMtr,  ii,  iTi; 
Wattenbach,  Bdtrage  tor  GtichiciU  der  chritlL  Kir^ 
in  *d*™ii(.fla*sieB  (Vienna,  1843):  ActaSanctonM, 
Mori.  11,  14 ;  Dobrowakv,  Cyrill  imd  Mrttod  (Pragne, 
18S3) ;  I^lartt  (Buaaian  bishop  of  Riga),  CfrilUi  sad 
Metiw^tu  (Oerman  tranel.,  MItMn,  1847);  HcLesr, 
Mi—ioiu  •■  At  Middle  Aga,  chap.  xiii. 

CjtU  Lnoar  (CrKiLLoa  LncaRia),  a  Greek  pt> 
trisrcb  of  Constantinople,  noted  for  hla  efforts  Is 
introduce  Into  hla  Church  the  doctrines  of  the  Be- 
formed  (Calvlnlstlc)  churches.  He  was  bctn  ahoat 
1S6S  In  Candia,  whlcli  at  that  thne  was  ander  the 
sovereignty  of  Venlea  and  the  chief  seal  of  Greek 
scholarship.  He  studied  fi>r  several  years  in  Ven- 
ice and  PadoB,  and  subsequentiy  mods  a  jonia^ 
through  several  European  countries.  In  GmhH 
where  he  ataid  for  aomo  time,  he  tieeame  acqoaU- 
ed  with  several  promiuant  thaoiogiaca  of  tba  Bfc 
formed  Church.  In  Lithuania  ha  was  rector  of  S 
literary  institution  at  Ostrog,  and  took  a  pctanl*"* 
part  in  opposing  the  projectad  onion  of  the  Dntk 


CYRIL  LUCAR  6; 

dnrcbe*  of  Polud  uid  Uthiunu  with  Roroe.  Aftar 
hi*  retam  to  hif  lutlva  luid,  ha  wb«  toon  promoMd 
I17  tlis  pstriajch  of  AlexandrlR  to  tha  dignity  of  an 
■rchiuuuidrltc.  Id  1G02  Cyril  tucceedad  Ualetiiu  u 
pBtnsrcb  uf  AlaiiDdria.  Whila  ho1diii|{  thia  pnaitiou 
ha  eairisd  on  an  active  concspoodence  vitb  David  le 
Lra,  do  Wilelm,  lad  the  RemDiutnnt  Uylanbogaert 
of  Holland,  Abbot,  archbishop  of  CuiUTbuTy,  L«kbi, 
pnfwaoT  or  Geneva,  the  republic  of  Venice,  the  Swed- 
iob  kin^  CiuUvns  Adolphiu,  and  his  chaDcclIor,  Aiiel 
Oxeiwtiorna.  Many  of  thua  tettan,  written  in  differ- 
ent lu^^Bges,  are  atill  extant.  The;  ahow  that  CttiI 
was  an  cam  est  opponent  of  Rome,  and  a  great  admirer 
of  tfaa  TrotoataDt  ReTormatioD.  He  sent  for  all  the 
importaDt  worki,  Proteatant  and  Roman  Catholic, 
palilidhcd  in  the  Weatem  conntiiae,  and  aent  aeveral 
jaaag  men  to  England  to  get  >  thonnigh  theological 
edncation.  The  friendi  of  Cyill  in  Coaatantinaple, 
and  among  them  the  Engliah,  Dutch,  and  Swedish 
amboBBadora,  endeavored  tn  elevate  Cyril  la  the  patri- 
archal aee  of  Conatantinople.  They  would  have  aac- 
ceedcd  in  1G13,  after  the  baniahment  of  the  patriarch 
Timothens,  bat  for  the  unwiUingneaa  of  Cjril  to  pa; 
the  ■mount  denunded  by  the  Turklah  government. 
After  the  death  of  Timothena  in  1621,  he  waa  elected 
hb  ancceaaor  by  a  uuanlmoue  vote  of  the  aynod.  )f  ia 
life  BB  patriarch  was  fol)  of  viciailtudei.  The  Jesuita, 
in  onion  with  the  agonti  of  France,  aeverai  timea  pro- 
cond  hia  kjaniahment,  while  hia  frienda,  aupported  by 
the  ambosaadon  of  the  Protestant  |>owera  in  Constan- 
tinaple,  obtuned.  by  means  of  UrKe  anmi  of  manev, 
hi*  recall.  During  all  tfaeee  troublea,  Cyril,  with  ra- 
markabla  energy,  punned  the  great  tasli  of  hia  life. 
In  1637  be  obtained  a  printing-preas  from  England, 
and  at  once  hegan  to  print  his  Confeeeion  of  Faith 
and  aeverai  catechiama.  Bat,  before  these  documenta 
were  ready  fbr  pnblication,  the  printing  eatibiiabment 
was  destroyed  by  the  Tnrkisb  government  at  the  in- 
atigatioD  of  the  Jesnita.  Cyril  then  aent  hia  Confes- 
noo  of  Faith  to  Genera,  where  It  appeared,  In  1629, 
in  the  l^tin  langnage,  nndei  tho  true  name  of  the 
BDtbor,  and  with  a  dedication  to  Cornelias  de  Haga, 
It  created  throughout  Europe  a  profound  KDsaUoD, 
■ud  many  wore  inclined  to  regard  it  as  Bpurioui.  Cy- 
ril, however,  openly  confessed  tha  Bnthorship,pabliahed 
in  1633  a  Greek  edition  of  the  Confeaaion,  and  in  1686, 
in  a  letter  to  the  professors  of  Geneva,  declared  hia 
nmeurrence  in  the  principal  doetrinea  of  the  Reformed 
Chnrch.  Many  opponents,  however,  now  roae  against 
him  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  in  1638  a  aynod  con- 
vened at  Constantinople  to  try  him.  But,  before  aen- 
tence  waa  pronounced,  the  Janiaaaries  arreated  him  by 
cvder  of  the  government,  carried  hint  to  a  boat,  atran- 
gled  him,  and  caat  the  corpae  into  the  aea.  Some 
frienda  found  the  corpse  and  buried  it  npon  an  island, 
and  t«i  yeara  later  a  eolemn  funeral  waa  held  at  Coa- 
atantinople.  Several  synods  condemned  the  innova- 
liona  attempted  by  Cyril,  bvt  the  Confeaaion  of  Faith 
WBB  generally  treated  by  them  aa  spurioua. 
The  Confeailon  of  Cyril  naes  of  tha  pro 
tha  Holy  S^drit  the  compromising  formula 
nrpor  ^i'  vioii(apalrtperfiliiim).  It  tearhee 
late  predeMinallon,  denlea  moral  freedom  prior  to  re- 
gaoerathni,  declares  strongly  againit  the  right*  claim- 
ad  by  tba  pope*,  and  acknowledges  only 
nMnt*,baplismandtheI.ord'aSapper.  Itn 
the  reading  of  the  Sible,  diatinguitbes  the  canonical 
from  the  dautero-canonical  bonka,  and  rejects  the 
■ntion  of  imagH.  It  has  been  pabliahed  by  Kii 
Id  bis  Libri  tpiio/.  ecda.  Crwaa—Tbota.  Smith,  Col- 
Itebmea  it  Cj/riUo  Lueari  (Land. 
Dt  CynOo  Uam  (Halle.  ITU) ;  Henog,  Real-Ki 
Uop.  vitl,  fiSS;  Picbler,  GfickiiAtt  da  PnHeilantitmiu 
im  JtT  OrimlaSiAes  Kircir.  etc.  (Munich,  1661 
Stanley,  Eatltnt  CWrA ,-  PriacdoB  Jtomnv. 
Hnrdoch'a  Hoetwim,  Chun*  BUIorj,  Ui,  Hi, 
(K,  T.  ISH). 


CYRUS 

Cy'niB  (Hebraiied  Ka'rah,  ti"?iB  [twice  tS^S, 
Ezra  i,  1  lat.  clause,  2],  2  Cbron.  zzzvi,  -^2,  2B ;  ^ra 
■  '  ■",  8;  iii,  7;  iv,  a,  6;  Isa.  xUv,  28;  xlv,  I;  Dan. 
,  I,  1;  Chald.  id.  Eira  T,  13,  14, 17;  vi,  8,  M; 
Dan.  vi,  28 ;  Greek  Kiipoc,  aa  in  1  Eadr.  ii,  S ;  iv,  44, 
'I;  V,  71,  78;  vi,  17,  21;  for  the  old  Persic  Xuriail, 
ipptned  by  the  Greeks  to  mean  the  rnn  [Ctesiaa, 
r>ers.  £rr.  49;  PIntanh,  Artax.  1],  but  rather  con- 
nected with  the  Sanscrit  firru,  of  anknown  aignlf., 
~  .wltnson,  Bgrod.  iii,  ibS),  originally  called  Aijrada- 
('A7pa^nT7)f,  Strabo,iv,729;  see  Roaenmaller,.^^- 
KrtA.  1, 1,  867),  the  celebrated  Peralan  king  (OHO  i^-q) 
and  conqueror  of  Babylon,  who  promulgated  the  tirst 
edict  for  the  reatoratlon  of  the  Jewa  to  their  own  land 
(Eira  1, 1,  etc.).  "In  conaeqnenco  of  B  dream,  Aaty< 
ages,  it  la  aaid,  designed  the  death  of  bis  infant  graoik 


SytDlnlieal  Figure  of  (lymaclrwn  tha  PsrHpolltau  Honn. 
msDtg),  and  Us  Name  la  cuaeiAinn  Uhanclen. 

COD,  but  the  child  wai  spared  by  those  whom  ha 
charged  with  the  commisaioD  of  the  crime  (Herod.  1, 
109  aq.),  and  Cyrus  grew  up  In  obscurity  under  tha 
name  of  Agradatea  (Strib.  xv,  TZ9).  His  rest  paren. 
tage  was  discovered  liy  the  imperious  ppirit  which  he 
displayed  while  yet  B  boy  (Herod,  i,  114),  and  when 
ha  grew  np  to  manhood  hia  courage  and  genius  placed 
him  at  the  bead  of  the  Peralana.  The  tyranny  of  Aa- 
tyagea  had  at  that  time  alienated  a  large  faction  of 
the  Medea,  and  Cyrua  headed  a  revolt  which  ended  In 
the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  Uedian  king,  B.C.  669, 
near  Paaargadn  (now  Murgb-Aub)  (Strabo,  xv,  TSO). 
After  conaolidatlng  the  empire  which  he  thus  gained, 
CyniB  entered  on  that  career  of  conqneat  which  baa 
made  him  the  hem  of  the  EasL  In  B.C.  MC  (P)he 
defeated  Cnwu,  and  the  kingdom  of  Lydia  waa  tha 
prln  of  his  success.  While  his  general  Harpagnswsa 
engaged  in  completing  the  reduction  of  Aaia  Minor, 
Cyras  tamed  hia  arma  agalnat  the  Babyloniana.  Bab- 
ylon fell  before  hia  army,  sod  the  ancient  dominionl 
of  Assyria  were  added  to  hia  empire  (B.C.  638).  Tbe 
conqueat  of  Babylon  opened  the  way  for  greater  de- 
alKna.  It  ia  proliabls  that  Cyroa  planned  on  inVBdoo 
of  Eiiypt;  and  there  are  traces  of  campaigns  in  Cen- 
tral Aaia,  in  which  he  appears  to  have  attempted  to 
extend  hia  power  to  the  Indaa  (Cteaiaa,  Pen.  c.  6  aq.). 
Afterwards  he  attacked  the  Hisaagetie,  and,  accord- 
ing to  HerodotuB,  (1,  !14 ;  comp.  Joaephua,  AhI.  xl,  i, 
1),  he  (eU  hi  a  battle  agkinst  them  T.C.  S29  (Clintao, 
Fast.  BtU.  li,  aol  sq.).    His  tomb  Is  sUU  shown  at 


CYRUS 


a  (Arriao,  Exp.  Al.  vi,  29),  the  Mens  of  bit 
aiM  d«clsive  vlctoi;  (RawlliuoD,  fferod.  i,  £78). 

"  It  is  impostibla  to  iniiBt  upon  tha  detaila  of  the  oat- 
Una  tbiu  Bketched.  In  the  tima  of  Herodotoa  Cjtiu 
wu  ■Iraad}'  regarded  as  the  nalloaal  hero  of  reni», 
■nd  hia  hiitorf  had  received  Tariooi  popular  embel- 
liahmenta  (Herod,  i,  96;  comp.  ill,  IS,  160;  Xanoph. 
Cgrop,  I,  !,  1).  In  tbe  naxt  centary  Xenophon  choae 
him  u  tha  bera  ot  hii  romance,  and  £iot  and  flctioa 
became  tbeacefoith  hopeleaalj  con^ued  la  claHical 
wiicara.  But,  in  the  Bliseaca  of  authentic  detalli  or 
hli  actions,  the  empire  which  he  left  is  the  beat  record 
of  his  power  and  pliiaa.  Like  an  Oriental  Alexander, 
be  aimed  at  uni  renal  dominion  ;  and  tbe  indnence  of 
Persia,  like  that  of  Greece,  Barrived  the  d; aa«ty  from 
Tbich  it  iprung.  In  every  aspect  tbe  leign  of  Cyrua 
Burks  an  epoch  in  nniveraal  Wntorj.  Tbe  fjill  of  S«T- 
dia  and  Babj-ion  was  the  alarting-polnt  of  European 
life;  and  it  is  a  siogaUr  coincidence  that  the  twgin- 
nlcg  of  Grecian  ait  and  phllosophv,  and  the  founda- 
tion  of  the  Roman  conidtation,  lyiiclironlEe  with  the 
triumph  of  Che  Arian  nee  in  tha  EiBt  (Niebuhr,  Gttci. 
An.  p.  33!)."  The  following  points  demand  eepecial 
conaideration,  and  we  ttaonron  elabenle  them  at  con- 
uderable  lengtli. 

1.  iff(Pamita^.—Herodotns(i,ll)i)  and  Xenophon 
(Cj/rep,  i,  a,  1)  agree  that  he  was  son  of  CambTsea, 
prince  of  Persia,  and  of  Mandane,  dangbter  of  AsCja- 
B«,  lung  of  the  Median  empire.  In  an  Assyrian  in- 
aeription  he  is  called  the  "  son  nf  Cambyaes  the  pow- 
erful king"  (ttawlinson,  'lerod.  i,  19 1).  CUsias  denies 
that  then  was  any  raUtioasbip  at  all  between  Cyrns 
and  Aetyages  (,Prrt.  Err.  2).  According  lo  him,  when 
Cyrus  had  dDfeated  and  captured  Aalyajrca,  he  arhpted 
him  as  a  grandfather,  and  invested  Amytis,  or  Amyn- 
tis,  the  daughter  of  Aatyages  {whose  name  is  in  all 
probability  only  another  form  of  Mandane),  with  all 
the  tionarB  of  queen  dowager.  His  object  in  so  doing 
wai  In  fdcilltnte  tbe  submission  of  ttie  more  distant 
parts  of  the  empire,  which  were  not  yet  conqnered; 
atkd  he  reaped  excellent  fhiit  of  bis  policy  in  winning 
the  homage  of  the  ancient,  rich,  end  remote  province 
of  Bactria.  Cteslaa  adds  that  Cyrus  afterwards  mar- 
ried Amytis.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  latter  account 
U  by  far  the  more  historical,  and  that  the  story  fal- 
lowed by  Herodotos  and  Xenophon  ia  that  which  tbe 
conrtlers  published  in  aid  of  the  Persian  prince's  de- 
ilgns.  Tet  then  is  no  reason  for  doubtin);  that,  on 
tbe  bther's  side,  Cyrus  belonged  to  the  Achnmenids, 
the  myal  clan  of  the  military  tribe  of  the  Persians. 
See  Sartorine,  De  mthnib.  car  in  ezpon.  cila  el  rtl.  gea. 
Cgri,  XenopkmUi  potiia  jaani  HeraJot.  wit  crtdtadvm 
(I.Dbben.  ITTl).  A  dllTcrent  view  is  taken  in  Smith's 
Dkt.ofClaa.Biog.a.v.     See  DARiGa(THB  Hedb). 

2.  kia  Etmaiion  to  the  TKnmt.—it  was  the  fhiquent 
practice  of  tbe  Persian  monarchs,  and  probably  there- 
fore of  the  Medea  before  them,  to  choose  the  provin- 
cial viceroys  from  the  royal  families  of  the  aubject 
nations,  and  thereby  to  leave  to  the  vanquished  much 
both  of  the  semblance  and  of  tha  reality  of  freedom, 
Tbts  will  be  Buffldent  to  account  for  the  Arst  steps  of 
Cyrus  towards  eminence.  But  aa  tbe  Per^o  armies 
were  at  that  time  compoaed  of  mder  and  braver  men 
than  the  Medes  (indeed,  to  this  day,  the  men  of  Shi- 
rii  are  proverbially  braver  than  those  of  Isfahan),  tbe 
account  of  Xenophon  Is  credible,  that  in  the  gener' 
al  wara  of  the  empire  Cyrus  won  the  attachment  of 
the  whole  army  liy  his  bravery ;  while,  as  Herodotus 
tells,  the  atrociona  cmelties  of  Astyages  may  have  re- 
volted tbe  hearts  of  the  Median  nohilitv.    See  Peimia. 

B.  Tnauition  of  llu  Empinfnm  the  Medei  lo  the 
i^siiMi.  — Xcnnphon's  romance  omits  tbe  fact  that 
the  transference  of  the  empire  was  effected  by  a  civil 
war;  neverthoiesa,  the  same  writer,  in  his  Ambrait, 
confesses  It  (ili,  4,  7,  IS),  Herodotus,  Cteslas,  Isocra- 
tea,  Strabo,  and,  in  fact,  aU  who  allude  to  the  matter 
M  all,  agree  that  it  was  so.     In  Xenophon  (I.  c.)  we 


18  CYRUS 

And  the  Upper  Tigris  to  have  been  tba  seat  of  «oa 

campaign,  where  the  cities  of  Latisaa  and  UespilB 
were  bedeged  and  taken  by  Cyrus.  From  Strabo  w« 
leain  that  the  dedsive  battle  was  Ibogbt  on  the  spoC 
wbere  Cyrns  afterwards  built  Pasargadx,  In  Penia^ 
for  his  native  capital.  This  agrees  with  Herodotaa'a 
account  of  two  armies  being  snccessively  lost,  wtiieh 
may  mean  that  the  war  was  ended  in  two  campai^:iu. 
Tet  Ctcqias  represents  Aityages  as  finally  caj«urad  in 
the  palace  of  Ecbatana.  Cyrus  (ears  Ilerodotns)  did 
Aslyages  no  harm,  but  kept  bim  by  his  aide  to  tbe  ead 
of  Us  lif^.  Ctesias,  however,  states  that  he  was  Drs* 
made  ruler  of  the  Barcanians,  and  afterwards  mnr* 
dered  by  a  eunuch  sent  by  Cyrus  to  Liing  him  boma 
to  visit  his  family.  Tbe  data  of  the  acceniou  of  Cy- 
ras Is  fixed  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  anciest 
chronologera  as  occurring  in  B.C.  669  (Afrieanua,  i^ 
EiaA.  r.,  lU;  Clinton,  ii,  s.  an.). 

The  Medes  were  by  no  means  made  subject  Xo  tba 
Penians  at  lint.  It  is  highly  probable  that,  as  He> 
rodotns  and  Xenophon  represent,  many  of  the  noUcst 
Hedes  AioA  with  Cyrus,  and  during  bis  reign  tbe  moet 
trusted  ganerulB  of  the  armies  were  HedcB.  Yet  even 
this  hardly  e^iplalns  the  phenomenon  of  a  DariBB  tha 
Mode,  who.  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  for  two  years  biJds 
tbe  government  in  Babykm,  after  the  eaptare  of  the 
city  by  tbe  Medea  and  Persiana.  Indeed,  the  Ian- 
gaage  need  concerning  tbe  kingdom  of  Darios  migtat 
be  explained  aa  Oriental  hyperbole,  and  Darius  be 
supposed  to  have  been  a  mere  satrap  of  Babylon, 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  Cyrus  is  clearly  pal 
forward  as  a  meceMor  to  Darius  the  Heds.  Many 
have  been  the  attempts  to  reconcile  this  with  tbe 
current  Grecian  acconnls ;  but  there  is  one  only 
that  has  the  leaM  plausibility,  vii.  that  which,  with 
Xenophon,  teaches  that  Astyages  bad  a  son  Btill  liv 
ing  (whom  Xenophon  calls  Cyaxarea),  and  that  this 
son  is  no  other  than  Darius  the  Hede ;  to  whom  Cy- 
rua,  by  a  sort  of  nephew's  Jnety,  conceded  a  Dominal 
supremacy  at  Bjbylon.  See  CTAxanss.  In  tbe 
reign  of  the  sin  of  Cyrua  the  depression  of  the  Hedes 
prolmbly  commenced.  At  his  death  tbe  Mag^iaji  ca«>- 
spiracy  took  place,  after  the  defeat  of  wliich  the  Hedes 
doubtless  sunk  lower  still.  At  a  later  time  they  nude 
a  general  iuBurrection  against  the  Persian  power,  and 
its  auppression  seems  lo  have  brought  them  to  s  lerd 
with  Hyrcanlans,  Bactrians,  and  other  vassal  nation* 
which  spoke  tho  tongue  of  Persia ;  for  tbe  nations  of 
tbe  poetical  Iran  had  only  dialectna]  variations  of  lan- 
gnage  CStralio.  :tv,  S,  p.  Sll).     See  HeniA. 

i.  MilUary  Carerr  o/Cyw.— The  destflptiona  given 
OB  in  Cteslaa,  and  in  Plutarch's  Artasenos  (the  lat- 
ter probably  taken  from  Ctesias),  concerning  the  Pep- 
aian  mode  of  lighting,  are  quite  Homeric  in  their  char- 
acter. Xo  skill  seems  to  be  needed  by  the  general; 
no  tactics  are  thought  of;  he  does  bis  dnty  best  by  be- 
having as  the  bravest  of  common  soldiers,  and  by  act- 
ing the  part  of  champion,  like  a  knight  in  tbe  days  of 
chivalry.  We  cannot  soppose  that  there  was  any 
grtattr  advance  of  the  military  art  in  the  dayi  of  Cy- 
rus. It  is  agreed  by  all  that  be  sniidued  Uh  Lrdians, 
the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Babylonians;  wa 
may  doubtless  add  Sasiaiia,  which  must  have  been  in- 
corporated with  his  empire  before  he  commenced  his 
war  with  Bubylon;  where  also  be  fixed  hit  militaiy 
capital  (Susa,  oi  Shushan),  as  more  central  for  the  na- 
eessities  of  hia  administration  than  Pasargadae.  Yft 
itter  city  continued  to  be  the  more  sacred  and  Ic- 
loved  borne  of  the  Persian  court,  the  place  of  comaa- 
tionandnfBcpiiituTe(Strabo,xv,  S,p.  MB;  and  Plot 
Artea.  Init.).  All  Syria  and  Pbonlda  appear  Is  biv« 
come  over  to  Cyrna  peaceably. 

With  regard  to  tha  Persian  wars,  the  few  bets  fmm 
Ctesias,  which  the  epitomator  has  extractad  as  dlffir- 
ing  from  Herodotus,  carry  with  them  high  prabaHUty. 
He  states  that,  after  receiving  tbe  SQbmiaslon  of  tha 
Bactrians,  Cyrus  made  war  on  the  Sadans.  a  S^tUM 


CYRUS  «J 

^  a.  a  SliTooic)  peopta,  who  •«m  to  have  dwelt,  or 
perfaap*  ntber  rovad,  along  tha  Oiiu,  from  Bokbuiu 
toKluva;  and  that,  after  aluniita  tucceuu  in  battle, 
ha  attacbed  tbe  whole  nation  to  bimaelf  in  futhfal  al- 
legiuioi.  Tbeit  king  u  called  Amorgei  by  CCfiias. 
Tbay  ■«  undouUledly  tlis  aame  people  thut  Horodotna 
(vil,  frt)  cmilii  Ami/rffiai  Saciana;  and  it  ia  tiigbly  prob- 
abla  that  they  gave  to  the  diatiict  of  Margiana  iti  name. 
Tbelr  iromen  fought  in  ranka  aa  ayateniaticaliy  as  tbe 
nMn.  Sttalio  baa  cunotily  told  us  of  a  tradition  (iv, 
!,  p.  807)  that  Cyroi  euaped  with  but  aevan  men 
throogh  tbe  deaerta  of  GedRtaia,  ieeingtiam  the  "In- 
diana"— vbich  might  denote  an  unancceaaful  war 
agsiiut  Caodahar,  etc.,  a  country  which  certainly  was 
not  reduced  to  the  Pertlan  empire  UDtil  tbe  reign  of 
Darius  Hyttaepi*. 

Tbe  cloaing  aceneof  the  career  of  Cynu  was  in  bat- 
tle with  a  people  liTiag  on  one  or  both  banka  of  the 
rirer  laxartea,  now  tbe  Syr-derla.  Uerodotu*  calls 
the  eaemy  tbe  Hasaagetani,  who  KMmed  along  the 
north  bank  of  the  river:  according  to  Ctaalaa  It  waa 
the  Uerlikes,  who  aeem  to  have  been  on  the  aoath. 
Both  may.  In  fact,  have  coiDbinsd  in  the  war.  In 
other  regpecta  tbe  nirrativo  of  Cteslaa  is  beyond  com- 
parison mora  credible,  and  mote  agreeable  with  other 
known  facta,  except  that  he  introduces  the  fiction  of 
Indiana  vidl  tirfJumtt  aiding  tbe  enemy.  Two  battles 
were  fooght  on  successive  days,  in  the  former  of  which 
Cyroa  waa  mortnlly  wounded,  but  waa  carried  off  by 
hi>  people  (B.C.  5'^,  according  to  GiDton).  In  tho 
next,  the  Sacian  cavalry  and  tbe  failhrtll  Aoiorgea 
came  to  anpport  him,  and  the  Derbicea  austained  a  to- 
tal and  bloody  defeaL  Crroa  died  the  third  day  after 
his  wonnd :  hia  body  waa  conveyed  to  Paaargadn,  aod 
buried  In  tha  celebrated  monument,  which  was  brok< 
open  by  the  Hacedanlana  two  centuries  afterwan 
(Strabo,  17,  S).  A  deacriptlon  la  given  of  tbe  ton: 
in  Aniun  (vi,  29) :  It  was  a  neat  quadrangular  edifice, 
with  a  low  door  leading  into  a  little  cbambor,  in  which 
lay  B  golden  sarcophagus,  containing  the  l^ody  of  Cy- 
me. The  inscription,  reported  by  Arislobulns,  an  eyc- 
witaeu,  is  this :  "  O  man,  I  am  Cyrus,  who  acquired 
the  empire  for  the  Forsiana,  and  wue  king  of  Asia. 
Grudge  mc  not,  then,  this  monomeut."  It  ia  gener- 
ally tnpposed  to  bavD  perished,  but  Sir  R.  K.  Porter 
has  soU)cht  to  identify  it  with  an  extant  buiidbig  known 
by  tho  nstires  aa  that  of  "  tho  mother  of  Suleiman" 
ITrartlt,  i,  436).  ilia  namo  is  found  on  monanient* 
at  Uurghab,  north  of  PerMpalis  (llOck,  VH.  Mtd.N. 
Ptn.  Jlomm.). 


1  CYRUS 

MatiM)  i  and  tbe  tltla  aeemad  to  later  writen  to  lih 
vest  him  with  the  dignity  of  being  in  some  sens*  a 
type  of  Christ  himself  {Jerome,  Contm.  in  lia.  xiv,  1). 
Uis  ancceasea  are  connected  in  the  prophecy  with  thell 
religions  isane ;  and  if  that  appear  to  1h  a  partial  view 
of  history  which  repreaenta  the  restorstion  of  a  poor 
remnant  of  captive  laraelitea  to  their  own  Und  ae  tha 
flnalcanaaorhia  Victoria!  ([Ba.xUv,!8-i]v,  4),  it  may 
be  aDS«ar«d  that  the  permanent  effects  which  Persia 
haa  wrought  upon  the  world  can  be  better  traced 
through  tbe  Jewish  people  than  throngh  any  other 
channel.  Tha  lawe,  tbe  literature,  the  religion,  the 
very  ruins  of  the  material  grandeur  of  Peraia  have 
paaacd  away,  and  still  it  ia  possibls  to  distinguish  tbe 
cfTeeta  which  they  produced  In  preparing  llje  Jews  for 
the  fulfilment  of  their  last  mission.  In  this  respect, 
also,  tha  parallel,  whicb  has  already  been  binled,  bolda 
good.  Cyrus  stands  out  clearly  aa  tha  representativa 
of  tha  Eaat,  as  Alexander  afterwards  of  the  West. 
The  ona  led  to  the  development  of  the  idea  of  order, 
and  the  other  to  that  of  independcnoe.  Ecclesiastical- 
ly the  first  crisis  waa  algnaJiied  by  the  conBolidatloD 
of  a  Church,  the  second  by  tbe  distinction  of  sects. 
The  one  found  its  outward  embodiment  in  "  the  great 
"  '  I  other  in  the  dynasty  of  the  Asmonia. 


Tho  kings  of  Asayria  and  Babylon  bad  carried  the 
Jews  into  captivity,  both  to  remove  a  diuffcctcd  na- 
tion from  tbe  frontier,  end  to  people  Ihrir  new  citle*. 
By  radoing  this  work,  Cyma  attached  the  Jews  to 
himaelf  as  a  garrison  at  an  important  post.  But  ne 
may  believe  that  a  nobler  motive  conspired  with  this. 
The  Persian  religion  was  primitively  monotheistic, 
and  strikingly  free  ^m  idolatry ;  ao  little  paffatt  In 
its  a|urit  that,  whatever  of  the  n.'yrticel  snd  obscure  it 
may  contain,  not  a  aingle  impure,  cruel,  or  atherwise 
Immoral  practice  waa  united  to  jny  of  its  ceremonies. 
It  is  credible,  therefore,  that  a  jinctro  admiration  of 
the  Jewisb  faith  actuated  the  n:'ble  Persian  when  ha 
excUimed,  in  the  words  of  the  ^ook  of  Ezra,  "Go  }-e 
up  and  build  in  Jerusalem  the  lonso  of  Jehovah,  God 
of  Israel;  Ha  it  Cod/"— and  forced  the  BabylooiaD 
temples  to  disgorge  their  ill-gttten  spoil.  It  Is  tbe 
man  remarkable,  eince  the  Peirbna  disapproved  tha 
confinement  of  temples.  Neveitheless,  impediments 
to  the  fortification  of  Jerusalem  [flerwanla  arose,  even 
during  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (Eira  Iv,  6).     Seo  Captiv- 


down  to 

s  on  the  voice  of 

the 

iiatlo 

n  which  ho  elev*. 

ted 

hia 

vil  deeds  bad  no 

bis 

nrian 

to  record  them. 

What  U 

more,  it  waa  hIa 

■nlar  honor  and  prlvi- 

'.'» 

tob 

the  first  GantUe 

Bnppond  Tomb  of  CjTna. 

B.  CondtH  <mi  Xdaliim  t^Cl/nu  (mtardi  tkc  Jtat. 
— Hitherto  the  great  king*,  with  wlum  the  Jews  had 
been  bnught  into  contact,  had  been  open  oppressors 
or  Mdn^va  allies ;  but  Cyrus  was  a  gaMrons  llbeia- 
tir  and  a  ]nat  guardian  of  their  ritibta.  An  Ins]^ed 
propbM  (laa.  illv,  IS)  recognised  in  him  "  a  ahepbard" 
gf  the  Lont,  an  "anointed"  king  (laa.  x1t,1)  n^^, 


'   store  them   to   the   tai;d 

_  whence  light  waa  to  break 

fbrth  for  (he  illnmhiadon 

;  of  all  nations.  Tolhiahigli 

duly  ho  Is  called  fiy  utaiM 

by  the  prophet  (iFa.  xlir, 

38;   xlv,  ]),  and  for  per. 

forming  It  be  aeems  to  ha 

entitled   "  the    rigbteona 

man"  (sli,  !;  xlv,  IS).    There  are  also  Important 

paaaai»s  in  Jeremiah  (xxv,  13;  xxlx,  10;  zxiii,7-U) 

that  predict  the  same  event,  wiltioDt  mentioning  tha 

name  of  Cyrus  as  the  agent.     Tha  comsponding  hia- 

toiy  is  (bond  in  tha  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra,     Tha 

language  ofthe  proclamation  in  Eira  I, !,  and  !  ChroiL 

xzxrl,  iS,  aaama  to  cnnatanancv  the  Idea  that  b«  mm 


D.«MONIAC  6 

Itt  of  «Til,  Bod  it  refen  ccrtiiD  aula  of  bodily  and 
meatat  discue  to  tha  InSasnca  vhich  tbsy  m  permit- 
ted to  exerciw  directly  over  tho  loal  uid  iadirectly 
OTer  the  l»d^.  Inexplicsblo  to  as  thii  inflaence  rxt- 
tiloly  i«,  a>  All  actioB  of  spirit  on  ipiriC  la  round  to  tie ; 
but  no  one  can  pronounce  i  priori  whether  it  be  Im- 
poaaible  or  improbitble,  and  no  one  ha>  a  ri|f ht  to  evia- 
cenle  the  strong  oxpreHioni  of  Scripture  in  order  to 
redoce  ile  declarations  to  a  level  wiUi  our  own  i^o- 

S.  We  arc  led,  therefore,  to  the  ordinaiy  and  literal 
mlerpretatlan  of  those  pesaages,  that  there  are  evil 
■jdrlti  (see  Djihon),  sabjects  of  the  Evil  One.  vho, 
in  the  days  of  the  Lord  himself  and  hli  apoillei  en- 
pecinlly,  were  permitted  by  God  to  exercise  a  direct 
Infloence  over  the  soul*  and  bodies  of  certain  men. 
This  influence  is  clearly  diatingulthed  from  the  ordi- 
nary power  of  corruption  and  temptation  wielded  by 
Satan  tlirough  the  permission  of  God.  Its  relation  to 
It,  Indeed,  appears  to  be  exactly  that  of  a  miracle  to 
God's  ordinary  Providence,  or  of  special  prophetic  lo' 
siuratioD  to  die  ordinary  gina  of  the  Holy  SplriL 
Both  (chat  is)  an  actoated  by  the  same  general  prin- 
dples,  and  tend  to  the  same  general  object;  but  the 
former  ia  a  special  anil  direct  manifestation  of  that 
which  ia  worked  ont  in  the  latter  by  a  loag  course  of 
Indirect  action.  The  distinguitliiDj;  feature  of  possea- 
alon  is  the  complete  or  iacomplota  loss  of  the  satT^rer's 
reason  or  power  of  will ;  his  actioni,  his  words,  and 
almoet  bis  thought!  are  maatered  bv  the  evil  sjririt 
(Hark  I,  H;  v,  Ti  Acta  xix,  15),  till  his  penonality 
•aems  to  be  deetnyed,  or,  if  oot  destroyed,  so  over- 
twnie  as  lo  prodnce  the  consciousness  of  a  twofold  will 
within  him,  like  that  tometlmes  felt  In  a  dream.  In 
tbe  ordinary  temptations  and  assanitB  of  Satan,  the 
will  itself  yields  consciausly,  and  by  yielding  giudu- 
ally  assumes,  without  losing  its  apparent  freedom  of 
action,  the  characteristies  of  tho  Satanic  nature.  It  is 
solicited,  nrged,  and  perauaded  against  tbe  strivings  of 
grace,  bat  not  overborne. 

Snch  poBseesion,  however,  is  only  the  apecial  and, 
OS  It  were,  mlracnloos  form  of  the  "  law  of  sin  in  the 
members,"  the  power  of  Sutan  over  the  heart  itself, 
racogniSBd  by  Paul  as  an  IndweUing  and  stragding 
power  (Kom.  vii.  31-34).  Nor  can  it  be  doubted  that 
It  was  rendered  possible  in  the  flrst  inetanoe  by  tbe 
consent  of  the  sufferer  lo  temptation  and  to  sin.  That 
It  would  be  most  prohal>le  in  those  who  yielded  to 
tauiud  temptations  may  easily  l»  conjectured  from 
genoial  observatian  of  tbo  tyranny  of  a  haliit  of  sensU' 
al  indnlgence.  Tho  cases  of  the  habitually  lustful, 
the  opinm-eater,  and  the  drunkard  (especially  when 
straggling  Id  the  last  extremity  of  delirium  tremens) 
boar,  as  has  often  been  noticed,  many  marks  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  scriptural  possession.  There  is  in 
them  plij-sicsl  disease,  but  there  is  ofton  something 
more.  It  is  also  to  be  nnticed  that  tbe  state  of  pos- 
■easion,  although  so  awful  in  its  wretclxed  sense  of  de- 
moniacal tyraimj-,  jet,  from  the  very  fact  of  that  con- 
•dousness,  might  be  less  hopeless  and  more  capable  of 
Instant  cure  than  tlie  deliberate  harduess  of  wilful  ein. 
Tbe  spirit  might  still  retain  marks  of  its  original  puri- 
ty, although  through  tbe  flesh  and  the  demoniac  power 


iK  by  th 


ived.    Here, 
n  of  tbe  euddenniBS  and  completi 


uoTeoi 
with  til 


greater  difficult}'  in  cases  of  more  rellned  and  spritual 
^n,  trnds  lo  conDrm  the  record  of  Seriplnre. 

It  nnn  but  natural  that  the  power  of  evil  should 
show  ilseir,  in  more  open  and  direct  hnstilitv  than 
ever,  in  the  a^e  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostlt 


sbort     It  w 


houM 


le  special  form  of  poseefsion  in  an  age  of  si 
unprecedented  and  brutal  sensuality  as  Ibat  which  pre- 
ceded his  coming,  and  coutinoed  till  the  leaven  of 
Christianity  was  felt.     Nor  was  it  less  natural  that  it 
should  hive  died  away  gndually  before  tlie  great  di- 


\2  DAGM>N 

rect,  and  still  greater  Indirect  inSoence  of  Cfaiict't 
kingdom.  Accordin^y  we  find  eariy  tattlers  (a*  JuM- 
Hart.  Dial.  c.  Tryph.  p.  611  B.  j  TertuUian,  Apot.  23, 
ST,  4S)  alluding  to  ita  existence  aa  a  common  thing, 
mentioning  tbe  attempts  of  Jewish  exorcism  in  tba 
name  of  Jehovah  as  occasionally  tacceasful  (see  Malt 
xii,  17  ;  Acts  xii.  18),  hut  espedally  dwelling  on  tfac 
power  of  Christian  exorcism  to  cast  it  out  from  tbe 
country  as  a  test  of  tbe  troth  of  the  Gospel,  and  as  ooa 
well-known  beneAt  wbich  it  already  coof^^ed  on  tbe 
empire.  By  degree*  the  mentloo  J*  less  and  less  f^«- 
quent,  till  tlie  vst;  idea  ia  lost  or  perrerted.    See  Ex- 

Such  ia  a  brief  sketch  of  the  scriptural  notice*  at 
possession.  That  round  tbe  Jewiah  notioo  of  it  tbn« 
grew  np,  in  that  noted  aiie  of  superstition,  many  Ibol- 
Ish  and  evil  practices,  and  much  superstition  aa  to  fa- 
migation*.  etc.  (eomp.Tob.  viii,  1-3;  Joseph.  Ant.  viii, 
%(>),  of  the  "vagabond  exorcists"  (see  AcU  six,  13), 
is  obvious,  and  would  be  bieriuble.  It  is  cle«r  that 
Scripture  does  not  in  the  least  sanction  or  even  c<H>de- 
Bcend  to  notice  such  things ;  bat  It  ia  certain  that  in 
the  Old  Testament  (see  Lev.  lii,  81 ;  1  Sam.  sjvui, 
7,  etc.  i  2  Kings  xxl,G;  xxili,  S4,  etc.),  as  «vU  ma  in 
the  New,  it  recognises  possession  aa  a  real  and  direct 
power  of  evil  spirits  upon  tba  bearL  See  PasBE>»i> 
(mlA  a  dtni). 

Dagau.     SeeConif;  AoBiCDi.TirBC. 

Dagger  (3'^Jl,  che'reb,  nsnslly  "  sword"),  any 
sharp  instrument,  especially  a  military  weapon  (Judg. 
iii,16,21,  22).     See  Sword. 

DElggett,  Herman,  a  Congre^tiona]  minister, 
was  bom  at  Walpolo,  Alsas.,  SepL  11, 1766,  and  grsds- 
Bted  at  Brown  University,  1788.  He  entered  the  mio. 
istry  Oct.  1789,  and  after  preaching  a  year  in  Sontb- 
ho!d,L.  I.,  was  ordained  pastor  In  Bonthamptim,  April 
19.1793.  In  179e  he  removed  to  West  Hampton,  lo 
1801  he  wss  ordained  pastor  over  the  chorcbes  of  Fin 
Place  and  Uiddle  Island,  which  be  resigned  in  1M7. 
In  1818  be  became  principal  of  the  For.  Miaa.  Schoid 
at  Cornwall.  This  position  he  resigned  in  1S24,  and 
died  Hay  19, 1883 Spragaa,  ^mii^,  11, 391. 

Daggett,  Napbtali,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  mio- 
ister.  was  bom  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  Sept.  fl.  IT37i 
graduated  at  Yalo  1748,  and  was  ordaLned  pastor  in 
Smithtown,  L.  I.,17S1.  He  was  elected  Prof,  of  Di- 
vinity in  Yale  College,  1766,  and  remained  there  antil 
his  death,  Nov.  36, 1780.  He  occupied  tbe  preaiden- 
till  chair  of  the  college  pro  Uwiport  ftom  176S  nntil 
1777.  When  the  British  landed  at  West  HaTen.ir7». 
bis  pstriotlo  ardor  led  him  to  take  np  anna,  and  he  was 
very  mdely  treated  by  the  enemy.  His  death  was 
hastened  by  his  snSerings.  He  pnbUded  a  few  aa- 
mens. — Sprsgne,  Annab,  I,  479. 

Dagobert,     See  DaiuoEKT. 

Da'gon  (Heb.  Bagon',  "i'J ;  Sept.  and  Josepboa, 
Aayanr),  the  national  god  of  the  Phitislines.  Some 
have  derived  the  name  from  *,S^,  grata  (Sanchtmia- 
thon,  Fragn.  ed.  Orelli,  p.  36,  sb':  Bochart,  Hkm*.  i, 
H81 ;  Beyer,  ad  Seld.  p.  286)  j  but  the  derivation  bwa 
37,  a  JliA,  with  the  rtiminutivB  (i.  e.  endearing)  termt- 
nation  S»  (Gesenins,  Tir:  p.  BSO),  is  not  only  more  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  of  Hebrew  derivation 
(Ewsld, /f«£.  Cron.  S  313,  Ml),  but  is  most  decisirelv 
established  by  the  terms  employed  in  1  Sam,  v.  4.  It 
is  there  siid  that  Dagon  felt  to  the  oarth  before  the 
ark,  that  his  head  and  the  palms  of  his  hands  vers 
broken  off,  and  that  "on/9  AiTonnulr/I  onAioL"  If 
Dagon  is  derived  from  i^,fiti,  and  if  the  idol,  as  then 
Is  every  reason  to  believe,  hml  the  body  of  a  Ssh  with 
the  head  and  hands  of  a  man,  it  is  easy  to  nndentnrf 
why  a  pari  of  the  statue  is  there  called  Dagau  In  cesr 
tradietinction  to  tbs  head  and  hands,  but  not  other- 
wise.   Thatsnch  wosUisfignivof  theidol  is  assorted 


DAGON  64 

by  KipKht,  Uid  is  mdmitted  by  moM  modarn  schoUn. 
It  is  alio  iuppcnted  by  the  uulot^ca  of  other  fiih  d«i- 
tis*  ■iDOiiK  the  S7n>-An)iiini  (see  ilerod.  il,  72 ;  £\i- 
■n.^ni'iii.  1,46;  iii,3l  Xecopb..1iiai.l,4,e;  Stnbo, 
XTii,  81S  i  Diod.  Sic.  ii.  4 ;  Cicera,  Ifat.  Dear,  iii,  16 ; 
comp.  MbnUi,  Rtl,  d.  Kartk.  p.  1U2 ;  Haven,  /'Aonji. 
p.  4[tl  sq. ;  Creuzer,  Btpidiol.  A,  7B  sq.)-    Be^e*  the 

ATSRI3AT1B    (q.    V.)    Of    the 

Syrians  (which  vu  the  fe- 
maitf  counUiipsrt  of  Dsgon), 
the  Babytoniana  hid  a  tradi-  . 
Ijon,  according  to  Derosas  t 
tBenni  Qua  lupenunl.  cd. 
Kichler,  p.43,&l),tbatattbe 
very  begiiinini;  of  their  his- 
tory an  extrmordiDsry  being, 
called  Owna,  haTing  the  eo- 
tirs  body  of  a  11s)i,  bat  the 

head,  hands,  feet,  and  voice  Reprtwniatloq  of  ■  Fi^li. 
of  a  mBTi,  emergcl  frooi  tha  CniT.^  .nth^blld! 
Erythman  Sea,  uppeareil  in 

Babylonia,  and  taught  the  mde  inhabitanta  the  use 
of  letlera,  arta,  religion,  law,  and  agricnltDre;  that, 
after  long  intervals  beCweea,  other  similar  beingi  ap- 
peared and  commanicaCed  the  same  precions  lore  in 
detail,  and  that  the  last  of  these  was  called  Odahtn 
i'Oiaiwv).  SeldcD  U  peraoaded  that  this  Odakon  is 
Cbe  Philistine  god  Dagon  {Dt  Dai  Si/rii,  p.  265),  a  con- 
cluaian  in  which  Siebuhr  coincides  (Coc*.  Aaun,  p. 
477),  but  from  which  Rawlineon  diiaeats  (_Htrod.  i, 
482).  Tlic  rcseinblance  between  Dsgon  and  Atergatis 
(q.  d.  -^-'nx  and  H^,  grtatfiih)  or  Derketo  (which  is 
but  an  abbrevUCioa  of  the  last  name)  is  so  groat  in 
otber  respects  that  Seldcn  accounts  for  the  only  im- 
portant difference  beCwesn  tbem — that  of  sex — by  re- 
fining to  the  androgynans  nature  of  many  heathea 
geda.  It  la  certain,  howevor,  that  (he  Hebrew  text, 
the  Sept.,  and  Pbllo  BybUus  (in  Euseb.  Pnrp.  Ev.  i, 
10)  roske  Dagon  mssculine  ('<  Aayuv).  The  fish-like 
fDrm  was  a  natural  emblem  of  fruitfulness,  ar 
BDch  waa  likely  to  be  adopted  by  seabring  trib< 


the  representation  ofthejr  gods.     (See  GOtze,  Diatrt. 
<fa  .X^.'oXaTp.if,  Upi.  1728.) 

The  most  famou*  temples  of  Dagon  were  at  Gaia 
(Judg.  xvi,  21-BO)  and  Ashdod  (1  Sam.  v,  6,  6i  1 
Chtoa.  X,  10).  Tlic  former  was  emploved  as  a  theatre 
(see  Faber,  AtAoU.  i,  444,  43fi).  and  was  once  over. 
thrown  by  Sanuon  (Judg.  xvi).  The  latter  temple 
waa  destroyed  by  Jonathan  in  Ihe  Maceaboan  wan  (I 
Macr.  X,  84;  xi,  4;  Joaephui^  .4af.  xiii,  4,  b).  There 
would  also  seem  to  liavo  been  a  third  In  Ihe  vicinity 
of  Jericho,  which  waa  demolished  by  Ptolemy  (Joaepb. 
War,  i,  2,  3) ;  and  the  rfte  of  which  Schwarz  claims 
iPalrit.  p.  163)  to  have  discovered  In  a  stream  still 
bearing  the  name  of  Daga,  or  nsb-river:  it  ia  bat  a 
relic  of  the  ancient  Dock,  or  Doris  (q,  v.).  Traces 
of  the  worship  of  Dagon  likewise  appear  In  the  names 
Caphar-Dagon  (near  Jamnis),  and  Beth-Dagon  in  Jn- 
dah  (Joeh.  XT,  41),  and  Ash^r  (Josli.  xix,  27).     Sec 

Besides  the  female  figure  of  Alei^tes,  there  have 
lately  been  discovered  among  the  Assyrian  niins  (Bot- 
ta,  pi.  8S-aS)  llgares  of  a  male  flsh-RnI,  not  only  of 
tbe  forma  given  alwve  {I-ayerd,  yinrvfk,  ii,  S53),  but 
occasionally